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Home , Mediterranean race, Paleoanthropology

Raja Birendra Chandra College Kandi, Murshidabad Affiliated to: University of Kalyani Subject: Geography (Hons) Semester : 2 Paper: GEOH/ CC/ T/03 ( Geography) Unit 1: Nature and Principles Topic 2: of human beings Concept of race and ethnicity Prepared by: Dr. Sreejita Mukherjee What is evolution?

The word evolution may be defined as the process by which different kinds of living organism are believed to have developed from earlier forms during the history of the earth. It is a process of gradual change that takes place over many generations, during which species of animals, plants, or insects slowly change some of their physical characteristics.

• Human evolution is the process by which human beings developed on Earth from now- extinct primates (monkey family). • Viewed zoologically, we are sapiens, a -bearing upright-walking species that lives on the ground and very likely first evolved in about 315,000 years ago. • We are now the only living members of what many zoologists refer to as the human tribe, . Theory of evolution

• The modern theory concerning the evolution of man proposes that humans and derive from an apelike ancestor that lived on earth a few million years ago. • The theory states that man, through a combination of environmental and genetic factors, emerged as a species to produce the variety of ethnicities seen today, while modern apes evolved on a separate evolutionary pathway. • Perhaps the most famous proponent of evolutionary theory is (1809-82) who authored The Origin of Species (1859) to describe his theory of evolution. It was based largely on observations which he made during his 5-year voyage around the world aboard the HMS Beagle (1831-36). Concepts in evolutionary theory

• Microevolution: the occurrence and build-up of mutations in the genetic sequence of an organism. Mutations are predominantly random and can occur naturally through errors in the reproductive process or through environmental impacts such as chemicals or radiation. Concepts in evolutionary theory

• : Natural selection is a natural mechanism by which the fittest members of a species survive to pass on their genetic information, while the weakest are eliminated (die off) because they are unable to compete in the wild. Natural selection is often termed "survival of the fittest" or "elimination of the weakest." Concepts in evolutionary theory

• Speciation: This occurs when members of a species mutate to the point where they are no longer able to breed with other members of the same species. The new population becomes a reproductively isolated community Homology versus convergence

• Homology is, the similarity of either anatomical or genetic features between species. • For instance, the resemblance in the skeleton structure of apes and humans has been correlated to the homologous genetic sequences within each species as strong evidence for common ancestry. • Two species can have homologous anatomy even though they are not related in any way. This is called "convergence" • It is now known that homologous features can be generated from entirely different gene segments within different unrelated species. Evidence

Paleoanthropology or study of human and human like remain the most important method of studying evolution. However, the missing links really seem to be missing and the nodal point from which apes and humans diverged have not yet been found. Fossils from Africa and Eurasia indicates that, unlike today, more than one species of our family has lived at the same time for most of human history. Stages of evolution

The following stages of evolution are identified: 1. • The apes that would ultimately evolve into the humans of today split from the so-called lesser apes about 7 million years ago. These are the Hominidae, or great apes. This is the approximate time frame given for the divergence of the human lineage from that of , humans' closest surviving relatives. • This divergence is believed to have taken place in Africa, with many early fossils gathered in Kenya. Stages of evolution

2. Ramidus • The existence of this creature, which apparently blended walking with swinging in trees, was discovered in in 1994. • It emerged about 4.5 million years ago. • The best estimates of this creature's size place its height at no more than 4 feet with a weight of approximately 110 pounds, but this is only for females, as no remains of males sufficient for determining adult size have been yet found. Ardipithecus Ramidus Stages of evolution

3. Afarensis • This ancestor of modern humans would have been recognized as having both -like and human-like features. • The earliest example was discovered in southern Africa in 1924. • Australopithecus afarensis lived about 2 to 3 million years ago, and in addition to evidently walking upright, was both slightly taller and slightly lighter than Ardipithecus ramidus. Australopithecus Afarensis Stages of evolution

4. • Homo habilis means "handy man," and the species is so named because at the time of its discovery in 1960 in Tanzania, it was the first human ancestor believed to have used manmade tools. • These hominids spanned a period from about 2.4 million to about 1.4 million years ago. • Homo habilis ranged from about 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 feet tall, but weighed only about 70 pounds. Homo Habilis Stages of evolution

5. • This well-known ancestor of modern humans, discovered in Indonesia in 1891, lived from almost 2 million years ago to roughly 143,000 years ago. • The body of Homo erectus reflected its further removal from twee-dwelling species, with relatively short arms and comparatively short legs. • These hominids apparently used hand axes, making them the first users of tools they created themselves. • These were large hominids, some reaching a height of 6 feet and a weight of about 150 pounds. Homo Erectus Stages of evolution

6. • Discovered in Germany in 1908, this hominid has the distinction of being the first likely human ancestor to have lived in cold climates, spreading throughout Europe and Asia and also living in parts of Africa. • Its timeline ranged from about 700,000 to roughly 200,000 years ago, and • These hominids were similar in size to modern humans • They unquestionably made use of spears to hunt and fire to cook what they killed. Homo Heidelbergensis Stages of evolution

7. Homo Sapiens • The humans you see in your midst are considered to be the same species as the Homo sapiens that had evolved into modern form by about 300,000 years ago in Africa. • The brains of human ancestors had been increasing as a function of body size throughout human evolution • Today's humans have the largest brains of the group. • Compared to older hominids, modern humans have lost their prominent brow ridges and forward-jutting jaws. Homo Sapiens Major milestones

• Following Ian Tattersall, there were 3 distinct phases in human evolution: • 6-2 million years ago, climbing walking woodland ape – woodlands/rivers – tree-climbing • long arms • narrow shoulders • short legs Major milestones

• curved fingers – small brains – dimorphic body sizes – omnivorous, mostly fibrous vegeation – legs adapted for bipedal walking – naked – ocassional stone tools • 2-0.2 million years ago, running/hunting savannah ape Major milestones

– hot savannah plains – endurance running • long legs • short arms • narrow hips – growing brains – persistence hunting – meat/foraging diet Major milestones

– complex tools – fire • 200,000 years ago, symbolic tool-using humans – modern proportions and skulls – long – clothing – language Race

• The term race refers to groups of people who have differences and similarities in biological traits deemed by to be socially significant, meaning that people treat other people differently because of them. • For instance, while differences and similarities in have not been treated as socially significant, differences and similarities in skin color have. Races Ethnicity

• Ethnicity refers to shared cultural practices, perspectives, and distinctions that set apart one group of people from another. • Ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage. • The most common characteristics distinguishing various ethnic groups are ancestry, a sense of history, language, religion, and forms of dress. • Ethnic differences are not inherited; they are learned. Race vs ethnicity

• Race is associated with biology, whereas ethnicity is associated with culture. • In biology, races are genetically distinct populations within the same species; they typically have relatively minor morphological and genetic differences. • Ethnicity is the term for the culture of people in a given geographic region, including their language, heritage, religion and customs. To be a member of an is to conform to some or all of those practices. Major races of the world

The scientific classification of human racial types is based on certain combinations of fixed, inherited, as far as possible measurable and visually identifiable traits, such as head shape, facial features, nose shape, eye shape and colour, skin colour, stature, blood groups etc. These traits represent morphological, biological and genetical aspects. With the inclusion of more and more traits, the number of combinations increases and the analysis becomes more complex. The three races

Perhaps the first categorization of the population of the world was based on the skin colour. They were referred as White race, Black race and Yellow race. • The White race (Caucasoid) was that particular group of individuals whose skin colour was light or close to white. • The black race () was the people whose skin colour were either black, dark brown or any other variant of dark brown. • The Yellow race () was the one which did not fit in the first or the second category of the white and the black races and who were referred to slightly pale or off white skin colour. • They were termed as The Three Great Races of the World. Modern races

The three major races mixed and migrated in different ways and today, a classification of seven races is generally accepted: 1. Caucasoid (European) 2. Negroid (African) 3. Mongoloid (Asiatic or Oriental) 4. Indie (Hindu) 5. Australoid (Australian aboriginals) 6. Polynesians/Melanesian/Micronesian (some­times, these three are classified as the Oceanic) 7. American Indian.

Characteristics of major races Caucosoid Mongoloid Negroid Skin colour Pale reddish white to Saffron to Yellow Brown to black brown olive green. Brown, reddish yellow brown. brown. Stature Medium to Tall. Medium tall to Tall to very Short. Medium Short. Head Form Long-broad and Short Medium height, Predominantly long, Medium, high-very predomi­nantly broad. Low height. high. Hair color Light blonde to dark Brown to brown Brown black light curl brown, straight to black, Straight. and wooly. wavy. Body Build Latear to lateral Tend to be lateral, Tend to be linear and slender to refuged. some linearity muscular. evident. Nose Usually high, narrow Low to medium form, Low, medium to very to medium board. medium broad. broad. Blood Group More A than B. High in B. High is Rhe. Major racial groups of India

1. The -Perhaps they were the first of the racial groups that came to India. They got settled in the hilly areas of Kerala and the Andaman Islands. Kadar, Irula and Puliyan tribes of Kerala resemble to a great extent with the Negritos. They are related to Africa, Australia and their neighbouring islands. The Negritos have black (dark) skin, woolly hair, broad and flat nose and slightly protruded jaws. 2. The Proto-Australoids-Perhaps the people belonging to the Proto- Australoid race came here just after the Negritos. Their sources are Australian aborigines. They are settled in the central India from the Rajmahal hills to the Aravalis. Santhal, Bhil, Gond, Munda, Oraon etc. tribes are related to this group. They are physically different from the Negritos in many ways, e.g. their hair is coarse and straight instead of being woolly. They had developed the Indus Valley Civilization. Major racial groups of India

3. The -The original homeland of this race was Mongolia (). The Mongoloids came to India through the passes of northern and eastern mountain ranges. These people are concentrated in the nearby areas of the Himalayas, e.g. Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh and other areas of the north-eastern India. The Mongoloids have pale or light pale skin, short height, comparatively large head, half open eyes, flat face and broad nose. In India, they can be divided into two branches- A. Paleo-Mongoloids- They were the first of the Mongoloids who came to India. These people are settled mainly in the border areas of the Himalayas. They are found mostly in Assam and the adjacent states. B. Tibeto-Mongoloids- These people came from Tibet and are settled mainly in Bhutan, Sikkim, areas of north-western Himalayas and beyond the Himalayas in which Ladakh and Baltistan are included. Major racial groups of India The Mediterraneans- They came to India from the south-west Asia. They may be divided into three groups-

A. Paleo-Mediterraneans- They were the first of the Mediterranean’s race that came to India. They were of medium height, black skin, well- built body and long head. Perhaps they were the people who had begun cultivation for the first time in the north-west India. At present, the Paleo-Mediterraneans with their other sub-groups comprise the most part of the population of the south India and a large part of the population of the north India. B. Mediterranean’s- They came to India later on. They developed the Indus valley civilization in collaboration with the Proto-Australoids and initiated the bronze culture for the first time during 2500-1500 BC. Today, most of the population of lower castes in the north India belongs to this race. C. Oriental-Mediterranean’s- They came to India very late. They are populated mostly in the north-western border areas of and Punjab. They are also found in sufficient number in Sindh (Pakistan), Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh. Major racial groups of India

5. The Brachycephalics (Western race with broad head): Apart from Mongoloid, some other races found in India having broad head are: • Alpinoids • Dinarics • Armenoids 6. The Nordics: They are the last of the racial groups that came to India. They came from Taiga and Baltic regions. They were Aryan speaking families with long head, fair complexion, and sharp nose, well-developed and well-built body. They are found in the region of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Jammu.