Eighteenth-Century English Utopias in the Context of the Enlightenment

CEU eTD Collection Second Reader: Riedl Professor Matthias Supervisor: Professor László Kontler Human Nature, Human ‘Unsocial Sociability’ and the Continuity of theTradition in the Context of the Enlightenment ‘Science of Man’ of ‘Science Enlightenment the of Context the in In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Eighteenth-Century English Utopias English Eighteenth-Century of Early Modern UtopianWriting Central Central University European and Travel Literature Tetiana Onofriichuk History Department Budapest, Hungary Budapest, Master of Arts Submitted to Submitted 2009 By CEU eTD Collection such instructions may not be made without the written permission of of Author. permission the written be the made may not instructions without such with in accordance made copies made.Further of such form any copies page mustapart This librarian. the from obtained be may Details Library. European Central in the lodged in full part mayor be made only in accordance with instructionsthe by given Authorandthe Copyright in the text of this thesis rests with the Author. Copies by any process, either Statement ofCopyright: i CEU eTD Collection Enlightenment and utopia are not compatible.andEnlightenment utopia arenot tradition of utopian utopias 18 of argues the author that Alsothe features. writing, contrarycommercial and social and nature, human laws, natural same the had to Enlightenment the point of view of J.C.are Davis part and his ofidea ideas.for utopists’ is the of The mainargument thatutopiasthis research of 18 the thatthe discourse18 the throughout citizen utopian about the of representation the of evolution the shows author The Enlightenment. of age the human of narratives travel and Smith natureAdam Mandeville, Bernard of philosophy moral of context of the age. The utopian society of the Abstract: This thesis is dedicated to the utopian discourse of in This of is utopian century to the the eighteenth thesis the dedicated discourse th century,English taking as Enlightenment backgroundthe ii th century continue the early modern early the continue century th century CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 94 ...... 90 Conclusions depictions of the ideal human nature in real travel accounts and utopias...... 72 Chapter III:Reinhold HildebrandForster, Bowman, James Dubourdieu andCaptain Byron: ‘Unsocial ...... 46 Sociability’ Chapter II: Eighteenth Century Utopianism and the Science of Man: The Challenges of Chapter I...... 17 ...... 4 Introduction Table of Contents 1.2. Eighteenth Century England: Enlightenment, ...... 31 People, Utopia. 1.1. Utopias as the ...... 17 Imagining of the Ideal iii CEU eTD Collection same natural laws, human nature, and social and commercial features. This basically This features. commercial and social and nature, human laws, natural same century), but whereverbut (island,Moonor century), waslocated utopia humanabout nature of age. Itwas the not adenial of social reality (as itwas in previousthe and the moral weakness of humanity. of weakness moral the and how to achieve extraordinary of individualsociety,all good for the virtuesseparate of every personal the effectively all knowledge in how to combine reasonedtherefore, pamphleteers’ The Englishutopians suggestions. or order to resist the revolutionarymanners. Such propositions always overwhelmed even the most radical political discussions calls ofwithlandedvirtues, Christian or limitationsorwith of reformed private or property, time Itintroduced idea public andpolitical of the social with defects. general organization many orlike-mindedpeople andfindsupporters persons. Utopia wasalwaysananswer to ideas these to may introduce Alsoone andbetter ishappier. lives back, everyone where possible to find one’s own lost paradise, or to discover features of the the have still will It apaper. author’s on and imagination his in only exist will itif matter really world, though without itssomewhere else. Finally,vices the last variantis to create a model of ideal society, and it does andnot faults. In this findleave morefavorable to social andtry terms thisunsatisfactory to organization way it becomes improved convenient is veryindividual)direction.or this of Thethird (in opinion the option in amore lifesociety of the direct to therefore better, the for of things state the change as itis not inhis power to change anything. Second, mayindividually one jointly or try to situation, the accept can one First, options. four of one choose he can unhappy, him makes Introduction In this research I will argue that utopias of 18 the of utopias that argue I will research In this If a man feels awkward in his own society, if there is something that distresses or distresses that is something if there in his society, own awkward If amanfeels 4 th century are part of the discourse Atlantis neverland , or fly to the Moon and ), the society had the had society the ), CEU eTD Collection Enlightenment and utopia are not compatible.andEnlightenment utopia arenot tradition of utopian of writing,the 18 contrary to and desires theof every author, now they resembled social reality.pointAlso Iwill argue that utopias of view of J.C. integral it. of If part previously were utopias all different, based on individualthe dreams Davis and his idea that World intheMoon was analyzing I particular, In Enlightenment. English ambiguous the of context in the ideas political and economic thestudy promotes apartof from utopia not 18 Virtue Loveof tothe and leadtheMind humanity, of Sentiments may exciteintheReaderproper withCharacters Inhabitants,andsuchhistorical ofthe anecdotesandreflections, the as Samuel Brunt (1727), that country the religion,policy,customs and mannersof of College of Mirania College of in educational England ( the process to suggestionsregard with ( ruler the and between society relations of re-evaluation the concerning ideas of political Cacklogallinia social problems of English society (for example, the anonymous work Some had and of mockedeconomicpolitical texts satirical orders. the notes and present the and ideal political highlighting sametime at the of while genre, features the bore the clearly account onits EstablishmentRife, andBuildings some in theseveral Classes:and teaching ScienceandReligion, the methodof sketch of The Consolidator My previous research touched texts of the 18 by (1749), Sarah Scot Robinson th century century justare not thesubject forseparatestudy, butcontinue the early modern ); others had the form of political treatises and can be regarded as monuments ). At the same time, there were utopias which contained theoretical contained which utopias were there time, At same the ). byDaniel Defoe (1705), ) and reflections upon gender prejudices prevailing in society prejudices in( society ) and prevailing upongender reflections A Description of Millenium Hall, CountryA Description andthe Adjacent:together of The Consolidator or, Memoirs Sundry The Consolidatoror,Memoirs Transactionsof fromthe A generalidea ofthe college of with Mirania a A Voyage withto Cacklogallinia, adescription 5 th century political thought, but exactly as an byWilliam TheseSmith (1753). texts th century,studied theirsocial, and by Captain (anonymous) A General Idea of the of A GeneralIdeaof A Voyageto A CEU eTD Collection Clayes (Cambridge University Press, 1994). 1 works such as leastindividual,a centurybeforeitat done by in Furthermore, was philosophers. political utopias, starting form 16 utopias,the form starting Description Hall ofMillenium whether it is a man who wanders to the Moon to study the intellectual heritage of the lunar the of heritage intellectual the study to Moon the to wanders who man is a it whether and history of everyday life in of England 17 the utopians’the suggestions from inof practicalthe pointview, contextof the Enlightenment ideas about leisure and the functioning of society as a whole. All enabledthat me toanalyze domesticlife,medical practices, public the sphere, technical inventions and innovations, with ‘ideal’regard to space and theirvisions of‘ideal’ life: daily natural environment, changes or the continuation 17 of the texts the to them comparing and century of tradition. I focused on the visionseducation. of the English utopiansphenomenon must be individual that every demolished, and freedom deserves and personal Mirania master for himselfit –whether is a old15-year girl whochooses a husband byherself, not publicthe being of but In utopias the 18 ones. the emphasized, markthat virtues and everyday the of behavior desires are utopian citizen.Individual the key-moments specific no are there Now life disappears. of arrangement strict the theme of 18 in the gatherings, their had they when and voted, they when Church, visited practice wasmarkedby and exactschedulingdiscipline –when of inhabitants the utopias The Island of Content: or, ANew Paradise Discovered In my previous study I was examining anthropological features of utopias of of of 18 the utopias study features anthropological I wasexamining In my previous My conclusions were as follows. If in the utopias of the 17 we deal with theorizing about the problem of slavery: the authors proclaim that this A Voyage to of Cacklogallinia A Voyagetoof th ) century, encouraged reflection about the rights of rights the the about reflection encouraged century, . One of the characteristic features is that practically all practically is that features One of characteristic the 6 , in , and th and 18 Utopias of the British Enlightenment A General Idea of the of College of the of Ideaof A General th century century in possible tograsp order th centuries. th century everyone is a th century each daily th century the century , ed. G. 1 or th CEU eTD Collection 2 suggestions of utopists of 17 utopiststhe suggestions of of 18 the of utopia the that out, point to is necessary it whole, the On imagination. and taste individual inhabitants itof but utopia, also appeared inall its which difference, depends upon on the appeared only not hasit clothes, for the As andown preferences. her own taste has her she society, within has aplace she life: of domestic participant anactive becomes unnecessary, in 18 then the 17 inthe If example. following in the visible clearly especially is This desires. individual of toleration individual, the of and emancipation the the to freedom, relation andits discourse researchers. lived. For this reason these imaginary societies were fantastic to a certain degree. of 17 of the know, J.C.Davis was arguingabout concept the of formalized everyday life in England the State can determine life andregulate butman decidecan himself for hehow must live. the or Church the only not now and individual, the of freedom the of idea Enlightenment the to is related man of characteristic individual the to appeal The you. for testify will nobody and punished, be will you then guilty, are you if crime: committed the for responsibility from judicial is The utopia. system however,absent, is there individual of a concept the 17 the tolerance itis possible also to examine a change in attitude towards women and clothes. If in towards notion arising endthe the contextof of individualismcentury. Inthe of and happy. 18 Therefore, D.Defoe, th century century everyone in livedin utopia withharmony andone another punishments were In the 18 th th century a woman in utopia is always on the back stage, then in the 18 in the then stage, back the on is always in utopia a woman century century was considerably ‘more realistic’, than texts of previous age. Most of than age. previous texts ‘more realistic’, considerably was century th The Consolidator or, Memoirs of SundryTransactions from the World in theMoon century) especially if the society can benefit from that and if it can make a man 2 It is possible to explain these aspects in the light of the arising Enlightenment arising the of light the in aspects these explain to is possible It th century individual century features arenot perceived asalienand harmful, (aswe th century century more becomeutopian andmoreworks individualistic th century in exist banishing century the punishments form of the guilty th century were simply the denial of in which simplythedenial they reality of century were 7 th (1705). century she century CEU eTD Collection qualities of utopian space – however, ifqualities space in of utopian –however, 17 the with fascination society,ideal of advantages the about discussion acquaintance, arrival, Althoughprevious period. writingremained tradition the the of –unexpected of texts each member of this society in beganparticular. not only society tothinkabout about a achieveas whole, need butthe tohappinessby Their works crucially differ from utopias of the own possibilities as a consumer. In the his broadening his on lifeand on could concentrate enough) ifutopias waswealthy (atleast one one of the 18 revolutionary of the spasms brilliance, 17 the in its arena all Europeanpolitical the on participant was anactive Britain in action, wars, were and technical progress to thereal trade wereno world of Englishman.There an utopian in isnotperceivedone by terms wonderer of the closerthe Utopia becomes a clash. a in life.becomeinvolved between utopian real difference the and the Therefore world the they time, any utopia to back come or society, ideal inthe stay can they Now changed. foreigners the to ofutopia inhabitants of relation the later acentury space,then utopian the in the Moon’ to predict and reflect will be discussed further. medication This becomedeism,skepticism, ability the best against atheism, etc. ‘people of topeople’smechanism mind possibility will contribute ita soundandgaining of will by Daniel –exposesDefoe this question morein aphilosophical allegedlycontext: some utopia – the is present progress technical idea of where the mentioned. only text were The they they in “[…] were more interested helpingmen ordinary and tolead women happy, useful of society the As of part more. any writers utopian tothe importance of great rationally. questionslabour of The system, and gold, system organization, judicial notwere Now, in the time of Enlightenment, the situation changed. Utopists of 18 of situation the in the changed.Enlightenment, of Utopists time Now, the In the 18 the In th century utopists estimate the possibilities of people more soberly and soberly more people of possibilities the estimate utopists century th 8 century century had become forgotten.Consequently, th century a new-comer did not remain in remain not did new-comer a century th century no technical perfections technical no century philosophes th century CEU eTD Collection catastrophic consequences of 17 the of consequences catastrophic utopists, is overcome knowledge medication effective will uniqueand helpto the the which Samuel Brunt’s (anonymous) to theUninhabitedPart ofthe Isle of Paradise James Dubourdieu andHisWife,WhowereDeliverances of andcarried taken byPyrates, Content: or,Island of ANew Paradise Discovered theWorldfrom Sundry Transactions intheMoon Consolidator or,Memoirsof fromtransformed a commune into asociety with individual desires and persuasions. own his attain to able be will society of member every where space, intellectual and cultural social, asingle create confusions, political and backwardness prevail be economic over Onlyknowledgewill able to reachable byeveryone. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5I7RAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Adventures+and+Surp by University of Michigan Press: Bettesworth andT. Warner, in Pater-Noster Row; C.Riwington, in St. Paul’s Church-Yard, 1719). Published Pyrates, and carried to the Uninhabited Part of the Isle of Paradise 4 Porter and Mikulas Teach (Cambridge University Press,1983), 20. aII&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false krg5ub5imH_A&hl=en&ei=DtfvS7HSJJDxOfmV- +the+Uninhabited+Part+of+the+Isle+of+Paradise&source=bl&ots=ZpYKLcYfXm&sig=A05gcgXh8ZVDaCs rising+Deliverances+of+James+Dubourdieu+and+His+Wife,+Who+were+taken+by+Pyrates,+and+carried+to 3 and virtuous life in an increasingly complex commercial society” commercial complex increasingly in an life virtuous and texts of of 18 the texts society remains important. Exactly this aspectforms the ideological paradigm of utopian moral question of the However any hintthe mental at technical of perfection and progress. women of absence an and towards in theattitude achange trace can Alsowe and clothes. housing of anddetailed descriptions imageshealth,leisure of activities, sober perceptions of 18 the concepts as concepts Nicholas Phillipson, “The Scottish Enlightenment,” in The Adventures and Surprizing Deliverances of James Dubourdieu and His Wife, Who were by taken In this research I will analyze the following utopian texts: Daniel Defoe’s Daniel texts: utopian following the analyze will I research this In th century is represented within the framework of –hererealistic wesee within approaches is framework the represented century knowledge th century, and basic for this utopianreason is roundsuch discourse conducted , mind , A Voyage withto Cacklogallinia, adescriptionofthereligion, individualism th century. This knowledge should beuniversal and , and , 9 The Enlightenment in National Context (supposed author Ambrose (supposed Evans, 1719), happiness (1709), (London, printed by F. Bettenham for A. . According to the conviction of The Adventures and Surprizing happiness 3 . So, utopian daily life of , and society will be , eds. Roy (1705), The The 4 CEU eTD Collection Southern Continent New-Zealand; intheIsland of Bonhommica, and in the Powerful Kingdom ofLuxo-Volupto, ontheGreat 6 330-340. 5 several Classes:andsome accountEstablishment onitsRife, andBuildings withteaching Science College ofMirania; the methodof and Religion,inthe aSketchof Michael Dettelbach(University of Hawai’i Press, 1996). 7 Account of the Giants lately Discovered the Giantslately of Account policy, customs country and manners ofthat Voyage Round theWorld distant Pacific in by Islands hisJohann Reinhold Forster about accounts travel real in the nature human the of visions the outline and 1793), Aratus, lovers A Voyage stronglyreal freedom to theMoon recommendedtoall of Libertusia,Ocean Westernof Sexes, inthe High Quality,ofBoth intheIsland of Containing theCharactersBalloon. andSecret the MostConspicuous Memoirs Persons of Continent on theGreatSouthern Luxo-Volupto, thePowerful Kingdomof Bonhommica, andin New-Zealand;in theIslandof Hildebrand Bowman, and Esquire, intoCarnovirria,Taupiniera,Olfactaria, Auditante, in work, can be clarified as the idea that individual desires and their primary in human andtheirthe role primary individual can beidea desires that asthe work, clarified Mandeville and Adam Smith. The pattern of ‘unsocial sociability’, as I will refer itto in this works by social‘unsocial – sociability’my textsof utopias in sources the primary of – through mirror the and moral philosophersthe commercialized of thepublic.consciousness and was revolutionized moralistschanged, weresearchingfor virtues within age, It is political when such time, this in profitableParticularly individual. every of aspolitical) or communicational Samuel to examine Pufendorf, the notionsperiod of ‘humanBernard nature’ and when state successfully tries to satisfy the needs (be it either industrial, The Travels of Hildebrand Bowman, Esquire, into Carnovirria, Taupiniera, Olfactaria,and Auditante, in Modern British Utopias, 1700-1850 Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World The chronological scope of this research embraces virtually the whole 18 (1778). http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-EllTrav-t1-body-d2.html#n60 (1778). , 8Volumes, ed. G. Clayes (London: Pickering & Chatto, 1997), Vol.4, 7 (1778), 6 by Horace Walpoleby Horace (1766), (1727), William (1727), Smith’s 10 The Modern Atlantis:ortheDevilinanAir The Modern (1778), eds. Nicholas Thomas, Harriet Guest and Observations MadeDuringObservations a A General Idea of the A GeneralIdeaof 5 (supposed author (supposed The Travelsof th century, the . (1753), (1784)and An CEU eTD Collection However, apart from these ideas, popular in the age of Enlightenment, there are also the also are there Enlightenment, age of in the ideas, popular from these apart However, philosophical, achieving insight waysof the knowledge (technical, to society an and also give ethical)virtues of that individualeach and general every will tothe of contribute welfare utopian the for the 18 the of half first in the nature sake of moral improvement again of the whole society. anonymous The Island of Content The Islandof throughout the18 throughout utopists’ sociability;ideas and to show the evolution of the representation of the utopian citizen initiated by Enlightenment thinkers? by Enlightenment initiated actual travel by accounts ReinholdJohann Forster (1778). in willbe nature ideas the human andvision the Threeutopian ideas. texts comparedof to is history being.history intellectual the realmof developed Thisresearch within of and ‘invented’ societies and statements concerning ideal human nature of a sociable human concerns ideasthe ideal about social organization, moral superiority and improvement of the isof object 18 this research arises from a rational calculation individualof nature the and bysatisfying hisneeds. The latter the contrary, the on harmony.social Quite to in stand notcontradiction do nature Research questions: Research x x x I wouldlikestartwith to Daniel Defoe’s The Overviewof Sources: x of research: the The objectives x Is itpossibleplace to 18 To give a precise account and moral patterns concern that in utopias stated ideas and ofanalyze discourses To the English Enlightenment as the background for the What isWhat thelink between utopias of 18 the What is the moral ‘face’ of utopia within the 18 A VoyagetoCacklogallinia th century. , William Smith’s th century utopian heritage, and the precise subject therefore andtheprecise subject heritage, utopian century th th century century withinutopias of the discourse ‘science ofman’ as century. These texts grasp texts uponthepossibility reflections century.These . All these texts enter the discourse of the human A General Idea of the CollegeMirania of Ideaof A General 11 Consolidator th century and travel accounts? travel and century th century Enlightenment context? Enlightenment century and its chronological ‘partners’ and CEU eTD Collection trace the idea of how education becomes a linking system, when people of different cultural of when different people system, alinking becomes how theidea education of trace inknowledge, thehumanities both andnatural science. In is it utopia this also possible to Mirania ideal in ( the about Mirania of college province the of utopia The society. English improvement thatcould the lead aspects to those concerning havelot inthings especially aconcerning of common, and Enlightenment the background excluded from excludedfrom society the andmade a beggar. inof form thewhole society, things canbeexpelledfatherlandhis utopian orsimply – when a member of utopian community, who is not content and therefore may ruin the state banishment of pattern the note time wecan the first for texts these In society. on his/her has sociable. Also, these make utopias theirreaders influencethe upon reflect individual every – subjects latter the allow theirdo ruler to everything aslong asitmakes them happy and first half of the 18 Onemaintaining in must aperfectsocial observeorder. that of all these utopian works the society focus on and individualswithin this society,vicesvirtues their and means and for mainly works These enlightened period. texts of for the the whichweresotypical practices, leisuremedical ideas and time orabout appearancecitizens, utopian of ‘ideal’ the or nature, 18 Atlantis – texts Two country. invented the of society imperfect politically and morally Satirically, the ideal English society in hisruled an bythe ideal whoprotects king subjects and constructs social political and order. suggests an self-sufficientabsolutely society a plentiful nature andof individual virtues, example, For individual visions world ofeveryauthor. utopian the of th century. These works are different in the sense that they lack descriptions of ‘ideal’ of lack descriptions in they sensethat differentthe are works These century. Utopian of texts 18 the and ) suggests maintaining) suggests a system of education as the meansonly of obtaining A VoyagetotheMoon th century a lotof attention is paid to the relations between rulers and their th century in general, despite their different ideological contexts, ideological different their despite ingeneral, century – represent the utopian fable of the second half of the A VoyagetoCacklogallinia 12 A General Idea of the ofA General Ideaof College of The Island ofContent The Island is contrasted to the to contrasted is The Modern CEU eTD Collection other that is comprised by texts that mirror travel accounts of the 18 of accounts travel mirror that by texts is comprised that other island Moonwith superior land, social and the amorally or organizations), some remote structure of the classic utopia (classicwith their patterns of organization on and control. the texts modern early of sense tradition the continue sociability, and nature human on of emphasis new Thomas More: utopiacontributes to the argument of the work –that utopiasas of the age of Enlightenment,nowhere despite a state. For the role model for such texts ( newwondering of captains, their with lands andpeoplesthe in acquaintance natural the individual and of on insociety wholethe canbefound of all texts 18 the withsaturated and rationality,knowledge of interests which provides eachandevery place. social, cultural and intellectual space where the emancipation of women and slaves will take asingle create can knowledge only obstacles, political and backwardness economic conquer catastrophic consequences of 17 the of consequences catastrophic the overcome to help will which medicine effective only The in society. problems in factpolitics is cruel generatingconsidered andboth unfair,public and economic in texts, these all for changesareabsent Any suggestions century. of previous the fallacies aspiration goto back to‘golden age’, orat least, toanalyze the reasons for the revolutionary in inof of especially knowledge, achievementpolitical the and economic can beseen stability, importance the of picture Asimilar become accessible. glory happiness and calmness, then insociety, sense dominates –when good only achievementof social means for the peace asa serves also bycommon It knowledge. beconnected backgrounds can and confessional The Consolidator In this research I divide utopian texts into two subdivisions – the one that has the has that one the – subdivisions two into texts utopian divide I research this In Such reflections of utopists upon the ideal society as a single supra-ethnic space, as asingle supra-ethnic upon theidealsociety of Such utopists reflections . However, here we have a stress on the economic aspect, and the th century is An Account of the Giants ofthe lately Discovered,The An Account 13 knowledge . Only knowledge is able to th century. This also th century: the century: CEU eTD Collection 8 written inwritten therewasa by English1601 the priest, byDomingo Gonsales a VoyageThither of Man intheMooneoraDiscourse in work the Therefore, worlds everywhere. better be found could there that era hoped possibility by afforded Renaissancethe voyages of exploration.” underlying theconstruction of earlymodernthe utopia was sensethe of discovery and years: place these took over globe the knowledge which about of by explosion increased the here vastly were narrative plausibility for “The opportunities America. of near coast the not givenot detailed explanations, whysome of Europe from the end of the 15 acquiring knowledge. new of places and destination of points are travelers’ worlds these that fact the diminish always most inhabited.it casesthe utopian found In by of but arenot worlds does accident, is which and condition functional and bodily in a is that something material, something as visitor) (andits its author to alwaysappears utopia space.However, some invented itthough exists beyond anymaterial ortime,place and that is whyitisfound always in ‘opened’byits or ‘found’ author/visitor, –imaginary isalways Utopia literature travels. culturalsocial, customs, ethnicity, of in terms and different are which communities human various economic with familiarity increasing particular) in organization (English Europeans’ the through encountered etc. and in literature travel nature” human “other the of perception the be to compared In general aboututopia Tahitian islandsin 1778. Theperception theof human/inhabitant” “other in can utopia is one ofDubourdieu Wife and His the kinds of BowmanTravels ofHildebrand travel S.Bruce, Utopias of the 17 Three Early Modern Utopias th century century by influenced expansion were considerably geographic the ) I take ) Itake by travel Forsterthe Johann Reinholdobservations written th and (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1999), x. century onwards. For this reason the authors of utopias do The Adventures and Surprizing Deliverances of James TheAdventuresandSurprizing Deliverancesof terra incognita 14 new world can be either in Indian Ocean, or created which was far more 8 Men in the Early Modern Early in the Men , which was , which The CEU eTD Collection 1900,” in 9 can be evaluated through through paradigm the can beof 17 evaluated nature’, ‘human of a portrait to relevant them of all private, and public both life, everyday of space aspects andsome as freedoms,aswell idealprivate and the political personal rights English utopias as obedience andfaithfulness of the subjects to the ruler, the ruler’s justice, encounter with “the other”,philosophy (Samuel Pufendorf, BernardMandeville,andAdamSmith); and, second,the familiar from first, of travelpatterns of “unsocial sociability”, familiarwriting.lens, from the contemporary through inthem socialnature human and of moral representation the on Suchfocusing Enlightenment, aspects of the 18 unity. their powerful in most they are the therefore and areclever, societies of utopian these habitants what was represented by was represented what of narratives 18 the utopian from is remote and this faror islands of Pacific, actual the notnecessarily worlds whichare by but governingthe classes also” phenomenon, the noted long had who economists, political the by only not – recognized was challengetexts political problems conflicts religious and by meansof the All text). in every is stressed point particular (this disorders internal and conflicts external language common their that assists life peaceful and prosperity,makes and impossible both managed by are ruler of one which societies, speakone and characterized aspresentations natives of the Columbianinteresting than of that America by itsColumbus, and population was more clever than the ‘new’ world. On the whole utopias of the 17 the 15 the Duncan S.A. Bell, “Dissolving Distance: Technology, Space, and Empire in British Political Thought, 1770- This work is a continuation of the researches of English utopian literature of of time of literature English utopian of of researches the isacontinuation This work “The 18 th and 16 The Journal of Modern History th century witnessed the birth pangs of globalization, at leastin the sense that it th centuries remained in utopian landsstillpast, the canbefound innew the , Vol. 77, No. 3, September2005, 526. 9 . If geographical of . If openings eraof the spontaneous the 15 th and 18 th century. th century social philosophy known as organization th century can be can century th century . Also CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1981). 10 discourse ofideal. discourse utopianthe studyby J.C. Davis and inthefirstchapter Iwill itplace thewithin utopian pride for the sake of the improvement in the imaginary society. This is the core argumentTherefore a human beingutopian in inutopia suppresses hisselfishness,individual desires and is idealthe of andframework oflaws.state things, only whytheycanexist that within the J.C. Davis to for (according this in for laws,execute nobut reason people. to The wayisalawcreated utopia a manexists society, so that it becomes able tocreate a total control and order in an imaginary society. In benefits’. ‘unsocialsee how‘public vices’ ‘private be sociability’ to controlledturned –to can and J.C. Davis, In utopia there is In muchattention the institutions there utopia paid to andthe of bureaucratization Utopia and the Ideal Society. AStudy on English Utopian Writing 1516-1700 10 ) is that people and nature proved their insolvency to form to insolvency their proved nature and people is that ) 16 (Cambridge CEU eTD Collection precisely in the 18 acquired werenot thesefeatures course, Of suggestions. of andpracticality perfection, moral on orientation efficiency, of totality, those for example, features, independent originals,” during theprevious age and transcriptions thequality these thanof wasmuchpoorer the written texts, of transcribing “simple werethe texts utopian these if at first And designed. were improvement political and social of projects imaginary, though first, the steadily 12 2003), 152. Translated by the authorof thesis.the 11 of fantasies ordinary of also distanttraveler’s accountsabout unattainable countries, majority for the population,of and centuries. In the England of the 17 appearance of an amountenormous of utopian literature in of course the 17 the ideals and remnants of the achieving ideal the society and form of butrule, ideasof whimsical of creation the towards not headed epoch of Enlightenment the discourse be of felt. could which be andconsequences practical the traced could which events and facts real the to attention more devoted Enlightenment the Fuentes, Francisco of opinion the In circles? in academic debated actively is which Enlightenment’, ‘English of concept the to similar of ‘utopia’ fate the was Or time? at that aconcept such in their ‘Utopia’ Ideal ofthe Imagining the as Utopias 1.1. Chapter I Ibid., 152. F.Fuentes, It is known that Diderot and d’Alambert did not create an article under the name 12 in the 18 Mir Prosvescheniya Encyclopédie th century texts, especially the one of totality, but the very meaning of meaning very the but totality, of one the especially texts, century th century the genre of utopia began to acquire more began to century utopia of genre the precise and ancien regime , red. V. Ferrone and D. Rosche (Moskva: Pamiyatniki Istoricheskoi Mysli, dreamers . Did this indicate an insufficient attention existence of to the attention indicate aninsufficient . Did this th and 18 inrelation newly attainedto colonies. but Slowly . However, itis impossible deny . However, factof the to the th 17 centuries there was a widespread tradition of tradition awidespread was there centuries vice versa – it tried to reform the present 11 Consequently, the basic the Consequently, th and 18 th CEU eTD Collection focus upon the theory of the 16 will here I Therefore, age. the ideas of ‘progressive’ or with‘egalitarian’ all soaked the untouched orfairly viewed as ‘product of greatmindsthe was of that Enlightenment’ the 18 of enlightened the era. Utopias modern the of socialistic visions 14 (Duckworth, 1984), 43. present and social order, also turnedpublic to such needs attention urgent society of as the Such form servedliterary for instrumentof often English quite utopias criticizing an as the virtues.” Christian truly of development the or manners, and habits new claims or requires and rigoristic “Very becomes utopia forexistence. often their society and thereasons failingsfind inhis tries present the out to the narrator fantastic space, where often invented, writing. 16 early betweenthe continuity of to seethe tradition a theoretical framework to utopia as a concept and toclarify itsmain characteristics in order try to test their applicability to the 18 and19 13 should it stay ‘in the air we breathe’? Scholarly studies on utopia mostly concern 16 concern mostly utopia on studies Scholarly breathe’? we air the ‘in stay it should some of spacethe exactly to this problem – canandshouldbe utopia clearly or defined, devote am to Here Igoing scholars. between debate heated of subject arethe very criteria definition of definition of utopia, to start from beginning.the establish this process of driftings and utopianthe shiftings of is itcharacteristics necessary with real world with its naturalutopia and what in isits even classic more important ‘Morian’ human terms vices. begin In order slightly to to change. It moves more to the border F.Fuentes, C. W. Churchman, “The Design of the Perfect Society,” in The form The form imaginary literary oran utopia tripof in very often appears an as adialogue Utopia is the vision or imagining of an ideal or perfect state or society. This is the th –20 Mir Prosvescheniya th century texts, meaning the traditions of More, Bacon and Harrington and Harrington and Bacon More, of traditions the meaning texts, century as a perfect society, as a , 152. th and 17 th century The is main give century texts. chapter task this to of th century utopias, which is very substantial, and will 13 that we encounter the most often. However, the However, often. most the we encounter that 18 Utopias th century century and late 18 , eds. Peter Alexander and RogerGill th century remain either remain century th century century utopian th –17 14 th CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1981), 12. the social reality; (2)types of improvement, namely they improvementare (1) mental improvement, as a form of escapism from throughimprovement the prism of a satiricfurther depiction of the present in his reflections in relation to utopia and its implications – focus on the 16 the future epoch.” future the into time, in or – earth the of bowels the into planet, another valley, a hidden top, mountain farisland,existing adistant a into vision polity, one’sproject the space–to even own, society that has been is somewhat romantic whenhe says“[…]for that utopiain –may historical agood resurrect ages past and shouldas the realmbe of again.everything that is It‘unreal’ may or ‘fantastic’. idealize pluralthe meanings thetermhas acquired through history. theyutopia Therefore, talk about F.E. Manuel’s orperception romanticize of utopia not an 15 fantasy asa utopia hedetermines Therefore, from others. the differentiated and society clear definition of Hestatesutopia. utopiathat should beviewed as one form of ideal the Manuels’ work ’fantastic‘. or existent‘ utopian imply and written, didcharacter in what’ideal‘ their authors the conceptand ’non- of forwidespread interpretations ofutopia weretheworks asgenre–whyandexactly what and individual vices also the of of member society.every the us consider Let most the grandeesthe and critique the of Whigs’the theabsence politics, scientificthe of progress redistribution and socialthe of thegoods protection of deprivedthe ones, moral vices the of J.C. Davis, F.E. Manuel, F.E. to define Theyfindthis beintellectuallyit might utopia. becauseattempt to erase unsafe There are two extremes concerning the definition of utopia. One side is represented by is represented of extremesThere concerning theOneside definition utopia. aretwo which are the subjective visions of “man’s dreams of a better world.” Utopia and the Ideal Society. AStudy of English Utopian Writing 1516-1700 of a certain condition in a particular society. In his opinion, there are a few Utopias and Utopian Thought. ATimely Appraisal 15 Utopian ThoughtintheWestern World However, this view is opposed by J.C. Davis who aims to provide a 19 (Beacon Press, Boston, 1966), viii. 1966), Boston, Press, (Beacon (1979), in try (1979), both which authors (Cambridge 16 Davis goes dream or CEU eTD Collection " Society 18 that private mystery, but order, that social necessity.” social that mystery, butorder, private that and institutions, its by by lawseducation, andbysanctions. His isprime aim not happiness, society of is reorganization bythe that collectively, problem collective the “solve” seeks to “Theand utopian system.mainlyideal organization,be orperfect – order, as considered isit to else something idealization. Here provide kindof not this utopiadoes is perfect, that everything of as creator the or nature creature, accomplished idealize asan man works other If relations. social ideal of establishment the and order political of maintaining the for tools some space to his theory. Exactly his approach is the other extreme – he opts for clear for opts –he extreme is other the his approach his Exactly to theory. some space lead. may defects, moral other and exploitation wars, revolts, such ascrimes,poverty, misunderstandings, which collective certain problems, to society. Thecontradictindividual urges willnotcollective the persuasions the and habits of whole the main concernwhere a“golden mean” for instead, utopia searches appetites, and men’s social their desires of utopia, according to Northrop Frye, is to control social 17 1700 of a grand strategy, designed to provoke some changes in the life of the society. state of improvement and things; in(3) interpretation the Karl of Manheim forming– asthe ( does not solve collective problems.While other forms of the representation of an ideal order the utopian of all criteriasummarize to is possible It ‘unknown’. the with in experimentation mental a theremained following. It is not an optillumination for theof all publicapproach features, and ofit J.C. Davis. Starting from the early 16 19 Arcadia, Millennium, Ideal MoralCommonwealth N. Frye, “Varieties of Literary Utopias,” in N. Frye, inN. Utopias,” ofLiterary “Varieties N.Frye, Ʉ J.C. Davis, . Mannheim, “Ideologiya taUtopiya,” in Ricouer P. is almost a almost is Davis’s work Davis’s In the debate whether to define utopia clearly or leave it as a floating concept I would concept floating a itas leave or clearly defineutopia to whether In the debate , 111. Utopia and theIdeal Society: inSearch ofDefinition magnum opus Utopia and the Ideal Society. A Study on English Utopian WritingUtopia andtheIdealSociety.AStudyonEnglish Utopian 1516- of modern studies,devote of early andIwouldutopian like to 20 The Stubborn Structure. Essays on Criticism and ȱɞɟɨɥɨɝɿɹɬɚɍɬɨɩɿɹ 19 ) also accept the accept also) 18 Therefore utopia appears as a set of , 38. ( Ʉ th ., 2005), 336. century utopia always unlimited 17 nature of nature CEU eTD Collection 23 22 21 20 of of control an sanctioning.organizational and Therefore,beings improvenature. introduction utopiasituationand onlyby of this can the human shortcomings the granted for of literary genre the takes that Davisutopia of states J.C. study particular this In stress. liberal its with republicanism from and visions unrealistic it definition of should form arguesthat forms be and utopia differentiated other of no way happiness,disorder. Totality is always the priority and the mostimportant value; the aim of utopia is in bututopia is order. enemy andimportant inof dangerous in Themost utopia. conflict never institution are Even thoughaffairs, every that author formof theidealstate insolvency to had nature their proven andpeople people, asboth is why there“may deficient.”can gobe onno trustto considerharmonious society. Thesedevices “must not follow since nature, itself nature is in them. Concepts bureaucratic andinstitutional thedevices” such as featured Utopiaeducational, to“legal,by its for is attention nature. consequences value, qualityMoral Commonwealth and Utopia comes closer than any other form of ideal society ( and organization. actually measures its of order without strict abandoning of social characteristics order other individuals. Iagreewith approach this willby Davis, but utopiaargue that acquire can many imperfect of the maintain aperfect organization helps to for that the utopia system Ibid. Ibid., 371. Ibid., 377. J.C. Davis, Utopia is the ‘ideal’ state of sinfulness, “the best possible in the fallen world.” fallen in the possible best “the sinfulness, of state ‘ideal’ is the Utopia pluralism 23 Utopia and the Ideal Society. AStudy on English Utopian Writing 1516-1700 Actually,in utopia , and therefore total , and total must therefore control bean answer toany of kind public ) to history, and acknowledges the fact of man’s sinfulness and its man is created for the law the createdfor man is 22 which are important for the creation of a 20 21 Stability and predictability become value the Stability and predictability Arcadia , but in no way is law created for , Millennium , 370. , and Perfect 21 CEU eTD Collection 27 (BeaconManuel Press,Boston, 1966), 25 26 Society Utopianfor Studies, 2008: 3. 25 24 between Davis and Manuels, and who defines utopianism as the “imaginative construction “imaginative between defines asthe utopianism andwho Davis and Manuels, possibilities.” visualizing with than ends achieving with concerned less is imagination literary the and literature, in roots its with imaginative, is thought Utopian one. be to it believes beutopia read shouldnot simply of evenas adescription perfect state, a most if author the obvious.At samethe Manuels’ Fryecontradicts well, “[…] that time, theory as saying vision utopiaof 18 the of andits happinessfor inhabitants as is possible tohuman life. Thisview corresponds to my state that is not only logically consistent in its structure but also permits as much freedom together.” facts of social connection or explanation ora socialfiction myth and needs. interests desires, his all of embodiment isan which space, ideal this leaves he after exist will it and visit which knowledge outsidealso exists our understanding: and it existed before traveler’s the world and the ‘new’ ‘old’ the between one, utopian andthe world world real the between border the establishes that ideal. Distancefactor isthe distance observes, Davis As J.C. Moon. inaccessible or is country distant some an instrument for the reality, the outside exists idealization of utopia utopia ortime; certain place tied not to construct, anunreal is still utopia isthat feature happiness that might be built on that order, this is not necessary.” Ibid., 31. N. Frye, “Varieties of Literary Utopias,” in Utopias,” of Literary “Varieties N.Frye, J.C. Davis, “Going nowhere: Travelling to, through, and from Utopia,” in Utopia,” from and through, to, Travelling nowhere: “Going Davis, J.C. J.C. Davis, Something likeamix isboth by Northropviews of heldFrye, whocallsa utopia Utopia and the Ideal Society. AStudy on English Utopian Writing 1516-1700, 27 Here Frye’s definition is close to the one by Ruth Levitas, who is also in that represents the “vision of one’s social ideas, not theirtheoretical not ideas, social of one’s “vision the represents that 25 although it is represented in the material form of the lost island, lost the of form material in the is represented it although th century. So the difference between his and Davis’s theory is theory Davis’s and his between difference the So century. Utopias and Utopian Thought. ATimely Appraisal 22 26 Utopia for Frye is an ideal or flawless or ideal is an Frye for Utopia Utopian Studies, 24 Another important Another 375. 19.1(2008): , ed. Frank E. Frank , ed. CEU eTD Collection 32 31 (London: Reaktion Books, 1993), 11. 30 Highlands, NJ, 1995), 93. Other Papers. A Critical Study in Moral and Political Philosophy 29 1984), 24. idea of freedom freedom ideais abit of therefore define foralien paradoxically try utopia. Utopists this to society but places it within the limits of routine, or formality (according to J.C. Davis). of creator the inventsthat from country aperfectutopiapresupposes beginningThe very the and Author utopia. the of routine freedom and both concerning statement contradictory 28 perfectionismits highest,at without revealingindependent any it.”content of limitationsinimply andmundane ordinary inherent divisions Thisseemsto existence. country’ as well and states that utopia therefore “is itself […] a symbol of freedom from the world within thenominal frontiers. opinion of Martin,isLouis an unlimited space whichis alsoan embodiment of invisiblean ittherefore can be idealized duetoits remoteness from ‘old’the Alsoworld. utopia, in the real space and utopia existsoutsidethe As mentioned, space. utopian the wasalready 18 the of half second the in only arises life) private non-formalized of terms (in freedom individual happiness. However, at the same time I would stress that the discourse about happiness and and individual of order, visions to opened andtherefore ofideas andpossibilities generator any limit.” good.” ‘total’ good, as “distinct from doubtful, ‘impure’ and fragmentary realizations of the overlap in one defining featureparticular of –thestrivingutopia for in good a sense a of states.” of alternative A. Kolnai, “The Utopian Idol of Perfection and the Non-Utopian Pursuit of God”, Ibid., 13. 88. L. Martin, “The Frontiers of Utopia,” in A. Kolnai, “The UtopianIdol of Perfectionand the Non-Utopian Pursuit of God,” in R. Levitas, “Need, Nature and Nowhere,” in To complete the picture of utopia as a concept it is necessary to mention the idea mention of the to itis necessary as aconcept of utopia picture complete the To th 29 century. I agree with the definitions of both Frye and Levitas concerning the utopia as a 31 Aurel Kolnai finds utopia in the categories of ‘placelessness’ and ‘nowhere finds of Kolnai Aurel inthe categories ‘placelessness’ utopia 28 Nonetheless, Manuel, Davis, Frye, Kolnai and other researchers other and Kolnai Frye, Davis, Manuel, Nonetheless, Utopias and the Millennium 30 Therefore utopia “[…] stands as a perfect idea above Utopias 23 , eds. Peter Alexander and Roger Gill (Duckworth, Gill Roger and Alexander Peter eds. , , ed. Francis Dunlop (London and Atlantic , eds. Krishan Kumar and Stephen Bann Stephen and Kumar Krishan , eds. The Utopian Mind and Mind Utopian The 32 Quite a CEU eTD Collection 36 Society: in Search of Definition, 35 34 33 of an imaginary traveler, a journeyor unreal, and it should, for example, describe toan “[…] imaginary imaginary dialogue, the recollections lands or a trip community.” or state fictional to the moon, something of of that structure theme political isthe its and community or state aparticular itdescribes conception of Glenn Negley and J. Max Patrick, who consider utopia to be a “[…] fictional, conditions. improve certain tried to utopians who as beconsidered can Cromwell Oliver Locke and utopian ideas from political reforms. or projects On definition,this Thomas Hobbes, John specifically dissociating in aproblem is there see, can we as Consequently, dilemma. ‘impracticable’ and utopian, andthe conceptideality of imply should solving some social has to be presentin utopia, itis simply “[…] pushed towards its extreme limit.” endlessness by utopia of a harmonious and totality, detailed of asaconcept and border still or ‘ideality’ of utopian ideas. At first, all transformations: political, and social, as the as social, abolitionand political, transformations: all first, At ideas. utopian of ‘ideality’ ofor the tithe of ‘impracticability’ the define concept hard the very to in itI find such a context However, or limitationsociety, of monopoly andA improvement.capable in (2)atleastof wascomposed, ofimprovingutopia for part, plans (3) isformed in the society feeling “(1)Utopias that such agenrewas werepermeatedwith the tooriginate: of17 proposals that areway of a horizon that closes a siteimpractical and opens up a space.” kingdoms, at twothe States, time anislandinbetween neutral two – place, asa“[…] way iscreated any world utopian the two ofhalves its of thewriting.” world, the interval of frontiers and limits by J.C. Davis, D.I. Blum, “English Utopias from 1551 to 1699: A Bibliography,” in J.C. Davis, Ibid., 10. L. Martin, “The Frontiers of Utopia”, 8. J.C. Davis disagrees with the concept of ‘impracticability’ as well and outlines the outlines welland as ‘impracticability’ of concept the with J.C. Davisdisagrees At this stage, it is worth recalling the words of Irving D. Blum about the reasons for Utopia and the Ideal Society. AStudy on English Utopian Writing 1516-1700 13. 36 On their autopianmust persuasion, work befully invented 24 34 th century canbe as century seen Utopia and the Ideal the and Utopia , 16. 33 That is the 35 CEU eTD Collection 40 39 (BeaconManuel Press,Boston, 1966), 241. 38 37 this sort.” this following the conception of Karl Manheim, I find it meaningful to attribute English utopias English attribute to meaningful it find I Manheim, Karl of conception the following riches” inner everyone’s employs but shapes only not society as society, societies, and that the process of self-realization is a process of continuous involvement with without society […] the selvesbe to realized aregiven their essential by qualities their humantrue needs central forwere utopian the “[…] wouldendeavor. there benoselves the meeting its and society the only time this of texts the For in utopia. selves individual no society. However, society was always different. In the 16 every for of utopian theideal strove author work anduniquein to reference utopian the towards the aspect of ‘forming of the ideal’ of both its space and order. It is self-evident that ‘invented’or (at initialtheir stages). does not allow the intrusion of “false” needs to create dissatisfaction.” not create allow “false”does needsto of theintrusion society “Thein needsideal social but is “true” are met, which that organization. good which the preserving with – needs of meeting the with concerned are writers utopian most and […] socialization experiences maintainto cohesion group in social animals suchas man” inis modern thereafocuswouldfor of early period on the add.Therefore, utopia “need the topoliticalattributed where philosophy as suchnotions altogether, be also can ‘invented’ The adjective another. certainly samefor not the man isone their arguments,blaming them as becausesubjective, whateveris unbelievable andideal for of theusefulness society.Davis denies or existing But or state present extentresemble the acertain to should utopia that bysaying limitation their own set researchers “imaginary”, public opinion R. Levitas, R. Levitas, “Need, Nature and Nowhere,” cited after W.Leiss, after cited Nowhere,” and Nature “Need, Levitas, R. G. Kateb, “Utopia and the Good Life,” in Cited by J.C. Davis, Taking into consideration the meaning(s) and criteria of should proceed one of utopia, criteria consideration meaning(s) and intothe Taking 37 Need, Nature and Nowhere However, in order to protect their theory fromthe term in concerning their toprotect theory However, criticism order , division ofgoods Utopia and the Ideal Society. AStudy onEnglish Utopian Writing 1516-1700 and , 23-24. Utopias and Utopian Thought. ATimely Appraisal different of branches of power branches of of different 25 The Limits to Satisfaction th and 17 th century texts there were there texts century can be seen as ‘unreal’ as seen be can sovereignty 40 (London,1978), 22. On the whole, the On 38 and ideals, I , ed. Frank E. , institute of institute , 16. 39 CEU eTD Collection 43 42 41 This statement is very applicable foris 18 the very This statement applicable by are represented money,violence andall property, ofnon-mental types other forces.” that ofpower naively, real the sources sometimes very and thisthat “denies, kindof utopia outstandingly to the power of subordinate all knowledge,andpotential,to able state complete publicprocesses and intellectual acertainideal humanity, of tocreate wasable of theory the Mannheim, follows theocratic world liberal-humanistic intellectual of group to the the which resultsrepresent of the utopias, views of the past. English piety, in the opinion of Paul Ricoeur, who order of things, space and means of existence, which are regulated by “the laws of laws by“the means are of a kinship regulated of of order existence, which spaceand things, order everythingand organization bythemeansof “offered no itin state new a a utopian social detailed processorder end.by and totally However representing or dynamic in –an offersorder aneworder innovative trends from utopia beginningthe to society the of change.”politics, to cruelty injustice. Asacounterbalanceand totraditionalism andsuspicious features of utopiafeatures – important most three the outline to necessary is it context this In whole. the on history utopian the of anelimination which provides completeness in its all separately described isandisday every created, where new environment an absolutely that reader discovers the away, such In existing. already one the on be projected can which created world entire is features Also freedom of utopian inthe one of noway and activity. Columbus.” history it“[…]– presents itself an as eternally realm existent thought only of forwaiting its K. Krishan, K. J.C. Davis, K. Mannheim, Ideologiya taUtopiya I can conclude that the utopist creates a society of general order, stability, but asociety general welfare, creates of order, utopistthe I canconclude that Utopia and the Ideal Society. AStudy on English Utopian Writing 1516-1700, 43 Utopianism (Open University Press,1991), 44. totality , mind order , 336. . However, taking this into taking account, Mannheim . However, this remarks and an ambition not only to improve but improve to only not ambition an and th century texts, that are unified in their objection 26 42 Therefore utopia is not compatible Thereforenot utopia is with . Utopia always describes the peaceful totality 379. ; there is an to perfect 41 CEU eTD Collection 47 Society 46 8. 1990), (Heidelberg, Grimm Reinhold 45 44 individualistic approach. “[…] Utopias are constructed by areconstructed an “[…]Utopias approach. individualistic individual develop beable will allhisto potential. Therefore, hesuggests quite an every each and where andfraternity, in alife equality is goal therefore The ultimate conflicts. without orders, legal and geometrical harmonious in presented is which society, of destroying improving or shortcomings the andvicesof real the Hecreates world. unity the some space, simultaneously unreal to his real reality simply carries world. utopist The the in shown was attain all thementioned things, utopian society must have a law for every aspect of life, as it isutopia, ideal; order alwaysand perfection total isalsoIn total to and etc. organized, order system.” political a articulation, geographical a organization, local a system, it asgoverned by ritual habit, prescribed or behavior, social whichis explained rationally.” it by presents present reason; society as governed not does romance “theHowever, utopian Frye, opinion of as Northrop utopiaof rituals ispresented arational a set explanation. with away,inthe In such rational. actbecomes areexplained,this and features structures the all when afterwards, However, incomprehensible. and be unreal to seem “foreigner” Ateverything. is first this ritual to introduced ideal the society with the help a guidewhoexplainsandshowsof him elements: ritual and rational. of believe.important constructing ideal utopian Theprocedure consists of world an two of organized institutions.” tries to control antisocial emotions and to harmonize the conflicts in society through well N. Frye, “Varieties of Literary Utopias”, 27. Utopias”, of Literary “Varieties N.Frye, N. Frye, “Varieties of Literary Utopias,” in N. Frye, inN. Utopias,” ofLiterary “Varieties N.Frye, K.L. Berghahn, K.L. L. Martin, However, Louis Martin claims thatutopiaway isin no contrastdesigned towith the (Ohio State University Press, 1966), 109-135. TheFrontiers of Utopia Utopian Vision. Technological Innovation and Poetic Imagination, City oftheSun 45 This is the most precise description of the utopiam mechanism, I mechanism, utopiam the of description precise most the is This 46 The ritual comes when part of protagonist the is utopia being , 14. by CampanellaTommaso (1623). irrational 27 The Stubborn Structure. Essays on Criticism and , as things to which to aguide , asthings a acquaints instrumentalized eds. Klaus L. Berghahn, reason which 44 Here, in 47 CEU eTD Collection RogerGill (Duckworth, 1984), 1-19. 51 Enlightenment English as notions semantic slippery such between connections the depict Enlightenment andutopian writing? question the asks Davis sametime at the However, utopianism, A Enlightenmentcannot even in bepartially interpreted of terms andutopia, that anti- 50 49 Ideal Society ideal society has been history.” unchanging through must besupplied bysocial and In sanctions the arrangements. terms these utopian of type moral deficient couldbeby examplebut its changed not character that alone deficiencies of remarking assumptionutopian texts, “the has man’s that utopian’s always been prior that of place17 course inthe their realization. 48 into and realization, social their not and qualities individual of change the aspire canons moral into utopias divides also Shklar, Judith following Hansot, Elizabeth for achange. foresees suggestions which is byutopiaof certain a newtime, replaced utopia age classicmeaningof motionlessthe space a stationary and of inits Enlightenment ceases to be a ceases to ideas,when functionin appearto theinutopian opinion Judith of asociety,Shklar, utopia created only forFollowing thisline of interpretation the mightappearasamotionlessutopia place is which contemplation and comprehension, instead of any appeal to action. So, J.C. Davis, “The History of Utopia: the Chronology of Nowhere J.C. Davis, Ibid., 37. J. Shklar, “The Political Theory of Utopia: From Melancholy to Nostalgia,” in J.C. Davis, modern I would likeI wouldcontinue to this discourse aboututopia andEnlightenmentand to try In the 17 , 37. Utopia and the Ideal Society which aim incarnateto changesin the whole society and are created exactly for utopia th rcadianism and 18 and 49 I support this particular transition from one type to another takes that to from type one transition particular this Isupport . 48 It is not that simple, I would say. th th centuries there is a fundamental change centuriesisafundamental In there of utopian concept.this and the search for a secular morality are more typical of it. and 18 th centuries. Yet, Davis disagrees with suchaclassification with Davis disagrees Yet, centuries. , 378. 51 -but leaves it without an answer. 28 50 , Furthermore, Davis claims that the ” in Utopias what isthelink between the , eds. Peter Alexander and Alexander Peter eds. , classic , where the fixed the , where Utopiaand the CEU eTD Collection real real world by impossible journeys extravagant or Those shipwrecks. worlds looked from inthe far cutoff away located spaceand had societies imagined architects of Utopias other all and Bacon, Francis More, Thomas “Plato, If texts. utopian of contents and wouldHowever, I that many alsoargue are there changes inthevery chronological structure in early starting16 from inherent the all utopias, environment unattainable society the utopian structures of remaining features, namely – be ideasif wereto easily especially maintained. those realities, annihilation their doubtof or ordestruction to people lead beliefs couldinfectious enough, fearedfools, wereor as utopians as orrebellious, denounced dangerous whose ‘imaginary’ world did not belong toreality, buthe wished itexisted.Thus, frequently 52 contrast between the between contrast the is where That world. own his build to then only and functional, the from moral the forsearch pleasures. hadlookdeepinto The utopian author to his ownsociety divideand to muchreaders. Any aimed more atjustwriter than utopian toentertain publicinitsthe imagination authorof the which shares hisvisions and viewsofhis own withtime his literary constructive a remains still it it, from apart or reality to in contrast is written utopia interpenetration of these modes of ideological of activity.” modes of interpenetration these ‘fantastic’ motives in novelsutopian it “[…] would still be stupid todeny historicalthe and its particularly structure obviousinto the utopian shapeas the venture, even despite and seetheinfluence help intellectual utopia. This broughtwill has to which this climate A.Kolnai, Consequently,leaving thesubjectivism utopian the of letgenre aside, usconsider the The Utopian Mentality real and the and . It is now possible to declare that exactly these features are , 155. the widescale of changes, , and also the invented took place. The author accepted the fact that his that fact the accepted place. The author took 29 stability ofthis new order inanon-existent or th century and until the end of the 18 the of end the until and century their 52 Despite some debates whether debates Despite some complete penetration intothe th . CEU eTD Collection Political Thinkers 57 56 55 54 (Fontana Press, 1996), 119. utopia controlled of was“of passions, equality patriotism,and justice” discipline, happiness becamethe goal and if ultimate narrativespreviously exactly enlightened utopian these historical mostsimply reality. denial of where In of were suggestions the the 18 53 getting moreand moreindividualistic andpassionate. the first half theof century” beyond circlescarried towhichit the Enlightenment had sophisticated the beenconfinedin Rousseau had“[…] However, after domains. fictionsutopian remainedinthe unreachable it in Paris.” it andwork heplaced at already it of as the process a historical outcome he presented because unobtainable,” JudithN. Shklar, “The Political Theory of Utopia: From Melancholy to Nostalgia,” in Ibid., 115. R. Darnton, I am referring here to here referring am I R. Darnton, “Utopian Fantasy”, in R. Darnton, th century utopias became common and shared, as contrasting to the early-modern early-modern texts, the as contrasting to and shared, becamecommon utopias century 55 Utopian Fantasy, On the British Islands there was no such utopia created – all of the literary 53 , ed. Stanley Hoffman(University of Chicago Press, 1998), 180. Mercier took another path. He created autopia Hecreated another path. took Mercier The Year 2440 120. 56 the theme of moral indignation and practical improvements in (1771) by Louis-SébastienMercier. The Forbidden Best-Sellers ofPre-Revolutionary France 30 54 that was “[…] inevitable, thatwas“[…] Political Thought and 57 now it is CEU eTD Collection Eighteenth Century 62 1983), 60. 61 Revised in 1814 60 59 andcruelty, aclamorous riots.” press,intermittent abusive and furniture, and sometimesin manners went handin hand with widespread callousness and livedin inasociety Britain in which eighteenth-century elegance architecture, paradoxical went handin hand with beginningsthe of industrial “therevolution, people of the differenteconomies oflocal markets.In ambiguousera,whenthis population the growth according to commercial growth in his in growth commercial to according progress historical modeled has Robertson William (as time the of realities commercial sense.” in theordinary commerce maintained by the system of public credit and capital flow that was now seen as essential butone andcommerce, in trade notmerelydenote engaged one “had come to society’ to and 58 1.2. Eighteenth Century England: Enlightenment, People, Utopia. People, Enlightenment, England: Century 1.2. Eighteenth J.G.A. Pocock, William B. Willcox, Walter L. Arnstein, Walter Willcox, B. William Ibid. F. Venturi, Anecdotes of the Life of Richard Watson, Bishop of Landaff, Written by Himself in Different Intervals and philosophes The eighteenth century, before becoming the century of enlightened regimes, kings regimes, enlightened of century the becoming before century, The eighteenth Utopia andReform in theEnlightenment (London,Published T.Cadell W.Davies,and Strand, 1818), 193-194. Virtue, Commerce andHistory. Essays on Political Thought andHistory Chiefly in the (Cambridge University Press,1985), 174. , witnessed socially and politically different and variable states as well as Religious and moral problems were giving way to political and social ones. It was the period of period was the It 62 The Age of Aristocracy, 1688-1830 Even history began to be written with regard to these to regard with be written to began history Even Encyclopedie Philosophic system theexperimentation system to place Philosophic gives History of the Reign of Charles V the Reign of History of Legal problems were giving way to economic ones. 31 (Cambridge University Press, 1971), 120. There was neither Whiggism nor Toryism left; Toryism nor Whiggism neither was There and Pyrrhonism to a new faith in nature. in faith a new to Pyrrhonism and , philosophes excess of riches, and excess of of taxes, excess riches, and of excess had universal introduced Selfism. combined with combined luxury,excesswith of and the and 61 (D.C. Heath and Company, The phrase ‘commercial The phrase republic of letters republic of , 1769). The rise of . 59 60 58 CEU eTD Collection 65 64 Eighteenth Century 63 depraved human race were visionary and hopeless.” and visionary were human race depraved in 18 the utopias English place will and etc, individualism science, rational arising trade, commerce, social values, virtues and philosophies. families.” ancient most the and birth highest the of those gentlemen, statesmen, parliament-men, privy judges,councilors, bishops, and noblemen as leastbe atgentlemen their asgood tradesmen’s the come[…] or grandchildren, children, to nation England […]haspeopled this with “Trade in followingDaniel Defoe in words: the these andfurther their by patterns connection social improvementwas noted to and progress were thrown within the boundariesconverted into love of his fellow social beings.” of the terms ‘commerce’be might man’s lovehimself of how displayed which systems newbe ethical erected might and there foundation ‘trade’. this on and sympathy, and inter-dependence, exchange, Theconsumption, influence and of production for capacity human the enhanced vastly “had century in this commerce European society in the seventeenth century had gone so far as England through the fires of fires the through England as far so gone had century seventeenth inthe society European later writers [ viciousthe bloody commercial andthe Cromwellrivalries, erainEnglandconvinced the France Sweden, and of wars nationalistic the Counter-Reformation, and Reformation as the in 18 was re-evaluated the followingthe chapters. civility developsociability and will help the discourseaboutto that the ‘science man’ in of J.W. Johnson, J.W. Cited by William B. Willcox, Walter L. Arnstein, in J.G.A. Pocock, In this chapter I will examine the main issues of the English Enlightenment, such as such Enlightenment, English the of issues main the examine will I chapter this In The renaissance faith in the outstanding human capacities of Englishmen in of particular, Englishmen human capacities in outstanding faith the The renaissance th century features Alsoas century discourse. this Iwill such within outline politeness, writersthe 18 of Utopian Literature. A Selection Virtue, Commerce andHistory. Essays on Political Thought andHistory Chiefly in the , 147. th century: “Such sixteenth- and seventeenth-century phenomena seventeenth-century and sixteenth- “Such century: th century (ModernLibrary, New York, 1968), 192. – T.O.] that all schemes for perfecting a basically a perfecting for schemes all that –T.O.] 32 The Ageof Aristocracy, 1688-1830 63 Basically, economy, state and people state Basically, economy, 65 It is essential to remember that no 64 This was the age of new the ageof Thiswasthe , 76. CEU eTD Collection 68 Cambridge University Press, 1981), 1. 67 66 opinion as the pure crystal of Enlightenment” of crystal opinion thepure as 18 hand, one the On age, asEnlightenment. of such outlined, Modern inthe to paradigm especially relation and toacertain improvement ‘freeing’degree the andsecularization of thought. of theories new of empiricism in particular), society its of life in Church of role Enlightenment, asutility thinkingandre-evaluation ideas,critical philosophical of (of the of elements such introduced England notions these with Together Freemasonry. philosophicsuch as realms, free-thinking,deism, pantheism, perhaps and even “public are andprivate efforts directed with so much assiduity, energy, ability and towards asociety, existed where had there that scarcely – people acknowledged Enlightenment investment of better capital labour.” and spoken of is the freedom of trade. Equality concerns property and taxes. Justice consists of a time in the 18 same the At Hume. David and Smith Adam Defoe, Daniel Richardson, Samuel Priestley, be considered as‘sterile’ with only separate bright blazes – works of such authors as Joseph can Enlightenment hand,English other inheritance.be Onthe for the acanon to considered which accompanied all the later European revolutions” which laterEuropean the all accompanied same time “[…] the English revolution did notcause that surge ideologyof on the continent the at However, revolution. the of years in the movement puritan to due Englishmen the institutions.The governing concept of ‘ideal’ had itsforlost meaningtherefore considerably the on assault revolutionary a generate could it how clearly so seen or enthusiasm, religious F. Venturi, R. Porter, “The Enlightenment in England,” F. Venturi, England of 18 the Utopia andReform in theEnlightenment Utopia andReform in theEnlightenment th century “the Englandmen learnedwhile century freedom about agreedthat talking th century thinkers of all nations “revered English Government, society and society Government, English “revered nations all of thinkers century th century appears to have contradictory image that is not yetis not that image have contradictory to appears century in The Enlightenment inNational Context 68 33 , 124. , 49. Even in France – the capital of European 67 and English religious tolerance was 66 but contributed to the continental the to contributed but (Cambridge, CEU eTD Collection 71 70 69 free-thinkers; all these terms express only half theof truth. Onemight consider them,with a high lowand whigs, old andnew whigs, real republican fringewhigs, of whigs,the deists, makersforeign inof policy EnglandThis is andEurope. why aredifficultdefine:they to Locke,Newton Spinoza, with which those being inwere debated andparliament by the unite andblend,sometimes in form, aviolent andunexpected theproblemsinheritedfrom They diplomats. or aspoliticians only not and philosophers, as themselves saw men These carried beyondthem issues the general away specific problemsto freedom. of andreligion […] constantly which commitment, emotional and intellectual strong a problems these ranging from the problem of the standing army to the Protestant succession. They brought to state. By to the presence of the presence of to the with FrancoVenturi Enlightenment onthisregard defines works subject. historiographical definition and mode of evolution. many spheres of social and political lifemakes that itimpossible bring to toone unique was a self-assured phenomenon which not integral was and monolithic, andappeared intoo religionforprescriptions and true government.” speak with by ideological ofasociety was possible to confidence competing driven that isit decades, ofthe Revolutionary inversions intellectual and a result social of profound the inwords of as “inare self-explanatory:Justin sucha 1660, Champion Englandafter context The Empire. the of dominance further and society commercial modern a of establishment after the andChurch State betweenthe relations inadjusting of sense the Conservative ‘dizziness’. shocks ofsocial” the civil Enlightenment war and crisis was in a wayof theconservative 17 too, with certain features of clerical the improvement of improvementthe of andprivatecondition”public and GreatBritain of introduced 18 the J. Champion, J. Ibid., 124. Ibid., 5. not “who active were indiscussion strugglesand inthe of political day,onissues the However, Iwould like to outline following its main features the most notable “constitutional, political, religious, or cultural.” or religious, political, “constitutional, philosophes Irreligion and English Enlightenment, 1648-1789 he means “a group of men” and hemeans “aof group that“cametogether” philosophes in each particular society and the political tradition of the th century within the concepts of “economic and social” 34 71 Consequently, the English Consequently, Enlightenment the 69 as the English. Therefore learned men learned Therefore English. asthe (University of London, 1992), ii. th 70 century, that resulted in the The English “economic and “economic English The CEU eTD Collection (Cambridge University 1999),Press, 15. 75 74 ɋ 73 so-called ‘high-churchmen’ and so-called ‘latitudinarians’, who had found it possible to possible it found had who ‘latitudinarians’, so-called and ‘high-churchmen’ so-called between the conflicts frequent the despite even and spirit Enlightenment secular the about 72 state.” the from body distinct be amystical to Church the declared they that sense the in Churchmen High concede, us let were, clerics to be found among the clergy from Enlightenmentin 1660s–“[…]the beginningsofEnlightenment[…] the England are of the Church of from ‘Enlightenment Pococksuggests tobegin Furthermore, above’. the English England restored in class”).” struggle without 1660. Some of these “class the course, of modern (hence, profoundly and be traditional relatively to contrived aristocraticEnlightenmentinstrument was groups, of the and ruling which clerical, “[…] English ‘a philosophicalvanguardsolution – tothis of problem–absence his offers Pocock dawn and dusk.Yet, Enlightenment the witnessed and experienced that it of from countries should beexcluded range and therefore party the such anintellectual giftednot with view,was in Venturi’s England, never environment. formedcohesive and a interregnum.” incalamitous breakdown years sovereignty and governing order of and the of civil war the of memory the bury to way only the offered church governed royally a of authority “[…] nobility, gentry and clergy were convincedthat the restoration maintenanceand of the attitude towards uniquethe of Churchthe particularly character 1688, of England after when grips with politicalthe problems of their age. slightrisk of exaggeration, group astheof first Enlightened intellectuals and at philosophers J.G.A. Pocock, J.G.A. Pocock, J.G.A. Pocock, F. Venturi, ambridge University 1995),Press, 529. This party This party of Utopia andReform in theEnlightenment 75 Barbarism and Religion. Vol. 1.The Enlightenments of Edward Gibbon,1737-1764 Clergyand Commerce. TheConservative Enlightenment in England Clergyand Commerce. TheConservative Enlightenment in England So, the church remained important, contrary widespread the contrary important, persuasion to church So,the remained philosophes 73 Consequently, the result of Consequently, isideaof result the solution an about this was neither intellectually, nor sociologically a unified group aunified sociologically nor intellectually, neither was 72 35 , 52-53. 74 In this context it is important to stress the stress to important is it context this In , 530-531. , ed. D. Ajello CEU eTD Collection ‘manners’ were the were ‘manners’ other individuals. This by preservation, because hebeing sociable was excludedany being by possibility harmed of the discourse of predicament.” thehuman the of view commercialEnlightenment age. The words “Sociability identified the by fastened ascentral was 1688. to of constitution the ‘morals’ and aude observed “Manneris all,in itiseverything; bymanner only youthat can andplease, ingenuousness No. 3,September2006: 357-371, 360. theories of Locke); to the to Locke); of theories 77 Press, 2005), 8. English society.the to known well were ItEnlightenment the of wasprinciples important most the usedall argues, to the sense of 76 existence of the next.” regard for non- existence the without or Enlightenmentbetterment world,“[…]this of – to society beneficial and nature in human inherent be seen to became it because nature, human about – to from discourse self-denial the excludedthat of self-fulfillment pattern to the contributed be self-sufficient.happiness, which notwas explained inhedonistic notions more.any Also, latitudinarianism inof happiness starting the 18 newconcept of the point is futureheavenly a joysin rewards. This harmonious whichearthly universe guaranteed And thatinfluential was trendone both conform before and 1660.Anglican after Latitudinarianism, which within an was quite of the thepolite society,preoccupations presented a benevolent God as the authorof ofthe a the concepts of concepts the László Kontler, “What is the (Historians’) Enlightenment Today?” in John Robertson, John . Moreover, all of . Moreover,all including this, of tolerance religious and of property,privacy was In such a society, where individualism began to be appreciated andbe commerce praised, appreciated individualismIn such where began to a society, ; to the idea that knowledge gives credit to progress; to the claim of claim the progress; to to credit gives knowledge idea that the ; to clever The Case for the Enlightenment. Scotland and Naples, 1680-1760 diminutives , 76 polite and law social of of age.Asthe Lord Chesterfieldcleverly (1694-1773) , freedom became the key issues. In fact, as researcher Pocock 36 and good 77 and the importance of Sociability of a citizen aimed at self- justice ; to European Review Historyof th century century – individualearthly happiness (Cambridge University experience , humanity . Vol. 13, sapere (after and CEU eTD Collection 80 79 78 for amusement, social emulation, the pursuit of taste, novelty and fashion.” aspirations share Enlightenment wereableto “[…]Many society. Englishmen secularized all, where be wereopenedfor akind paradise’, gardens. England appearedto whereall of ‘lost doors everybody tolerance” and liberty humanity, “reason, could get education and find a place in its commercialized and enlightened era. enlightened limits of a society which was acquiring more and more features of features more andmore of limits which wasacquiring a society primary of each andobjectives everyone wassaving social of the within the existingorder in the minds of of the ‘unsocial sociability’ as referred earlier and these theories found their place not only boundariesthe of 18 the within co-operation and bytheiralso State, inindividual this each particular andof society Wesley, Blake, were preoccupied not with the problems of the State, but with the necessities Swift, as such Englishmen, Basically, religion’. and ‘science society’, and ‘individual in the century,of England there was soul’, end‘body the especially againsttowards and darkness’ against ‘light of terms the in be seen could everything Continent the on While 18 the Britain of However, century. the result of absence of discipline and subordination in English society during the previous politeness, as shown in Addison’s rise” consequently supporters forsupporters theirideas, English phenomenon – while continental intellectuals were writing treatises and tried toattract more pragmatic mentioned utility of notions and ideas.Thiscanbelooked as an exclusive R. Porter, John Robertson, John William B. Willcox, Walter L. Arnstein, Walter Willcox, B. William Therefore the distinguishing feature of infeature of Therefore the England became the distinguishing Enlightenmentthe The Enlightenment in England The Case for the Enlightenment. Scotland and Naples philosophes 78 and many people were thinking in terms of education, virtues and and in thinkingmany virtues terms of were people education, th century. This was a reach soil for the applications of the theories and their treatises on human nature, but also in utopias of the of in utopias also but nature, human on treatises their and Spectator , 12. The Age of Aristocracy, 1688-1830 th century cannot be perceived in contradictory notions. philosophes . 79 37 were creating orphanages and cultivating and orphanages creating were , who were sharing common notions of notions common sharing were who , , 1680-1760, 2. , 83. individualism 80 One of the . This was CEU eTD Collection Enlightenment could offer utility of philosophical ideas, an empirical application of new of application empirical an ideas, philosophical of utility offer could Enlightenment limited by agrarian laws.” or in common held is property where regimes, imperfect still if normally virtuous and often “[…] well-ordered portray indistinctively whichsuchideaswereexpressedworks, ideas extraordinary societiesmodels non-existentwere popular. These progress and of of 82 from the Annual Symposium of the Australian Academyof theHumanities 81 within the patterns of a heap of works to every taste, both literary and political.They started a range newof topics epoch of Enlightenment (utopia isnoteven mentioned in work which could be similar to the More’s tothe be similar which work could 18 fact that the Despite salons. public of of encourage discussions ladiesmainwhich toentertain purpose andto among the was the novels popular mainly were They revolution. of ideas the by bothered extent a lesser to author” incorporating beliefs the of positive ideal of state, “fictional an creations utopias are lives. Literally literary their were given states and societies where ideal visions, ‘dreamers’ so-called also and moral treatises accounts, of traveler theparadigms viewed through end of 17 the of Most of the works utopian published future. the nearest inmoreof the a humanesociety against the evil political systems of of countriesthe and addedtheshade of hope forming for andlater utopian went develop authors on to theme, this in andtheirthey works argued first stated the main principle of the utopia – its orientation against the English state system, state and society, or offer their own suggestions for improvement. It was Thomas More who G. Claeys, A. Stephens, “The SunState and Its Shadow. On the Conditionof UtopianWriting,” in Great Britain in no way fell abreast of these tendencies, quite on the contrary, the contrary, the on quite tendencies, these of abreast fell way no in Britain Great Generally speakingGenerally 18 the 81 in which authors express their personal views, very often satirical, concerning Utopiasof theBritish Enlightenment th and of the 18 perfection 82 As it was already mentioned above, England in the times of times in the England above, mentioned already was it As th centuries in noway were preoccupied with reforms and even th and century, both in the Continent and in the Kingdom, can be can Kingdom, in the and Continent inthe both century, happiness th century did not manage to create any fundamental (Cambridge University Press, 1994),Vii. Utopia 38 . and which would be associated with the with be associated would which and Encyclopédie , ed. Eugene Kamenka, 1. !); we still can enjoy can still we !); Utopias. Papers CEU eTD Collection 85 84 utopian discourse of the Enlightenment. the needs of every individual will be satisfied. Therefore, the visions of progressidealistic were visions important – they forbegan to the believe that utopia has future and aims at absolute happiness at the end futurewhen of mankind. Here it is worth saying that utopian writers of this period wentowntime muchas furtherthe highest point in their of the historical development and did not go further in their reflections about the 83 its strength: its marking worth from sources the some of which utopian thought of Enlightenment took the 18 ofthe ideas utopian of thepractical application concerning dispute a is there Still application. their for field a wonderful also and improvement of theories existing social imperfections, rather than to recommend a superior regime.” lampoon “[…] widespreadformat ofthe utopian the primarily consider researchers use to Moon; the to voyages the into even was notalways similar oneof tothe Britain andwhich in the form of utopias could develop tradition. In fact exactly exactly facttradition. basic perfectibility then the – the In ideas ofEnlightenmentthe of in state society. the present improved of 18 the travel accounts mirrored and some political systems alternative social, of organizations author, or cultural suggested each of ideal the achieving for hopes ideasand personal andexpressed character literary a more had others changes; constitutional suggested which treatises political as written them were of some be their differences: would Englishthe utopias of feature characteristic as such that existed only on the level of a few satiric works, like on moral development of the humanity; whichoriginated, be tothe attributed scientificcan and novelties knowledge programmed a scientific and technical revolution of end of the 18 such shortcomings of society, as corruption and religious skepticism. of Also provoked commerce anideathatgrowth productivity. organization and agrarian G. Claeys, Classification is based on the articles of Gregory Claeys. their perceived They thinkers. Enlightenment by the seen as of progress idea the clarify to is necessary It - - - The French Revolution became a key moment of the Enlightenment and all utopian The genre of utopian literature in literature The 18 utopian of genre Utopiasof theBritish Enlightenment Popular descriptions of travels to the new lands, the social structure of social structure the which newlands, the of to travels Popular descriptions The growth of the importance scienceof and technology, especially in the eve of Sense of poverty, which was decided to substitute with better economic th century. Though all kinds ‘offered’ a better and better a ‘offered’ kinds all Though century. 83 , Vii. th century longfor considered a was time England century 39 th century. Here also the idea of idea of progress the also Here century. Gulliver Travels 84 th century texts. It is . Some . 85 The CEU eTD Collection 86 appeared regardless of their middle 17 the of color of skin and political be alreadyfrom the beganto actively debated discussed. of gender equality The question prejudice, and afterwards it had an dying. special authors’ interest: sexual relations, freedom of body, death and attitudes toward the in of circle the included isalso moral practice sermons. Private at attendance regular in acommune, help mutual ethics, civil punishments), capital of application harsher the on is concentrated attention of lawparticular, the improvements system (in medical practices, effective life, ideal of asapicture domestic attached are subjects gradually such everyday state, the critique of of theme overall the in To society. genderorders change of or society, time for thinking.” the living aswellbase highthinking, for one needsas that resource even have agood so asto in forgo plain do them of whilesome and places, materialistic large, are by and utopias, discourse, which I put myself aside from. hereis 1793, chronological point far beyond andthough frames timeofresearch, the particular this is 1789 of watershed the However, reflect on. to same at the permissible but time achieve to impossible was which paradigm unattainable and impracticable an of limits in the remain changes had tobegradual, andformoderate peaceful utopiansand an ideal hadsociety to for changes: rapid and fundamental of possibility in the believed utopians human being idealsocial and Untilorganization – intersected. 1789 neither institutes of importance power, mind of knowledgeand idea the and utopian anideal about O.H.K. Spate, Very often the rights of women in marriage and their visions of divorce were directly were divorce of visions their and marriage in women of rights the often Very However, despite its intellectual highly and contents “[…] philosophical aspirations, The Pacific. Home of Utopias th century. The problem of the emancipation of in emancipation the problem 18 of women century. The of the 86 Thus some utopias were discussing the reformation of morals of de jure , 22. it has nothing in common with revolutionary with in common nothing has it 40 de facto philosophes philosophes the high th century nor CEU eTD Collection Hof, (1732) and 87 ‘competition, militancy’. authorof and cruelty female The offeredutopia model the of women beappeared tothe ofmoralityunique source in the masculine world of World firstthe proto-feminist such works, as unreal, but alsoin the political sphere began beto propagated; however at that time such ideas were marquisde Caritat, Theequalitywomen de Condorcet. men notof and in only theprivate Nicolas JeanAntoine Marie of influence underthe especially moreheated, became slaves, concerning the rights for women, which quite often was compared tothe rights ofbarbarous ladies.inaccessiblefor Beginning half from second the of 18 the were spheres political the and public the both practically However, men. than affairs state thanworse men.” not business conduct and seats their take could husbands their of absence the “in often quite and translations, andmore arts, world view andhadbroader to more inrelation talented educated, be far appearedto beeconomic small began for responsible transactions, They children. to theirengage ability inmoreto global thanthings, simply gardening andeducation of only one –family. sphere thevery within limits of lotof proved However,often a women herself express her allows to feature psychological this and inheractions less accurate and thought unable critically many to consider asshe situations, agreat wasfarmore emotional interpretation,was awoman account this into Taking biological descriptions. according to knowledge that all humans were reasonable human beings, but their capacities differed was acommon It herselfwasthehousehold. express woman independently could influence on the public sphere of the Enlightenment. Until recently the only place, where a U. Im Hof, “The Debate on the Role of Women: On the Way to the Emancipation of Women,” The Enlightenment by Margaret Cavendish byMargaret (1666), utopian The Civil Advancement of Women of The CivilAdvancement . These first attempts to illuminate the rights of women had their results. In (BlackwellPublishers, 2000), 248. The Description of a New The Description of World, Calledthe Blazing A Description of the Millenium Hall A Description of 87 Women also sometimes were more educated in educated more were sometimes also Women 41 by Theodor Gottlieb von byTheodor Hippel (1792), th century debates century by Scott Sara in U. Im CEU eTD Collection 90 89 history notas the history of monarchs, but as the study of the actions of all mankind. natural tothephilosophy study formof mathematics, and physics and to an approach to 88 18 of the thisFor reason professors societies.” andmatter of scientific salons themes were the of widerliterature critical the lectures as as of aform Discussions and textbooks, a basiccanon, examinations. of disputes the middle of the 18 haveissues werebusywith researchers and did not Until muchtime fortheirother change. in England, were ancient partly due to the fact that practically half a century professors and stormy account the 17 into taking The universities’ programs, lawyersand doctors. prevail whole the of during course producepriests,studies, anduniversities continued to that “scopes, set by thethe Enlightenment. Enlighteners began ancientto argue against the slogan, which was tested by ages philosophers, should not be moved.”neighbors and to enrich their architecture with the help of the knowledge of ancient Greeks. with commerce and administration state their improve to them helped men-animals, medicinestudying of and natural history.A woman in found this herself who utopia, among 1666 showed both an aspiration for sciences and of work her in already a Cavendish desireMargaret from knowledge. deterred they were fact that to reform society by the thewith up put means to wish not did women of But improvement. moral for pre-condition be a could whichcouldintellectual helplonelinessexercise boredom, andalso to overcome women be educated. laissez-faire attitudes and the political cruelty men,of andin order to attain it women had to common possibilities for “women, poor and sick”. Ibid., 207. U.Im Hof, “Education, Schools Popular and Enlightenment,” U.inIm Hof, A.Johns, The discourse about the reform of education was also one of the basic achievements of Previously men perceived the knowledge given to women to be nothing else but an Women’s Utopias of the Eighteenth Century th century century process of the studies resembledlike “prescribed something th century begin to re-evaluate the school program, add program, school the re-evaluate to begin century 42 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press,2003), 2. 88 This morality was higher than all public all than higher was morality This The Enlightenment 89 Latin continued to , 206. th century 90 CEU eTD Collection being, with a stresson“the equality mankind anduniversalof charity.” and last but citizen, every of virtues notindividual the to leastreference (2) order, economic and political ideal (3) the Christian tradition concerning the society of a general well- 93 92 commonly, of animals all butespecially kinds, beasts of burden.” women,propertiedlabourers, foreigners, malesto children,very slaves, white and, early history of radical and liberal humanitarianism, and of the extension of rights from Therefore, in the opinionpeoples, asutopians still nativesaw ahumane attitude towards populations possible. of Gregory Claeys, “many colonized the to references bold werecontained texts of such utopian Most penalty.death such texts can be read as account onits Rife, Establishment and Buildings part of the Sketch ofthemethodteachingScienceandReligion,in theseveral Classes: andsome appetites, they newly envisaged man as a creature sensibly programmed by nature to seek nature to by sensibly a newlyprogrammed man as they creature envisaged appetites, “Replacing the moralizingold vision man of beingas a rational threatenedbybrutish advancement” and therefore to stimulate the economy by encouraginghuman to “aids consumption. as seen be to began they light: different in a put were vices human paradigm Enlightenment the within Exactly organizations. social better and personalities human environmentin which he lived” for for understanding analyzing humannature, manasa being,sociable natural and the 91 18 features of importantmost of utopias the English manners that country of work deism, religion the of Enlightenment, denied isslavery (this aspect especiallycrucial in the R. Porter, Ibid., Xviii. G. Claeys, While the Enlightenment was “aiming to put human intelligence to use as put engine human intelligence“aiming to an While Enlightenmentwas to the Also some utopias about distant islands, focusing on moral perfection, praised English A VoyagetoCacklogallinia, with ofthe religion, adescription policy, customs and The Enlightenment Utopiasof theBritish Enlightenment (1727) and in (MacmillanPress, 1990), 3. 93 utopia provided publicminds with visionsthe of perfect A GeneralIdeaofthe College ofMirania; with a , Xvi. 43 and(1753) demanded theabolition of the th century were (1) an endeavor for the for endeavor an (1) were century 91 Generally speaking, the speaking, Generally 92 CEU eTD Collection 97 96 (Oxford University Press, 2006). refusal acceptto the social reality. Having outlined the narrative of the 18 95 94 ‘independence’ and‘corruption’ and aswe shall see, ahuman corruption. as beformed begin suchconcepts, around to andpolitical discourse economic connotations 18 the of end the Till in them. expressed army permanent of with presence the and dissatisfaction state and society the between ideas of balance the Such of duetothe often politicalworks (1656). were becoming discussions, objects the particular from particular inexpressed those development in Those ideas the of thatcontained wasformulated conscience, utopias this work. ideal society which imaginary inducesthedevelopmentindividual and of power, ‘individualistic utopia’, simplicity.Travels The next workmock the present public or political life. Abright example of such work is a text of that influenced whodidbelieveauthors, not rather best inthe triedestablishing of orders possibility to reality”. social of “rejection the for strove theevidently formationAll economic,these social and moral shifts inducedpeople worksinto write which they of a utopian hand’.” ‘invisible tradition‘public a legislator benefits’ to – Mandeville looked effectthem,to an Smith for his to part was an vices’beget ‘private would suggesting wasthus that “Mandeville before andSmith, Hume passions’ and therefore the rules of morality are not conclusions of our reason. our of conclusions not are morality of rules the therefore and passions’ avoidpleasure and to pain.” J.C. Davis, R. Porter, Jonathan Israel, Jonathan R. Porter, Enthusiastic authors of of 18 Enthusiastic authors by Jonathan Swift– abrilliant (1726) ‘manifesto’ desirebackgoto the to to original Enlightenment. Britain and the Creation of the ModernWorld The Enlightenment Utopia and theIdeal Society: inSearch ofDefinition of ideal of theirfrom beginnings societies took in republican the theories, Enlightenment Contested. Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of man 1670-1752 96 It became a common sense that selfishness produced social harmony. Robinson Crusoe (MacmillanPress, 1990), 19. 94 David Humeinhis time ‘reason suggested that was a slave to th century century frequentlyutopias were accused of stubborn The Commonwealth ofOceana The Commonwealth (1719)byDaniel Defoe. Theidea of organizedthe 44 97 Skeptics, meaning Skeptics, the satirical utopian , 12. th century century acquire began utopias to (The Penguin Press, 2000), 175. by James Harrington th century Britain I Gulliver 95 Long CEU eTD Collection way in which respondedutopia willbe in shown nextchapter.the man was newof of the and the century science the It social organizations. morally perfect creating by – way own its in them to contradicted and novelties these all absorbed century Utopia of and 18 constitutional the property social reforms. private and deep-seated cruelty, selfishness, individual and needs, discourses with achieving aboutpreoccupation of the small party of in liberal about‘spontaneousorder’ opinions society the new religion of guidanceunder the of was reality It the want toaccept. not did they reality kindsocial of what can conclude philosophes . The period of reason and politeness together with 45 th CEU eTD Collection Mary Wollstonecraft and became know as proto-anarchist of his time. his of 101 proto-anarchist as know became and Wollstonecraft Mary 100 99 (London: Routledge,1870), 225-226. 98 Science of Man: TheChallenges of ‘Unsocial Sociability’ Chapter II: Eighteenth Century Utopianism and the brings point the establishwhen us in to to desire the perfection aprofoundly practical utopia iscalledan ‘ideology of and the utopian are‘social order’, itauthors engineers’, suppressinghuman weaknesses and cruelty in ageof the commerce and sociability. if So, of method by or inthe in future, the past the andnot now, be created can society a more perfect thatpresumed that intellectuals ideas of of in range English resulted the 16 of the that to contrary engineering, hopeless. beginningthe of 18 the of intellectuals Indeed, exaltations, puritanical and rivalries political tumultuous After Revolution. therechanges Protectorate, Restoration the War,Cromwell’s Civil during and Glorious were and crucial attacks underwent and society boundedtogether patterns these obligation – all reasons and by17 shaken society was between state the for that. Thus, a more precise utopian social Ibid., 3. Alexander Pope, Alexander Thomas Northmore, Thomas William Godwin (3 March 1756 – 7 April 1836) was an English journalist and novelist. Was married to Belief in human’s natural capacity for social harmony and forpreserving the contract An Essay on Man Memoirs of Planetes, or a Sketch of the Laws andManners of Makar (1795) th century began seeto human race as basically depraved, vicious and “It is a well-known principle of morality, says Mr. Godwin, Mr. says morality, of principle well-known is a “It (1733-1744), reproduced in though though he will inevitably fall short of hewhat pursues, th who is contented to aim only at what is imperfect.” century, had to be put on wheels.the approach had tobeputon This century, “Thus God and Nature “Thus GodandNature Linked General Frame the And Bade Self-love and Social Be the Same.” 46 that he, who proposes perfection to himself, “The Proper Study of Mankind is Man”. will will rapidhe, than make amore progress th century. Customs, virtues, honor, Poetical Works , ed. H. F. Cary , Vii. 101 100 99 98 CEU eTD Collection 103 Vol.1, Xv. 102 absorption of self-preservation.in an Lamb argues, as Jonathan which results, ‘necessary ignorance’ to hisnotion of It may beBernardWedecline). Mandeville(or and and improvement canreferhereinterest public to said then that the theoryno sequence and between norelation andpublicprivate no affairs, between relation private of preservationstate of ofthings as thethe result of past actions,present the they consider simply cannot they can where become and perform confused they actions of – theyoutcome the see can seecannot self-restraint. rational and passion indulgence of the 104 constitutive benefit.” as well a athreat as indicated of association purpose andsole motive seen as“the was and Defoe Locke ofas in thinkers such works the Self-preservation whole society. the self-preservation ground of mutualtheir departingdispersion, or from them each other.They believed that reflecting over this self problem of either connectingof the Enlightenment these era.two Theroles resultindividuals that had helpto creatingof amore sociable of and benevolent the communityall in the terms theindividual transformation uponindiscussedmoral,on andspeculated utopias, but issues and social religious of wasthe the debate were visions overscientific or technological not because Smith), Hume, Mandeville, (by use this stage treatises moralof philosophy of firstthe half theof 18 At individualism. and civility justice, social maintain to tried utopia order, for wish lasting century somethingalso brought essence elsetothe of utopian visions.form Apart long-the was expressed in one of the best-selling genre of the 18 society (such as Britain in the age of Enlightenment was Jonathan Lamb, Jonathan Ibid., 25. Modern British Utopias, 1700-1850 and social self Preserving the Self in the South Seas, 1680-1840 was the mostimportant original law that contributed to the maintenance of . David Hume, John Locke, Daniel Defoe, Bernard Mandeville were Mandeville Bernard Daniel Defoe, John . David Locke, Hume, 103 John Locke sees self-preservation as the result of struggle between struggle of the result as self-preservation sees Locke John , 8 , Volumes, ed. by G. Clays (London: Pickering & Chatto, 1997), 47 th 104 102 century: utopias. However, the 18 (University of Chicago Press, 2001), 17. In circumstances where people where In circumstances ) was completely acceptable, asit acceptable, ) wascompletely th century became of a great solitary th CEU eTD Collection 35. 107 Period 106 University Press, 1994), 20. 105 reflections upon ideain as awhole. Wecan thesociety asimilar for benefits Hume’s of trace the foreseeing Nations at Heidelberg at Nations von Pufendorf. The latter in 1662 occupied a Chair as Professor of the Law of Nature and of distinguishedin the thoughtof 17 approval of fellow-beings. individual socialwishes and which by actions promoted stability meansofseekingthe At the same timeit was suggested that self-love contributed socialto harmony by regulating Self-love wasbelieved be to apassion from which all werederiving others anddeveloping. and act onlyseek inwaysto believed best would they serve theirindividualinterests.” always would Persons […] temperaments inborn their by shaped were intensities individual shared bywhose “men were, andalwayswould commonly passions, be,driven their that became time of It the axiom an era. in Enlightenment the discourse of subject was the by motivated Exactlyself-interest. relationthis between self-interest and public outcomes are reality individual’s in the actions all because interests own one’s against voluntarily individual Man for Pufendorf is an “animal with an intense concern for his own preservation, needy by needy preservation, own his for concern intense an with “animal an is Pufendorf for Man own.” his loves man each and heads, are there as humors many as are there men among “[…] that law. claimed of He nature the and human nature of character the about – time that at air inthe already were ideas which hearticulated continent, the only on not appreciated work his In Enlightenment. Samuel Pufendorf, Samuel Basil Willey, Hundert, E.G. The endeavor of self-preservation as a central feature of human nature already nature feature of human asacentral of self-preservation The endeavor (London: Ark Paperbacks, 1986), 14. self The Eighteenth-Century Background: Studies on theIdea of Nature intheThought ofthe within the paradigms of honor, obligation and civil virtues results in a The Enlightenment’s Fable. Bernard Mandeville and theDiscovery of Society self-interest On the Duty of Man and Citizen 106 and made a lasting impact on the social theories of of the social theories the impact on lasting andmade a On the Duty of Man andCitizen On theDutyof . He argues that it is psychologically impossible to act th century suchas century philosophers, HugoGrotius Samuel and 48 , ed. James Tully (Cambridge University Press, 1991), (1672), which became highly (1672),which . (Cambridge 105 107 CEU eTD Collection 110 109 108 general and his own self-preservation in general and his particular. own self-preservation society itsand pursue laws, habits and and thiswill inresultof theprogress society in individualthe society:within ifman wants to achieve something, he should stay within hiswilling topreserve andpromote advantages.” given them are not they that for aplausiblebut becomerather even harming excuse him, goals, and interacts with individualsother using his human nature in the of society, or from habit, orfrom the authority of superiors. ideas is actions, is and of perception right what acquired general manner through the life of new Monarch, Queen Anne (1702-1714), and new philosophy of newAnnenew philosophyof men.“[…] Monarch, (1702-1714),and Queen of nature the sociality” human society” and everysociality man “ought of laws the are which laws natural the on tois based government dothe under and associety within much as he can to cultivate and preserve be to conclusion therefore is: in order to be safe in the social environment, it is necessaryinflict The andharm to easilywilling others. on aggressive, provoked “malicious, for him is man that emphasizes Pufendorf goals. or intentions his accomplish completely cannot he society very this from help the without that understands he However, society. the is for insearch for good himself alone andonlythenhe doesthink members aboutother of But the mutual ofbenefits.” provision himself,incapable of the help protection without his of fellows, andvery for fitted well the Ibid., 35. Samuel Pufendorf, Samuel Ibid. The calamities of the 17 andcollective its values by accepting society enters individual On the whole, the sociable good – “laws which teach one how to conduct oneself to become a useful member of 110 as by itdoing he preserveshimself. is This foundationthe of interaction the of here is completely a self-regarding category, in the sense that aman first of all ; that isconduct himself himself join men forces like ; thatandtowards to to with On the Duty of Man and Citizen th 108 century were over. Britain stepped into the new era with a with era new the into stepped Britain over. were century Thus, man appears to be dependant upon society hisbeupon andsociety man Thus, appears dependant to 49 , 35. 109 So,man’s andwell-beingexistence search good for . CEU eTD Collection 1983), 61. 111 in the found itsplace of vision Universe Newtonian nature. ofthe laws of vision his and of science concept the of explanation Newtonian the with cametogether rationalized philosophes reason. Nature was also reasonable; this was not an invention were expected to accumulate and to discern discern reasons accumulate and to to were expected was alreadyby upon politeness) that speculated andHobbes. Spinoza evidentself-preservation,truths (self-regard, sympathy benevolence, searchfor good, and in society in– they terms general through human axiomatic a setof definednature self- man of of nature and of the new theories developed thinkers century people. Eighteenth sociable and a commercial of development economic the for vices individual of importance of of in subjects governmentbyits the 18 the exhausted by got extremism.its wasabig This change intheconsciousness and perception of 17 the puritanical revolution the to as aresponse explained in 18 the subordination someto national master plan.” andindividual and in achievement politics war,trade, self-assertion thantoready popular population and in norarevolution mood industry. The of agethe wasmorefavorable to in explosion an nor overturn, a political neither witnessed century the of half first the Mandeville’s chef d'oeuvre chef Mandeville’s at the 30-s of the 18 place took that growth demographic slight by and also the warfare, great for the their people maintain hard to weretrying asrulers warfare of large scale tothe in theattitudes change happiness by guidance themselvesunderthe placing of Some thisgovernment. alsoattribute William B. Willcox, Walter L. Arnstein, Walter Willcox, B. William It was a common knowledge that humans were rational beings and it meant that they meant that it beingsand rational were humans that acommon knowledge It was th century people started obeying rather than resisting. This obedience can be can obedience This resisting. than rather obeying started people century . The beliefnature thatcan be explained andthattheindividual can be th century. From century. From philosophical of the view, point age this was by defined The Fable oftheBees The The Age of Aristocracy, 1688-1830 th 50 century definefor startedto century – they theirright 111 Consequently, previous the age, to contrary why (1714) wherehe the (1714) emphasized and th for century, as people already aspeople century, (D.C. Heath and Company, applying their sense of of the Enlightenment the of CEU eTD Collection by good.” personal identity, bent on the joint accomplishment of individual and social standards of sympathy, and the moral sense are the alleged attributes of a continuous andtaste, sociable “politeness, values human new of formation the of result the As everyone. for accessible – time same the at and everyone from required became acontext such in civility This requiredprocess civility and politeness.” order. political and of civil state warby the of state replacethe to how method for searched memory fanaticismking.idea“the– religious beheaded Therefore, Enlightenmentand a society of 18 whole.” the of that promoting thereby fact in is interest own his Mandeville. Moreover, such notions as c as notions such Moreover, Mandeville. 116 University Press, 1981), 14. 115 114 Period 113 1967), 25. 112 society” when society” and individual the between interest “‘natural’ for explanations for in search was philosophy fromuniverse and escape and ignorance barbarism the Gothicthe of centuries.” mysterious in a living of strain the from relief escape, and relief of sense a everywhere for new meets “One anew background reasoning: inof century provides a way particular relationships, andthe foundation of andpolitical economic institutions.” new science, a scienceunderstood, as he was part of ofthe same Nature. As a result, Enlightenmentman thinkers created a – “the study ofintroduced moreover idea Enlightenmentthe thatamancouldthinkers be (1739-1740). how man learns, humanintroduction the behavioral scienceto of David Hume inhis motivation, social Jonathan Lamb, Jonathan R. Porter, “The Enlightenment in England,” in Ibid., 94. Basil Willey, The Enlightenment. The Proper Study of Mankind philosophes , 1. 116 Yet, this tradition only started in the 18 th The Eighteenth-Century Background: Studies on theIdea of Nature intheThought ofthe who viewed sociability of a self in the 18 self-love century Britain. The civil war of the 17 Preserving the Self in the South Seas, 1680-1840 and social began “that beseenasone, manin began so to each following The Enlightenment inNational Context lever , ed. Nicholas Capaldi (Capricorn Books, New York, 51 115 , th Consequently, ethos of the andpoliteness social century century andbe only began popularized to and , 19. th century through the paradigm of th century century leftbehind an awful polite A TreatiseonHumanNature 114 framed the commercial the framed It is a clear reference to (Cambridge 112 113 Eighteenth This new CEU eTD Collection country country was standardthe model of utopianthe narratives especially in age,the when “the unknown and remote a to voyage The Smith. Adam and Hume David Mandeville, Bernard by ideas expressed of in the portray context the works society model utopian these of in 18 of the English utopias beginningchapter, the of the the at in thecitations as itwashinted organization, social the of and perfectibility the societies. of better visions Millenarian and Moral Commonwealth nowhere place and shifting it more to the edgeof the moreit to andshifting nowhere place changing the classic notionunintentional critique of their society own ‘architecting’while ideal morethe one,orby of utopia (in terms of theThomas Moreparticular and Francis man of to Bacon) science the of formulations and newapply ‘discoveries’ those wanted to Utopist as a man’. of ‘science the of conditions outcomes the to references introduced they time this in exactly of long before with 18 werepreoccupied utopians the Of patterns these course, their ownland specific ideal or place, technical humannatureinnovationsutopian butthe and society. place anditinbecamephilosophicala ofthe utopia main the textsaswell–not age, point treatises time. Quitecommunities. often As soon as thethis is exactly utopistswhat wereshowing, better say, or to in architecting, imaginedtheir theynature of manended was to be brought up up inby the social andpromoting civility and politeness amongindividuals. moral tosocialcontributed harmony by individual and therefore actions wishes and regulating self-love mentioned, withAs it him.was already together does society andthe he advances in needfor society couldthe that helphim his achieve goals. bybeing Therefore, sociable, individual,by preserving his andself-interest unsocial pleasure-seeking behavior, wasstill self-preservation and through the duty and obedience of a citizen in a community. Every The main task of this chapter is to explore the ideas about human nature, sociability nature, human about ideas explore the is to chapter this of The main task These were self-evident truths for the intellectuals of the first half of the century and century the of half first the of intellectuals the for truths self-evident were These 52 eutopia and Arcadia, and th century, and what particular eutopia th century,but and Perfect and CEU eTD Collection Defoe shows all the human vices and misfortunes in the real world and on the contrary he contrary the on and world real in the misfortunes and vices human the all shows Defoe philosophical of picture how ourworld functions looking from mentioning that this whole workis written from the satirical point of view. The author has a author(supposed Aratus, 1793). (1784) and in Libertusia,Both Sexes, intheWestern intheIslandofOceanPersons ofHighQuality, Air Balloon. ContainingtheCharacters and Secretthe MostConspicuous Memoirs of on itsRise,EstablishmentandBuildings andsomeaccount intheseveralthe methodofteachingScienceandReligion, Classes: of country policy, customswithreligion, andmannersofthat to Cacklogallinia, adescriptionofthe 118 117 Content: The Islandof or, A New DiscoveredParadise Consolidator theWorldSundry Transactions or,Memoirs from of intheMoon improvementare shownin utopias 18 the of imperfect regimes”. imperfect and if normally well-ordered still “very virtuous such ideas were expressed, portrayed often discoveries) and also the idea of knowledge as means for moral improvement. Works, where technical different to can be (that attributed idea for of the progress Here wecansearch importance of science and discovery, especially towards the second half of the 18 resources for utopian the ideais of improvementsocial be the consideredto growing supposed infiltration. of One theirthe field broad for and a improvement, of new theories Enlightenment could offer the utility of philosophical ideas, the empirical application of the market was redoubling the needs of navigation and fantasy.” andnavigation of theneeds was marketredoubling G. Claeys, Lamb, Jonathan To begin with Daniel Defoe’s ideas about the man in the Lunar Country it is worth is it Country Lunar the in man the about ideas Defoe’s Daniel with begin To (1727), in William (1727), Smith’s Utopiasof theBritish Enlightenment A Voyage to the Moon strongly recommended to all lovers of real freedom toallloversof A VoyagetotheMoonstronglyrecommended Preserving the Self in the South Seas, 1680-1840 118 I am going to look at how ideas of sociability, human nature and A General Idea of the College of Mirania; withthe CollegeofMirania; of aSketch A GeneralIdea (1753), in (1753), (Cambridge University Press, 1994),Vii. 53 th century, mainly in Daniel Defoe’s Daniel in mainly century, The Modern Atlantis: or the Devil inan Modern Atlantis:ortheDevil The (1709), in (1709), Samuel Brunt’s , 45. 117 The England in the age of World intheMoon (1705),in th A Voyage century. The . CEU eTD Collection 122 121 120 119 without Quota's, PrincesAllies,Allies andcomehe“Confederations without back where saw to and was planning without Armies,of 2 millionsArmies per year but they left the harbor once in 3 years. This was the world he livedwithout in Men,at rates the fitted out were andwhereships no licensed buttaxes wereraised contributions and Men without Money, mixtureto him world occurred of as acorrupted millionstricks andlies, where of Contraries.” and Tricks, Turns, Shifts, Entities, is to be seen, and very perceptible;seeing things in World world: wrong the things, passin “strange our which our for Non- for Example: State Polity, in all machinesdifferentkinds of help understand that people to and themselves by their wishes its Meanders, shows how citizens of a Lunar country deal with these problems in their world by using […] huge Quantities of in,noneMoney little or drawn and issued out.” Misapplied but andAppropriated, collected were never collected; thatothers Anticipated, vastTaxes but paid; never “huge hiredfor Transport-Service, Fleets Glasses, sees the standing bylaughing, and looking on”. for Bread, Whores, &c. Government the Equipages, Horses, theirFamilies selling Coaches, public faith in his own “Iworld: saw plainly an Exchequer shutup,and 20000Mourning from more regardto lives in,apart traveler Skies.” the honest Countries, Women Whores ofall and Nations andKindred’s, Sorts, asonthisside Men, honest and Knaves were There Ours: than honester or handsomer no Women the here; better, norbigger excepted: than nowiser, individual The latter Men as Ours,the Species same the of Insects, and Fishes, Birds, Beasts, Women, “Men, are World Lunar this Daniel Defoe, Daniel Ibid. Ibid. Daniel Defoe, Daniel country of commerce and constant improvement commerceand constant country of 120 This The Consolidator or, Memoirs ofSundry Transactions from the World in the Moon The Consolidator or, Memoirs ofSundry Transactions from the World in the Moon other world is not marked difference not by afrom worldgreat the is world the 119 121 It is necessary to mention that the inhabitants of The traveler, who saw his country previously as 54 public faith now, by the help of help now,by Magnifying of the . The author draws an example of 122 His own earthly , 1705. , 1705. CEU eTD Collection to already – and this machine brings man “into vast Speculations, Reflexions, andregular vast Speculations, Reflexions, “intoman machine bringsto already –and this humane Discerning”. They itdo with helpthe of a special machine – the one I was referring Soul, Thought, Honesty, Religion, Virginity, and an Hundred other nice things, too small for –“the of Nature” “Imperceptibles detectthe to ability is lunarians their the obedience of the for Thereason foundations. peculiar hasrather utopian obedience But reality. social century closer insight. As it was already mentioned, obedience became an important issue of the 18 126 125 124 the World like our Doctrine of PassiveObedience”. Doctrine of like our Worldthe Supreme Command it self, yet heandNature, andGovernment; andthoughthe to tothevery wasRepugnantDoctrine that resisted, received to himselfReluctance Damnation, or Repining; justthat asfor to Resistance,all Obedience” it was Fatal and to Body,that Soul, it “wasReligion, in his undisputed “Absolute travelerthe thatpeople have Heobserves asks Moon guide. the due Justice from every Subject Subjects.” to their Prince without any Reserve, 123 fantastic results in a total dysfunction of countries and confederations. On the contrary, in this Countries than were worth fighting for”. fighting worth were than Countries Crowns without Kings, Kings without Subjects, more Kings than Countries, and more Italy.” of Liberty securethe to Savoy, conquering French Choice; itFree andcall Kings, Electing their Catholic deposing Cardinals itReligion; for andcall Revenge, fighting see Swedes Here wecould Prince, call Protestants keep init: helpbreakChristians Faith to Turks, Protestants, that against to introduce the Tyranny of a Lutherantogether with his Old Men guide they saw: and call it Liberty; Armies Daniel Defoe, Daniel Ibid. Ibid. Daniel Defoe, Daniel So, the earthly society is all about individual desires and public mistreatments, and it and mistreatments, public and desires individual about isall society earthly the So, “[…] Protestants fight against Protestants, to help Papists, Papists against Papists to Papists against Papists Papists, help to Protestants, against fight Protestants “[…] 124 Lunar Country 125 How do individuals in this lunar society interact? It is one of the first questions The Consolidator or, Memoirs ofSundry Transactions from the World in the Moon The Consolidator or, Memoirs ofSundry Transactions from the World in the Moon laws are invented for the “general Safety and Satisfaction of of their Satisfaction “general and forinvented the lawsSafety are 123 Also, observing Also, inhis affairs the earthly world 55 126 This notion of obedience is worth a , 1705. , 1705. th CEU eTD Collection University Press, 1994), 60. 130 129 128 127 communal expressions of self-regard.” in inherent mechanisms social stabilizing of discovery the objective primary its as have socialized manwouldmap seek to the unintended consequences of action self-interested and of individual manipulation and definitely of social engineering when “this science of relationships that evolved to discount the risk of interpersonal of visions Mandeville’s socialto compared can be partly This concept community. clashes. However, this has a ‘smell’ projectandhelps influence theindividual future to every for whole of the action individuals, utopian the of wishes and emotions over theslightest it) operates calls Defoe of Houses, Occasional Bills, Tacking, &c.” backnothing say; itInsurrections,Clashings Speeches whenkeeps have Rebellions, they to Ambition, Wars, stops Navies and especially Expeditions; it Membersprevents making long the State,hasty Marriages, rash Vows, Duels, Quarrels, Suits atLaw, and most sorts of Repentance. In it savesmachine This citizens). its a Governmentreferences to the natural felicity, or the ideal person of the ruler, or any individual virtues of fewvery are one (there makesa utopian thiscountry that apparatus this society possesses from many Inconveniences; it checks immoderate himself”. Debates with speculation. Its function can be compared to the Mandeville’s idea that men idea thatarecalculating Mandeville’s the to function becompared can Its speculation. Atheism, Scepticism, and all other Scisms.” out than he was before; and Iam persuaded, it would be amore effectual Cure to our Deism, therefore: E.G. Hundert, Ibid. Ibid. Daniel Defoe, Daniel This ‘artificial anatomy of human actions’, as I would call this Cogitator-machine (as Cogitator-machine this call would I as actions’, human of anatomy ‘artificial This “[…] prevents abundance of Capital Disasters in Men, in private Affairs; it prevents this that is fact the It Country. Lunar forthe is crucial machine of this The importance “There never was a Man went into one of these thinking Engines, but he came wiser came he but Engines, thinking these of one into went Man a was never “There The Consolidator or, Memoirs ofSundry Transactions from the World in the Moon The Enlightenment’s Fable. Bernard Mandeville and theDiscovery of Society 127 Defoe states that human’s actions are results of and thinking of areresults human’s actions that states Defoe 130 The introduction of machinethis needsabitmore 129 128 56 (Cambridge , 1705. CEU eTD Collection 132 131 monarch and they accept obedience as a must. However, there is a range of different of is arange there However, must. a as obedience accept they and monarch by – they a powerful for aresuppressed this butthereason isdifferent very obedient, is also This society virtues. these possess only and them” a few variance “atwith been open always have reptiles these unfortunately, have, to citizens utopian expect normally would him his due, heis firmly devoted to that.” different character and nature. Some of them “serve no God but self-interest; and to give machine is a bright this example time, same the At selfishness. human of of result as the the be treated can 18 sociability of kind the society. They foresee the outcomes of their actions and therefore stay sociable. Here this their Thishelpsmen, stay sociable actions. limits in to the within animals, pleasure-seeking text of the end of the 18 prevail. Charity” without examplefollow to for the society where “Conscience without Good Works and Good Works bean should which sociality, and benevolence a complete atmosphere the of creates therefore and everything before comes individual every of interest The sociability. perfect to the general rule of obedience and loyalty and has but one religion. It can be an example of had say.” nothing to Demonstrations of their Loyalty, as would satisfy any reasonable Prince, and for more they of theirperceive doings. results the only to not and dead relatives, of their souls the see lunarcould citizens machine,therefore, of this help the With perception. sense their extent and improve to men imperfect physically time instruments in ‘new science’. the invention many novelties The of technical helpedthis at E.G. Hundert, A Voyage to the Moon Strongly Recommended to All Lovers of Real Freedom It is interesting to compare this particular utopia by Daniel Defoe to another satirical to Defoe by Daniel utopia particular compare this isinteresting to It such and give such show Proofs, to any time at “were ready country of Citizens this The Enlightenment’s Fable. Bernard Mandeville and theDiscovery of Society 131 Thus, th century, Lunar A VoyagetotheMoon society co-exists as one stable organism, acts according acts organism, stable as one co-exists society th century endeavor for the enhancement of of fortechnical theenhancement endeavor century 132 As honor,to justice,humanity, truth, which we 57 , which isinhabited by reptiles of (Aratus), 1793, 304. , 60. CEU eTD Collection 134 133 light within society. The notion of flattery and its mechanism needs to be clarified here. be clarified to needs mechanism its and flattery of notion The society. within light asflattery onein beputs flattered a better Manwantto publicbenefits. the contributing to flattery and interests helpof hisunsocial by Mandevilleaman pursuits Accordingthe private to without it the compound he is made of would want one of the chiefest ingredients.” for is this man’sof course whichispride “[…] inseparable so from his very that essence might for they some kindofequivalentthat “troubleenjoy their Thereason of self denial”. get to hope development commercial the to contribution their for in return who individuals, self-interested and pleasure-seeking functions dueto vices. Society because of private interest.” his private whatseemed mind better to publicthe than indulge andmuch hisappetites, functioning itthat “[…]andis states not more beneficial forconquer everybody than to work and fellow-feeling. was resultthe individual of self-interest thatcontributed‘modified’ togeneral well-being Lunar Country we could see the effect of this – perfection of the governmentin the Moon insurehistherefore live a manmustobey withinown, moral InDefoe’s and the duties. Therefore, in order to by rules, vices, the monarch. established the andbehavethey accordingly butto private promote the developmentnotcontradictdo the general to model.heresocial might Citizens haveopinions different and still they but improvement teachers, poor aristocrats, rich beggars, be can They purposes. different serves of the government and andis different, (reptile) individual Hereevery model. common by the arecorrelated wishes whose individuals of mass astable of comprised isnot society that meaning, – individuals Bernard Mandeville, Bernard Bernard Mandeville, Bernard Furthermore, English-speakingin philosopher Bernard deMandeville his(1670-1733) Fable of the Bees Fable of introduces introduces himselfsociety into inasmuch toget order samethe possibleas at time 133 He was the first one who insisted that public benefits existed not in butinsistedfirstnot thatpublicbenefits Hespite who of existedwas the one The Fable of the Bees ofthe The Fable The Fable of the Bees ofthe The Fable evaluates people’s nature and mechanism of the society’s , ed., E.G. Hundert (Indianapolis: Hackett),38. , ed., E.G. Hundert (Indianapolis: Hackett),36. 58 134 CEU eTD Collection 137 Gregory Clayes (Cambridge University Press,1994), 4. 136 Period 135 himselfman a bycommittinggreat adultery.” underlady’s his in nose,nor one smock-faced flatterer dominions,all thateverour made harlot keeps a among that us, Magistrate Great one is not there that subjection, absolute individual and control ofrevolution.” the whole community over our own happiness, wearewell nothingassured […]that miserybut the would attend itself: “We hold our lusts subversion governmentof our and thechange constitution;of our for having aduesense of in such an starts with the actually utopia This author’s explicit. very is society whole the of improvement the to contributing words “[…] for you must idea of people the work In this knowinteraction. man-state-society the of representation we dread nothing so much as the this iswhattheapprehends. Moonsociety successfully getBasically, agood to society you needonly “goonbeingto as like”,wicked as you causes produce their behavior.in He naturaladdition believesindividuals that had accept only andto tolet natural effects, in order– unattainable. Mandeville in virtue defines termsthe altruism of self-conquest, and rational to arrive at a veryThe visions ofvirtues by lunar inhabitants is very similar tothat of Mandeville tolerableand therefore state ofinstead. offices his subjects gave its who ruler and to flattering aconstant affairs.was society the in waspresented pride andself-interest say man’s better of to (or ‘reptile’s’) case Exactly this manipulation. control mean for and knowingly anticipate the rewards of theirbehaviour. That is why flattery introduced – as the Flattery arises in Mandeville’s discourse because he believes that men are self-reflective and contributes contributes to theself-representation individual each of allowparticular and doesn’tfell itto Basil Willey, The Island of Content: or, ANew Paradise Discovered The Island of Content: or, ANew Paradise Discovered In theanonymous work , 99. 136 The Eighteenth-Century Background: Studies on theIdea of Nature intheThought ofthe This particular society exists due to the ability of self-control of each The Island of Content The Islandof A Voyage to theMoon A Voyage 59 137 , 5. (1709) in The model of self-restraining here also here self-restraining of model The (1709) we have rather a different Utopias of the British Enlightenment , where one of the features of thefeatures of , whereone 135 , ed. and CEU eTD Collection 141 (1784), 270. Most Conspicuous Persons of HighQuality, of Both Sexes, in the Island of Libertusia, in the Western Ocean, 140 (1784), 252. Most Conspicuous Persons of High Quality, of Both Sexes, in the Island of Libertusia, in the Western Ocean, 139 138 of anger,hatred, grief, mean-spiritedness, envy as well bylove, benevolence,as gratitude, to theMoon Human Sciences Human Perfection and Social Order: Adam Smith’s View of Education in Commercial Society,” inHistory morality.” determines that us, to is given which sentiments, unsocial, according to Adam Smith. “It is the construction of the human passions or the gross defects.” gross always and are controlled supervised as“the most brilliantparts often obscured by most the be it should andtherefore inconsistencies beto liable to is considered here nature human ideaSmith’sman that want notonly beto ‘praised’ butalso tobe‘praiseworthy’. The as honor, mostfull guilt.” of the destructiverepeated to conviction areoften shadows as late too that or hewill find of vice, appearance least even the “avoid to necessary also but virtuous, merely be to individual the for enough not is it where Devil inanAirBalloon The individualstress upon virtues is very unequivocal in the prevails inexaggerations island, where merits. depend interactions this social upon personal life politeness without and everyday easinessinmanners, The atmospherea complete of wear tones of jewelers and fabrics of different colors and built houses of precious stones). behavior clothes (contrary to of 17 the fancy.” own their humor best shall as apparel choosing such expense of least the without liberty, body has the because every dress, appearance though isany “Neitherhave nohierarchy:by here distinguishedtheir person out of the general frame. However, on this Island of Content people differ in their Adam Smith, Adam Ibid., 8. Modern Atlantis: or the Devil in an Air Balloon. Containing theCharacters and Secret Memoirs of the The Modern Atlantis: or the Devil in an Air Balloon. Containing theCharacters and Secret Memoirs of the and Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 1-18, 2. Theory of Moral Sentiments 140 The ModernAtlantis Here it is worth mentioning the theory of different passions, social and (1784), which is inhabited by “beautiful ladies and gentlemen” and , cited by James E. Alvey, “Moral Education as a Means to , the lives, the inhabitants of are defined by their passions th century utopias, where some of the citizens could 60 138 This also contributes to self-restrained to contributes also This 141 In these twoworks, The ModernAtlantis:orthe 139 Herewecanspot A Voyage of CEU eTD Collection 144 143 Indianapolis, 1976), 34-40. 142 in its complete happiness,itissupposed but not tobe achievedimproved or as everything exists physicianslife safe-guard” astheir community.common platform citizensupon which are and unified of some are excludedthem from the “The dreadHappiness in this utopiaparticular means of 1709 is for the balance and italsoa creates of melancholygeneral happiness.general to butto notimprovement, only andprosperity contribute andcrucial for social life utopianof the in society, utopiasthe of era individuals Enlightenment the fear wasreally whereorder modern early texts, Contrary to order. buthappiness, not utopia is of death of 18 the works make them in utopian society allutopian are present happinessasthegoal similar the of to references adore their by happiness Enlightenmentthe straightly but acategory philosophy) pursuit (as about profusion profusion and wealth of landa utopian wasinfluenced by travel accounts of it age,the but this extent a certain (to happiness achieve to wants who individual every for helpful and inincomplete imperfectthan mostof 18 the to the general functionsgeneralboth well-beingsociety. these utopian the society In of works with regard rule of and, as far as interest and honor will permit, upon their kindest assistance too.” but sincereststill friends, generallydepend “[…]may the sympathyof all they upon […] are they names, peoplehave differently, they texts can act these In century. the why particularlyesteem. and friendship thesecompassion, kindness, humanity, utopiangenerosity, societies are different from the ones form the beginning of Ibid., 43. Smith, Adam The Island of Content: or, ANew Paradise Discovered Again, the nature Again, nature individualof the every should beguardedin topreserveorder the perfection The Theory of Moral Sentiments th . Another contradiction to the classic utopia with its visions of nature as of its visions classic the with utopia to . Another contradiction century. This is a crucial difference do Davis’s argument that the aim of aim the that argument Davis’s do difference crucial a is This century. happiness . The Island of Content Island of The 144 – utopian society functions in the paradigm of a , eds. D.D. Raphael and A.L. Macfie (Liberty Fund, 61 , 9. th century texts nature is abundant, rich, and rich, abundant, is nature texts century is the one text which speaks 142 This is the reason This isthe 143 individuals CEU eTD Collection always in need for helpInquiry intotheNature and Causes ofthe WealthNations of of other people and “it is in vain for him to expect it from their argue werevery influencedmuch byAdam Smith’s 147 146 145 two utopias – is it a linepreserving his self-interest isred in inevery However, differentanalyzed utopia. andby controlled means good oldthe of organization. Content sogenerously to its inhabitants,suggests the life is there still very much regulated of Island The that abundance and freedom the all Despite works. utopian modern early limits of in the within discourse the interpreted society be the can restof the to conformity This very fact of exclusionwhen people, of the who group cannot of restrain Mandeville’s vices-publicsociety benefits’, and also asacontradiction to model ‘private people fromthemselves utopia are onforced withininmodels buildingtreated –publicinterest social understanding the of perfect two the basis to leave of thetheir ‘conformed’ non- theland.” them andturned then of out a largecanoe, with society. were quarrelingmistresses, abouttheirwho or should wages; havemost so wefurnished butlittle they always andfora time, acompany comedians “Wehadaof happiness: theatre fit of notin a complete the island in peoplestate couple simply did when precedents this of island.” the isbanished and residence, his forfeits immediately occasion, “[…] for whoever here finds the leastfault or shows himself discontented upon any in this island, and people just have to accept it and be happy, otherwise they will be expelled away our time, sing, dance, laugh and be merry.” laugh be time,and away our dance, sing, peoplenothinghavedo, besidesfiddle “[…]else eating,drinking, butto sleeping, and to All will later). be discussed comforts life by the of of werecreated in nature islandthis and Ibid., 10. Ibid., 10. The Island of Content: or, ANew Paradise Discovered The idea of each individual working for the benefits of society but at the same time The Modern Atlantis The Modern (1784)and A 62 , 10. VoyagetotheMoon 145 Thus, the state of felicity already exists Theory of Moral Sentiments Theory of 147 Again, this very fact can be can fact very this Again, (1776). He states that man is man that states He (1776). (1793) which Iwould (1793)which 146 There were a (1759)and CEU eTD Collection Press, Edinburgh, 1993), 12. 151 150 149 A.S. Skinner (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics,1976), 26. 148 interest andflattery, and for sympathy argued understandingand andmutual help among necessary to remember that Adam Smithisit However, mentioned. endswas already achieve every was particular individual to to dissatisfied with Mandeville’s theorypublic and affairs individual interaction. Mandeville’sview thatweregiven upon passions of self- shall have thiswhichyou want” advantage to do for him what he self-loverequires of them. of […]the give rest me that only.”benevolence of whatthe I wantpeople and you and only if he can prove them that “it is for their own individuals to bondin together acommunity” individuals to led ofpassions that “importance the upon sociability human inrecognizing resulted andMandeville toseetheirvirtuous progressive, society wanted Theirdiscourse polite. utopian societies flattery rules the world and creates social differentiation. Smith, Hume and in two these Moreover, citizens. of the rest of the apart left are therefore and anything provide society with cannot utopian who utopian –people, arepoor citizens texts there advantages”. their of but necessities own our of them Weinterest. address not humanity to theirourselves but totheir self-love andnever to talk the brewer,butcher, the of benevolence the from not is “it that is or sociability and unsocial the for model thethe society within baker,interactions human’s the of summary famous thatSmith’s required. is it than we expect our dinner,is controlled butamong fromhandsomeanything ifitis not profitable for him and in Lunarthe society, whereevery moral sentiment their men and womenregard in order Smith. This mechanismtonot works perfectly in a reptile theirtoworld, where each individualshow will notdo and ownnot to act more Ibid., 27. Adam Smith, Adam Adam Smith, Adam Sociability and Society in Eighteenth-Century Scotland An Inquiry into the Nature andCauses of the Wealth of Nations An Inquiry into the Nature andCauses of the Wealth of Nations 148 Therefore a man can get whatever he needs only if he can indulge he can if only needs he whatever get can man a Therefore 149 – this is an accurate and precise model of the society for 63 151 , eds. John Dwyer and Richard B. Sher (The Mercat and to gain individual profits from andgain individualfrom profits to the 150 Particularly in these two mentioned intwo these Particularly , 26. , eds. R.H. Campbell and CEU eTD Collection 154 153 of Education in Commercial Society”, 4. 152 because these laws were controlling every scene of utopian everyday lifebecause and everyday scene of utopian controlling every lawswere because these offenders.” isperpetual banishment, usual the sentencespronounced by judgethe upon such example, and the content islandof our be unhappily impaired. The loss of tongue,the or by severity,be shouldtheir evil least others utmost corrupted are always the with punished seldom, but happen they as which, “[…] controversies and conflicts the of All texts. modern motion early as inthe theutopian lackof aspectof the to istheonly reference ‘innovations’ innovations.” of manner all from constitution ancient our defend among us;bywhichmeans peace,prevent growth we the our of preserve and blockheads tranquility and it that’s why learningexperiences “no above bewriting andreadingtaught to societies. utopian worksas spectator a mechanism of social restriction as well as behavioral modeling for the and judgmentthe by of consequences the their Thisnotion impartial of actions. projecting century. Utopian citizens perceive vicestheir own possible bybeing involved impartially in of half for important works –is utopian 18 of the spectator the second mostthe the one of Preciselyimpartial spectator. of pattern this Smith’s moral – philosophy impartialthe between individualshelpsproject andalso to personal by actions using themechanism of an society – the human species.” human – the society behavior that areprerequisites for the survival of society andlive –ashumans mustin peoplethat from still standards seeksympathy and thatothers of “[…]sympathyproduces in cooperation. better Smith contradicts Mandeville’s modelselfish of sociability by stating individuals and he also theindividual arguedfor passions and moral sentiments as resulting James E. Alvey, “Moral Education as a Means to Human Perfection and Social Order: Adam Smith’s View The Island of Content: or, ANew Paradise Discovered The Island of Content: or, ANew Paradise Discovered The utopian society of 154 Previously,in the 17 The Island of Content of The Island 152 So, sympathy helps to preserve the peaceful coexistence preserve peaceful the So, to helps sympathy th century utopian century breaktexts, not lawscitizens could 64 , 12. , 11. alsostruggles to preserveits peace and 153 Theseabstract th CEU eTD Collection that will be later articulated by Smith. However, this society – individualistic mostis the society this However, will by articulated belater Smith. that arising“give discourse about me whatIwantthat and you shallhave you thiswhich want” do not need servants and they just help each other whenever they need help. Here we see the desire dissolution,forwe have our makes every coming dayincrease happiness.our labor,lunar otheranxiety “days without country spend their without the longing[…] and concept ofmutual help anditincreasingresults in constant of also found in wholethe much is community unambiguous.Not butstill somethingthe on sociability can be work complete obedience, sympathy mutual individual and suppression of wishes for the sakeof avarice.”eitherallat lust or live “[…]not to people pride, addicted eitherleave atall have rulesorislandtolerated to acceptthe – people happy where the (ColumbiaUniversity Press, 2005). Reproduced from anoriginal edition: London, 1727, 65. 159 158 157 156 155 harmful for thebeing as removed are restthey things: of state of general the thedisturb not do society the of elements control overHere society deals with all sorts of – delinquencies physical, mental by – helpof the strong the community justglory “since his happiness”. careand were his and hissubjects’ ambition only own and its members and that is the reason why the unsocial The main The virtue.” and thanfor piety wisdom, their account, here distinguishedany other upon or is “Noits for very person ofvirtues dignified are questions citizens. crucial the perspective, andapublic recantation.” “anopenpenance,asincere repentance, undergoes island into –anycanbe communityevil-doer again the of kind long accepted as ashe this in mercy for place is a there However, terms. individual in perceived not were humans Ibid., 14. Ibid., 20. Ibid., 21. Ibid., 11. A Voyage to Cacklogallinia,with adescription of the religion, policy, customs and manners of that country virtue here that keeps society isfunction keeps society herethat The Voyage toCacklogallinia. system . Inthis utopiaparticular any of kind isunsociability not 65 loyalty Heresociety functions upon the which they give to their monarch their to give they which happiness 158 . The citizens of this So, the theory of 155 159 In this In They 157 156 CEU eTD Collection course course of luxury.”growing scheme forforming industrioussober, virtuous, asuccession the citizens, andchecking of wasfinally method This foundparticular anditwas to“contrive a andexecute proper of source “tranquility,happiness and the striveimprovement. explains glory” forconstant posterity”, and themselves to use lasting of advantages natural wholethe not society,its chosen members,find “[…] to onlymethod the makingof these improvements 162 161 1753), 9. Religion, in the severalClasses: and some account on its Rife, Establishmentand Buildings 160 163 depend on anything blindly so they “were convinced that without a previous “wereblindly good without depend convinced that sothey anything on robbers.” scepter minions of rapacious the protectionthe of wise and and equallaws, beyondfar the reach priestly of domination, and circumstances of thisland attracted a vast numbers of foreigners, who wanted to live “under atheart.” of province interesthadthe who real the mild andjustgovernors, inand of in blessed a succession administration of the unrivaled their trade, their neighbors, “peace enjoyed with firstsettlement” this They werecomingsincetheir placeand“ever to differentorigins created school this and thisparticular based community mutual on consent. Mirania of society. for general the preservation order peaceand maintaining justice toof are sensibleof necessity the men of that all speaking here be applied can of theory Hume maintainAlso amusement. of kinds different and houses, different clothes, different see we here peace and order and that all men are aware of the necessity of W. Smith, Ibid. W. Smith, W. Smith, Members of this society created their own model for model their own created ofsociety Members this A relatively different society exists in the utopia of , especially concerning the attitudes towardslearningof knowledge. People and attitudes the , especiallyconcerning A General Idea of the College of Mirania A General Idea of the College of Mirania; with a Sketch of the method of teaching Science and A General Idea of the College of Mirania are very much arevery speculatedin upon Theidea thisutopian text. and intention of 163 161 66 The patterns of , 10. , 10. A General Idea of the College of the College of Idea A General sociability commercial society commercial 162 which would be also the also be would which – they did not want to (New-York, 160 Encouraging and moral CEU eTD Collection 167 166 165 164 harmony.” natural of example another is which regime, a commercial in living of be young”“moral “almostthe Adam of education effect to automatic Smith considered also much clear. isvery education moral stress on traditional Herethe younger generation. the future moral tothe of education foundations of contributed of this utopia circumstances the 168 virtues for education whole the paradigm society approach aunifiedtowards will provide of their that ideas. theirare confident They and afuturedevelopment of spreading presuppose religion. Citizensand practice to justice, strictintegrity, and honor, all enjoined precepts other the by our of Mirania being” our of theendlessperiods bliss,stage through all and to of stage from perfection are completely […]andin advanced virtue be habits faculties, of ourselves enlarging andconfirming our content chieflyGod of us here[…]torepairexpects ruins the by nature, of our improving and with theirit.” state in defects discover and experience alter, might of circumstances asoften as improved being things but in itand it could, perfect acondition down Posterity,of by delivering as they rendering still of JudgmentGod, andthe uncorrupted to acquit[…] they themselves shouldconscious that the only solution for opinions intheprovince” thatthey for against struggling improvement the themwere sake andof was “to follow thefaced the problems of“passion,ignorancemalice, custom, prejudice, pride, and different unbiased dictates of their own good sense, samethe at youth the all of education publiccommon the as interest, common in one unite and coalesce schools– andaccent“[…] that nothing couldmuch so tomakecontribute such a mixture of people underMirania the eye of the civil authority.” education, the best laws are little better than better littlelaws best are the education, W. Smith, Ibid., 7. Ibid., 10. Ibid. Ibid., 12. 167 This model social is contribute supposed tothe to society’s improvementas “[…] were aware of the fact of their different cultural backgrounds – cosmopolitan backgrounds cultural theirfact of different of the wereaware A General Idea of the College of Mirania 67 , 13. verbaminantia ”. 164 165 People of the province of Therefore, commercial 166 They 168 CEU eTD Collection of Education in Commercial Society”, 6. 171 170 169 and By its improvement. preservation of self andconquering hisindividual appetites and aimsanimals imperfectnature whose in for andsearch good perfected life society within general improvement. Inall these writings men are portrayed as selfish and pleasure-seeking mutual help andsympathy and alsoat promotingits own private vicesfor sakethe of based of make the as asolemechanism concepts on function to in society sociability’ order of‘unsocial by pattern the aredetermined his actions and society upon dependant a man that is focuses Humeand Smith) fact on the (Mandeville, organization. Each thinker social and moral about speculations arid very and government about reflections Commonwealth” by which David Hume (1752), I omitted on purpose duetoits abundant Moral “Idea of a Perfect in as pseudo-utopia alsocelebrated, was Organization sociability and self-preservation were the role-models of the 18 the welfare of the whole society and not only obey. only to not and whole society the of welfare the and citizen the resultis of this promote, by to means agood that wishes every in hispower, spectator” impartial ideal, of the achieve avision to becomes iteasier size anddiversity, in increases society the “as that terms in Smith’s be isexplained can also It utopia. rational honor to their nature.” “with a noble emulationis that supposed towards is younger generation the improvement directed whole zeal the of and divine heroismgenerations”. to excel each train up, andsecurea state, the succession to goodmen of citizensand good latest the to other in every thingthat “the that whole doeswisdom and experienceand become as themodel “others” will approach for only“venerable the and and august” of a community thus using every human effort, to James E. Alvey, “Moral Education as a Means to Human Perfection and Social Order: Ibid., Adam 60. Smith’s View Ibid., 60. By works the of reviewing 18 169 In such a society, where education is seen in terms of a divine work, the ina divinework, Insuchasociety,termsof isseen education where 170 Mirania , in my view, is thus the most morally peaceful and peaceful morally most the thus is view, in my , th century 68 philosophes we can conclude that politeness, that conclude can we th century society. 171 CEU eTD Collection feelings and deeds of the discontent people and they are prepared to do anything to inorder do to are prepared andthey people ofthediscontent deeds feelings and andfidelity. The main of task society this is not tobe shaken by inappropriate unsociableor teaches each other how to thenbecome the society of the a useful member societyambivalent and based mutualobscure society help on andaimingincreasing at happiness,of and how to preserve the of representation passive the we seeagain in theMoon inWorld the If utopias. these sociality Content from in from can be seen above works the imposed as sociability human the of picture Similar world. Lunar in their order and peace for maintaining therulernecessary to findobedience tothem absolute as they the are alien only There are “society”. even and “individuals” or “citizen” see thewords not one does particular utopia abandonedprojector’) the for sake of peace and and for order native liberty. In this moral ‘mechanic of help the with (though voluntarily as seen are desires and actions his and century works. In Defoe’s works. century though, mechanismthis acquiredmany more in distinctive features to 17 comparison in utopia individual every suppresses his vices isown very much inrelevant this context, model utopia has its andand humannature of particular society statementJ.C. Davis of that socialcrucial forbut the interactions. indulging interests each andothers self-love andby humanreferring to as differentpassions by Adamemphasis is whenhe by put about gaining talks Smith particular advantages Thefor final sacrificing self-interest. functioning of rewards –expectation particular voluntarily suppression of Humeself andMandeville add some rules of society the a of scheme general However, andpreserve tothis desires sociality. men cultivate Such framework of unsocial sociability can be applied to all 18 to applied be can sociability unsocial of framework Such . However, the emphasis on the self-restraint and the preservation of self differs in differs self of preservation the and self-restraint the on emphasis the . However, people, and notions such orpursuitas self-interest of individual happiness Island Consolidator isshown individualistic as enough where every member every individual is taken as part of is individual takenaspartof a largersociety every The Voyage toCacklogallinia 69 th century texts. Each texts. century and The Island of th CEU eTD Collection Period 173 172 rabbits’ for modeling socially benevolent world in the light of moral axioms of moral philosophers. Utopian consideredwriters possible tomodifyof personal passions by social axioms moral of light the in world benevolent socially modeling for rabbits’ andgeneral fellow contributing to individuals well-being.served ‘experimental Utopian as benevolent” and sympathetic sociable, nature by were men that believed generally was human and selfishness “eighteenthself-regard well century thought andhumanof nature, it of theories the Despite politeness. and civility social of problems existing the solve to order nature”. human of the character of the necessary parts as “regarded are that passions, andunsocial social Smith’s for predisposed also but selfish, and obedient itindividualistic, mentioning is thattheirlatter worldsare texts, worth Concerning the two motionlessis not and stable buttheworldworld, aims that improvement. atfurther these ends. They do not only accept and obey – they also act, create and therefore this utopia need towards andwork whatthey virtue –people understand asa can beestimated required a desirethrough further of by means development of individual education through progress for the perfection of the social organization. Therefore, such kind of sociability as expressed moral education about AdamSmith of thetheory can apply we college caseof the particular common education, and is thought to promote improvement of the whole community. In this eagerness for suppressing desires indulgingoverlaps with individual virtues built the upon of Mirania of in utopia Smith’s introduced are societies different Relatively imaginary worlds. in these be preserved to of things for state the inorder evil necessary as be accepted have to from and above imposed are citizens sociable of virtues all works the remain in the environmentof loyalty, piety and happiness.Butagain,in latter these two Basil Willey, Smith, Adam Enlightenment of the18 Enlightenmentof , 96. , in , The Eighteenth-Century Background: Studies on theIdea of Nature intheThought ofthe The Theory of Moral Sentiments A Voyage to the Moon A Voyagetothe th century focused its intellectual zeal on the man himself in himself man the on zeal intellectual its focused century and , 34. The Modern Atlantis TheModern 70 A General Idea of the College Ideaof A General . In formerthe the individual 172 173 CEU eTD Collection freedom. human wealth,engineering the for initial and by suppressing power, desires and sexual 71 CEU eTD Collection 175 Europe try bringtry to inhome, this newknowledge back order contribute tothe to Enlightenment BougainvilleJohann or Forster getacquaintedReinhold with “other”the andhow did they nature, peoplesmanners? did and their Louis-Antoine How James Captain de Cook, him far as asman never andwillnevergo. has beenbefore of perfectly suits imaginary real fantasies both author and whenpersonal the take traveling, prime topic in their accountson landsthe theyvisited. The quotation,second Isuppose, extentandwhich them became fascinated the greatest nature, freedom the andhuman’s to he hisfather and societies, witnessed werealsosophisticated physical beauty,sexual Cook’s voyageswitnesshe what wasgoing and –affluentnature to what wild Yet, peoples. of boy from previousthe reports in1772.The18-yearold already Reinholdknew Forster, very similar was said by George Forster after his first voyage with his father, Johann 174 human nature in real travel accounts and utopias Dubourdieu and Captain Byron: depictions of the ideal Chapter III: Reinhold Forster, Hildebrand Bowman, James Captain James Cook,before secondhis voyage, 1772. W. Hazlitt, The first words were written in the first half of 19 half inthe of werewritten first the words The first What does itWhatmean previously and does writing about unknown non-witnessed landsand (Polity Press, 1995), 295. Notes on a Journey through France and Italy “... I had ambition not only to go farther than any one had been before, “Thefor rule traveling is abroad common to take our sense with us, (in self-defense, or as a barrier against the lessons of experience) that we generally set up a certain preconception beforehand up acertain preconception set wegenerally that but as far as it was possible for man to go ...” . 72 (1826), in A. Maczak, The object of The objectisof traveling tosee andlearn; butsuch is ourimpatience ofignorance, and aresurprisedor quarrel at with all and leave prejudicesour behind us. th or the jealousy of our self-love, that does not conform to it.” century; however, century; something Travel in Early Modern Early Travel in 175 174 CEU eTD Collection 176 rationally. 178 (University of PennsylvaniaPress, 2006), 18. 177 something familiar.” something into them transform to world, experienced own his with them connect to also but situation, given in a objects identifiable as them know to comes only “not science of man a objects by thecommon new Therefore, as newknowledge canbeacquiredone. examining through theories, familiar via voicesif of already told becomes closer distant time,the aseverything it was important to do this in the familiar discourse of the political and social philosophy of sophisticated butstill traditional placesandsalons, pamphlets,coffee political the of public the to lands peoples and newly-explored of atmosphere introducethe the to In order visions of science, happiness and humannature thatcould resultin further visions?utopian spread, and application of knowledge shouldmake men not only wiser and butalsoricher increase, the that state, the toward and another one toward behavior men’s improve and alter learning” “theadvancement should that virtuosi of and on one thing, Oxford – agreed the Hobbes, Plattes, Bacon, “[…] society: the of improvement and development further the for that already in the middle of middlealready in 17 that of the the atdetailedendeavored description andis preciseexperimentation.mention It important to who naturalists and travelers men, learned among sociability of kinds new encouraging man society,andquite unexpectedly the scienceEnglish of contributing to educated pulpit oratory.” Newton’s in Isaac revealed excitement of the new knowledge and strove for further intellectual advancement. “The laws J. Stagl, I am referring to Isaac Newton as the first man of science who considered Nature and place of a man in it in man ofa place and Nature considered who of science man first the as Newton Isaac to referring Iam Jacob, C. Margaret Already in the second half of half in 17 the Already of second the A History of Curiosity. The Theory of Travel, 1550-1800 177 This Newtonian science Strangers Nowhere Inthe World. The Rise ofCosmopolitanism in Early Modern Europe 176 Principia th century , publishedin became fit 1687, a subjectAnglicanfor 178 73 soon began to influence certain sections of the of sections certain influence to began soon th knowledge century England began to experience an experience to began England century (Harwood Academic Publishers, 1995), 2. in particular was seen responsible seen was particular in CEU eTD Collection Revolution, 1700-1850 181 180 Western Science, 1640-1990 179 better, at least (as for Hobbes) more obedient subjects.” more obedient Hobbes) for least(as at better, Now, when the notion of Western civilization as a zenith of historical evolution became the became evolution historical of zenith a as civilization Western of notion the when Now, naturalists. by done pictures the on mainly see could they which and hear to began just they people to find the place for the “others” – for those peoples and natural worlds, of which to thedevelopments intellectual of one’s powers.” self argumentthe “thewas expressedthrough that stimuli in external the werecrucial world Understanding his in empiricism Locke’s by influenced was extent a certain to education scientific and in natural phase This minerals. and plants animals, for theitsdeveloped knowledge landsandpeoples, about eagerness natural world, an others.” and volume, area, length, weight, of units between connections the expressed system metric the and them; among relations the and characteristics main their identified also but substances chemical known named only not Lavoisier of nomenclature chemical the binomialthe nomenclature of Linnaeus putorder into profusion the andof plants animals; the natural world. All these led incuriosity and interest structurestaxonomies, measurements, and order, of nomenclatures to the scientific discourse of andcommerce sensitivity, benevolence the 18 its – all Enlightenment humanincreasing of knowledge through experience spiritof isundeniable. The the for call his still time, his of men the of experiences travel and horizons geographical ideaspassively acquiredcomplex haveand actively did not inmind broadening of the D. R. Headrick, C.Blanton, in England,” Seventeenth-Century in Science of Economy Political “The R.Jacob, James In this new world, full of it newfull forIn observations, newwas new this world, knowledgecrucial of and 181 So, the world came tobe seen as quantifiable, orderable and foreseeable. Travel Writing. The Self and the World , first published in 1690, and where the connection between the world and the and world the between connection the where and in 1690, published first , When Information Came of Age. Technologies of Knowledge In the Age of Reason and (Oxford University Press, 2000), 17. , ed. Margaret C. Jacob (Humanities Press, New Jersey, 1994), 38. progress, improvement, new kinds of science,new improvement,progress, kinds of sociability, civility, – resulted, among –resulted, in other the things, enormous 74 (Routledge, New York, 2002), 11. 180 ThoughLocke, while about writing 179 Essay Concerning Human Essay At once, educated people educated once, At th century, where“[…] The Politics of CEU eTD Collection Period 185 (Cambridge University 2007),Press, 2. 184 Christa Knellwolf Iainand McCalman (Routlege, London and New-York, 2004), 194. 183 ReaktionBooks, 1999),23 182 manners or appearance of the indigenous peoples. They were also part of of Latitudinarian the alsopart Theywere peoples. indigenous the appearance of mannersor influences.” ‘foreign’ and ‘strange’ of understanding their worlds,struggled tomake sense diversity:of “Many modern early Europeans […]soughtnew ways and especially ofintroduced ‘new’were tothe andwho first werenotones who the of Europe Enlightened coping with what they often with morality,on luxury,debates andmanners.” politics, propriety perceived as “[…]human nature, study engaging of with mechanicsthe of understanding asmuch study man inof 18 the grew.” also difference, for sense the most “[…] asunattainable, other the of desire unyielding, aromantic accounts of the second half of 18 the of half second of the accounts shame” of whose moralsit physique everywhere, whose putthose seemed, Christendom and to praise man, of virtues natural unspoilt the the Canada, China, andelsewhere agreedto toParaguay,missionaries Brazil, butevenJesuit anddreamers, merchants only philosophic “[…]not notice, As of already context andthe understood. some researches experienced most for becamestory sentimentalized unknownandunattainablethe and withintold the of –18 travel moreobservations accurate precise scientifically and 18 the In fantastic. more unrealistic and more it andmade discourse utopian into penetrated accounts adoubtthese for them and without world new,It remained wonderful a warfare. by pirates) establishedmerchants, with newenvironments dialogues means and of trade Basil Willey, A. Cooper, C. Knellwolf, “The Science of Man,” in th Voyages and Visions: Towards a Cultural History of Travel century together with desire comprehendto the world rationally and together with more (London: Ark Paperbacks, 1986), 12. 185 even despite their outward sexual behaviour. Geography books and sexual behaviour. books travel even Geography theiroutward despite Inventing the Indigenous.Local Knowledge and Natural History in Early Modern Europe The Eighteenth-Century Background: Studies on theIdea of Nature intheThought ofthe th 182 century, which is more commonly referred to as ‘science of man’ – The endeavor for classified knowledge was responsible for the for responsible was knowledge classified for endeavor The The Enlightenment World 184 th However, previously only a few (sailors, some century were not just simple descriptions of the 75 , eds. Ja's Elsner and Joan-Pau Rubiés (London, , eds. Martin Fitzpatrick, PeterJones, eds. MartinFitzpatrick, , th century bestsellers – the – bestsellers century 183 Certainly, the citizens Certainly, the CEU eTD Collection improvements. moral the of implementations imaginable) say to better (or visual possible the of 17 realization of every individual within the community. So, as we can see, some notions of the remains hard for the writers not to write about need for socialization or about the self present comprehensible world. Evenin the savage societies of imaginedthe islands it and still ideal areremote though they imaginary travel unreachable, societies accounts, these his familiarity with dueto reader century eighteenth for the areaccessible their narratives fact Despite the that texts. for these remains crucial in chapter, as wasraised theoretical the inhabitants as it was shownin aswell. travel observations question The utopian of distance, perfectthe They state of differencevarious nature. kinds of represented between utopian containingtexts travel of 18 the accounts out of group focusa second on chapterIshall Inthis andsometimes plurality passions. of idealorganizations social perfect governments, states, own andhadtheir from Englishmen lot differa not did that worlds and of peoples states perfect describing were there discussed century utopias humanin andsociability nature 18 about discourse to the wascompletely chapter devoted in the light of the moral and social philosophy of the age. The texts nature of savages as well as Europeans. as aswell ofsavages nature human on andreflected andpeoples, lands acquired newly the towards minded attitude equality imperialisticand and connotations, animportant played role incultivating anopen- 18 the endat the of just narratives be influenced the argues force driving Enlightenment, which English the to of travel Pocock for tolerance, Anglican Latitudinarian this (however, Enlightenment English the of tradition th century remainunshaken intheenlightened era.These century utopias accounts wereone travel I decided to divide 18 I decidedthe to th century century groups. The in narratives utopian previous two th century), part of the political discourse about race and about discourse political of the part century), th century, meaning, islands, remote and savagesin 76 th CEU eTD Collection opportunities for self-assertion were multiplying inside the impenetrable medium dividing medium impenetrable the inside multiplying were self-assertion for opportunities multiplicity of reports from different bestsellersalone in presenceof the thingsnew utterly andunparalleled” of voyager asingle by experienced sensations of intensity expressible thescarcely “handle the 18 travel accounts, Utopias, aswell, as traveler. aEuropean which werenewfor wonders, impressions), tells aboutparadises,monsters, sufferings a outrageous certain andto – extent (1766) 190 Dettelbach(University of Hawai’i Press, 1996). 189 aII&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBkQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q&f=false krg5ub5imH_A&hl=en&ei=DtfvS7HSJJDxOfmV- +the+Uninhabited+Part+of+the+Isle+of+Paradise&source=bl&ots=ZpYKLcYfXm&sig=A05gcgXh8ZVDaCs rising+Deliverances+of+James+Dubourdieu+and+His+Wife,+Who+were+taken+by+Pyrates,+and+carried+to Southern Continent New-Zealand; intheIsland of Bonhommica, and in the Powerful Kingdom ofLuxo-Volupto, ontheGreat 186 his in Forster by Reinhold Pacific Islands Johann distant in about accounts nature real human the travel Paradise Who wereWife, taken byPyrates, Uninhabited andcarriedtothe Partthe ofIsle of Continent Southern Luxo-Volupto, ontheGreat Powerful Kingdomof Bonhommica, andinthe andAuditante, of Carnovirria, inNew-Zealand; intheIsland Taupiniera, Olfactaria, imaginary asanonymous such travels, http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=5I7RAAAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Adventures+and+Surp by University of Michigan Press: Bettesworth andT. Warner, in Pater-Noster Row; C.Riwington, in St. Paul’s Church-Yard, 1719). Published Pyrates, and carried to the Uninhabited Part of the Isle of Paradise 188 330-340. 187 Jonathan Lamb, Jonathan Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World The Travels of Hildebrand Bowman, Esquire, into Carnovirria, Taupiniera, Olfactaria,and Auditante, in The Adventures and Surprizing Deliverances of James Dubourdieu and His Wife, Who were by taken Modern British Utopias, 1700-1850 Each one of these works, imaginary or real (together with one’s ‘objective’ In this chapter I am going to inquire into the visions of human nature in 18 nature human of visions the into inquire to going am I chapter this In 187 (supposed author Ambrose author Evans, 1719) (supposed and (1778) Observations MadeDuring aVoyage Round theWorld The Adventures and Surprizing Deliverances of James Dubourdieu andHis The AdventuresandSurprizingDeliverancesof (1778). Preserving the Self in the South Seas, 1680-1840 186 , An Accountofthe Giantslately Discovered th http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-EllTrav-t1-body-d2.html#n60 century and their proliferation was indebted not only to the to only not indebted was proliferation their and century , 8 Volumes, ed. G. Clays (London: Pickering & Chatto, 1997), Vol.4, The Travels of Hildebrand Bowman, Esquire, into Hildebrand Bowman, Esquire, of The Travels terra incognita 77 , eds. Nicholas Thomas, Harriet Guest and Michael and Guest Harriet Thomas, Nicholas , eds. 188 and compare them to the visions of the (London, printed by F. Bettenham for A. (University of Chicago Press, 2001), 23. or 190 . Utopian fantasies also were terra nulla (1778) . (1778) by Horace Walpole by Horace 189 “but because“but . th century CEU eTD Collection human nature ishuman in nature inhabit who thesavages, really debased extremities frozen the of our with creatures. these contact aclose establishes mind is that they do noteases that in Theonly thing world? unsociablethe most society show the to order seem to be “fierce or sleep most of time.the can be –what Impolite,narrow-minded degenerative, saidmore in dangerous” and this fishliveis lightor anyotherconvenience;in without uncooked and These caves, eat creatures the reason why he habitations were not to be endured by a human creature, bred in decency and cleanliness.” many brutes; has simpleand nature endued whose uniform sounds,with and which with such stupid nasty and animals? seemed Whose language, differlittle, to from the Ihave could what“For society country: this wretched his happylifeoutside for and weeps nothing country evenhad with callsthem“stupid incommon animals” visitor people. The 193 192 Travels of Hildebrand Bowman 191 discover cannot theirphilosophers nature” backwardness of Hecallsbackwardness inhabitants. the them of andthe ofclimate harshness the dueto conditions miserable he suffers where Taupinierans, their lack of intellect. improved ones as well Hildebrand Bowman as ones that are much inferiorlots of dueuseful to the roughnessreferences of nature that and will further be used. It is necessary to mention, that both the imaginary of imaginary accounts the accounts and pursuitpublic goodusing fantasies. the people’s Iam focus mainly to going on progress” social of narrative the short-circuit to fantasy allowing good, public from interest private “The Miserable Condition of Author the in Taupiniera. An account of extraordinarythat People,” in Horace Walpole, Horace R. Koselleck, R. Something similar we can read in Forster’s account of Something of similarinForster’s southern wecan accountthe lands “[…] read where 191 . So,utopias presented visions of improvementssocial thatrelied ontravel Critique and Crisis. Enlightenment and the Pathogenesis of Modern Society An Account of the Giants lately Discovered and Forster witnessed two kinds of societies – more advanced and Hildebrand Bowman , 51. Hildebrand Bowman 192 78 [i.e. utopian savage!], though they still contain duringhis voyages first gets to the land of . In the other texts itis claimed that “Natural creatures (1766), 336. , as inhabitants strange, as of this , 170. Bowman’s The 193 CEU eTD Collection Civilization,” in 194 peoples. Thisis anovelty of utopiathis and –the knows traveler finding aims someat taught them basic cultural attainments, hadleft morelands pursuit abundant to them and having for visitor, theirrespect” a great “conceived country strange of this time citizens the With lives. their into fire bringing by a Prometheus as acts and natives the of culture andby utopia,ideas. In new the the increased perpetuated faculties moral,mental, andsocial is and their whatmakes be this physical, educated development upbringingthe such backwardon societies dependsalotwishto the of – their in education of role the out points Forster time, same the At selfish. and lazy them makes disciplined laws havebetter and in comparisonlive thosewho to in which mild climate, the Civilization,” in 197 196 195 in hisfamous work about climate and influence its differs human nature on from expressedthat by Montesquieu ( Englishmen of help the with self-improvement of wish no have they that minded narrow are so who and andrevenge licentiousness, independence, are passions” “favorite whose Zealand New of and barbarians the Fuego del Tierra of savages the of anaccount gives heart, andupon mind, and the almost socialthe destroysall feelings.” “undoubtedly harsherandthis and of makebodies globe operates the theextremities thus mankind” of manners soften the to greatly contributes climate of the mildness “the that left in his breast for least the alteration.” in hisbreast left is awish even not that condition, his with contented perfectly isso them of individual every and nation, regulated best the than happier nay, happy, themselves think “[…] who and state.” apreternatural itwere, is as situation present their […] globe, and J.R. Forster, “Various Progress which the Nations We Saw Have Made From the Savage State towards J.R. Forster, “Various Progress which the Nations We Saw Have Made From the Savage Ibid. State towards Ibid., 198. Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World The Spiritofthe Laws 197 (1748) that the peoples of the north are more 79 It is worth mentioning that Forster’s account (1778), 192. , 199. Bowman explores the backward the explores 196 As examplehe an 194 Forster claims 195 ! ) CEU eTD Collection because heisany such, recommendation.” without other nor a merely manhe manrich respected because is ispoor, despised“anot and virtuous others towards andhelpful themcompassionate makes people of these The mild character are strongly attached to liberty and try hard to preserve themselves as an independent nation. there is there nopoor-tax.” virtue and industry of the lower strikes“youthis is that country see a thevisitor do that beggar; not by either occasioned the class of people, or by the private charities of the rich; for self-sufficient.” or morose them make not does virtue their and country, “[…] and brave,generous, people; virtuous but their is courage only shown inserving their are its members.” are motor inequality,of whichis tosay thelessthat sophisticated asociety is, the more equal Inequality Origin andFoundationamong Men of in his famously had who Rousseau, observed to reference Very clear of natives the these circumstances, of influence Underthe is abundant. nature that makes them happier than Europeans, still they are not preserved from preserved from common arenot still they makes than happier Europeans, them that nature abundant an in live societies barbarous these though even that stated and civilization’ of evolution of the human society.” “what abouthis they perceived as excessively negativeof portrayal consequences the of http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-EllTrav-t1-body-d6.html#n232 in etc.” etc. Religion, Government, Laws, 198 the actual the 202 201 in etc.” etc. Religion, Government, Laws, 200 199 he decided to search another part of isles. of the part searchanother to he decided so his expectations, fulfill did not encounter first This islands. in these somewhere society “A Description of the Island of Bonhommica, and its Inhabitants. Their moral Sense. Manners, Customs, C. Knellwolf , “The Science of Man”, 205. “A Description of the Island of Bonhommica, and its Inhabitants. Their moral Sense. Manners, Customs, Ibid., 222. The Anthropologyof Enlightenment The next land that land next The utopia takes place. is takes This in country situated mild the and zone climate its nature 201 Nevertheless, Forster was one of the critics of Rousseau and his ideas his and Rousseau of critics of the was one Forster Nevertheless, 200 Bowman So,inequality in isexistdoes differently. island,this but treated , eds. Larry Wolff & Marco Cipolloni (Stanford, 2007), 157. 202 visits is called the is called visits The Travels of Hildebrand Bowman The Travels of Hildebrand Bowman Forster did not support the theory about ‘corrupted hand ‘corrupted about theory the support not did Forster 80 “civilization(1755) that and is thesource Island ofBonhommica . 199 Therefore, the main feature of main feature the Therefore, , 220. , 213. 198 Discourse on the Discourse on andisit here that Bonhommica The inhabitants The are CEU eTD Collection Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze(BlackwellPublishers, 1997), 10. 208 in etc.” etc. Religion, Government, Laws, 207 206 205 204 in etc.” etc. Religion, Government, Laws, 203 and happiness, and led by his endowments to a contemplation of ofnature.” toacontemplation works the ledof byhisendowments and and happiness, a life creation; journeying […] findshimself descendedfrom to remotest the perfection of human vices and feelings.unsocial However, Carl Carl von Linnaeus in his stated introduction to education can reflect upon the nature of things. These utopian citizens are very close to what studies. The people ofMirania College of acquisitions.” boasted our all outweighs vastly it happiness, human of scale inthe surely and for; be valued is to they what are chiefly “thesense Moral is longthat of such a result education Aristorow, whom they look on as infallible” learn “[…] all the physics,studies andby Before help the they parents. of begin thinkforto themselves have they to metaphysics, logic, and other writings of an old author, called existence of the sixth sense – “the sense of conscience, or the moral sense; moral the or conscience, of sense “the – sense sixth the of existence is rectified.” it till minds their in easy never are they benefit, own their to mistake a made have they find if they that man and man, betwixt theyintercourse and dealings their “in are that emphasizes he perfectly and savages about theories upright; and so far from taking an advantage of another, it.” of destitute than hearing, or sight the even others, the of any without be rather much would Carl von Linne, “The God-Given Order of Nature,” in “A Description of the Island of Bonhommica, and its Inhabitants. Their moral Sense. Manners, Customs, Ibid., 219. Ibid., 215. Moral Sense is the centre of the philosophy of Adam Smith’s teacher, Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746). “A Description of the Island of Bonhommica, and its Inhabitants. Their moral Sense. Manners, Customs, 205 Natives of the of Natives 207 This discourse about education is close Thiseducation is samespeculations about discourse to the aboutclose the and Smith’s visions of a more benevolent society with the help of Bonhommica Bonhommica 203 Such a state of a perfect conscience is achieved due tothe fact of spend alot of developingtime sense this by meansthe of The Travels of Hildebrand Bowman The Travels of Hildebrand Bowman enjoy their righteous lives and with the help of their 206 81 and only then they can enter mature life. The Bowman Race and the Enlightenment : aReader The System of Nature The Systemof is much more closer to Rousseau’s ismuchmore closer to , 220. , 224. (1735) – that “Man (1735)–that 204 , ed. and they 208 CEU eTD Collection 211 210 in etc.” etc. Religion, Government, Laws, 209 love.” hate, of andnot of ishurt theeffect selves; hurt for our any to do thing never can we another, one love we whilst for another; one love is to tranquility, our disturb may way surestavoidingbutthe of whatever his should enjoy; which hedesigned creatures maynothing injureitfollows, says todo that weareobliged “[…]thathappiness that that James Dubourdieu never once, as any still more polite people would have done, attempted to force him.” almost all of such ‘untouched’ livesocieties lives their in praise of andGod love for each perfectibility of of savages. the perfectibility moral and politeness excessive the to references many are there utopias In natives. of as strong asin‘wonderlands’ moral not theythought, comparisontothe appearedstandards hint here – all those strongin their newlandsthe of pursuit and Maybe peoples. the anonymous wasgiving author a moral ideals that Britishmoral ones. However, it also raises a questionempire about the moral superiority of the Englishmen were ready to exportemphasizing andpayingattention only to without differences possible physical muchthe to these trying bring to utopian this closesociety totheas ‘normal’ Europeans, aswas possible, was work of the writer that utopian this mean itcan citizens. Supposedly, these utopian country findinterestingisnot England.What resembles description isthatwedo any of their country.” defraud the government bysmuggling; upon itbeing looked as a kind of sacrilege against to attempt of an isknown instance one “[…]scarcely and country deceive their or cheat see to ready and to them, Also, citizens of this utopian “A Description of the Island of Bonhommica, and its Inhabitants. Their moral Sense. Manners, Customs, The Adventures and Surprizing Deliverances of James Dubourdieu and His Wife Horace Walpole, Horace The moral dignity of the citizens of this utopian land makes it impossible for them to them for impossible it makes land utopian this of citizens the of dignity moral The 209 An Account of the Giants lately Discovered Apart from this high moral competence, everything else in this in this perfect else everything moral competence, from high Apart this grasps the nature of the savages he happened to live with for 3 years and years 3 for with live to happened he savages the of nature the grasps Bowman’s Captain Byron Bonhommica The Travels of Hildebrand Bowman fatherland. were open to novelties the traveler was reporting was traveler the novelties to wereopen is by struck politeness the of Giants-“[…]the 82 (1766), 334. , 231. , 89. 211 Basically, 210 CEU eTD Collection Dettelbach(University of Hawai’i Press, 1996), Lxxi. Observations MadeDuring a Voyage Round theWorld 213 212 generally and practiced; instruction; theirmindscapableof, haveideasto and open they of a supreme understood, better morality of principles their refined; even and elegant, security foreign invadersagainst more firmly mannersestablished; moretheir courteous, and regulated;isingenious; theirpopulation their greater;theirsocieties better public improved, more elegant, their of exigencies climate; neat, andadapted garments to the the from poles.the Their isfood more varied, and abundant; theirhabitations aremore roomy, as improvedmore are in they nations, civilized live more and moreevery distant respect, that: inhabitants of the South Pole from the peoples who live in the North Pole regions by sayingmodern and state original this between stage intermediary in an time his of peoples civilization.indigenous stages to the present envisage from primitive asequence the has undergone theway andsociety to tries European stateHowever, of mankind. AnotherForster recognizes one of the ancient stages of the development of civilizationreference on the whole, as it is to wasRousseau, mentionedwho placed the before, Forster distinguishes the disposed to fulfill the moral advancement of the human species.” best be might they how and inhabitants, human its and productions its globe, the shaped that the forces ofnature, “economies the into historian of a natural insight as a ‘philosophical’ studyingunique can worth andtherefore comprehensively.be work His whole characterized assomewhat State of Savage the natives he sees contrary, the On Englishmen. Seas to narrativesperfect for criticizing suchapproaches. Stamped.” to the Parliament be shall subject these Giants that Charter specify in their betakento undoubtedly care will of Great-Britain, Britishthat people these canbringmake to societies isto them“enslaved” “dueand then and shall notother, wear which s Sheep’sis exactly whatSkin distinguishes that is themnot formlegally the ‘civilized people’. The only use M. Dettelbach, “A Kind of a Linnaean Being”: Forster and the Eighteenth Century Natural History,” in History,” Natural Century Eighteenth the and Forster Being”: Linnaean ofa “A Kind Dettelbach, M. Horace Walpole, Horace The inhabitants of the islands in the South Sea, though islandsThe inhabitants though unconnected highly with intheSouth Sea, of the Johann does Reinholdcompare Forster not the from peoples islandsthe in South the 212 This is of course, a harsh note upon the imperialistic politics and utopias were An Account of the Giants lately Discovered 83 , eds. Nicholas Thomas, Harriet Guest and Michael and Guest Harriet Thomas, Nicholas eds. , (1766), 335. 213 In Tahitian society CEU eTD Collection Civilization, “ in 217 216 155. Turn of Mind in the Natives in the South Sea Isles,” in 215 Civilization, “ in 214 savages, particularly natives of the South Pole Islands, can be made be can Islands, Pole South the of natives particularly savages, For Forster toRousseau). contradiction (another isthis meansthat openedtoimprovements – more is even what and nature human benevolent a of pleasures the all enjoy can therefore and environment plentiful and rich the by nourished was that another and them, among managed to survive in the harsh circumstances and so has lost any ability of socialization and standards social of good.” individual of accomplishment joint on bent identity, personal sociable and a continuous of “are attributes sympathyare alleged the andmoral sense taste, politeness, Tahitian societies, nature.” of hands of the out evercame unimproved nation that any of is asthat asamiable their short, character “In sopuzzled gets atthem: why Forster as and a nation. individuals as both branches, social and moral natural, its in happiness, their increase being, of a future state, of the origin of the world; and the whole contributes greatly to liberty.” happiest constitution of government, being under the influence of civil and religious laws,have the a people mildest and are governed bythe is to that belongs who possible; in was born in is society where educated a civilizednation, as asmuchimproved a country transitory manand delusive; ainhis[…] that but sensescannot thinkhimself happy he that founded is mere on sensuality aware of “[…]happiness and contentment factthat the become soon flexible andvery arevery natives these explains, that Forster civilization. of of conveniences the for their understanding point serveasastarting meditate ability to J.R. Forster, “Various Progress which the Nations We Saw Have Made FromLamb, the Savage Jonathan State towards J.R. Forster, “On the Varieties of the Human Species, Relative to Colour, Size, Form, Habit, and Natural J.R. Forster, “Various Progress which the Nations We Saw Have Made From the Savage State towards Thus, natural circumstances make people more benevolent and friendly and that is that and friendly and benevolent more people make circumstances natural Thus, 217 214 So, we have two different societies in utopia and in and utopia in societies different two have we So, Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World Preserving the Self in the South Seas, 1680-1840 216 Specifically this very openness of their nature and the and nature their of openness very this Specifically 84 Observations Made During aVoyage Round theWorld , 19. , 199. , 191. 215 Observations For both, the utopian and utopian the both, For happy as their nature is nature their as – the one, that one, the – , CEU eTD Collection Cultivation– Property – Society – Government,” in 219 and generous love.by andwas talked love that The generous same about Cultivation– Property – Society – Government,” in 221 220 218. Civilization, “ in 218 Hildebrand Bowman connections” tender most friendship, mostthe savages attachment, “warmest the of generous andof of arecapable inSecondly, “our of mixed hearts the chapter. to and societies”, comparison degenerating happiness as a result of social improvements, that we have already noticed in the previous and with expediencies, civilizational happiness,undisturbed natural of kinds –state happiness that results from a fertile climate. So, happiness, as we see, can be of different 222. happiness to be in proportion to the degree of physical and mental mental physical degree the in andactivity.”of happiness proportion tobe to wentJames “[…] Cook from the poles the equator,he andto his companionsfoundhuman are people of all,First extent. a great to Forster civilized world which will help them to socialize and create a perfect state of civility. the influence of “sciences,later under or sooner Pole will reach inhabitant of South the isevery persuaded, as Forster arts, manufactures, social life, and even morality” of that of a to promote the prosperity of the whole community to which he belongs.” happiness.itmust […] be therefore the interest ofeach individual wishes bewho to happy, assistance wouldimprovement, be the realization theirthat “[…]happiness by own procured the of theand noble great purpose.” united improvementscapable of “[…]if man only how in toproceed knew effectuate order to this efforts of other human beings, depend likewise upon their J.R. Forster, “General Principles of National Happiness – Increase of Population – Causes of Union – J.R. Forster, “General Principles of National Happiness – Increase of Population Harry Liebersohn, – Causes of Union – J.R. Forster, “Various Progress which the Nations We Saw Have Made From the Savage State towards Forster does not praise this new society, but the nature of the Southern savage amuses savage of Southern the nature the but society, new praise this not does Forster Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World The Travelers’ World. Europe to the Pacific in their imaginary societies. Furthermore, Forster begins to begins Forster Furthermore, societies. imaginary intheir 221 and therefore, the whole society is bond by tender, disinterested tender, by bond is society whole the therefore, and 218 The next step after realizing, that they are capable of Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World 85 happy (Harvard University Press, 2006), 56. in these new lands. Everywhere lands. new these in , 199. James Dubourdieu 219 This very Thisphase, very 220 This is This and , , CEU eTD Collection being selfish,which brings themclose tothe rest of people,the “whose actions area the endthe his of Reinholdcombined Forster in two one –he found his utopian society in Tahiti. However, at in some Pacific Islandand Rousseauwas worshipping someman natural in the past,Johann is what brings all these texts under the same scope. If Cultivation– Property – Society – Government,” in 222 miserable.” indeed, very or either ascontemptible, world; and that he who was not in some measurestates, that “[…] envy,malice, ambition,a slave avarice and lust, ruled absolutely into our parts anyof the of them, was looked uponJames Dubourdieu my new acquired soeminently possessed.” friends civilized Europeanswouldlearn this “spiritof andbenevolence, real goodness, which these Cultivation– Property – Society – Government,” in 225 224 xxxiii. 223 223. study capableby enlightenment.” sciences,andsubjects the of of asobjects both humankind “unites and issimilar nature human that species) human of statement of Enlightenment philosophywho unity argued forthe (partly expressed byKant HereIcan islestoallon these andinherent isnations inEurope. the referuniversal to in Pacific” the civility encountered 226 223. respects.” many other much by inferiors moreEuropeans much so “innocentpeople, in were our outdone these of sentimentalizeby thenature savagesthe all saying that and virtues the morality the of J.R. Forster, “General Principles of National Happiness – Increase of Population – Causes of Union – J.R. Forster, “General Principles of National Happiness – Increase of Population C. Knellwolf, – Causes of “The UnionScience – of Man”, 195. Nicholas Thomas, “On the Varieties of the Human Species”: Forster’s Comparative Ethnology”, Xxxii- The Adventures and Surprizing Deliverances of James Dubourdieu and His Wife Observations when he is when accountgiving of his utopian fatherlandtothe savages. He 222 For him, the Tahitian society “represents the highest form of Forster says, that these “innocent” people are also capable of capable people arealso “innocent” these says, that Forster 223 and he believes that benevolent nature that he found he that nature benevolent that believes he and Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World 86 225 226 The similar viewpoint isviewpoint The by expressed similar Again, a critique of Again, of ‘enlighteners’ the acritique Hildebrand Bowman 224 , 77-78. Forster wishes that Forster found hisutopia , , CEU eTD Collection Cultivation– Property – Society – Government,” in 227 229 228 242. characters” develophardy,energetic to zone climate in rightjust the they were placed implying that different in “favoringbeways, one, could Europeans, treated Liebersohn two suggests, asHarry statement, be This “sons their soil”. of to Tahitians considered who Commerçon, Tahitians.the of nature the skeptical about wasbecomingmore Forster thecentury endof the Slowly until remain not only happy climaticdue to by richness, butalso corrupted verythis affluence. fully thathedoesnotit beConsequently,can him asfor repeated, idealize Tahitians, they in them.line with butone them, outside or above Europeans the not Pacific the compound of selfish andhumane, benevolentbehavior.” have variousby undergone changesof mode food, influencethe ofliving, climate, epidemic theearth, of surface whole the over multiplyingandspreading after species,who, one but wasoriginally there […] from other; each different essentially species composed of are not de Buffon in his mancentury within science the united of humanGeorges-Louis that nature. Leclerc, Comte half 18 inthe the popular second of nature wasquite inhuman similarities consequently, and‘strange’ ‘others’. As was mentioned,already theidea of unity the human of species and weregrantedanimage of outside located Europe peoples while ‘enlightened’ and ‘civilized’ as totheimagesuperiority Travel contributed of arises. significantly Europe writings nature’s design.” original live to according continued to theirlineage was pure andundisturbed bymigrations, and superiorsocially since they J.R. Forster, “General Principles of National Happiness – Increase of Population – Causes of Union – Ibid., 30. Harry Liebersohn, Forster’s vision of Tahitian society onebyDr.Philibert the be society Forster’s vision to of Tahitian compared can 228 and another, “that the Tahitians were racially superior to Europeans, since Europeans, to superior wereracially Tahitians “thatthe andanother, Natural History,General andParticular The Travelers’ World. Europe to the Pacific Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World 87 , 30. 227 (1748-1804) stated that “mankind stated (1748-1804) that 229 Here Forster places societies of Here the theme of race and theme of Herethe , th CEU eTD Collection 231 Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze(BlackwellPublishers, 1997), 30. Race andRace the Enlightenment :aReader 230 to haveto in beennaturally, all much ages, pretty same” the hitherto seem genius, of extent and courage even life, of length body, of force and “stature forinstanceconfronted, by whoarguedthat changesDavid Hume, nature inand human were theories universalistic such However, globe. the around be witnessed can specificities individuals” dissimilar of mixture the and diseases, Europeans of the was ‘implantation’ The that this resultof minds. andharmful Europeans’ forcontagious the end of the 17 be appeared to that ofpleasure concepts happiness primitive and of theories theiroverseas andcentury – representedbyCook Bougainvillemany amongfrom –brought others century voyages of discovery. In Freud’s view, explorers and anthropologists of the 18 blamesPrecisely,is he and psychoanalysis religion, morewhat 18 astonishing – the Civilization andItsDiscontents inhis of globe. Freud nature, of the human andspecificities work theories of diversities developpolite and their commerce. eagerness to self-improvement and gives a precise account about the state of affairs, their capability beto for savages the of nature human the of wish slightest every outlines Forster nature. human another have societies these that presumption the on based and travelers both by expressed hopeless incapable Thisand development. further wastheof reference toracial inequalities as live northern counterparts andfind in climate societies their that mild idealize the anda topic Forster both furfurthersay and investigation. Bowman Iwould studies just that imaginary travel and real observations – the racial theory can alsobe outlined, though this is and physical reasons for different national characters. On the example of two works – David Hume, “Negroes … Naturally Inferior to the Whites,” in Georges-Louis Leclerc,Comte de Buffon, “The Geographical and Cultural Distributionof Mankind,” in in Eighteenth century was the time of intellectual curiosity, new discoveries, various discoveries, new curiosity, intellectual of time the was century Eighteenth summarizes the reasons for the mankind to be depressed. mankind to for the reasons the summarizes , ed. th –18 Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze (BlackwellPublishers, 1997), 27. th centuries begantobeacquainted new centuries with and 88 Raceand theEnlightenment : a Reader 230 and as a result now various andnow asaresult 231 and therefore there are moral are there and therefore , ed. th th CEU eTD Collection in 233 142. Eighteenth-Century Studies 232 could read, was very was very couldsimilar. read, we as which, nature, human ‘other’ the of happiness and sociability civilization, equality, dispute”, to open becamesubject defended; contrary, they the on writing inwhich valuesthe of motherthe country were nolonger applied and rigorously is, aform initiated of reflexive voyages instead of ones–that they imaginary authentic structure. “Travel narrativeson a role took had previously that belonged typically to trying topresent aworld, where the right topersonal pleasure wasnot in conflict with social he was that ina sense utopian were descriptions traveler’s notice that We could common. of an ideal human nature. notconstructed only natural, the around also but around human in environments pursuitthe be to began which travel, of results and practice the influenced ‘benevolence’, and ‘politeness’ ‘civility’, ‘utilitarianism’, ‘sociability’, about discourse enlightened The Pacific. living in the mild climate, both in the utopian land of land utopian inthe both climate, mild in the living proof for this was the human nature of the “other”, living in this place – especially, of those, a concepta place.”but not was Happiness and experienced. beattained actually itprovide evidence hard happinesswassomething idea,that that than more an could “Tahiti were presentfreedom in not Earth,happiness on seemedto and that but Europe: 18 the in andtravels. Travelers means ofgeography the by identity of theories new developed they and globe the throughout peoples strange D. Carey, “Anthropology’s Inheritance: Renaissance Travel, Romanticism and the Discourse ofIdentity,” Discourse the and Romanticism Travel, Renaissance Inheritance: “Anthropology’s Carey, D. Andy Martin, “Introduction: Surfing the Revolution: The Fatal Impact of the Pacific on Europe,” in History and Anthropology , vol.41, no. 2 (2008). Pp. 141-147. (Project Muse. Scholarly Online),Journals , vol.14 (2), (2003), p.111. Hildebrand Bowman’s 89 and Forster’s accounts have a lot in Bonhommica th century about were reporting century and in the Islands of the 233 a dispute about the about dispute a 232 The main The CEU eTD Collection future are eliminated through the description of In formalized thedescription single activities. of areeliminated day with one through future the and history is wherethe created, new environment an absolutely discovers that reader entire world created which can be projected on the one already existing. In this way, the way way freedom featureAnother of and activity.utopiaof is republicanism. The utopistthe power of creates a society to and predominantly processes public state all subordinating of and knowledge, complete of general order,Mannheim, stability, was capable of creating a certain ideal of humanity, intellectual potential, and welfare,theocratic butworld views. English inpiety, in the opinionno of Paul Ricoeur, who follows English utopias as classify itto wasmeaningful that found Manheim, I Karl of conception following the chapter, first the needs.In of meeting the with concerned were writers utopian most and animals, social human the among cohesion group maintain to in order socialization for the utopianFor the texts of this time only the society and its meeting the true humanenterprise. needs were central Therefore, in utopia there was a focus on the process of utopian society. 16 Inthe sociability among concerning sociality,are embedded inthe political discourse andunsocial politeness is that utopias of utopias18 is of the that drawn can be The main immediately in that era. conclusion enlightened literature the travel background of the moral philosophy of Pufendorf,Mandeville, Hume and Smith, and that of Conclusions Every Every author of for strove ideal the utopian and works unique inreference tothe This research was devoted This research analysis particularto the wasdevoted against of utopian texts the mind philosophes . However, utopias in no way coincide with liberalistic notions of the of notions liberalistic with coincide way no in utopias However, . liberal-humanistic utopias th century are anchored in contemporary English social realities, and realities, social English contemporary in anchored are century th and 17 . th century texts there were no individual selves in wereno there utopia. texts century 90 , which are intellectual outcomes of the past motionless totality : there is an CEU eTD Collection not solve neither individual nor collective problems. Utopia searches for a ‘golden mean’ ‘golden a for searches Utopia problems. collective nor individual neither solve not utopia J.C. does forDavis theapproach that conclude I wouldof and opt floating concept and on the other hand, utopia. In the debate whether to traveldefine utopia clearlyexperimentations or leave it as a of sociability,hand,itspoliteness, progress, happiness, and English patterns Enlightenment and of course philosophic one as,on the notions semantic slippery such between depict connections the and to tried conclusions of the science of man and, goingare needed. stilland on, control organization of man’ and thoughthereis about aheavy achieving discourse of individual happiness orderingas in asmuchimportant classical Also are utopias. 18 and the century classic utopian of organized withintheframes remain control genre, where utopias 18 the of formalizedhowever, patterns, totheabandoning of novelties connected natureandhuman all of foundations the of conceptualization sociability. Despite these or in of discoursechanged the direction modern TheEnlightenment utopian texts. Davis says, 18 whatJ.C. andto Contrary law predictability. the andorder, wasstability,period due to was no dynamic of change. One ofrepresenting the a maintotally new andcharacteristics detailed social order in a utopian state, at the sameof by end. the timebeginningin However, to – an the from anew order society utopiaorder offers utopia there in the early modern not adopt the theory of ‘spontaneous order’ that was common for the 18 for the was common that order’ ‘spontaneous of theory adopt the not and organization order this context it is necessary to outline the three most important features of utopia – utopia of features important most three the outline to necessary is it context this moral commonwealths and an and an ambition improve not only butto In two research chapters I introduced the discourse about utopia and Enlightenment and utopia about discourse the introduced I chapters research two In liberty, with concern its with republicanism and traditionalism to counterbalance a As th century accounts of the ideal society do continue the tradition of early . , addedsome individualization and moral philosophers’ 91 to perfect everythingorder bythemeansof th century do century utopian works th century ‘science arcadianism totality th , CEU eTD Collection of man of the 18 individual itiswills. place Therefore possible to utopia within the discourseof sciencethe modeling could order out of whereaproductiveoriginate regimes colliding common harmony. werealso a Utopias of selfishness time this knowledge produced social that in tothe Smith’s shaped philosophy contradiction was another lightseeking animal both. or Exactly Enlightenmentwithin the paradigm human vices were given – Mandevilleof the ‘science of man’ and the dilemma whether man was as a sociable being ora pleasure- treated social challenges personalitiesresponded tothe andbetter partly organizations. also Utopia themhuman perfect of visions with as shortcomings individual and explorations aids travel of impact to public benefits, while Hume’s and inimprovements 18 early 16 from the in starting inherent are all features utopias, exactly these declare that to possible constructed notconstructed only natural, the around butalsoaround human the in environments the be to began which travel, of results and practice the influenced ‘benevolence’ and citizen. for eachand happiness every utopian absolute aims at now itis getting moreindividualistic andmore and presupposes passionate, andprogress, previously equality controlledintroduced utopia discipline, passions, supervised and justice, modern wheremosttexts, of simply suggestionsthe were denialofhistoricalthe reality. If the also scale of changes, scale of main features of of whole utopian the the the are: genre society. Consequently, habits andthe persuasions collective the contradict not will individual urges where instead, The ‘sociability’, about enlightened ‘utilitarianism’, ‘civility’, discourse ‘politeness’ The utopias of the 18 th stability of this new order inanon-existentorunattainableenvironment stability ofthisnew century and until the end of the 18 the of end the until and century th century. their th century utopias became common and shared, in contrast to the early- the to in contrast shared, and common became utopias century complete penetration into thestructures oftheutopiansociety th century society, the the on-goingprovided the century about discourse th 92 . The theme of moral indignation and practical Fable . It became common becamesense common . It . It is now the wide , and , CEU eTD Collection in every aspect of ideal of in every organization. the social aspect its asocial butwithelements), howto problem the maintain individual thepassions of every counteract was ableto society that andbenevolent disciplined nature, (of abundant features with concernednot becomes and moreindividualistic general utopian and more discourse 18 the of end the By narratives. utopian various the in citizens representing in differences were there self-interest, against sympathy of visions his and Smith of theories chronologicalphilosophers. from Mandeville theories shifts same time, Atthe dueto of to moral of axioms moral of light in the world benevolent a socially created individuals andsociable,benevolent, compassionate general and contributing to well-being. Utopian by nature citizens were thatutopian showed it also meansof was by organization) utopian be hadcontrolled (allfeatures to self-regard these and selfishness human self-preservation, pursuit ideal humannature. of an which, as we could read, was very similar to the utopiannarratives. the similar to wasvery which, aswecould read, nature, human ‘other’ the of happiness and sociability civilization, equality, the about and thoroughly defended; on the contrary, they became subject toan open dispute, a dispute reflexiveform of inwhich writing valuesthe of motherthe country longer nowere applied a on a roleimaginary voyages.took had belongedTheyinitiated thatpreviously typically to Travel narratives structure. with in social the not personal was conflict rightthe to pleasure where a world, presenting were they that sense the in utopian were descriptions Travelers’ The ‘moral’ face of utopia of 18 of the utopia faceof The ‘moral’ Imaginary th century lay in century following.Despite thetheories of and real travel accounts have a lot in common. alot have accounts travel andreal 93 th century the century CEU eTD Collection Establishment andBuildings teaching Science and Religion,in the several Classes: andsome account onitsRife, Press, 1991. 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