Connental Colours (a.k.a. Grand Union Flag) 1775 – 1777 The First Unites States Flag Bales of Lexington and Concord, 19 April 1775

Paul Revere 1734 (O.S.) - 1818

Thomas Gage c. 1719 – 1787 Gov. of Massachuses Bay

William Dawes 1745 - 1799 Bale of Concord, 19 April 1775

General Gage sent 700 troops to Concord to seize colonial munions. At the North Bridge, Brish troops encountered Acton and Concord milia and a bale ensued. The Brish retreated to Boston aer finding nothing in Concord. Bale of Bunker Hill, 17 June 1775

The colonial milias of Massachuses, Conneccut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island and Providence Plantaons gathered in Cambridge and laid siege to Boston. Over 3000 colonial milia fought 2400 Brish. The Brish won a costly bale in terms of dead and wounded. Boston on 29 July 1775 Fort Ticonderoga, seized by Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys in May 1775 In the winter 1776, the cannons were hauled to Boston and brought to Dorchester Heights which prompted the Brish to evacuate Boston on 17 March 1776. The Second Connental Congress Convened at Philadelphia on 10 May 1775 and disbanded on 6 March 1781 Bale of Québec City, 31 December 1775 The American Connental Army totalling 1200 men lead by Generals Richard Montgomery (killed), Benedict Arnold, and Daniel Morgan (captured) were defeated by the Brish forces totalling 1800 men. Fiy Americans were killed, 34 wounded and 431 captured versus five Brish killed and 14 wounded. In June 1776, the Connental Congress created a commiee of five to dra a declaraon of independence

2 July 1776, the Congress voted to for independence: 12 colonies in favour 1 colony (New York) abstained

4 July 1776, the Congress approved the wording of the Declaraon of Independence, Signed the handwrien dra, and sent it to the printer.

8 July 1776 it was publicly proclaimed in Philadelphia and Easton, Penn. and in Trenton, New Jersey

9 July 1776, it was published in German. The Declaraon of Independence In Congress, July 4, 1776 Introducon

The unanimous Declaraon of the thirteen united States of America, The Congress claimed that a people have the ability to assert or claim their When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one polical independence as a maer of people to dissolve the polical bands which have connected them with Nature Law. The reasoning for that another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate independence was reasonable and and equal staon to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God explained. entle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separaon.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, Preamble that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. This paragraph jusfies the Revoluon That to secure these rights, Governments are instuted among Men, by outlying the a general philosophy of deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, That government when it can be shown that whenever any Form of Government becomes destrucve of these ends, a government is violang natural law. it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to instute new Government, laying its foundaon on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their The philosophy of government and Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments natural law was based upon the long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; theories of Englishman John Locke and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that mankind are more (1632-1704). His theory of government disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves had a significant role in the evoluon of by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long the Brish government by forming the train of abuses and usurpaons, pursuing invariably the same Object raonale of the Glorious Revoluon of evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Desposm, it is their 1688-1689. right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. Such has been the paent sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the Indictment necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is is a history The largest secon of Declaraon of repeated injuries and usurpaons, all having in direct object the of Independence is a list of establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let complaints, ‘repeated injuries and Facts be submied to a candid world. usurpaons’ of the rights of He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for liberes of Americans, many of the public good. those being the rights of He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing Englishmen that the government importance, unless suspended in their operaon ll his Assent should be of Great Britain has abused. obtained; and when so suspended, he has uerly neglected to aend to them. He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodaon of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representaon in the Legislature, a right inesmable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislave bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their Public Records, for the sole purpose of faguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved Representave Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness of his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused for a long me, aer such dissoluons, to cause others to be elected, whereby the Legislave Powers, incapable of Annihilaon, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean me exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within. He has endeavoured to prevent the populaon of these States; for that purpose obstrucng the Laws for Naturalizaon of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migraons hither, and raising the condions of new Appropriaons of Lands. He has obstructed the Administraon of Jusce by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Indictment Judiciary Powers. connued He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in mes of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil Power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdicon foreign to our constuon, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislaon: For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: For protecng them, by a mock Trial from punishment for any Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: For cung off our Trade with all parts of the world: For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent: For depriving us in many cases, of the benefit of Trial by Jury For transporng us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences: For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments: For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protecon and waging War against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this me transporng large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to compleat Indictment connued the works of death, desolaon, and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & Perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized naon. He has constrained our fellow Cizens taken Capve on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the execuoners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands. He has excited domesc insurrecons amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our froners, the merciless Indian Savages whose known rule of warfare, is an undisnguished destrucon of all ages, sexes and condions. In every stage of these Oppressions We have Peoned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Peons have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people.

Nor have We been wanng in aenons to our Brish brethren. We have warned Denunciaon them from me to me of aempts by their legislature to extend an This paragraph summarizes unwarrantable jurisdicon over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances the case for independence by of our emigraon and selement here. We have appealed to their nave jusce and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the es of our common stang the the condions that kindred to disavow these usurpaons, which, would inevitably interrupt our jusfy the revoluon have been proven. connecons and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of jusce and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separaon, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

We, therefore, the Representaves of the united States of America, in Conclusion General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectude of our intenons, do, in the Name, and by The Declaraon of Independence Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and concludes by stang the Great Britain declare, That these united Colonies are, and of Right ought to be Free created the condions that lead the and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to American people to change their the Brish Crown, and that all polical connecon between them and government and that in order to the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that bring about that change, the colonies as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, must break its polical es with the conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all Brish Crown to become free and other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do. And for independent states. the support of this Declaraon, with a firm reliance on the protecon of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our 56 men signed the Declaraon of Fortunes and our sacred Honor. Independence. John Hancock [President of the Congress, Massachuses] [Georgia:] Buon Gwinne, Lyman Hall, George Walton [North Carolina:] William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn [South Carolina:] Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward Jr., Thomas Lynch Jr., Arthur Middleton [Maryland:] Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of Carrollton [Virginia:] George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson Jr., Francis Lighoot Lee, Carter Braxton [Pennsylvania:] Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross [Delaware:] Ceasar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean [New York;] William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris [New Jersey:] Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark [New Hampshire:] Josiah Bartle, William Whipple, Mahew Thornton [He signed aer the Conneccut people] [Massachuses Bay:] Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treate Paine, Elbridge Gerry [Rhode Island and Providence Plantaons:] Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery [Conneccut:] Roger Sherman, Samuel Hunngton, William Williams, Oliver Wolco Arcles of Confederaon: The First U.S. Government

1. Congress: each state had one vote with 9 votes needed to pass anything; could not raise taxes; could not raise an army; could conduct foreign relaons 2. No Execuve (no president) 3. No judiciary 4. States retain sovereignty 5. All 13 rebelling colonies must rafy it to come into effect

Virginia first to rafy on 16 Dec. 1777 Massachuses ninth to rafy on 10 March 1778 Maryland thirteenth to rafy on 1 March 1781

Very weak government; powerless The Arcles of Confederaon and Perpetual Union Title of the document Between The States of New Hampshire, Massachuses-bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantaons, The constuent states Conneccut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

ARTICLE I The Sle of this Confederacy shall be "The United States of America". Name of the Union ARTICLE II Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, Each state is independent jurisdicon, and right, which is not by this Confederaon expressly delegated to the United States, in Congress assembled. ARTICLE III The said States hereby severally enter into a firm league of friendship with each League of friendship for other, for their common defense, the security of their liberes, and their mutual and common defence similar to general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, the United Naons. or aacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretense whatever. ARTICLE IV The beer to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and intercourse among the The states should allow people of the different States in this Union, the free inhabitants of each of these free movement between States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugives from jusce excepted, shall be entled to them to establish a sense all privileges and immunies of free cizens in the several States; and the people of friendship and trade. Also, each State shall free ingress and regress to and from any other State, and shall enjoy criminals should be therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same dues, extradited to the home imposions, and restricons as the inhabitants thereof respecvely, provided that state. such restricons shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any State, to any other State, of which the owner is an inhabitant; provided also that no imposion, dues or restricon shall be laid by any State, on the property of the United States, or either of them. If any person guilty of, or charged with, treason, felony, or other high misdemeanor in any State, shall flee from jusce, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the Governor or execuve power of the State from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the State having jurisdicon of his offense. Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these States to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other State. ARTICLE V For the most convenient management of the general interests of the United States, Each state receives one delegates shall be annually appointed in such manner as the legislatures of each vote in the Congress. State shall direct, to meet in Congress on the first Monday in November, in every States can have between year, with a power reserved to each State to recall its delegates, or any of them, at two and seven members any me within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the in their delegaon, who year. are appointed by state and No State shall be represented in Congress by less than two, nor more than seven are term limited. members; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of [Arcle VI: On next page] holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees or emolument of any kind. Only the central Each State shall maintain its own delegates in a meeng of the States, and while government (meaning the they act as members of the commiee of the States. Congress) may conduct In determining quesons in the United States in Congress assembled, each State shall foreign polical and trade have one vote. relaons, declare and Freedom of speech and debate in Congress shall not be impeached or quesoned in engage in war. The states any court or place out of Congress, and the members of Congress shall be protected cannot maintain and army in their persons from arrests or imprisonments, during the me of their going to and or navy in peace-me but from, and aendence on Congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the must keep a ready-trained peace. and equipped milia, nor may they create alliances amongst themselves. ARTICLE VI No State, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance or treaty with any King, Prince or State; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept any present, emolument, office or tle of any kind whatever from any King, Prince or foreign State; nor shall the United States in Congress assembled, or any of them, grant any tle of nobility. No two or more States shall enter into any treaty, confederaon or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall connue. No State shall lay any imposts or dues, which may interfere with any spulaons in treaes, entered into by the United States in Congress assembled, with any King, Prince or State, in pursuance of any treaes already proposed by Congress, to the courts of France and Spain. No vessel of war shall be kept up in me of peace by any State, except such number only, as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in Congress assembled, for the defense of such State, or its trade; nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any State in me of peace, except such number only, as in the judgement of the United States in Congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defense of such State; but every State shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined milia, sufficiently armed and accoutered, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of filed pieces and tents, and a proper quanty of arms, ammunion and camp equipage. No State shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resoluon being formed by some naon of Indians to invade such State, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay ll the United States in Congress assembled can be consulted; nor shall any State grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor leers of marque or reprisal, except it be aer a declaraon of war by the United States in Congress assembled, and then only against the Kingdom or State and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulaons as shall be established by the United States in Congress assembled, unless such State be infested by pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fied out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall connue, or unl the United States in Congress assembled shall determine otherwise. ARTICLE VII. When land forces are raised by any State for the common defense, all officers of or under States may appoint the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each State respecvely, by military ranks of colonel whom such forces shall be raised, or in such manner as such State shall direct, and all and those below vacancies shall be filled up by the State which first made the appointment. colonel. ARTICLE VIII. All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defense or The expenditures of the general welfare, and allowed by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be United States of defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several States in America will be paid proporon to the value of all land within each State, granted or surveyed for any person, proporonally by the as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be esmated according to states based on such mode as the United States in Congress assembled, shall from me to me direct and property values. appoint. The taxes for paying that proporon shall be laid and levied by the authority and direcon of the legislatures of the several States within the me agreed upon by the United States in Congress assembled. ARTICLE IX. The United States in Congress assembled, shall have the sole and exclusive right and power Only the Congress may of determining on peace and war, except in the cases menoned in the sixth arcle -- of wage war and peace, sending and receiving ambassadors -- entering into treaes and alliances, provided that no send and receive treaty of commerce shall be made whereby the legislave power of the respecve States ambassadors, enter into shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and dues on foreigners, as their own treaes and alliances, people are subjected to, or from prohibing the exportaon or importaon of any species establish rules for of goods or commodies whatsoever -- of establishing rules for deciding in all cases, what privateers and captures, captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval create weights and forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or appropriated -- of granng measures, and sele leers of marque and reprisal in mes of peace -- appoinng courts for the trial of piracies disputes between the and felonies commited on the high seas and establishing courts for receiving and states. determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of Congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts. ARTICLE IX (connued). The United States in Congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisng or that hereaer may arise between two or more States concerning boundary, jurisdicon or any other causes whatever; which authority shall always be exercised in the manner following. Whenever the legislave or execuve authority or lawful agent of any State in controversy with another shall present a peon to Congress stang the maer in queson and praying for a hearing, noce thereof shall be given by order of Congress to the legislave or execuve authority of the other State in controversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the pares by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constute a court for hearing and determining the maer in queson: but if they cannot agree, Congress shall name three persons out of each of the United States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the peoners beginning, unl the number shall be reduced to thirteen; and from that number not less than seven, nor more than nine names as Congress shall direct, shall in the presence of Congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determinaon: and if either party shall neglect to aend at the day appointed, without showing reasons, which Congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the Congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each State, and the secretary of Congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing; and the judgement and sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive; and if any of the pares shall refuse to submit to the authority of such court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgement, which shall in like manner be final and decisive, the judgement or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmied to Congress, and lodged among the acts of Congress for the security of the pares concerned: provided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgement, shall take an oath to be administered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the State, where the cause shall be tried, 'well and truly to hear and determine the maer in queson, according to the best of his judgement, without favor, affecon or hope of reward': provided also, that no State shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States. ARTICLE IX (connued). All controversies concerning the private right of soil claimed under different grants of two or more States, whose jurisdicons as they may respect such lands, and the States which passed such grants are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same me claimed to have originated antecedent to such selement of jurisdicon, shall on the peon of either party to the Congress of the United States, be finally determined as near as may be in the same manner as is before presecribed for deciding disputes respecng territorial jurisdicon between different States. The United States in Congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclusive right and power of regulang the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respecve States -- fixing the standards of weights and measures throughout the United States -- regulang the trade and managing all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the States, provided that the legislave right of any State within its own limits be not infringed or violated -- establishing or regulang post offices from one State to another, throughout all the United States, and exacng such postage on the papers passing through the same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office -- appoinng all officers of the land forces, in the service of the United States, excepng regimental officers -- appoinng all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States -- making rules for the government and regulaon of the said land and naval forces, and direcng their operaons. The United States in Congress assembled shall have authority to appoint a commiee, to sit in the recess of Congress, to be denominated 'A Commiee of the States', and to consist of one delegate from each State; and to appoint such other commiees and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their direcon -- to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of the United States, and to appropriate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses -- to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transming every half-year to the respecve States an account of the sums of money so borrowed or emied -- to build and equip a navy -- to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisions from each State for its quota, in proporon to the number of white inhabitants in such State; which requision shall be binding, and thereupon the legislature of each ARTICLE IX (connued). State shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men and cloath, arm and equip them in a solid-like manner, at the expense of the United States; and the officers and men so cloathed, armed and equipped shall march to the place appointed, and within the me agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. But if the United States in Congress assembled shall, on consideraon of circumstances judge proper that any State should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, cloathed, armed and equipped in the same manner as the quota of each State, unless the legislature of such State shall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spread out in the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, cloath, arm and equip as many of such extra number as they judeg can be safely spared. And the officers and men so cloathed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the me agreed on by the United States in Congress assembled. The United States in Congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant leers of marque or reprisal in me of peace, nor enter into any treaes or alliances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defense and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war, to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a commander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine States assent to the same: nor shall a queson on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day be determined, unless by the votes of the majority of the United States in Congress assembled. The Congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any me within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duraon than the space of six months, and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof relang to treaes, alliances or military operaons, as in their judgement require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each State on any queson shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegates of a State, or any of them, at his or their request shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several States. ARTICLE X. The Commiee of the States, or any nine of them, shall be authorized to execute, When Congress was not in the recess of Congress, such of the powers of Congress as the United States in meeng, a commiee of the Congress assembled, by the consent of the nine States, shall from me to me States of not less than nine think expedient to vest them with; provided that no power be delegated to the states will exercise the said Commiee, for the exercise of which, by the Arcles of Confederaon, the power of Congress. voice of nine States in the Congress of the United States assembled be requisite. ARTICLE XI. Canada acceding to this confederaon, and adjoining in the measures of the Canada (also known as United States, shall be admied into, and entled to all the advantages of this Quebec) can join if it Union; but no other colony shall be admied into the same, unless such admission chooses. be agreed to by nine States. ARTICLE XII. All bills of credit emied, monies borrowed, and debts contracted by, or under the The Confederaon assumes authority of Congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the war debts of Congress the present confederaon, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against prior to adopon of the the United States, for payment and sasfacon whereof the said United States, Arcles. and the public faith are hereby solemnly pleged. ARTICLE XIII. Every State shall abide by the determinaon of the United States in Congress The Confederaon is assembled, on all quesons which by this confederaon are submied to them. permanent and can only be And the Arcles of this Confederaon shall be inviolably observed by every State, changed when all the state and the Union shall be perpetual; nor shall any alteraon at any me hereaer be legislatures agree. made in any of them; unless such alteraon be agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be aerwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State. And Whereas it hath pleased the Great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respecvely represent in Congress, to approve of, and to authorize us to rafy the said Arcles of Confederaon and perpetual Union. Know Ye that we the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and authority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respecve constuents, fully and enrely rafy and confirm each and every of the said Arcles of Confederaon and perpetual Union, and all and singular the maers and things therein contained: And we do further solemnly plight and engage the faith of our respecve constuents, that they shall abide by the determinaons of the United States in Congress assembled, on all quesons, which by the said Confederaon are submied to them. And that the Arcles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the States we respecvely represent, and that the Union shall be perpetual. In Witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands in Congress. DONE at Philadelphia, in the State of Penn∫ylvania, the 9th day of July, in the Year of our Lord 1778, and in the third year of the independence of America.

The aforesaid arcles of confederaon were finally rafied on the fir∫t day of March 1781; the state of Maryland having, by their Members in Congre∫s , on that day acceded thereto, and completed the ∫ame.

New Hampshire: Josiah Bartle, John Wentworth, jun. Massachuses Bay: John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, Francis Dana, James Lovell, Samuel Holten Rhode Island and Providence Plantaons: William Ellery, Henry Marchant, John Collins Conneccut: Roger Sherman, Samuel Hunngton, Oliver Wolco, Titus Hosmer, Andrew Adams New York: James Duane, Francis Lewis, William Duer, Governeur Morris New Jersey: John Witherspoon, Nathaniel Scudder Pennsylvania: Robert Morris, Daniel Roberdeau, John Bayard Smith, William Clingan, Joseph Reed Delaware: Thomas M’Kean, John Dickinson, Nicholas Van Dyke Maryland: John Hanson, Daniel Carroll Virginia: Richard Henry Lee, John Banister, Thomas Adams, John Harvie, Francis Lighoot Lee N. Carolina: John Penn, Cornelius Harne, John Williams S. Carolina: Henry Laurens, William Henry Drayton, John Mathews, Richard Huston, Thomas Heyward jun. Georgia: John Walton, Edward Telfair, Edward Longworthy Spring 1776 focus of the Rebellion turns to New York and New Jersey

Washington forfies Brooklyn Heights with about 9500 men; another 9500 are on Manhaan. Howe has 32,000 men on Staten Island and Manhaan. He aacks Americans on 27 Aug 1776.

Washington retreats to White Plains and the Brish follow. Americans Retreat through New Jersey to Pennsylvania with Brish in pursuit.

Fighng in New Jersey had the characteriscs of a civil war as there was a strong Loyalist populaon Washington with 2400 men crosses the Delaware on 25 – 26 December 1776 and surprises Hessian troops, killing or capturing 1000. Brish and Americans then fight for control of New Jersey. Bale of Saratoga

Americans stop Brish aempt to take control of the Hudson River Valley which would have isolated New England from the lower colonies Brish invade Georgia and South Carolina. Southern colonies had strong Loyalist tendencies.

Fighng in the southern colonies had the characteriscs of a civil war French Assistance 1780 – 1781

Jean-Bapste Donaen de Vemeur, comte de Rochambeau Leads an army of 7000 French troops

The French Army lands at Newport, Rhode Island and Providence Plantaons on 10 July 1780. The French Navy is trapped in Naraganse Bay by the Royal Navy. In July 1781 The French Army travels south to New York to join Washington. Together The two armies march south into Virginia where they lay siege to the Brish Army at Yorktown. The French Navy prevents a Brish retreat by sea. On 19 October 1781, Lord Cornwallis surrenders to the American and French armies effecvely ending the War for American Independence. Treaty of Paris, 1783 l – r: John Jay, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Henry Laurens and William Franklin The Brish refused to sit The Brish recognize the United States, grants the U.S. fishing rights off Newfoundland, The U.S. to provide compensaon to the Loyalists; Mutual access to the Mississippi; Established the borders of the Unites States and Brish North America

The various states had overlapping territorial claims.

Between 1784 and 1802 the states cede their claims to the Congress.

The Congress sets the rules for new States: no slavery north of the Ohio River; and new States must have a minimum of 60,000 people Constuonal Convenon May to September 1787

Basic ideas established: 1. Separaon of Powers 2. Execuve (President) a. Chosen by electoral college b. Four-year term c. Veto bills d. Commands military 3. Bicameral Legislature a. Senate, appointed by states b. House, elected by populaon c. Declares war, raises army, raise taxes, make laws, regulate commerce 4. Judiciary 5. Federalism a. Constuon supreme law b. Supreme Courts adjudicates disputes between states c. Receive powers not reserved to federal government

Constuon comes into force on 21 June 1788 aer the 9th state – New Hampshire – rafies The Constuon. The Constuonal Convenon met at Independence Hall. There were 55 delegates represenng 12 states of the confederaon; Rhode Island and Providence Plantaons declined to send delegates. The Virginia Plan for the government

Virginia delegates proposed a powerful bi-cameral (two house) legislature whose membership would be determined proporonally by populaon of the states. The lower house would be directly elected by the people. The lower house would then elect the upper house. The legislature would select an execuve thereby giving the legislature control over the execuve. An independent judiciary would be created. The execuve would have veto power while the judiciary would have limited veto power. The veto could be over-ridden by the legislature. New Jersey Plan for government

The small states rejected the Virginia Plan as it ignored the equality of the states. The small states offered the New Jersey Plan which would have retained the exisng unicameral (one house) legislature and given it expanded powers to levy and collect taxes. Each state would be equal in vong for legislaon. A mul- person execuve would be elected by the legislature and serve only one term. A judiciary would be created. Judges who would be appointed by the execuve would serve for life. Laws created by Congress would take precedence over state laws. Hamilton Plan (or Brish Plan) for the government

This plan was compromise between the Virginia Plan and New Jersey Plan. It would have established a bi- cameral legislature. The people would elect the lower house for three-year terms. Electors chosen by the people would elect the upper house (Senate) who would serve for life. The lectors would also choose the Governor who would serve for life and have the right to veto legislaon. The naonal legislature would elect the governors of the states and would be able to veto state legislaon. There would be an independent judiciary. The plan was rejected as resembling the Brish system of the 1780s and took too much power from the states. The Conneccut Plan or the Great Compromise of 1787

Roger Sherman of Conneccut offered a compromise which solved the problem of representaon by populaon (Virginia) versus equal represent by state (New Jersey). There would be a bi-cameral legislature. The lower house would be elected directly by the people and be based on the populaon of the states. The upper house would represent the states and have equal representaon from each state; therefore, retaining the federal character of the union. The state legislatures would appoint the representaves to the upper house. Revenue bills (budget, taxaon) would start in the lower house.

The proposal stated that representaon would be based upon the free populaon of the states. The Southern states wanted to count the un-free inhabitants of their states to determine representaon in the lower house. Another compromise was needed. At the Constuonal convenon, 25 of the 55 delegates were slave owners. All the delegates from Virginias and South Carolina were slave owners including George Washington and James Madison. Approximately one-fih of all people in the United States in 1790 were slaves of which 90% lived in southern states. Roughly one in three Southern families owned slaves.

The Three-Fihs Compromise Virginia insisted that slaves be counted to determine the number of representaves each state would send to the lower house but not be counted for taxaon purposes. Northern states wanted to count only free persons for representaon and count free person and slaves for taxaon purposes. The compromise was free persons and indentures people would count as whole persons and slaves would count as three-fihs of a person for the purposes of Congressional representaon and taxes. Firth Naons peoples were not counted at all nor taxed.

From 1791 to 1801, slave states were given 47 seats in Congress rather than 33 if slaves had not been counted. We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, Preamble or introducon establish Jusce, insure domesc Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to Sets the purpose of the ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constuon for the document United States of America.

Arcle. I. The Legislave Branch: Secon. 1. Congress All legislave Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representaves. A bi-cameral legislature will hold Secon. 2. all legislave powers. The House of Representaves shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each The House of Representaves: State shall have the Qualificaons requisite for Electors of the most two-year term, be at least age numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 25, a U.S. cizen for at least No Person shall be a Representave who shall not have aained to the Age seven years, and living in the of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Cizen of the United States, state that elects you. and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representaves and direct Taxes shall be apporoned among the several Representaon based on States which may be included within this Union, according to their respecve populaon including slaves Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free (slavery eliminated by 14th Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Amendment); populaon to be Indians not taxed, three fihs of all other Persons. The actual Enumeraon counted every ten years; inial shall be made within three Years aer the first Meeng of the Congress of apporonment of seats in the the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such first Congress Manner as they shall by Law direct. The number of Representaves shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at Least one Representave; and unl such enumeraon shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entled to chuse three, Massachuses eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantaons one, Conneccut five, New-York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the Representaon from any State, the Execuve Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Elecon to fill such Vacancies. The House of Representaves shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers; and May select their officials shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Secon. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each Two Senators for each state, State, chosen by the Legislature thereof for six Years; and each Senator shall six year-term have one Vote. Immediately aer they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Elecon, One-third elected at a me they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the to have staggered Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiraon of the second Year, membership. of the second Class at the Expiraon of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiraon of the sixth Year, so that one third may be chosen every second Year; and if Vacancies happen by Resignaon, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Execuve thereof may make Changed by 17th Amendment temporary Appointments unl the next Meeng of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have aained to the Age of thirty Must be at least 30 years old, a Years, and been nine Years a Cizen of the United States, and who shall not, cizen for nine years and a when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. resident of your state. The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but Vice President is Senate President shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of May select their officials President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. When The Senate holds impeachment sing for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmaon. When the trials. President of the United States is tried, the Chief Jusce shall preside: And no Person shall be convicted without the Concurrence of two thirds of the Members present. Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to Successful impeachment means removal from Office, and disqualificaon to hold and enjoy any Office of removal from office and the honor, Trust or Profit under the United States: but the Party convicted inability to hold public office again. shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. Secon. 4. The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elecons for Senators and Determines when elecons will be Representaves, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature held, the manner determined by thereof; but the Congress may at any me by Law make or alter such the states. Regulaons, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeng shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law Changed by 20th Amendment appoint a different Day. Secon. 5. Each House shall be the Judge of the Elecons, Returns and Qualificaons of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constute a Quorum to The House and Senate determine do Business; but a smaller Number may adjourn from day to day, and may their own rules. be authorized to compel the Aendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penales as each House may provide. Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member. Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from me to me publish the same, excepng such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any queson shall, at the Desire of one fih of those Present, be entered on the Journal. Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sing. Secon. 6. The Senators and Representaves shall receive a Compensaon for their Senators and Congressmen Services, to be ascertained by Law, and paid out of the Treasury of the will receive pay and may not United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony and Breach be arrested except under of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Aendance at the certain condions while Session of their respecve Houses, and in going to and returning from Congress is meeng. the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be quesoned in any other Place. No Senator or Representave shall, during the Time for which he was They may not hold appointed elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the office within the government. United States, which shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof shall have been encreased during such me; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Connuance in Office. Secon. 7. Revenue bills start in the All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of House of Representaves Representaves; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representaves and the Bills must pass both houses; Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the President must sign the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return them into law or veto them; it, with his Objecons to that House in which it shall have originated, Congress may over-ride a who shall enter the Objecons at large on their Journal, and proceed to veto by two-thirds vote in reconsider it. If aer such Reconsideraon two thirds of that House shall each house. agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objecons, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons vong for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respecvely. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) aer it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. Every Order, Resoluon, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representaves may be necessary (except on a queson of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Representaves, according to the Rules and Limitaons prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Secon. 8. This secon states what Congress The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Dues, Imposts may oversee: Taxaon; borrow and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and Money; regulate Commerce with general Welfare of the United States; but all Dues, Imposts and Excises foreign naons and the Indians; shall be uniform throughout the United States; regulate cizenship; coin and To borrow Money on the credit of the United States; regulate money; establish post To regulate Commerce with foreign Naons, and among the several offices and roads; promote science States, and with the Indian Tribes; and art; create courts; raise and To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalizaon, and uniform Laws on the maintain an Army and Navy; subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; establish a capital city; build To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the federal buildings, and make “all Standard of Weights and Measures; Laws necessary and proper” to do all the above. To provide for the Punishment of counterfeing the Securies and current Coin of the United States; To establish Post Offices and post Roads; To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respecve Wrings and Discoveries; To constute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; To define and punish Piracies and Felonies commied on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Naons; To declare War, grant Leers of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriaon of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years; To provide and maintain a Navy; To make Rules for the Government and Regulaon of the land and naval Forces; To provide for calling forth the Milia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrecons and repel Invasions; To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Milia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respecvely, the Appointment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Milia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; To exercise exclusive Legislaon in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of parcular States, and the Acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erecon of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock-Yards, and other needful Buildings; --And To make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execuon the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constuon in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. Secon. 9. Limits on the Powers of The Migraon or Importaon of such Persons as any of the States now Congress: exisng shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a Tax or duty No restricons upon the may be imposed on such Importaon, not exceeding ten dollars for each importaon of slaves unl Person. 1808 when it becomes illegal. The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless No unlawful arrest when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. No convicon without trial No Bill of Aainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. No Capitaon, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proporon to the Changed by 16th Amendment Census or Enumeraon herein before directed to be taken. No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Arcles exported from any State. No Preference shall be given by any Regulaon of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Dues in another. No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriaons made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be published from me to me. No Title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States: And no Person Congress cannot created holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent nobility; People holding office of the Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or Title, of any cannot receive foreign gis or kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. tles. Secon. 10. States are prohibied from No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederaon; grant Leers of conducng foreign relaons, Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing but gold creang money or coinage, and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Aainder, ex post convicng people without facto Law, or Law impairing the Obligaon of Contracts, or grant any Title of trial. Nobility. No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Dues States cannot impose import on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for execung and export taxes. it's inspecon Laws: and the net Produce of all Dues and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Congress. States cannot maintain No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep armies, wage war or make Troops, or Ships of War in me of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact alliances with other states. with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of delay.

Arcle. II. The Execuve Branch: Secon. 1. The Presidency The execuve Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together The execuve is the President with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term, be elected, as follows: who holds office for fours Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, years. There is a Vice a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and President. Representaves to which the State may be entled in the Congress: but no Senator or Representave, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under States appoint the electors of the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. the President and Vice The Electors shall meet in their respecve States, and vote by Ballot for two President. Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, This clause discusses the manner and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and in which the electoral college cerfy, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United chooses the President and Vice States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the President. The selecon process Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representaves, significantly changed through the open all the Cerficates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person 12th amendment. having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representaves shall immediately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representaon from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, aer the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President. The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Congress sets the date of naonal Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same elecon. throughout the United States. No Person except a natural born Cizen, or a Cizen of the United States, The President must be a natural at the me of the Adopon of this Constuon, shall be eligible to the born cizen, be 35 years old and Office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that Office who be resident in the country for 14 shall not have aained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen years. Years a Resident within the United States. In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Determines what happens when Resignaon, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Dues of the said if the Presidency becomes Office, the Same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may vacant; Replaced by 25th by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resignaon or Inability, amendment both of the President and Vice President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, unl the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Presidenal pay Compensaon, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the Currently $400,000 per annum Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the Execuon of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmaon:--"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully Presidenal Oath execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constuon of the United States." Secon. 2. Presidenal Powers: The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Milia of the several States, when called into the Commander in Chief of the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in wring, military of the principal Officer in each of the execuve Departments, upon any Subject relang to the Dues of their respecve Offices, and he shall have Grant pardons Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to Make Treaes and appoint his make Treaes, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he advisors, ambassadors, federal shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, judges and other offices subject shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of to Senate approval. the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen Fill vacancies when Congress during the Recess of the Senate, by granng Commissions which shall is not meeng. expire at the End of their next Session. Secon. 3. He shall from me to me give to the Congress Informaon of the State of The President must address Congress once a year: The State the Union, and recommend to their Consideraon such Measures as he of the Union; may convene shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement Congress in emergencies; may between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn make recommendaons; may them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors receive ambassadors; execute the law; and appoint military and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully officers. executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the United States. Secon. 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, Reasons for removal from office shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Convicon of, (impeachment) Treason, Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors.

Arcle III. The Judiciary: Secon. 1. The Supreme Court The judicial Power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from me to me Judicial power held by the ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, Supreme Court and its lower shall hold their Offices during good Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, courts; Judges will serve for life receive for their Services a Compensaon, which shall not be diminished and be paid. during their Connuance in Office. Secon. 2. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising The Supreme Court has original under this Constuon, the Laws of the United States, and Treaes made, jurisdicon in some areas and or which shall be made, under their Authority;--to all Cases affecng appellate jurisdicon in others. Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;--to all Cases of admiralty It also performs judicial review. and marime Jurisdicon;--to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;--to Controversies between two or more States; —between Changed by the 11th amendment a State and Cizens of another State;—between Cizens of different States; —between Cizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Cizens thereof, and foreign States, Cizens or Subjects. In all Cases affecng Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdicon. In all the other Cases before menoned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdicon, both as to Law and Fact, with such Excepons, and under such Regulaons as the Congress shall make. Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and Requires trial by jury in all criminal such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been cases except impeachment. commied; but when not commied within any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Secon. 3. Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against The Supreme Court oversees them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No trials regarding treason and Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Tesmony of two punishment for treason. Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Court. The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Aainder of Treason shall work Corrupon of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person aainted. Arcle. IV. Secon. 1. Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, States must recognize the laws, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress acts, records and judicial may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records proceedings of other states. and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Secon. 2. Cizens are entles to protecons The Cizens of each State shall be entled to all Privileges and Immunies and rights in all states. of Cizens in the several States. A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony, or other Crime, who Fugives must be extradited to shall flee from Jusce, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the state from which they fled. the execuve Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdicon of the Crime. No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, Fugive slave clause; voided by escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulaon the 13th amendment. therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Secon. 3. New States may be admied by the Congress into this Union; but no new The admission of new states and State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdicon of any other State; the condions for admiance nor any State be formed by the Juncon of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all needful Rules Congress makes law and rules and Regulaons respecng the Territory or other Property belonging to regarding territories (i.e. Puerto the United States; and nothing in this Constuon shall be so construed as Rico, Guam, etc.) and federal to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any parcular State. property. Secon. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Every state must have must have a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against republican form of government as Invasion; and on Applicaon of the Legislature, or of the Execuve (when opposed to monarchical. the Legislature cannot be convened), against domesc Violence.

Arcle. V. The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses shall deem it This is the amending formula or necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constuon, or, on the process for the constuon: starts in Applicaon of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall the Congress with a two-thirds vote call a Convenon for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall in each house followed by be valid to all Intents and Purposes, as Part of this Constuon, when raficaon in three-fourths of the rafied by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by states. Convenons in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Raficaon may be proposed by the Congress; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Secon of the first Arcle; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate.

Arcle. VI. All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adopon The new government will assume of this Constuon, shall be as valid against the United States under this the debts of the old government. Constuon, as under the Confederaon. This Constuon, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made The Constuon, Laws in support in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaes made, or which shall be made, of it, and treaes are the supreme under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the law of the United States. Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constuon or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. The Senators and Representaves before menoned, and the Members of All federal and state office the several State Legislatures, and all execuve and judicial Officers, both of holders will swear an oath to the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or uphold the Constuon. No Affirmaon, to support this Constuon; but no religious Test shall ever be religious qualificaon to hold required as a Qualificaon to any Office or public Trust under the United office. States.

Arcle. VII. The Raficaon of the Convenons of nine States, shall be sufficient for the Raficaon by nine states to Establishment of this Constuon between the States so rafying the Same. create the new government.

The Word, "the," being interlined between the seventh and eighth Lines of the first Page, the Word "Thirty" being partly wrien on an Erazure in the Correcons and omissions fieenth Line of the first Page, The Words "is tried" being interlined between the thirty second and thirty third Lines of the first Page and the Word "the" being interlined between the forty third and forty fourth Lines of the second Page.

Aest William Jackson Secretary done in Convenon by the Unanimous Consent of the States present the Date of 17 September 1787 Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven and signatures of the 55 hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independance of the United States of delegates from 12 states; America the Twelh In witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Rhode Island and Providence Names, Plantaons did not aend.

George Washington, Presidt and Deputy from Virginia

And 54 other delegates from 12 states

Congress of the United States The Bill of Rights begun and held at the City of New-York, on Wednesday the fourth of March, one thousand seven hundred and eighty nine. The debate there was vigorous THE Convenons of a number of the States, having at the me of their debate in the states, especially adopng the Constuon, expressed a desire, in order to prevent in Massachuses, New York and misconstrucon or abuse of its powers, that further declaratory and restricve Virginia. Massachuses clauses should be added: And as extending the ground of public confidence in demanded amendments. To the Government, will best ensure the beneficent ends of its instuon. ensure raficaon of the RESOLVED by the Senate and House of Representaves of the United States of Constuon, a promise was America, in Congress assembled, two thirds of both Houses concurring, that the made that the first Congress following Arcles be proposed to the Legislatures of the several States, as would submit amendments. amendments to the Constuon of the United States, all, or any of which The Bill of Rights are based on Arcles, when rafied by three fourths of the said Legislatures, to be valid to all the English Bill of Rights of 1689. intents and purposes, as part of the said Constuon; viz. ARTICLES in addion to, and Amendment of the Constuon of the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and rafied by the Legislatures of the several States, pursuant to the fih Arcle of the original Constuon.

Amendment I Congress shall make no law respecng an establishment of religion, or The freedoms from and of prohibing the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of religion, of speech, of the press, the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to peon the of assembly and of peon. Government for a redress of grievances.

Amendment II A well regulated Milia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the Gun rights right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed.

Amendment III No Soldier shall, in me of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent No soldiers in private homes. of the Owner, nor in me of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.

Amendment IV The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, No unlawful search and against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no seizure without a warrant and Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or without probable cause. affirmaon, and parcularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

Amendment V No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, Protects people against unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in government abuse of the the land or naval forces, or in the Milia, when in actual service in me of War legal system; Indictment by or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be Grand Jury; Cannot be tried twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case twice for the same crime; to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, Protecon against self- without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, incriminaon; Protecon of without just compensaon. property.

Amendment VI In all criminal prosecuons, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and Rights of the accused to fair, public trial, by an imparal jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall speedy trial by jury and the have been commied, which district shall have been previously ascertained by right to legal assistance. law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusaon; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. Amendment VII In Suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty The right to trial by jury in civil dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a cases. jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law.

Amendment VIII Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel No cruel or unusual punishment and unusual punishments inflicted.

Amendment IX The enumeraon in the Constuon, of certain rights, shall not be Limits government power to what construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. is wrien in the Constuon.

Amendment X States rights; Powers not menoned The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constuon, nor in the Constuon are le to the prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respecvely, or to states. the people.

Note: Twelve arcles were proposed as amendments in the First Congress on 25 September 1789. th Ten arcles were rafied on 15 December 1791 when Virginia became the 11 of 14 states to rafy them (Vermont had become a state); two arcles were rejected by several states. The ten arcles (3 to 12) became the first ten amendments to the Constuon. The second arcle eventually became the 27th amendment in 1992. Since 1791 there have been 17 more amendments for a total of 27 amendments to the Constuon. AMENDMENT XI Passed by Congress 4 March 1794. Rafied 7 February 1795. The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to Modifies Arcle III, secon 2, of the any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the Constuon United States by Cizens of another State, or by Cizens or Subjects of any Foreign State.

AMENDMENT XII Passed by Congress 9 December 1803. Rafied 15 June 1804. The Electors shall meet in their respecve states and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an A poron of Arcle II, secon 1 of inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their the Constuon was superseded by ballots the person voted for as President, and in disnct ballots the person the 12th amendment. It corrects a voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make disnct lists of all persons problem in the elecon of the voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of President and Vice President so that the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and cerfy, and electoral vong for each is clearly transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed separate. It ensured that the to the President of the Senate; -- the President of the Senate shall, in the President and Vice President would presence of the Senate and House of Representaves, open all the be from the same party without cerficates and the votes shall then be counted; -- The person having the specifically stang it. greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representaves shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representaon from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representaves shall not choose a President whenever the right Modified by secon 3 of the 20th of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next amendment. following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in case of the death or other constuonal disability of the President. -- The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constuonally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

AMENDMENT XIII Passed by Congress 31 January 1865. Rafied 6 December 1865. Secon 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime Ends slavery and nullifies Arcle whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United IV, secon 2 of the Constuon, States, or any place subject to their jurisdicon. the Fugive Slave clause Secon 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this arcle by appropriate legislaon.

AMENDMENT XIV Passed by Congress 13 June 1866. Rafied 9 July 1868. Secon 1. Establishes cizenship; States may All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the not infringe upon cizenship; jurisdicon thereof, are cizens of the United States and of the State wherein Establishes due process; States they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the may not infringe upon equal privileges or immunies of cizens of the United States; nor shall any State protecon under the law. deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdicon the equal protecon of the laws. Secon 2. Representaves shall be apporoned among the several States according to Modifies Arcle 1, secon 2 of the their respecve numbers, counng the whole number of persons in each Constuon by eliminang the State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any elecon three-fihs clause for counng for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United people. Male suffrage for men at States, Representaves in Congress, the Execuve and Judicial officers of a least 21 years of age. State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and cizens of the Modified by the 26th Amendment United States, or in any way abridged, except for parcipaon in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representaon therein shall be reduced in the proporon which the number of such male cizens shall bear to the whole number of male cizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Secon 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representave in Congress, or elector of Prevented Confederate federal President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the and state office holders or United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a military officers from holding member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of public office or military office in any State legislature, or as an execuve or judicial officer of any State, to the United States federal or state support the Constuon of the United States, shall have engaged in governments or military. insurrecon or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disability. Secon 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, The United States will not assume including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounes for services in the debts of the Confederacy nor suppressing insurrecon or rebellion, shall not be quesoned. But neither the compensate slave-owners for the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligaon ‘loss of property’ in slaves. incurred in aid of insurrecon or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipaon of any slave; but all such debts, obligaons and claims shall be held illegal and void. Secon 5. The Congress shall have the power to enforce, by appropriate legislaon, the Enforcement clause provisions of this arcle.

AMENDMENT XV Passed by Congress 26 February 1869. Rafied 3 February 1870. Secon 1. The right of cizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged Vong rights: no states may deny by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous cizens of the right to vote condion of servitude-- Secon 2. The Congress shall have the power to enforce this arcle by appropriate Enforcement clause legislaon.

AMENDMENT XVI Passed by Congress 2 July 1909. Rafied 3 February 1913. Modifies Arcle I, secon 9 of The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from the Constuon allowing an whatever source derived, without apporonment among the several States, income tax. and without regard to any census or enumeraon.

AMENDMENT XVII Passed by Congress 13 May 1912. Rafied 8 April 1913. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have Modifies Arcle I, secon 3 of one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualificaons requisite for the Constuon to allow the electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. direct elecon of Senators by When vacancies happen in the representaon of any State in the Senate, the the people. execuve authority of such State shall issue writs of elecon to fill such. vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may empower the execuve thereof to make temporary appointments unl the people fill the vacancies by elecon as the legislature may direct. This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the elecon or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constuon.

AMENDMENT XVIII Passed by Congress 18 December 18, 1917. Rafied 16 January 1919. Repealed by amendment 21. Secon 1. Aer one year from the raficaon of this arcle the manufacture, sale, or Prohibion of the sale of alcohol transportaon of intoxicang liquors within, the importaon thereof into, or the exportaon thereof from the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdicon thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. Secon 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent power to enforce this arcle by appropriate legislaon. Secon 3. This arcle shall be inoperave unless it shall have been rafied as an States given only seven years to amendment to the Constuon by the legislatures of the several States, as rafy provided in the Constuon, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

AMENDMENT XIX Passed by Congress 4 June 1919. Rafied 18 August 1920. The right of cizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or Female suffrage: the right for abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex. women to vote Congress shall have power to enforce this arcle by appropriate legislaon. AMENDMENT XX Passed by Congress 2 March 1932. Rafied 23 January 1933. Secon 1. The terms of the President and the Vice President shall end at noon on the 20th Modifies part of the 12th day of January, and the terms of Senators and Representaves at noon on the 3rd Amendment by changing the end day of January, of the years in which such terms would have ended if this arcle of the terms of office to 20 had not been rafied; and the terms of their successors shall then begin. January for the President and 3 Secon 2. January for Congress The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeng shall begin at noon on the 3d day of January, unless they shall by law appoint a Modifies Arcle I, secon 4 of the different day. Constuon by stang Secon 3. Congressional terms begin on 3 If, at the me fixed for the beginning of the term of the President, the President January elect shall have died, the Vice President elect shall become President. If a President shall not have been chosen before the me fixed for the beginning of his Modifies part of the 12th term, or if the President elect shall have failed to qualify, then the Vice President Amendment by stang the Vice elect shall act as President unl a President shall have qualified; and the Congress President elect becomes may by law provide for the case wherein neither a President elect nor a Vice President should the President President shall have qualified, declaring who shall then act as President, or the elect die and the circumstances manner in which one who is to act shall be selected, and such person shall act of an acng president. accordingly unl a President or Vice President shall have qualified. Secon 4. The Congress may by law provide for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the House of Representaves may choose a President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them, and for the case of the death of any of the persons from whom the Senate may choose a Vice President whenever the right of choice shall have devolved upon them. Secon 5. Secons 1 and 2 shall take effect on the 15th day of October following the Effecve date raficaon of this arcle. Secon 6. This arcle shall be inoperave unless it shall have been rafied as an Seven-year me limit to rafy. amendment to the Constuon by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission.

AMENDMENT XXI Passed by Congress 20 February 1933. Rafied 5 December 1933. Secon 1. The eighteenth arcle of amendment to the Constuon of the United States Repealed Prohibion (the 18th is hereby repealed. Amendment). Secon 2. The transportaon or importaon into any State, Territory, or Possession of Prohibited importaon of alcohol the United States for delivery or use therein of intoxicang liquors, in violaon into states where alcohol remained of the laws thereof, is hereby prohibited. illegal. Secon 3. This arcle shall be inoperave unless it shall have been rafied as an amendment to the Constuon by convenons in the several States, as Seven-year me limit to rafy. provided in the Constuon, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

AMENDMENT XXII Passed by Congress 21 March 1947. Rafied 27 February 1951. Secon 1. No person shall be elected to the office of the President more than twice, and Limits the President to two terms in no person who has held the office of President, or acted as President, for more office. than two years of a term to which some other person was elected President shall be elected to the office of President more than once. But this Arcle shall not apply to any person holding the office of President when this Arcle was proposed by Congress, and shall not prevent any person who may be holding the office of President, or acng as President, during the term within which this Arcle becomes operave from holding the office of President or acng as President during the remainder of such term. Secon 2. This arcle shall be inoperave unless it shall have been rafied as an Seven-year me limit to rafy. amendment to the Constuon by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States within seven years from the date of its submission to the States by the Congress.

AMENDMENT XXIII Passed by Congress 16 June 1960. Rafied 29 March 1961. Secon 1. The District constung the seat of Government of the United States shall Allows residents of the District of appoint in such manner as Congress may direct: Columbia to vote in presidenal A number of electors of President and Vice President equal to the whole elecons as if it were a state. number of Senators and Representaves in Congress to which the District would be entled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State; they shall be in addion to those appointed by the States, but they shall be considered, for the purposes of the elecon of President and Vice President, to be electors appointed by a State; and they shall meet in the District and perform such dues as provided by the twelh arcle of amendment. Secon 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this arcle by appropriate Enforcement clause legislaon.

AMENDMENT XXIV Passed by Congress 27 August 1962. Rafied 23 January 1964. Secon 1. The right of cizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other Vong rights: Poll taxes are illegal elecon for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representave in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay poll tax or other tax. Secon 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this arcle by appropriate legislaon. Enforcement clause

AMENDMENT XXV Passed by Congress 6 July 1965. Rafied 10 February 1967. Secon 1. In case of the removal of the President from office or of his death or Note: Modifies Arcle II, secon 1 of resignaon, the Vice President shall become President. the Constuon by clarifying when Secon 2. the Vice President becomes President, Whenever there is a vacancy in the office of the Vice President, the how the Vice President is replaced President shall nominate a Vice President who shall take office upon upon the vacancy of that office and confirmaon by a majority vote of both Houses of Congress. the circumstances of when there is an Secon 3. Acng President. Whenever the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representaves his wrien declaraon that he is unable to discharge the powers and dues of his office, and unl he transmits to them a wrien declaraon to the contrary, such powers and dues shall be discharged by the Vice President as Acng President. Secon 4. Whenever the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the execuve departments or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representaves their wrien declaraon that the President is unable to discharge the powers and dues of his office, the Vice President shall immediately assume the powers and dues of the office as Acng President. Thereaer, when the President transmits to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representaves his wrien declaraon that no inability exists, he shall resume the powers and dues of his office unless the Vice President and a majority of either the principal officers of the execuve department or of such other body as Congress may by law provide, transmit within four days to the President pro tempore of the Senate and the Speaker of the House of Representaves their wrien declaraon that the President is unable to discharge the powers and dues of his office. Thereupon Congress shall decide the issue, assembling within forty-eight hours for that purpose if not in session. If the Congress, within twenty-one days aer receipt of the laer wrien declaraon, or, if Congress is not in session, within twenty- one days aer Congress is required to assemble, determines by two-thirds vote of both Houses that the President is unable to discharge the powers and dues of his office, the Vice President shall connue to discharge the same as Acng President; otherwise, the President shall resume the powers and dues of his office.

AMENDMENT XXVI Passed by Congress 23 March 1971. Rafied 1 July 1971. Secon 1. Modified Amendment 14, secon 2 of The right of cizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or the Constuon to lower the vong older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by age to 18 years old. any State on account of age. Secon 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this arcle by appropriate Enforcement clause legislaon.

AMENDMENT XXVII Originally proposed 25 September 1792. Rafied 7 May 1992. No law, varying the compensaon for the services of the Senators and Congressional pay increases take Representaves, shall take effect, unl an elecon of representaves shall effect in the next Congress. have intervened. This was one of the twelve original amendments proposed in 1789. It took 203 years to rafy it.