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An expanding synthetic drugs market − Implications for precursor control EN

Research 2020 GLOBAL SMART UPDATE About the SMART Update Content

Synthetic drugs constitute one of the most significant An expanding synthetic drugs market − drug problems worldwide. After cannabis and opi- Implications for precursor control 3 oids, amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) are the most widely used drugs across the globe, with use levels A. INTRODUCTION 3 often exceeding those of heroin and/or cocaine. Along B. KEY TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS with ATS, the continued growth of the new psycho- IN PRECURSOR CHEMICALS 4 active substances (NPS) market over the last years has become a policy challenge and a major interna- The use of non-scheduled and tional concern. A growing interplay between these “designer” (pre-)precursors 4 new drugs and traditional illicit drug markets is being observed, and trends on the synthetic drugs market Precursor trends in the manufacture evolve quickly each year. of amphetamine and methamphetamine 5 The UNODC Global Synthetics Monitoring: Analyses, Precursor trends in the manufacture Reporting and Trends (SMART) Programme enhances of fentanyl 7 the capacity of Member States in priority regions to Challenges and options for adapting generate, manage, analyse, report and use synthetic precursor control regimes 9 drugs information to design effective policy and pro- gramme interventions. Launched in September 2008, C. ENHANCING PRECURSOR CONTROL – the Global SMART Programme provides capacity build- PRESENT REALITY 9 ing to laboratory personnel, law enforcement and research officers in the Pacific, East and South-East Understanding clandestine manufacture – Asia, South Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Latin America Role of drug characterisation and impurity and the Caribbean; and regularly reviews the global profiling 9 ATS and NPS situation. Its main products include online New legal approaches to precursor controls 10 drug data collection, situation assessment reports, regional assessments and the UNODC Early Warning Expanding partnerships with the Advisory (EWA) on NPS. The EWA is a webportal that private sector – Voluntary public-private provides access to information on NPS in the range of partnerships 10 subject area including global monitoring, risk commu- nication, chemical analysis, toxicology, pharmacology, International and regional cooperation 12 emergence and legislative response. (available at: D. PRECURSOR CONTROL BEYOND 2020 12 www.unodc.org/nps and www.unodc.org/tox). The Global SMART Update (GSU) series is published twice a year in English, Spanish and Russian. It pro- vides information on emerging patterns and trends of the global synthetic drugs market in a concise format*. Past issues have covered topics such as the ATS market – 10 years after the 2009 Plan of Action, understanding the global opioid crisis, the dominance of methamphetamine in the synthetic drugs market, the role of NPS in the synthetic drugs market and non- medical use of benzodiazepines. Electronic copies of the Global SMART Updates and other publications are available at: www.unodc.org/unodc/en/scientists/ publicationssmart.html.

* The information and data contained within this report are from the Annual Report Questionnaire (ARQ) submitted by Member States to UNODC, the UNODC Early Warning Advisory (EWA) on NPS, offi- cial Government reports, press releases, scientific journals or incidents confirmed by UNODC Field Offices. This report has not been formally edited. The contents of this publication do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of UNODC or contributory organizations and neither do they imply any endorsement. Suggested citation: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2019. An expanding synthetic drugs market – Implica- tions for precursor control. Global SMART Update, Volume 23.

2 Volume 23 An expanding synthetic drugs market − Implications for precursor control

A. INTRODUCTION Within two short decades, the This expansion has radically trans- However, this has been the case global synthetic drug market has formed the drug market; from since the advent of synthetic drugs gathered tremendous momen- one that revolved around plant- decades ago and does not provide tum all across the world. Over the based drugs to a multifaceted drug sufficient explanation for the -cur period of 1998 to 2017, the growth market posing new challenges to rent rapid expansion. Because of in seizures of synthetic drugs have drug policy. their “chemical” origin, precursor outpaced that of traditional plant- chemicals4 are the key ingredients based substances with the biggest Analysis of the available infor- for synthetic drugs, and it seems proportional increases seen in mation suggests that the current obvious that changes in the way seizures of synthetic new psycho- market expansion is largely supply synthetic drugs are manufactured active substances (‘NPS’), followed driven. Rather than reacting to under clandestine conditions and by amphetamine-type stimulants growing demand for drugs, traf- the range of precursors used in that (‘ATS’) .1 The estimated global fickers seem to be able to produce process deserve a closer look. number of ATS users has grown large quantities of synthetic drugs significantly from 30.2 million users with relatively low costs and ship This issue of the Global SMART in the 1990s to approximately 50 large amounts within and across Update discusses the challenges million users in 2017.2 Regions such regions. In part, the unprecedented for precursor control against the as North America, West, Central growth in the global synthetic drug backdrop of the expanding global and North Africa are also experi- market may have been fuelled by synthetic drug market. It presents encing on-going crises relating to relatively low barriers of entry to key developments in precursor the widespread non-medical use of illicit manufacture. Without geo- chemicals used in the clandestine pharmaceutical and illicitly-manu- graphic constraints such as the manufacture of synthetic drugs factured synthetic opioids.3 need to have access to suitable land and outlines possible approaches and climate, clandestine manu- and response options which can facturing facilities for synthetic enhance the present international drugs of varying scales have spread and the individual states’ precursor to every region of the world. control regimes.

1 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), World Drug Report 2019: Global Overview of Drug Demand and Supply (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.8 (Booklet 2)), pp. 45-46. 2 Ibid, pp. 12-13; United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention, Global Illicit Drug Trends 1999 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E99.XI.16), pp. 95. 3 UNODC, World Drug Report 2019: Depres- sants (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19.XI.8 (Booklet 3)), pp. 13-30. 4 The term “precursor” is used to indicate any of the substances listed in Table I or Table II of the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psycho- tropic Substances of 1988, except where the context requires a different expression. Such substances are often described as precursors or essential chemicals, depending on their princi- pal chemical properties. The plenipotentiary conference that adopted the 1988 Convention did not use any one term to describe such substances. Instead, the expression “substances frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs or psychotropic substances” was introduced in the 1988 Convention. It has become common practice, however, to refer to all such substances simply as “pre- cursors”; although that term is not technically correct, it is used in this publication for the sake of brevity.

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B. KEY TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN PRECURSOR CHEMICALS

Fig. 1: Changes to Tables of the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychoactive Substances of 1988 over time

1988 2000 2010 2017

Table I: Table I: Reschedule from Table I: 6 substances Norephedrine Table II to I: N-Phenethyl-4-piperidone Table II: Phenylacetic acid (NPP), 4-Anilino-N-phenethyl- 6 substances piperidine (ANPP)

Table I: Reschedule from Table I: Table I: N-Acetylanthranilic acid, Isosa- Table II to I: alpha-Phenylaceto- 3,4 -MDP-2-P methyl frole, 3,4-Methylenedioxyphe- Potassium acetonitrile (APAAN) glycidate (“PMK glycidate”), nyl-2-propanone (3,4-MDP-2-P), permanganate, 3,4-MDP-2-P methyl glycidic Piperonal, Safrole Acetic anhydride acid (“PMK glycidic acid”), alpha-Phenylacetoacetamide Table II: (APAA) Hydrochloric acid, Methyl ethyl ketone, Potassium permanga- nate, Sulphuric acid, Toluene

1992 2001 2014 2019

Source: United Nations, Tables of the United Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988, as at 19 November tion, diversification and scale in the illicit manufacture of narcotic 2019 and UNODC, Commissions Resolu- drug manufacturing operations.7 drugs and psychotropic substances 5 tions & Decisions Database. This proliferation in the use of non- saw two significant overlapping scheduled precursors chemicals is developments: the switching from scheduled to non-scheduled pre- In the Political Declaration and reflected in the increasing pace cursors and the use of “designer” Plan of Action of 2009, the inter- and number of precursor chemi- precursors (see Figure 2). Apart national community acknowledged cals that were scheduled in recent from international scheduling that synthetic drugs pose a special years after relative inactivity in the decisions, these developments problem due to the diversity and first two decades of the 1988 Con- are influenced by a multitude ease of substitution of precursor vention (see Figure 1). of factors including individual chemicals used in the manufactur- states’ precursor legislation and ing process.6 As if foreshadowing The use of non-scheduled enforcement capabilities, discrep- future developments, the world and “designer” (pre-)pre- ancy between precursor controls saw the proliferation of the use across neighbouring states and of non-scheduled precursor cursors the increasing versatility amongst chemicals in the following decade Following the adoption of the illicit manufacturers in switching alongside increased sophistica- United Nations Convention against between alternate precursors and Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and synthetic routes. These develop- Psychotropic Substances of 1988, ments are not linear in nature 5 United Nations, “Tables of the United the use of precursor chemicals in and illicit manufacturers have Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic switched back and forth between in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Sub- stances of 1988, as at 19 November 2019.”, scheduled, non-scheduled and The International Drug Conventions, “designer” precursors. Whilst the ST/CND/1/Add.3/Rev.3 (2019); UNODC, Commissions Resolutions & Decisions Data- 7 Statement by Dr. Viroj Sumyai, President, use of non-scheduled precursors bases, https://www.unodc.org/rddb/. International Narcotics Control Board is not a recent development, it is 6 UNODC, Political Declaration and Plan (INCB) on Item 9(b) Challenges and future the emergence of a large number of Action on International Cooperation work of the CND and WHO in the review towards an Integrated and Balanced Strat- of substances for possible scheduling recom- of “designer” precursors in recent egy to Counter the World Drug Problem, mendations, Sixty-second session of the years that is of major concern to High-level segment Commission on Narcotic Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Vienna, Drugs, Vienna, 11-12 March 2009, pp. 35. Austria, 18 March 2019. the international community.

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Fig. 2: Difference between scheduled precursors, non-scheduled precursors and “designer” precursors

Transfer of Precursors Through Scheduling Process

Non-Scheduled Precursors Any chemical substance that may be used in any part of the manufacturing process of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, Scheduled Precursors and is not under international control, largely Any chemical substance that may be used as a result of its universal industrial use. in any part of the manufacturing process of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, and is under international control. “Designer” Precursors Any chemical substance made intentionally to allow for the manufacture or recovery of scheduled precursors or controlled drugs, and usually has no legitimate use.

Source: Adapted from INCB, Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and scheduled precursors of varying use and were designed and manu- psychotropic substances 2018 and UNODC, degrees of complexity. Examples factured specifically to circumvent Multilingual Dictionary of Precursors and Chemicals Frequently Used in the Illicit include derivatives of phenylace- existing legislation and or avoid Manufacture of Narcotic Drugs and Psy- tic acid and P-2-P such as methyl detection and identification. This chotropic Substances under International phenylacetate, P-2-P bisulfite distinguishes “designer” precursors 8 Control . adduct and P-2-P methyl glyci- from those non-scheduled precur- Note: The definitions for non-scheduled and “designer” precursors are not mutu- date. Chemical intermediates on sors which have industrial uses. ally exclusive. the other hand are chemical sub- “Designer” precursors, especially stances that are produced during “masked” precursors, present a “Designer” precursors, broadly the manufacture of drugs from significant challenge to control speaking, are chemicals made precursors but are not typically measures as there is theoretically intentionally to allow for the isolated. When isolated, these an almost infinite number of ways manufacture or recovery of con- chemical substances can be con- 9 to “mask” or disguise scheduled trolled precursors or drugs. For sidered as precursors. Examples precursors from existing control the purpose of this report, we have of these substances include alpha- measures. An example of how classified “designer” precursors, phenylacetoacetonitrile (APAAN)10, “designer” precursors, which are as either “masked” precursors or methyl alpha-phenylacetoacetate used in the illicit manufacture of chemical intermediates. “Masked” 11 (MAPA) and chloroephedrine. methamphetamine, falls into each precursors are chemical substances of these defined categories is illus- that are specifically designed to Chemicals in both categories trated in Figure 3. disguise scheduled precursors, usually have few if any legitimate and from which scheduled pre- Precursor trends in the ma- cursors can be easily obtained. 10 APAAN and its optical isomers have been included into Table I of the 1988 Conven- nufacture of amphetamine They may include derivatives of tion during the 57th Commission on Narcotic Drugs in 2014; UNODC, Commission on and methamphetamine Narcotic Drugs, “Decision 57/1: Inclusion 8 UNODC, Multilingual Dictionary of of alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile and its For the purpose of this section, pre- Precursors and Chemicals Frequently optical isomers in Table I of the United cursor trends for amphetamine and Used in the Illicit Manufacture of Nar- Nations Convention against Illicit Traffic in methamphetamine are discussed cotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances under International Control, pp. viii, of 1988”, Report on the fifty-seventh ses- together, as they are chemically https://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/ sion (13 December 2013 and 13-21 March related drugs and the range of MLD_Precursors_2015_Ebook.pdf. 2014), Economic and Social Council, Official 9 INCB, Precursors and chemicals frequently Records, 2014, Supplement No. 8, pp. 49-50. precursors used for their manu- used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic 11 The possible inclusion of MAPA in Table I of facture overlaps to a large extent. drugs and psychotropic substances 2018 the 1988 Convention will be discussed and (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19. voted on at the upcoming 63rd Commission The significant developments in XI.6), pp. 38. on Narcotic Drugs in 2020. precursor trends are evident in the

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Fig. 3: Flowchart depicting the illicit manufacture of methamphetamine with precursors designated within each “designer” precursor category

NON-SCHEDULED “DESIGNER” PRECURSOR CONTROLLED CONTROLLED PRECURSOR CHEMICAL CHEMICAL PRECURSOR CHEMICAL DRUG

O OH

O O

Methyl Phenylacetate Phenylacetic Acid “MASKED” PRECURSORS O O O

P-2-P Methyl Glycidate

O HN N 1-Phenyl- 2-Propanone (P-2-P) Methamphetamine

CHEMICAL O INTERMEDIATES N alpha-phenylaceto- Benzyl Cyanide acetonitrile (APAAN) When isolated

Table 1 of the 1988 Convention Non-scheduled Precursor Chemical “Masked” Precursors Controlled Drug Schedule II of the 1971 Convention Chemical Intermediate Controlled Precursor Chemical

Source: UNODC elaboration based on Fig. 4: Evolution of the range of precursors and plants used in the INCB, Precursors and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic illicit manufacture of amphetamine and methamphetamine drugs and psychotropic substances 2014. NON-SCHEDULED PRECURSORS

evolution of precursors used for 1993: Phenylacetic Acid* the illicit manufacture of amphet- 1994: Ephedra 1995: Benzyl Chloride, Benzyl amine and methamphetamine (see Cyanide, Benzaldehyde and Figure 4). Since the 1990s, illicit Hydriodic Acid 1996: Norephedrine “MASKED” manufacturers in various parts of 2004: Methylamine PRECURSORS the world have complemented the 2005: 1-phenyl-1-pronanone 2007: N-methyl-DL-alanine and 2007: N-acetylpseudo-ephedrine CHEMICAL use of traditional precursors such Thionyl Chloride acetate INTERMEDIATES as ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, 2009: Sida Cordifolia, l-phenyl- 2008: Esters of phenylacetic acid acetylcarbinol, Hypophosphorous 2009: P-2-P bisulphite adduct 2009: alpha-phenylacetoacetoni- and 1-phenyl-2-propanone (also acid, Iodine and Sodium Hydrox- trile (APAAN) known as “P-2-P”) with the use ide. 2011: Formic acid and Lead of non-scheduled precursors and Acetate 2012: Phenylacetamide and “designer” precursor chemicals to 2013: Sodium salt of P-2-P Styrene glycidic acid circumvent national/international 2014: Nitroethane, Formamide, 2014: Chloropseudoephedrine, controls, and the efforts of law 1-phenyl-2-nitropropene, chloroephedrine and alpha- 2-bromopropiophenone and phenylacetoacetamide (APAA) enforcement and industry in tar- 2-phenylacetamide geting and preventing the diversion 2015: Methcathinone, Ammo- 2015: 1,2-dimethyl-3-phenyl- 12 nium Formate, Potassium Iodide, aziridine of chemicals. Potassium Iodate and Sodium Cyanide Despite the overall precursor 2016: Hydrogen Iodide and 2016: P-2-P methyl glycidic acid 2016: Methyl alpha-phenylaceto- Ammonium Chloride derivatives acetate (MAPA) trends, there are distinct regional 2017: N-methoxy-N-methyl-2- 2017: N-methoxycarbonyl-MDA, and country differences in precur- phenylacetamide t-BOC-MDMA and t-BOC-meth- sors that are commonly used for amphetamine domestic manufacture of meth- * Common amphetamine/methamphetamine precursors including ephedrine, pseudoephedrine and amphetamine and amphetamine. 1-phenyl-2-propoanone (P-2-P) were already listed in Table I, and phenylacetic acid in Table II of the 1988 Convention when it came into force on 11th November 1990. Source: International Narcotics Control Board (INCB), Various Yearly Reports on Precursors and chemicals 12 INCB, Various yearly reports on Precursors frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances. and chemicals frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs and psycho- Note: The years indicate when a precursor was documented as a significant change or innovation, not tropic substances. necessarily when it was first used.

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These distinct differences are Mexico were observed in recent Precursor trends in the likely a result of an interaction years to have switched back-and- manufacture of fentanyl of factors such as the individual forth between phenylacetic acid A similar worrying development states’ precursor control regime, (scheduled precursor) and its deriv- 20 of switching from scheduled the illicit manufacturers’ capabili- atives (“designer” precursors), and benzaldehyde and nitro- to non-scheduled precursors is ties and manufacturing costs. In also beginning to surface in the East and South East Asia, ephed- ethane (general non-scheduled 21 illicit manufacture of fentanyl, rine and pseudoephedrine are precursors) in the manufacture of P-2-P, possibly in response to whose non-medical use is asso- the predominant precursors used the national bans on these sub- ciated with increasing numbers in the manufacture of metham- stances.22 In Europe, the use of of overdose deaths, especially 13 25 phetamine. However, recent chemical intermediates such as in North America. In response seizures of 2-bromopropiophe- alpha-phenylacetoacetonitrile to international regulations on 14 none (a non-scheduled precursor (APAAN), alpha-phenylacetoacet- N-phenethyl-4-piperidone (NPP) for ephedrine15), thionyl chloride16 amide (APAA), both of which have and 4-anilino-N-phenethylpiperi- (used for the manufacture of meth- been placed under international dine (ANPP) in 201726, illicit fentanyl amphetamine through the metal control recently, and methyl alpha- manufacturers have switched to hydrogenation process using phenylacetoacetate (MAPA) in the other synthesis methods involving ephedrine and pseudoephedrine17) manufacture of P-2-P has intensi- the use of non-scheduled precursor and P-2-P18 indicate possible shifts fied in recent years in order to chemicals. Of particular concern in the types of precursor chemi- circumvent controls on P-2-P, to is the emergence of N-(1-benzyl- cals and synthesis routes used in lower costs of manufacturing 4-piperidyl)-propionanilide (also the manufacture of methamphet- and ensure business continuity in known as benzylfentanyl) and 23 amine. The change in synthesis the illicit manufacturing trade. 4-anilinopiperidine (also known routes and additional levels of To a smaller extent, ephedrine as “4-AP”), which have recently been increasingly encountered in processing required for some of and pseudoephedrine were the predominant precursors used in seizures and/or through drug pro- these new emerging precursors domestic manufacture of meth- filing and are being considered by also suggest increased sophistica- amphetamine in the United States, the US Drug Enforcement Admin- tion amongst illicit manufacturing Czechia, Bulgaria, Germany, Poland istration (DEA) for control as List I facilities in the region. and Slovakia.24 chemicals27 under the US Con- 28 In North America and Europe, P-2-P trolled Substances Act (CSA). synthesis routes dominate the illicit 20 UNODC, Clandestine Manufacture of Sub- stances under International Control, pp. 164. European Union, Luxembourg, pp. 158; manufacture of amphetamine and 21 Gairaud C.B. and Lappin G.R., “The syn- EMCDDA, Drug precursor developments methamphetamine.19 In North thesis of ω-nitrostyrenes.”, Journal of Orga- in the European Union, EMCDDA Papers, nic Chemistry, Vol. 18, No. 1 (1953), pp. Publications Office of the European Union, America, illicit manufacturers in 1-3; Tindall J. B., Process for preparing Luxembourg (2019), pp. 7-8; INCB, Pre- 1-aryl-2-oxoalkanes, Patent US 2,427,822 cursors and Chemicals Frequently Used 13 UNODC, Synthetic Drugs in East and (September 1947). in the Illicit Manufacture of Narcotic South-East Asia: Trends and Patterns of Drugs and Psychotropic Substances 2018 22 INCB, Precursors and chemicals frequently (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19. Amphetamine-type Stimulants and New Psy- used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic choactive Substances 2019, pp. 9. XI.6), pp. 17; U.S. Department of Justice, drugs and psychotropic substances 2018 Drug Enforcement Administration, 2018 14 Ibid, pp. 10. (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19. National Drug Threat Assessment, pp. 65. XI.6), pp. 21-22; INCB, Precursors and 15 Fourneau, E., Process for the manufacture 25 UNODC, World Drug Report 2019: of phenyl-methyl-amino-propanol (synthetic chemicals frequently used in the illicit manu- facture of narcotic drugs and psychotropic Depressants (United Nations publication, ephedrine), Patent GB 302,940 (December Sales No. E.19.XI.8 (Booklet 3)), pp. 12. 1928). substances 2015 (United Nations publica- tion, Sales No. E.16.XI.4), pp. 3; INCB, 26 UNODC, Commission on Narcotic Drugs, 16 UNODC, Transnational Organised Crime Precursors and chemicals frequently used “Decision 60/12: Inclusion of 4-anilino-N- in Southeast Asia: Evolution, Growth and in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs phenethylpiperidine (ANPP) in Table I of Impact 2019, pp. 36-37. and psychotropic substances 2012 (United the United Nations Convention against Illicit 17 Emde H., “Diastereoisomerism, III, Chloro- Nations publication, Sales No. E.13.XI.4), Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic and bromo- ephedrine.”, Helvetica Chimica pp. 18; U.S. Department of Justice, Drug Substances of 1988; Decision 60/13: Inclu- Acta, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1929), pp. 384-399; Enforcement Administration, 2018 National sion of N-phenethyl-4-piperidone (NPP) in Emde H., “Diastereoisomerism, I, Configu- Drug Threat Assessment, pp. 67-68. Table I of the United Nations Convention ration of ephedrine.”, Helvetica Chimica 23 European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Acta, Vol. 12, No. 1 (1929), pp. 365-376. Drug Addiction (EMCDDA) and Europol, Psychotropic Substances of 1988”, Report on 18 UNODC, Transnational Organised Crime EU Drug Markets Report 2019, Publications the sixtieth session (2 December 2016 and in Southeast Asia: Evolution, Growth and Office of the European Union, Luxembourg, 13-17 March 2017), Economic and Social Impact 2019, pp. 36. pp. 159-161; EMCDDA (2019), Drug pre- Council, Official Records, 2017, Supplement No. 8, pp. 39. 19 INCB, Precursors and chemicals frequently cursor developments in the European Union, used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic EMCDDA Papers, Publications Office of the 27 The control will also extend to the salts of drugs and psychotropic substances 2018 European Union, Luxembourg (2019), pp. 8-9. benzylfentanyl and the amides, carbamates (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.19. 24 EMCDDA and Europol, EU Drug Markets and salts of 4-AP. XI.6), pp. 18-23. Report 2019, Publications Office of the 28 Drug Enforcement Administration, “Desig-

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Fig. 5: Selected methods for the synthesis of fentanyl However, with the introduction of international regulations on NPP “JANSSEN” METHOD “SIEGFRIED” METHOD GUPTA ET AL. (2009) and ANPP34, the “Janssen” method 1-BENZYL- 4-PIPERIDONE 4-PIPERIDONE has surged in popularity and illicit 4-PIPERIDONE HYDROCHLORIDE HYDROCHLORIDE MONOHYDRATE MONOHYDRATE 1 manufacturers have started to 1-BENZYL-4- 1 exploit benzylfentanyl, a non-inter- PHENYLIMINOPIPERIDINE 1 nationally controlled substance, 2 NPP in the synthesis of norfentanyl35 1-BENZYL-4- and subsequently fentanyl. DEA ANILINOPIPERIDINE 2 4-AP reported that, in 2018, 94% of 85 3 1-PHENETHYL-4- PHENYLIMINOPIPERIDINE fentanyl exhibits and in 2019, 64% BENZYLFENTANYL 2 of 312 exhibits that were selected 3 4 for drug profiling were manufac-

NORFENTANYL ANPP ANPP tured using the “Janssen” method, far outstripping the number of 5 4 3 exhibits manufactured with the 36 FENTANYL “Siegfried” method. Illicit man- Under International Control Not under International Control ufacturers have also switched to the use of 4-AP as an alternative Source: UNODC, Clandestine Manufacture of Substances under International Control, precursor chemical to NPP for Yadav et al., Synthetic Methodology and which was developed in the 1960s the synthesis of ANPP (see Figure Structure Activity Relationship Study of for the pharmaceutical manufac- 5), using an alternative synthetic N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)-Piperidin-4-yl]-Propio- namides (2010) and Gupta et al., A Method ture of fentanyl, is considered to route developed more recently.37 for the Preparation of Fentanyl (2009) 29 be the more difficult and time- Unlike NPP where two chemi- consuming of these two methods In the early 2000s, the DEA cal reactions are required for the due to the need for advanced reported two primary synthesis synthesis for ANPP, 4-AP can be chemical knowledge.32 The much routes used in the illicit manufac- optimally converted into ANPP in simpler "Siegfried" method, first ture of fentanyl: the “Janssen” and a single step chemical reaction and published online under a pseudo- “Siegfried” methods (see Figure then be synthesized into fentanyl.38 5).30 The “Janssen” method 31, nym in the 1990s which improved on alternative synthesis routes 34 UNODC, Commission on Narcotic Drugs, nation of Benzylfentanyl and 4-Anilinopi- published in the 1980s, was the “Decision 60/12: Inclusion of 4-anilino-N- peridine, Precursor Chemicals Used in the phenethylpiperidine (ANPP) in Table I of more preferred method amongst the United Nations Convention against Illicit Illicit Manufacture of Fentanyl, as List I 33 Chemicals”, Federal Register, Vol. 84, clandestine manufacturers. Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic No. 178 (September 2019), pp. 48315-6. Substances of 1988; Decision 60/13: Inclu- sion of N-phenethyl-4-piperidone (NPP) in 29 UNODC, Clandestine Manufacture of Analgesic Activity of Pethidine.”, Journal of Table I of the United Nations Convention Substances under International Control, Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry, against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and pp. 208-9; Gupta P. K., Manral L., Gane- Vol. 2 (1960), pp. 31–45. Psychotropic Substances of 1988”, Report san K., Malhotra R. C. and Sekhar K., “A 32 Drug Enforcement Administration, “Control on the sixtieth session (2 December 2016 Method for the Preparation of Fentanyl.”, of a Chemical Precursor Used in the Illicit and 13-17 March 2017), Economic and European Patent 09721316.9, European Patent Manufacture of Fentanyl as a List I Chemi- Social Council, Official Records, 2017, Office (March 2009); Yadav P., Chauhan J. cal.”, Federal Register, Vol. 72, No. 77 (April Supplement No. 8, pp. 39. S., Ganesan K., Gupta P. K., Chauhan D., 2007), pp. 20039; Yadav P., Chauhan J. S., and Gokulan P. D., “Synthetic Methodology 35 Norfentanyl, as an immediate precursor to Ganesan K., Gupta P. K., Chauhan D., and fentanyl, is also being proposed by the DEA and Structure Activity Relationship Study of Gokulan P. D.“Synthetic Methodology and N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)-Piperidin-4-yl]-Propio- to be controlled as a schedule II substance Structure Activity Relationship Study of under the CSA. namides.” Der Pharmacia Sinica, Vol. 1, No. N-[1-(2-phenylethyl)-piperidin-4-yl]-propio- 3 (2010), pp. 133–134; Siegfried, “Synthesis namides.” Der Pharmacia Sinica, Vol. 1, 36 Drug Enforcement Administration, “Designa- of Fentanyl”, Rhodium Chemistry Archive No. 3 (2010), pp. 126–139. tion of Benzylfentanyl and 4-Anilinopiperi- webpage, accessed on 17 December 2019, dine, Precursor Chemicals Used in the Illicit https://erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemis- 33 Ibid; Pardo B., Taylor J., Caulkins J. P., Manufacture of Fentanyl, as List I Chemicals”, try/fentanyl.html. Kilmer B., Reuter P. and Stein B. D., Federal Register, Vol. 84, No. 178 (September The Future of Fentanyl and Other Synthetic 30 Ibid. 2019), pp. 48315-6; Fentanyl Signature Opioids, Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corpora- Profiling Program Report (October 2019). 31 Janssen P. A., “Pirinitramide (R 3365), a tion (2019), pp. 62; UNODC, Clandestine Potent Analgesic with Unusual Chemical Manufacture of Substances under Interna- 37 Ibid; Gupta P. K., Manral L., Ganesan K., Structure.”, Journal of Pharmacy and tional Control, pp. 209; Siegfried, “Synthesis Malhotra R. C. and Sekhar K., “A Method for Pharmacology, Vol. 13, No. 1 (1961), of Fentanyl”, Rhodium Chemistry Archive the Preparation of Fentanyl.”, European Patent pp. 513–530; Janssen P. A. and Nathan B. E., webpage, accessed on 17 December 2019, 09721316.9, European Patent Office (March “Compounds Related to Pethidine-IV. New https://erowid.org/archive/rhodium/chemis- 2009) General Chemical Methods of Increasing the try/fentanyl.html. 38 Ibid.

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These precursor developments, flows of a limited number of key drug/precursor control policies.42 which are beginning to mirror chemicals with legitimate uses Similar to the concept of how trace those seen in the illicit manu- and preventing their diversion for evidence occurs as a result of an facture of methamphetamine/ illicit purposes.41 These significant event, samples of synthetic drugs amphetamine, underscore the risk challenges include: the timely often contain trace impurities of that illicit fentanyl manufacture detection of, and agile response precursor chemicals essential to may shift to other non-scheduled to, new developments in illicit the drug manufacturing process precursors or even “designer” pre- manufacture; and identification and by-products resulting from cursors to evade the international of additional measures to com- side-reactions.43 Through ana- controls recently put in place. plement and or enhance current lysing the presence or absence control regimes to respond to new of impurities in the samples and Challenges and options for phenomena such as the emergence the variations in impurity profiles, adapting precursor control of designer precursors. Possible forensic science can help identify regimes options which Member States may the types of precursor chemicals The rapid shifts in precursors used wish to consider in an effective and synthetic routes used in the in the manufacture of amphet- response include: improving know- manufacture of the sample.44 With amine, methamphetamine and ledge and understanding of clan- a systematic process of integrating fentanyl suggest that the effects of destine manufacturing, including and organising all of these drug existing precursor regulations may through drug profiling and forensic profiles, a further analysis can be more transient and less disrup- intelligence; undertaking new legal be conducted on new and pre- tive to the global synthetic market approaches; establishing public-pri- existing data to draw intelligence than before.39 New alternate pre- vate partnerships; and enhancing of the present precursor situation international cooperation. cursors chemicals using similar and assist policy makers in making or completely different synthetic C. ENHANCING PRECURSOR timely, critical decisions to address routes are appearing pre-emp- 45 CONTROL – PRESENT REALITY any new developments. The itera- tively or as soon as new precursor tive nature of this process allows regulations come into force. Also, Understanding Clandestine policy makers to evaluate the effect illicit manufacture can no longer Manufacture – Role of Drug of their policy decisions through be perceived as “primitive” given Characterisation and Impu- recent evidence of their abilities rity Profiling 42 Esseiva P., Ioset S., Anglada F., Gaste´ L., to increase the level of complex- Ribaux O., Margot P., Gallusser A., Bieder- Drug characterisation and impurity mann A., Specht Y. and Ottinger E., “Foren- ity in processing required for some sic Drug Intelligence: An Important Tool of these alternate precursors40 and profiling (or simply drug profiling) in Law Enforcement.”, Forensic Science International, adaptability and flexibility with can be broadly defined as an anal- Vol. 167, No. 2-3 (2007), ysis of a drug sample’s chemical pp. 247-254. regard to synthetic routes. 43 UNODC, Drug Characterization/Impurity and/or physical attributes, which Profiling: Background and Concepts, pp. 7. These developments, especially not only supports the gathering of 44 United Nations International Drug Control the emergence of “designer” pre- intelligence in the context of law Programme, “Drug characterization/impurity profiling, with special focus on metham- cursors with no legitimate use in enforcement but also facilitates phetamine: recent work of the United Nations industry, present significant chal- the monitoring of developments International Drug Control Programme.”, Bulletin on Narcotics, Volume LI, No. 1 lenges to the existing international on the illicit drug market to inform and 2 (1999), pp. 103. precursor control regime, which 45 Ribaux O., Genessay T. and Margot P., “Les is geared at monitoring licit trade processus de veille opérationnelle et sci- ence forensique.”, in: Leman-Langlois S. (Ed.), Sphères De Surveillance, Presses de l’Université de Montréal, Montréal (2011), 39 Strang J., Babor T., Caulkins J., Fischer B., pp. 137–158 ; Morelato M., Beavis A., Foxcroft D. and Humphreys K., “Drug policy Tahtouh M., Ribaux O., Kirkbride P. and and the public good: evidence for effective Roux C., “The use of forensic case data in interventions.”, The Lancet, Vol. 379, Issue intelligence-led policing: the example of drug 9810 (January 2012), pp. 73-74; Caulkins J. profiling.”, Forensic Science International, P. and Reuter P., “How Drug Enforcement Vol. 226, No. 1-3 (2013), pp. 5-6; Marclay F., Affects Drug Prices.”, Crime and Justice, Vol. Mangin P., Margot P. and Saugy M., “Perspec- 39, No. 1 (2010), pp. 213-271; Dobkin C. tives for Forensic Intelligence in anti-doping: and Nicosia N., “The War on Drugs: Meth- 41 Statement by Dr. Viroj Sumyai, President, Thinking outside of the box.”, Forensic Sci- amphetamine, Public Health and Crime.”, International Narcotics Control Board ence International, Vol. 229, No. 1-3 (2013), American Economic Review, Vol. 99, No. 1 (INCB) on Item 9(b) Challenges and future pp. 137-139; Morelato M., Forensic drug (March 2009), pp. 324-49. work of the CND and WHO in the review profiling : a tool for intelligence-led polic- 40 EMCDDA (2019), Drug precursor develop- of substances for possible scheduling recom- ing (2015), University of Technology, Sydney, ments in the European Union, EMCDDA mendations, Sixty-second session of the PhD dissertation, Open Publications of UTS Papers, Publications Office of the European Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Vienna, Scholars, pp. 46, https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/ Union, Luxembourg (2019), pp. 9. Austria, 18 March 2019. bitstream/10453/34517/2/02whole.pdf.

9 GLOBAL SMART UPDATE

continuous collection, analysis and which could be used in the manu- precursor chemicals which have interpretation of new drug profiles, facture of controlled precursors/ legitimate uses. Effective enforce- and to make any policy adjust- drugs and have no known legiti- ment of such controls also requires ments if necessary.46 mate uses, even before their use high-levels of scientific knowledge becomes widespread practice in and forensic capabilities. Countries It is important to recognise that the illicit manufacture of drugs. that have adopted a mixture of drug profiling is not just a routine This approach requires regular generic or analogue approaches analytical technique. It requires monitoring of precursor trends, to precursor chemicals include the a multi-disciplinary collaborative extensive mapping of known syn- US51 and Canada52. approach through the participation thesis routes and consultations of forensic laboratories and law with the chemical industries. Such With respect to the diversion enforcement agencies to properly an approach would pre-emptively of pharmaceutical preparations analyse, interpret and commu- deter illicit manufacturers from which can be used as precursors, 47 nicate the results. It requires simply switching between known national authorities could consider countries to put in place qualified precursor chemicals and synthetic strengthening their medicines leg- personnel, dedicated equipment routes, and possibly prolong the islation, related monitoring systems and databases for the feedback market disruption effects of precur- as well as guidelines and capacity process to work soundly. If done sor regulations. A major limitation building towards rationale pre- correctly, the same process can to this approach however is that scribing, to ensure that approved preparations, such as ephedrine also contribute valuable tactical whilst it addresses the use of non- and pseudoephedrine cold medi- and operation intelligence for its scheduled precursors, it does not 48 cations, are prescribed, sold and actors. Practical examples of how fully address the issue of “designer” dispensed to legitimate end-users. drug profiling has shaped policy precursors. decisions include DEA’s Fentanyl Ultimately, there is a fine balance Signature Profiling Programme49, Despite the chemical complexity to strike between taking either one and the Australian Illicit Drug associated with “designer” pre- or more of these approaches to avoid Intelligence Program (AIDIP) and cursors, the controls specified in under- or overregulation of precur- Enhanced National Intelligence the 1988 Convention and other sor chemicals within each country’s Picture on Illicit Drugs (ENIPID).50 national legislations that closely unique operating environment. replicate it, extends to the salts New Legal Approaches to of scheduled substances but not Expanding Partnerships Precursor Controls necessarily all other possible deriv- with the Private Sector – The rapid pace of developments atives of these substances. A more Voluntary Public-Private in precursor trends requires a extensive legislative approach Partnerships fundamental rethink on existing would be to adopt national controls Beyond policies and law enforce- national legal approaches to pre- over generic groups of scheduled ment actions, an effective precursor cursors, building on the controls precursor chemicals (“generic regime should be supplemented by prescribed in the 1988 Convention. controls”), which has defined strong partnerships and initiatives One practical approach is to pro- structural similarities and could amongst the public and private sec- actively control known chemicals be easily converted to the parent tors. Private industries, especially compounds, to complement the those involved in the production, 46 Ibid. provisions of the 1988 Convention. distribution, trade, financing and 47 UNODC, Drug Characterization/Impurity A similar but broader approach is shipping of precursor chemicals, Profiling: Background and Concepts, pp. 3. to adopt analogue controls, which 48 Ibid; Morelato M., Beavis A., Tahtouh M., wield great influence and poten- Ribaux O., Kirkbride P. and Roux C., “The operate on more general aspects tial in identifying vulnerabilities in use of forensic case data in intelligence-led of similarity in chemical structure their supply chains and prevent- policing: The example of drug profiling.”, Forensic Science International, Vol. 226, with the parent compounds and ing the diversion of their products No. 1-3 (2013), pp. 1-9. cover a wider range of substances. into illicit channels. Apart from 49 Please refer to the earlier section on “Precur- Whilst desirable as proactive mech- sor trends in the manufacture of fentanyl”. anisms, the broadness of such 50 Collins M., “Illicit drug profiling: the Aus- tralian experience – revisited.”, Australian approaches may have unintended 51 United States, Congress, House, United States Journal of Forensic Sciences, Vol. 49, No. negative consequences on limiting Code, Title 21 – Food and Drugs, Chapter 6 (2017), pp. 591-604; Morelato M., Beavis 13 – Drug Abuse Prevention and Control, A., Tahtouh M., Ribaux O., Kirkbride P. and the accessibility to these chemi- Subchapter I – Control and Enforcement, Roux C., “The use of forensic case data in cals for medical and/or research Part A – Introductory Provisions, Section 34. intelligence-led policing: The example of drug 52 Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, profiling.”, Forensic Science International, purposes and inevitably control- Precursor Control Regulations, Schedule, Vol. 226, No. 1-3 (2013), pp. 6. ling present or future variations of SOR/2002-359, Statues of Canada.

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Fig. 6: Mechanism of establishing public-private partnerships on suspicious cargoes and legiti- mate goods.57

Implementing Governments might also wish to Voluntary Codes consider working with private Signing formal of Practice industries to develop and imple- agreements ment voluntary codes of practice, Issuing to effectively deter trafficking -activ Advisories ities and diversion of precursor chemicals through additional self- regulation measures beyond what

Increasing Level of Difficulty Level Increasing is legally prescribed. Such codes of Increasing Level of Cooperation practices may include voluntary Source: UNODC elaboration. implementation of policies and procedures such as due diligence on the legitimacy of end-users, achieving profitability, it is also by the US Office of National Drug reporting requirements to authori- their interest to avoid exposure to Control Policy, intended to engage ties, tamper-proofing of chemicals legal, financial and reputational the private sector in curbing the during delivery and training of staff risks and losses for being associ- production and sale of illicit syn- to identify illicit activities.58 These ated with criminal activities.53 This thetic opioids.55 These advisories policies may also be extended to presents an opportunity for col- provide private businesses a sum- other associated private businesses laborative arrangements between mary of the existing situation, to make the supply chain resistant the public and private sectors to typologies and red flags associ- to illicit diversion. An example is align their interests and achieve ated with criminal activities that the National Code of Conduct: Pri- greater collective outcomes are specific to their industries. In vate Public Partnership to Prevent through compliance measures such addition, it includes case studies Division of Chemical Precursors as information sharing, initiating illustrating the commitment of and Equipment Used for the Illicit good business practices and even the government in combating the Production of Drugs,jointly devel- voluntary self-regulation.54 Three threat, specific regulatory obli- oped by France’s Mission Nationale primary mechanisms for doing gations of various industries and de Contrôle des Précurseurs such include issuing advisories, reporting information to the rel- Chimiques (MNCPC) and other entering into formal agreements evant government authorities. chemical industry unions/associa- and implementing voluntary codes tions for companies involved in the of practice, which entails varying Another mechanism is to formalise entire supply chain of substances levels of cooperation and difficul- public-private partnerships through and equipment that may be used ties in implementation (see Fig. 6). agreements such as memorandum in the illicit production of drugs.59 of understandings (MOUs). An One mechanism is to issue adviso- example was the signing of a MOU International and Regional ries to relevant private industries between Hong Kong Customs and Cooperation to raise their awareness on the five private transnational express International and regional coopera- existing precursor situation and couriers to enhance cooperation tion is also fundamental in bridging eventually initiate public-private and facilitate exchange of exper- information, capacity and resource cooperation through informal/ tise, information and intelligence gaps in precursor control within the formal working relationships. on suspicious cargoes.56 Practical international community. Member Recent examples include the series outcomes of this MOU include states might wish to consider of private sector advisories issued regular sharing of latest smuggling trends with frontline courier staff and timely exchange of information 53 Almond M. A. and Syfert S. D., “Beyond 57 Ibid. Compliance: Corruption, Corporate Respon- 58 Governments can refer to INCB’s resources on sibility and Ethical Standards in the New establishing voluntary public-private partner- Global Economy.”, North Carolina Journal 55 Office of National Drug Control Policy, 21st ships to develop and implement a voluntary of International Law and Commercial Regu- Century Drug Trafficking Advisories on Fen- code of practice. lation, Vol. 22, No. 2 (1997), pp. 442-446. tanyl and Other Synthetics (August 2019). 59 Mission Nationale de Contrôle des Précurseurs 54 Roger E. and Weber E. P., “Thinking Harder 56 Hong Kong Customs and Excise Department, Chimiques (MNCPC), Code National De About Outcomes for Collaborative Gover- “Hong Kong Customs signs MOU with Conduite ; Partenariat Public/Privé Visant A nance Arrangements.”, The American Express Courier Operators in Enforcement Prévenir Le Détournement De Précurseurs Review of Public Administration, Vol. 40, Cooperation.”, Custom News, Issue No. 54 Chimiques Et D’équipements Pouvant Servir No. 5 (2010), pp. 546-567. (June 2015), pp. 7. A La Production Illicite De Drogues.

11 GLOBAL SMART UPDATE

actively contributing resources build the capacities of law enforce- illicit drug manufacturing opera- and information to international ment agencies and encourage tions makes it easier to overcome precursor projects and real-time cross-border intelligence shar- these market disruptions and move data management tools provided ing amongst national authorities on to alternate non-scheduled pre- by the International Narcotics Con- through dedicated platforms and cursor chemicals. trol Board (INCB) such as Project regional meetings. At the techni- Yet in the face of such immense Cohesion, Project Prism and Pre- cal level, work done by regional challenges, there are options for cursors Incident Communication forensic networks such as the Asian Member States to adapt precur- Forensic Sciences Network (AFSN) System (PICS) to assist in the iden- sor control regimes by bridging the and the European Network of tification of new precursor trends information, time and capacity gaps Forensic Science Institutes (ENFSI) and address gaps in the interna- between the initial emergence of are important in contributing to tional precursor control regime. new precursor chemicals and the research and development, infor- Policy tools such as the United introduction of control measures. mation sharing, and building the Nations Toolkit on Synthetic Drugs Measures to close these gaps also provide Member States and competencies of national forensic include understanding clandestine other stakeholders a wide range laboratories. manufacturing through drug profil- of electronic resources provided D. PRECURSOR CONTROL ing, undertaking new national legal by various entities within the UN approaches to precursor control on addressing the key challenges BEYOND 2020 building on the 1988 Convention, presented by synthetic drugs.60 The In the 2009 Plan of Action, the inter- establishing public-private partner- Precursors and Forensics modules national community recognized ships and enhancing international/ are particularly relevant in address- that the absence of a systematic regional cooperation amongst rel- ing gaps in understanding and global approach of monitoring evant organizations and Member implementation of an effective and controlling the manufactur- States. The development of a com- precursor control regime. ing, diversion and trafficking of prehensive international/domestic precursor chemicals, hindered a precursor control regime is a sub- Participation and support for full understanding of the global stantial challenge, however it can regional precursor programmes illicit synthetic drug market.61 More potentially offer the benefit of and meetings such as those admin- than a decade on, the international eliminating the harms associated istered by UNODC in South-East community has considerably more with drug trafficking and use at its Asia, the Cooperation Programme information on the synthetic drug source. With a renewed resolve to between Latin America, the Carib- market at their disposal. Yet, we are work towards the elimination of bean and the European Union on still far from developing effective the diversion of and illicit traffick- Drugs Policies (COPOLAD)and the comprehensive international and ing in precursors as reiterated in Inter-American Drug Abuse Con- domestic control regimes to keep the Ministerial Declaration made trol Commission (CICAD) are also pace with developments in precur- during the 62nd Commission on crucial in coordinating informa- sor trends. Trends in amphetamine, Narcotic Drugs, the international tion, intelligence sharing, technical methamphetamine and fentanyl community has a challenging but assistance, and capacity building manufacture are poignant remind- rewarding task ahead.62 between international, regional ers that effective albeit short term organisations and member coun- market disruptions proffered by tries. Operationally, programmes precursor regulations has less such as the World Customs Organi- long-lasting effects than in the zation (WCO) Regional Intelligence past. Developments such as the Liaison Offices (RILO) and the rapid emergence of “designer” UNODC-WCO Container Control precursors, increased sophistica- Programme (CCP) provide essential tion, diversification and scale of operational support and training to

62 UNODC, Ministerial declaration on strengthening our actions at the national, 61 UNODC, Political Declaration and Plan of regional and international levels to acce- Action on international cooperation towards lerate the implementation of our joint 60 The UN Toolkit on Synthetic Drugs an integrated and balanced strategy to commitments to address and counter the may be accessed at https://www.unodc.org/ counter the world drug problem, High-level world drug problem, Ministerial Segment unodc/en/opioid-crisis/un-toolkit-on-synthetic- segment Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Commission on Narcotic Drugs, Vienna, drugs.html. Vienna, 11-12 March 2009, pp. 34. 14-15 March 2019, pp. 3.

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Case Study Box 1: Identification and handling of precursor chemicals in the field and laboratory Fig. 7: Various types of precursor test kits and Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) for handling of chemicals.

Source: UNODC 63

The growing diversity of precursor chemicals.65 Additionally, front- testing such as UNODC’s Inter- chemicals and increase in clandes- line officers can be equipped with national Collaborative Exercises tine production of synthetic drugs more advanced field testing meth- (ICE) programme or participate in in recent years have placed great ods such as rapid precursor test interlaboratory comparisons, to pressures on law enforcement offi- kits and handheld devices such as monitor their own performance and cers, technical and scientific staff of those utilising Raman and Fourier- ensure a high level of proficiency. forensic laboratories in their opera- transform infrared spectroscopy tions. These new developments technologies.66 Officers should also In order to minimise danger, have inadvertently increased the be trained and equipped with field frontline officers and laboratory complexity of identification, cre- test kits such as pH test kits, cya- operators should be trained in the ating the need for additional or nide test strips, peroxide test strips use of appropriate personal protec- more advanced means. Also, large and water test strips to identify key tive equipment (PPE), adoption of volumes of precursors, known and hazard information for chemicals safety procedures, identification of unknown, recovered during field that cannot be identified on site hazard labels and chemical classes operations can potentially pose a with the available field testing prior to managing any chemicals. significant risk to frontline officers, methods.67 Laboratories, on the The level of PPE and safety proce- laboratory personnel, communities other hand, should actively review dures to be adopted depends on and the environment if not man- scientific literature, and develop a the risks posed by the chemicals aged properly.64 combination of screening and spe- present and the type of illicit labo- cific analytical techniques such as ratory being dismantled. Without In terms of identification, UNODC chromatography and spectroscopy expert technical support, officers recommends that frontline officers to identify unknown chemicals.68 should use the highest level of PPE be minimally equipped with rapid They may also consider partici- available to maximise the amount simple colour test kits to presump- pating regularly in proficiency of protection. Also, in the presence tively identify commonly known of significant hazards such as highly 65 UNODC, Rapid Testing Methods of Drugs reactive chemicals, strong vapour/ of Abuse; Precursor Related Tools and 63 UNODC, Precursor Related tools and Services. gases and other immediate physi- Services; Rapid Testing Methods of Drugs cal or chemical hazards, frontline of Abuse; Illustrated Guide for the Disposal 66 Ibid; UNODC, Guidelines on Handheld of Chemicals used in the Illicit Manufacture Raman Field Identification Devices for officers should not enter these of Drugs; Guidelines on Handheld Raman Seized Material. environments but rather obtain Field Identification Devices for Seized 67 UNODC, Illustrated Guide for the Disposal 69 Material; Guidelines for the Safe Handling of Chemicals used in the Illicit Manufacture expert technical support. and Disposal of Chemicals used in the Illicit of Drugs, pp. 25; Guidelines for the Safe Manufacture of Drugs. Handling and Disposal of Chemicals used in 64 UNODC, Illustrated Guide for the Disposal the Illicit Manufacture of Drugs, pp. 71-76. 69 UNODC, Illustrated Guide for the Disposal of Chemicals used in the Illicit Manufacture 68 UNODC, Rapid Testing Methods of Drugs of Chemicals used in the Illicit Manufacture of Drugs, pp. 3. of Abuse, pp. 6. of Drugs, pp. 7-26.

13 GLOBAL SMART UPDATE

Case Study Box 2: Dismantling of crime scenes involving precursor chemicals

Fig. 8: Flowchart depicting the processing of a crime scene involving precursor chemicals.

1. Scene 2. Scene 3. Chemical Sampling Evaluation Documentation and Testing

• Visual survey of the entire scene using • Do photo and video overview • Select area to perform sampling safety equipment • Place case identifier in each view • Tarp and prepare area as necessary • Don proper PPE and adopting • Pay special attention to torn or • Select and tarp an area for hazardous appropriate safety procedures covered labels and addresses waste disposal • Render safe of any immediate hazards • Photo all pertinent serial numbers • Prepare sampling inventory and all recovered containers • Record chemical sampling, testing • Prepare a chemical, glassware and results and measurement of containers equipment inventory • Segregate chemicals by hazard types • Note how location is used and essen- tial items that may be missing

4. Transport of 5. Storage of 6. Disposal of Chemicals Chemicals Chemicals

• Select proper enclosed vehicles • Ensure storage place has sufficient • Select a proper, secured disposal for transport of chemicals space for separation, good airflow site for an environmentally-respon- • Repack or “over-pack” chemical and of suitable temperature. sible disposal containers that are damaged or • Store chemicals in accordance to • Select the appropriate disposal compromised their hazard class and separated from method • Adequately tie and strap chemical load chemicals of other hazard classes to the vehicle to prevent shifting

Source: UNODC, Guidelines for the Safe Handling and Disposal of Chemicals used in the Illicit Manufacture of Drugs and Illustrated Guide for the Disposal of Chemicals used in the Illicit Manufacture of Drugs.

Frontline officers may encounter these known risks, many front- cers to safely document, process precursor chemicals at various line and technical officers tasked and dismantle such sites, and to sites including clandestine labo- to dismantle these sites are often eliminate/reduce the associated ratories, storage and illicit dump insufficiently trained or equipped health and environmental risks. sites situated in urban or remote to reduce or eliminate these risks. A flowchart underlying the basic locations. Illicit operators of such In some instances, officers may considerations for the processing sites frequently ignore conven- unintentionally exacerbate the of such sites, and the subsequent tional manufacturing practices harm caused by such hazardous storage and disposal of hazardous in order to avoid detection. As a chemicals through improper han- chemicals is depicted in Figure 8. result, there are often occurrences dling and disposal of chemicals at Once the site is rendered safe and of leakages, spillages and improper sensitive locations such as human has been processed for evidentiary disposal of hazardous chemicals dwellings, waterways and agricul- purposes, further assessments at such sites, which pose serious tural land. have to be conducted to determine immediate risks to human health, Proper training and guidelines if the site continues to pose risks to communities, the environment human and environmental health. and natural resources.70 Despite should therefore be instituted for frontline and other technical offi- Remediation activity should be car- ried out until it is sufficiently safe and suitable for its proposed use.71

70 UNODC, Illustrated Guide for the Disposal of Chemicals used in the Illicit Manufacture of Drugs, pp. 1; Australian Government, Clandestine Drug Laboratory Remediation 71 Australian Government, Clandestine Drug Guidelines. Laboratory Remediation Guidelines.

14 Volume 23

The Global SMART Programme: SMART responses to synthetic drugs

Global monitoring

National Knowledge capacity sharing building Synthetic Drugs

Legal International responses collaboration

Early Warning Systems

15 Recent Global SMART Publications

United Na�ons oolkit on Synthe�c Drugs

onors unocoropioistratey

unocopioistrateyunor twi�ercomIIS

Global SMART Global SMART World Drug Report United Nations Toolkit Update Volume 22 Update Volume 21 2019 on Synthetic Drugs (English, Spanish and Russian) (English, Spanish and Russian) (English)

Synthetic Drugs in East Updated New Current NPS Threats Global SMART Newsletter and South-East Asia Psychoactive Substance Vol. II, 2020 for Latin America and 2019 leaflet and poster (English) the Caribbean, (English) (English) Vol. 3, 4 and 5, 2019 (English and Spanish)

Global SMART UNODC Early Warning Publications Advisory on NPS

Contact details Global SMART Programme Vienna International Centre www.unodc.org/unodc/en/scientists/smart-new.html P.O. Box 500 www.unodc.org/nps A-1400, Vienna www.apaic.org Austria [email protected]

UNODC would like to acknowledge the partners Bundeskriminalamt Austria, US DEA, EMCDDA, Health Canada,INCB and WCO for their contributions to the UNODC EWA.

UNODC would like to thank the following Governments for their financial contributions to the Global SMART Programme.

Australia Canada China Japan New Zealand Republic of Korea

Russian Federation Singapore Thailand United Kingdom United States