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POTCHEFSTROOM) in Association with Greenwich School of Theology, UK NORTH-WEST UNIVERSITY (POTCHEFSTROOM) In association with Greenwich School of Theology, UK Theological Education and the Effect of Tribal Identity upon Christian Unity and Mission in Burma By Steven Curtis BA, MAR, MRE, MDiv, DMin, PhD #25499599 For the thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Missiology at the Potchefstroom Campus of North-West University Supervisor: Prof Dr PJ Buys Co-Supervisor: Prof Dr Naas Ferreira November 2016 ABSTRACT Many Burmese are isolationists by default because of their strong ethnic and tribal sensitivities, compounded by extended socio-political repression. This insularity is often undiminished even among Christians, leading to the impoverishment of both the local churches and the greater body of Burmese believers, by extension. Biblical theology militates against any form of ethnic factionalism. Therefore, the local churches must actively seek to interact with one another, insofar as they differ only in tribal or ethnic composition, as opposed to significant doctrinal disparity. One way in which this issue may be addressed is through holistic theological education within the country in a missiological context. This thesis investigates the origins and development of tribalism in Burma, contrasts tribal factionalism with biblical principles of Christian unity, evaluates the extent to which factionalism has impacted the Burmese church, and considers how holistic theological education can be instrumental in addressing this problem. The original contribution to knowledge in this thesis is the cause and the extent of disunity among a number of small Reformed churches in Burma. Keywords: Burma, Myanmar, Tribes, Factionalism, Isolationism, Christianity, Reformed, Unity, Theological Education, Missions ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This thesis is born out of a missionary’s heart. The followers of Christ in Burma have humbled me, encouraged me, and inspired me. It was, in fact, an unexpected email invitation, received from a tribal pastor in the south Chin Hills, which God used to propel me into the mission field several years ago. This pastor became my dear friend, and he remains so to this day. If it weren’t for him – and that email – this thesis would never have been written (at least not by me). There are others in Burma – pastors, seminary leaders, and laypersons – who have also become very important to my life and ministry. It is with great joy that I anticipate each opportunity to visit this remarkable country and serve among the churches there. May God be pleased to use this thesis to draw the churches in Burma into true, biblical unity in Christ. While the people of Burma led me to write this thesis, it was written at North-West University (Potchefstroom), in association with Greenwich School of Theology, UK, because of Dr PJ “Flip” Buys, who encouraged me to study in South Africa and who undertook the role of Supervisor. He and my Co-Supervisor, Dr Naas Ferreira, not only demonstrated grace and wisdom as they guided this thesis, but they also became my friends. I would like to thank, particularly, the kind and gracious assistance provided to me by Tienie Buys of Greenwich School of Theology at North-West University (Potchefstroom), as well as by Hester Lombard and Berna Bradley from the NWU Theological Library. Of course, I must also thank my precious wife, Rissa, who lovingly supported me while I was engaged in the countless hours spent in the writing of this thesis. My parents and my sisters have also been sources of boundless inspiration in this, and all that I endeavour to do for Christ. Finally, it is He who takes the highest place of honour in all that I do in His name; for it is He who called me – first, to saving faith, and then, to vocational ministry as a missionary. May He be glorified through this work and through His people in Burma. Table of Contents 1.0 Introduction ................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background and Problem Statement .............................................................. 1 1.1.1. Background ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2. Problem Statement ......................................................................................... 4 1.2 Main Research Question................................................................................. 7 1.3 Aim and Objectives ......................................................................................... 7 1.3.1 Aim .................................................................................................................. 7 1.3.2. Objectives ....................................................................................................... 8 1.4 Central Theoretical Argument ......................................................................... 8 1.5 Methodology ................................................................................................... 9 1.6 Chapter Divisions .......................................................................................... 11 1.7 Schematic Correspondence between 1.2, 1.3 and 1.5 ................................. 14 2.0 Contributing Factors to the Emergence of Tribal Factionalism .............. 19 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 19 2.2 Historical Background ................................................................................... 19 2.2.1 Early History (1044-1885) ............................................................................. 19 2.2.1.1 Pagan Period (1044-1287) ............................................................................ 21 2.2.1.2 Ava Period (1364-1555) ................................................................................ 22 2.2.1.3 Toungoo Period (1531-1752) ........................................................................ 24 2.2.1.4 Konbaung Period (1752-1855) ...................................................................... 26 2.2.2 Colonial Era (1885-1948) .............................................................................. 27 2.2.3 Post-Colonial Era (1948-1990) ...................................................................... 29 2.2.4 Contemporary Era (1990-present) ................................................................ 32 i 2.3 Migration Patterns ......................................................................................... 34 2.4 Tribal Identifications ...................................................................................... 37 2.4.1 Lowlanders .................................................................................................... 39 2.4.1.1 Mon ............................................................................................................... 39 2.4.1.2 Pyu ................................................................................................................ 40 2.4.1.3 Shan .............................................................................................................. 41 2.4.1.4 Rakhine (Arakanese) and Rohingya ............................................................. 42 2.4.2 Uplanders ...................................................................................................... 44 2.4.2.1 Naga ............................................................................................................. 45 2.4.2.2 Karen ............................................................................................................ 46 2.4.2.3 Chin ............................................................................................................... 47 2.4.2.4 Kachin ........................................................................................................... 48 2.5 Language ...................................................................................................... 50 2.6 Religion ......................................................................................................... 51 2.6.1 Animism ........................................................................................................ 51 2.6.2 Buddhism ...................................................................................................... 54 2.6.2.1 Excursus on Buddhism ................................................................................. 54 2.6.2.2 Pre-Colonial Era ............................................................................................ 58 2.6.2.3 Colonial Era ................................................................................................... 60 2.6.2.4 Post-Colonial Era .......................................................................................... 61 2.7 Conclusions .................................................................................................. 63 2.7.1 History ........................................................................................................... 63 2.7.2 Migration and Tribal Identification ................................................................. 64 2.7.3 Language ...................................................................................................... 64 ii 2.7.4 Religion ......................................................................................................... 65 3.0 Survey of Missions in Burma and Obstacles to Christian Unity ............
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