ВЕСТНИК ПЕРМСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА. ЮРИДИЧЕСКИЕ НАУКИ 2016 PERM UNIVERSITY HERALD. JURIDICAL SCIENCES Issue 33

Information for citation: Khudoley D. M. Klassifikatsiya izbiratel’nykh sistem [Classification of Electoral Systems]. Vestnik Permskogo universiteta. Juridicheskie nauki – Perm University Herald. Juridical Sciences. 2016. Issue 33. Pp. 258–267. (In Russ.). DOI: 10.17072/1995-4190-2016-33-258-267.

UDC 342.8 DOI: 10.17072/1995-4190-2016-33-258-267  CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMS

D. M. Khudoley Perm State University 15, Bukireva st., Perm, 614990, Russia ORCID: 0000-0001-5870-1537 ResearcherID: E-3184-2016 e-mail: [email protected]

Introduction: the article analyzes classification of electoral systems. Purpose: to determine essential and minor features of various electoral systems. Methods: general scientific methods (dialectics, analysis and synthesis, abstraction and concretization) and specific scientific methods (formal legal, comparative law, technical legal) are used in the article, special attention being paid to the comparative law and system research methods. Results: the traditional approach to distinguishing between majority and proportional systems has lost its importance. As a result of the development of science and search for the fairest technique, many systems concurrently be- long to both kinds. The modern world witnesses the emergence of a lot of hybrid systems pos- sessing features of both majority and proportional systems. They include proportional systems with open lists and semi-proportional systems. Moreover, purely proportional systems are seldom applied. In many countries they are in fact disproportional because of various rules distorting representation of political parties (e.g. a threshold). Some majority systems prove to be minority ones. Conclusions: all electoral systems are subdivided into four groups. These are electoral sys- tems in one-mandate territories, in multi-mandate territories, elections according to party lists and combined ones. The main criterion for their differentiation is a subject structure of elections. It is obvious that all electoral systems are subdivided depending on the person who fights for mandates: candidates individually; lists of candidates who are, as a rule, proposed by parties; candidates and de facto lists of candidates simultaneously; some techniques are used concurrent- ly. Other criteria (mathematical criterion of defining a winner, maintenance of a voice) allow us to subdivide given systems into kinds, being evidence of their minor character.

Keywords: suffrage; ; classification of electoral systems; kinds of electoral systems; majority systems; proportional systems; semi-proportional systems; mixed systems

Information in Russian

КЛАССИФИКАЦИЯ ИЗБИРАТЕЛЬНЫХ СИСТЕМ

Д. М. Худолей Кандидат юридических наук, доцент кафедры конституционного и финансового права Пермский государственный национальный исследовательский университет 614990, Россия, г. Пермь, ул. Букирева, 15 ORCID: 0000-0001-5870-1537 ResearcherID: E-3184-2016 е-mail: [email protected]

 Khudoley D. M., 2016 258 Classification of Electoral Systems

Введение: в статье анализируется классификация избирательных систем. Цель: определить существенные и второстепенные признаки различных избиратель- ных систем. Методы: в статье использованы общенаучные (диалектика, анализ и синтез, абстрагирование и конкретизация) и частнонаучные методы исследования (формально-юридический, сравнительно-правовой, технико-юридический). В ходе науч- ного поиска особое внимание уделялось сравнительному, системному методам иссле- дования. Результаты: традиционный подход к делению на мажоритарные и пропор- циональные системы утратил свое значение. Развитие научной мысли и поиски наибо- лее справедливой методики привели к тому, что многие системы являются такими од- новременно. В современном мире появилась масса гибридных систем, имеющих призна- ки мажоритарных и пропорциональных систем. Такими являются пропорциональные системы с открытыми списками и полупропорциональные системы. Более того, в чи- стом виде пропорциональные системы редко применяются. Во многих странах они яв- ляются по сути диспропорциональными из-за всевозможных правил, искажающих представительство политических партий (заградительный барьер, например). От- дельные мажоритарные системы вообще являются миноритарными. Выводы: все из- бирательные системы подразделяются на четыре группы: системы выборов по одно- мандатным округам, по многомандатным округам, по партийным спискам, а также комбинированные. Главный критерий их разграничения – это субъектный состав вы- боров. Очевидно, что все избирательные системы подразделяются в зависимости от того, кто борется за мандаты: кандидаты персонально; кандидаты по спискам, ко- торые, как правило, выдвинуты партиями; одновременно кандидаты персонально и де- факто кандидаты по спискам; используется несколько методик одновременно. Иные критерии (математический критерий определения победителя, содержание голоса) позволяют подразделить те или иные системы на подвиды, что говорит об их второ- степенном характере.

Ключевые слова: избирательное право; избирательная система; классификация избирательных систем; разновидности избирательных систем; мажоритарные системы; пропорциональные системы; полупропорциональные системы; смешанные системы

Introduction procedure, terms of pre–election campaign and so forth) . [1, p. 88–100; 12, p. 2–3]. In fact, in this In modern domestic and foreign science of case the category "electoral system" is identified the suffrage there is no uniform classification of with all suffrage and process. In general, it is electoral systems. Most of domestic scientists possible to note that certain domestic and foreign allocate three versions: majority, proportional authors refused traditional classification of elec- and mixed [8, p. 219]. Therefore, in domestic toral systems and allocate other numerous ver- science authors at the heart of division use the sions [5, p. 11–16; 17, p. 162–173]. Moreover, mathematical principle of definition of the win- we will also not find the specified terms in the ner (winners) on elections as the main thing [3, p. Russian federal electoral laws. Instead the legis- 13]. Abroad there was other idea of criteria of lator uses the categories "elections on one– differentiation of electoral systems. So, American mandatory districts", "elections on multimandato- scientists R. Taagepera, M. Shugart, K. Bawn ry districts", "elections by party lists". Let's make allocate three factors: maintenance of a voice, a hypothesis that division of systems on majority, order of summation of voices and order of defini- proportional and mixed really became invalid. tion of winners [9, p. 114–136; 11, p. 967]. Do- Let's carry out the analysis of electoral systems mestic scientists A.E. Lyubarev, A.V. Ivanchen- according to the classification established in the ko, A.V. Kynev add the fourth criterion: how the federal legislation and we will try to reveal the voter votes (for the candidate or per lot, i.e. for main and minor criteria differentiating these or the party list votes) [5, page 11–16]. S. A. Belov, those versions. B. Grofman and A. Lijphart allocate also other components of an electoral system (a nomination

259 D. M. Khudoley

Election Systems on One–Mandatory Districts has the right to specify two candidates since at the On the elections held on this system candidates bulletin there are two columns for the first and se- participate in individual quality. The candidate who cond voice respectively. If none of candidates did received a majority of votes appears the winner. not gather a necessary poll, all candidates, except These techniques many authors are called as major- the first two are eliminated. In this case the first and ity systems in one–mandatory districts. second votes given for these candidates are summa- A. Systems differ depending on the mainte- rized [4, p. 80]. nance of a voice: 3. A preferential vote with possibility of a cat- 1. Categorial vote (in the majority of the coun- egorial vote. In Australia on regional elections in tries). some states the voter may not define preferences, 2. Preferential vote. In this case the voter speci- and it is simple to vote for the certain candidate. fies the preferences in favor of several candidates, 4. Approving vote. It historically first type of ranging in a certain order. There is a mass of kinds an electoral system. The voter possesses several of such vote: voices (usually their number equally to number of a) As a rule, number of preferences equally to the standing candidates). The voter can vote for all number of candidates. However it can be limited to candidates, for several candidates or for anybody. a certain number. So, on elections to the House of Now it is applied when electing party leaders and Representatives of Australia the voter specifies so forth. three most preferred candidates. B. The considered systems differ depending on b) Other difference of preferential systems how the majority of votes necessary for election is consists in an order of the solution of a question of defined: election of the candidate if nobody gathered neces- 1. From number of the registered voters (elec- sary absolute majority of voices. The first option – tions of deputies Supreme Councils of RSFSR for summation of the preferences given for each candi- the law of 1988 were such); date. So, according to Bucklin's method, in this case 2. From number of the voters who took part in the second preferences, then the third etc. join the vote (in the Russian Federation); first preferences. Bucklin's method only once was 3. From number of the voted voters, whose bal- used on primary elections in Oklahoma in 1925 and lots were recognized valid (presidential elections in p was recognized unconstitutional [20, p. 204]. Armenia) [6, p. 177]. C. Depending on what poll the candidate needs The second option – an exception of the candi- to receive for election, allocate the following kinds date (candidates) with the smallest poll, and trans- fer of these voices to other candidates according to of system: 1. System of the relative majority. According preferences (IRV or AV system). Such exceptions to this technique, the winner for election it is neces- of candidates will proceed before election of some sary to receive at least one voice more, than any of candidate (it is applied in Australia). his competitors (the principle of "first past the The third option – an exception of the candi- post", i.e. "the winner – the first, come to the fin- date (candidates) with the smallest poll and cancel- ish" therefore such systems abroad briefly call lation of all preferences given for it (them). Nan- FPTP is used). The FPTP system is applied at par- son's method demanding a vote recount after the liamentary elections in Great Britain, the USA. candidate's exception on this rule [15, p. 369–385]. When some candidates gain absolutely equal num- Owing to this fact the second preference can be- ber of votes, draw can be carried out (to Germany); come the first, and the third – the second. Such ex- the mandate can be transferred to the candidate as a ceptions will be made before election of some can- seniority (in France); the mandate can be trans- didate (it was used in the State of Michigan at the ferred to the candidate registered earlier (it is ap- beginning of the twentieth century). plied in the majority of the CIS countries). The fourth option – a combination of the above 2. System of absolute majority. On the elections methods. So, on elections of the mayor of London held on this system, the candidate who will receive the system of an additional vote is used. The voter absolute majority of votes admits to the elite

260 Classification of Electoral Systems

(i.e. 50% plus one voice). Usually, it is used when first round. However in some countries in the se- electing presidents as categorial vote in many coun- cond round there can be also a bigger number of tries of the world. As a rule, systems of a preferen- candidates. So, the candidates who collected not tial vote is also systems of absolute majority. less than 12,5% of votes in the first round take 3. System of the qualified majority. On the part in France at parliamentary elections in the elections held on this system, the candidate for second round (i.e. as much as possible 8 candi- election needs to receive a poll, which not less dates can take part). In Russia the situation when certain quota. Actually, it is modification of sys- only one candidate if all other candidates refused tems of relative or absolute majority. So, at an to stand takes part in the second round of presi- election of the president of Argentina the candi- dential elections is admissible. date has to receive not less than 45% of votes or In the certain countries in the second round not less than 40% provided that he was ahead of the winner is defined by the relative majority, as, the second candidate not less, than by 10% (the for example, in France at parliamentary elections. qualified relative majority). In some cases the quo- When carrying out the second round of presiden- ta can be much more a half (the qualified absolute tial elections in the Russian Federation on the only majority). So, the president of Sierra Leone is cho- candidate the winner has to collect 50% of votes, sen in the first round by the majority in 55% of i.e. the qualified majority. However in many coun- voices [17, p. 162–173]. tries of the world when carrying out the second D. Depending on, whether repeated vote is re- round the principle of absolute majority is used. quired, all majority systems are subdivided on E. The specified systems are used for vote in one–round and two–round systems. the uniform district (for example, when electing 1. One–round systems are, as a rule, FPTP presidents) or in several (as a rule, at parliamen- systems. However it is not excluded, as systems of tary elections). absolute majority will be one–round. So, on elec- F. As a rule, the considered systems – systems tions of People's Deputies of RSFSR for election with one voice, but happen and to a plural (multi- the candidate needed to receive more than a half of ple) vote. Systems with an approving vote and votes from number of the registered voters, other- some preferential systems are such. A striking ex- wise repeated elections were appointed. Preferen- ample is Borda's method (position vote). Accord- tial systems also are one–round. ing to this technique, the first preference corre- 2. Two–round systems are, as a rule, systems sponds to the poll equal to number of the standing of the absolute or qualified majority which are candidates. The second – is less than first on one applied in many countries when electing presi- voice, the third – on two voices etc. In pure form dents as categorial vote. The second round can this technique was not applied. However in the sometimes be held and on the elections held on past its modifications were used (Nanson's meth- system of the relative majority when some candi- od, for example). Now the parliament of Nauru is dates gather an equal poll (in Karelia on local elected on other its version (Dowdall's method). elections). On these elections the first preference means 1 In pure form three – and more round systems voice, the second – a half of a voice, the third – a are not used on national elections. When electing third of a voice. All voices are counted, and the party leaders in some countries of the world (for winner is defined relative by a majority vote [16, example, in Great Britain) multi–round systems p. 355–372]. with an elimination when the candidate with the G. Additional provisions to which there has to smallest poll leaves after the first round are ap- correspond the elected candidate are in some cases plied and the second ballot on the remained candi- entered. So, in France at presidential elections the dates is carried out. Such second ballot will be candidate has to gather absolute majority of voic- carried out again and again until the candidate is es, but not less than 25% of total number of the chosen by the absolute or qualified majority. registered voters. In this case we observe use of As a rule, in the second round there are two two majority criteria: absolute and qualified. candidates who received a majority of votes in the Also we have to carry to similar systems

261 D. M. Khudoley and in what the turnout of voters is considered. So, candidate in the bulletin, thus voices of party can- at presidential elections in Belarus the turnout of didates are summarized within the district, and then voters has to exceed 50% of total number of the places are distributed between lists on D'Hondt's registered voters, otherwise repeated elections are method [10, p. 104]. held. It is worth carrying to such versions also those 7. Vote for candidates in various patterns and systems considering a separation between candi- for lists of candidates of their parties (blocks) at the dates (Argentina), vote against all candidates (on same time. In this case the voter, possessing several local elections in the Republic of Karelia) providing voices, approvingly, preferential or cumulatively quoting of places for representatives of ethnic mi- votes for several candidates, at the same time trans- norities and so forth. ferring voices to their parties (blocks). Also it takes Election Systems According to Party Lists place at a (for example, in Switzerland). On the elections held on these electoral sys- B. Depending on a technique of definition of a tems lists of candidates (as a rule, they are nomi- selective quota of system are subdivided on in what: nated by parties), between which mandates are dis- 1. Hare's quota is taken up, it is determined by tributed participate. Usually such systems authors a formula q=x/y, i.e. division of total number of are called proportional. votes into number of places (Russian Federation), A. At the first stage, systems differ according and its various modifications (Philippines); to the maintenance of a voice: 2. Hagenbach–Bichoff's quota (q=x / (y+1), 1. Categorial vote for the list of candidates of Slovakia) is taken up; party (block) – is applied in the majority of the 3. Droop's quota is taken up (q = (x / (y+1)) +1, countries. the Republic of South Africa); 2. Categorial vote for the list of candidates of 4. Imperiali's quota ((q=x / (y+2)), Ecuador) is party and for all consolidated list at the same time. taken up; There is a speech about blocking of lists (it is ap- 5. The method of dividers is used (greatest av- plied in Italy) when parties as a part of one coali- erage). Voices of parties share on a number of the tion put forward separate lists, but their voices are increasing dividers; then all private are ranged in summarized among themselves. Blocking is possi- decreasing order; that private, whose serial number ble and in the party consolidated list. So, in Argen- is equal to number of mandates, and is a quota. De- tina on regional elections the system of a double pending on dividers allocate the following modifi- simultaneous voice is applied ("ley de lemas"). The cations – D'Hondt's method (dividers 1–2–3 etc., it voter votes for the regional list, but voices of all is applied in Argentina), Imperiali's method (divid- regional lists of one party are summarized among ers 2–3–4 etc., will be applied in many territorial themselves [9, p. 114–136]. subjects of the Russian Federation on regional elec- 4. Categorial vote for the list of candidates of par- tions), the Danish method (dividers 1–4–7 etc., ear- ty (block) and additional preferable categorial vote for lier it was applied in Denmark), Sainte–Laguȅ's the candidate. In this case the voter, for the method (dividers 1–3–5 etc., is at the moment ap- party, can specify the preferences in favor of one can- plied in Denmark) modified by Sainte–Laguȅ (di- didate (it is used in Sweden) [14, p. 481–496]. viders 1,4–3–5 etc., will be applied in Norway) [13, 5. Categorial vote for the list of candidates of p. 171–179]. party (block) and additional preferable vote in vari- C. Systems can be subdivided depending on, ous patterns for candidates of this party. In this case whether the uniform quota for distribution of man- candidate can be applied approving (for example, in dates is taken up. As a rule, if elections are held in Slovakia), preferential (earlier in Kalmykia on re- several districts, in each district the quota (Algeria) gional elections position vote in lists was taken) or is defined that quite often results in disproportionali- cumulative vote (i.e. the voter can give to the can- ty of results of elections. A number of techniques of didate at once some voices, it is used in Ecuador) a uniform quota is developed for elimination of this [17, p. 162–173]. shortcoming (for example, the biproportional system 6. Categorial vote for the candidate and for the is applied in the certain cantons of Switzerland). list of candidates of its party (block) at the same D. Depending on features of replace- time. So, in Estonia the voter enters a name of the ment of the unallotted remains it is possible

262 Classification of Electoral Systems to allocate in what the method of the greatest frac- party candidates were summarized and used for tional remains is applied (it is used in the majority distribution of mandates. Two won parties were of the countries), greatest average and so forth. received under one mandate (places were trans- E. As a rule, elections are held in one round. ferred to candidates with the greatest poll). If the However in Italy carrying out the second round be- party collected twice more votes, than any of her tween two most successful parties is allowed. Elec- competitors (as a rule, 2/3 voices in case of partici- tions can be held in the uniform district (elections pation of only 2 parties), it got all two mandates in the Russian Federation), in several districts (elec- [18, p. 189–225]. tions to the Senate of Italy). 3. Semifixed lists – the voter has the right to F. Systems differ depending on the established specify preferences in the list, but they are consid- "protecting barrier". Barriers can be established ered together with serial number of the candidate both at the nation–wide level (Germany), and on (earlier it was applied in the Yamalo–Nenets Au- regional (elections to the Senate of Italy). Moreo- tonomous Area on regional elections). ver, two barriers at the same time can be estab- H. Electoral systems can differ depending on, lished (nationwide and regional) and the party has whether the list is subdivided into parts. It is possi- to overcome at least one of them (Sweden) or both ble to allocate systems with uniform lists (the ma- at the same time (Kazakhstan). The barrier usually jority of the countries of the world), with regional is established in the form of percent of votes. In parts (it is applied on many regional elections in rare instances it can be defined by a poll, equal to Russia, for example, in the Arkhangelsk region), one mandate (i.e. one quota, as in Brazil). The bar- with national and regional parts (it is used at federal rier can be "floating", i.e. it can decrease or not be parliamentary elections in Russia). applied in certain cases. So, in Germany the party I. As a rule, lists of candidates include some which received not less than 3 places on one– candidates. In the certain countries so–called local mandatory districts is anyway allowed to distribu- lists or quasilists – the lists consisting of the unique tion of mandates according to party lists even if she candidate (it is used on regional elections in Italy) collected less than 5% of votes. Barriers can differ are formed [9, p. 114–136]. depending on participants of elections. Establish- K. In the certain countries are provided bonus- ment of barriers to parties (5% at parliamentary es. It can be bonuses for minority (earlier it was elections in the Russian Federation), barriers to par- applied in Russia to the parties which did not break ties and the coalitions (5 and 7% respectively at a 7 percent barrier which acquired the right for one parliamentary elections in Armenia), barriers to or two mandates), and bonuses for the majority (the parties, the coalitions and parties in the coalition additional mandates received by winner party). For (8%, 20% and 3% respectively on elections to the example, in Greece the winner party at parliamen- Senate of Italy), barriers to parties, the coalitions tary elections receives in addition 50 places. It is and independent candidates (6%, 9% and 3% re- necessary to carry so–called systems of party block spectively at parliamentary elections in Moldova) vote (PBV) or system with a jackpot to this version. [17, p. 88; 19, p. 36–37]. For example, in Italy on regional elections the party G. Depending on distribution of places of can- list receives all places in the district if it gathered didates in the list it is allocated: absolute majority of voices [17, p. 162–173]. 1. The closed (tough) lists – places are distrib- L. As a rule, the considered systems are used uted in the order specified in the list. They are ap- when electing deputies. There is one exception – plied in the majority of the countries; system of a simultaneous double voice. It is applied 2. Open (flexible) lists – the voter himself de- in Latin America at the regional level when electing fines an order of candidates in the list by means of governors, but earlier was used and on national elections. So, quite recently the candidate from the vote. Earlier in Chile the binomial system was ap- party, gathered a majority of votes became the pres- plied. In the two–mandatory district the voter voted ident of Uruguay (each party proposed several can- for the candidate entering the party list. Voices of didates; the voter directly voted for one candidate;

263 D. M. Khudoley voices of party candidates were summarized among France) or qualified (systems with the uniform themselves; the winner party got a post of the pres- transferred voice are applied in Ireland). As a rule, ident which was transferred it the candidate with on system of absolute majority elections are held in the greatest poll). Usually this system was applied two rounds. It is obvious that the majority of the at the same time to election of deputies and heads considered systems are one–round systems. of states [9, p. 114–136]. B. Systems can differ depending on the M. Sometimes the law independent candidates maintenance of a voice: are allowed to participate in elections. They can 1. Categorial vote (for example, system of a form the collective independent list (Algeria) or uniform inexpressible voice). The voter votes for individually participate, i.e. put forward the quasi- one candidate in the multimandatory district, it is list from one candidate (Estonia). It is sometimes applied at parliamentary elections in Japan [6]. allowed both that, and another (Lithuania) [10, p. 2. Approving vote. So, according to system of an 104]. unlimited vote, the voter is allocated with a poll, N. In case of elections according to open lists which not less number of mandates (it is applied in rules of majority systems at distribution of places in many countries, including in Russia at the local level). the list can be applied. As a rule, the principle of On the contrary, in systems of a limited vote the poll the relative majority is applied, but also the princi- is always less, than number of mandates (it is used in ple of the qualified majority can practice. So, in Spain on elections to the Senate). In fact, it is majority Estonia the candidate from the party has to receive systems with panachage [17, p. 162–173]. the one tenth part of a quota. Systems can also dif- 3. A cumulative vote (the voter is allocated fer by criterion of additional conditions for election with several voices, it can give them to one candi- (the accounting of protest voters, for example) as it date or distribute between several). The modified took place in the Russian Federation. method still is applied on elections to assembly of Norfolk Island (to choose can transfer to one candi- Election Systems date no more than 2 voices) [7, p. 90]. on Multimandatory Districts 4. Preferential vote (the system with the uni- Most of domestic scientists these systems call form transferred voice, is used in Ireland). In fact, it majority in multimandatory districts. Abroad they is AV system in the multimandatory district. In the are carried to separate group of semi–proportional district the quota is defined (as a rule, Droop’s quo- or disproportionate systems. On these elections ta), candidates with surplus of the first preferences candidates participate in individual quality, be- give votes to other candidates according to the se- tween them mandates are distributed, however de cond preferences. If all mandates in the district are facto party lists exist. Moreover, in many countries not replaced and did not remain candidates with the voter is granted the right to vote directly for the surplus of voices, the least successful candidate is party list (the block of candidates). In spite of the excluded, and his voices are transferred to other fact that the specified techniques are based on the participants of elections (as well as in AV system). principle of the majority for definition of winners, The specified system has a number of modifications these systems are capable to provide approximate depending on type of a quota, an order of distribu- proportional representation of parties in a varying tion of surplus and so forth (Hare, Gregory, Mick, degree. So, the highest accounting of voters is pro- Warren, Wright's methods etc.). So, Gregory's vided at elections on system of the uniform trans- method is based on transfer of voices not by casual ferred voice which abroad even call proportional [7, selection (Hare's method, is used in Ireland), and by p. 113–137]. The smallest accounting of voters is means of definition of a formula of the transferred provided by system of block vote (or an unlimited value (s/t*p where s – number of surplus, – total vote). In general, the voting procedure on such number of the second voices, p – number of the elections reminds vote on proportional system with second votes given for the specific candidate, this open lists. algorithm is applied in Northern Ireland). This A. Being based on the majority principle, they technique in Australia was repeatedly modified for can differ how the majority is defined. Certainly, definition of the transferred voices which were has value and an appearance of the majority. As a formed already during the previous transfer of voic- rule, it relative, but can be absolute (systems with es. Mick's algorithm is so difficult that occupies in an unlimited vote are applied on local elections in language Pascal some pages therefore the electoral

264 Classification of Electoral Systems law of New Zealand contains only sending to scien- options – elections on multimandatory districts and tific work [2, p. 168–174]. Methods of Warren and according to party lists (Monaco), elections on one – Wright are modifications of this algorithm therefore and to multimandatory districts (Cayman Islands) they in the real work will also not be considered. and so forth are possible. The situation when all 5. Vote for candidates in various patterns with components of system belong to one general version possibility of vote for the list in general. So, on elec- is possible. So, in Denmark the connected election tions to the Senate of Australia the voter has the right to system according to party lists is applied. The voter, expose preferences between candidates or to vote for possessing one voice, elects at the same time 135 some list in general (in this case its preferences will deputies on D'Hondt's method in several regional coincide with order of candidates in this party list). districts, 40 more equalizing deputies are elected on C. Elections can be held in several districts (Ire- the uniform district on Saint–Laguȅ's method. In this land) or in one (Monaco). In some cases additional case both components – election systems according conditions for election of the candidate (the account- to party lists [17, p. 162–173]. ing of a turnout of voters and so forth) [17, p. 162– D. The majority of the specified systems – sys- 173]. tems with several voices. Usually their two – voices for the candidate and per lot. Earlier in Italy and The Combined Election Systems Mexico the related systems with a single voice were When carrying out such elections some tech- applied. niques at the same time are used. Therefore, in ad- vance established part of deputies is chosen by one Results rules, the rest – on another. In Russia these systems As it became clear, traditional division into the usually call mixed electoral systems. majority, proportional and mixed systems lost the A. Depending on coherence of components sys- value. Development of scientific thought and search- tems are allocated coexisting (in the USA at con- es of the most fair technique led to that many sys- gressional elections in the majority of states the sys- tems are such at the same time. In the modern world tem of the relative majority, but in the State of Geor- there was a mass of hybrid systems (proportional gia – absolute majority in two rounds is used), paral- systems with open lists and so–called semi– lel (elections on different systems are held in the uni- proportional systems). The striking example is the form territory, votes are not connected among them- Chilean binomial system. It can be called and ma- selves, as at State Duma elections of the Russian jority (the principle of the qualified majority is used), Federation) and the related systems (it is applied in and proportional (in fact, it is based on D'Hondt's Germany, New Zealand, Hungary and so forth) [12, method in the two–mandatory district though the p. 162–170]. In the latter case the compensation quota directly is not determined by the inexpediency (equalizing) deputies who are elected on proportion- reason). Systems of party block vote can be also car- al system according to (equalizing) voices which are ried to this or that version at the same time since the especially defined compensatory always take place, selective quota too is not defined owing to inexpedi- than the proportional representation of parties [17, p. 162–173]. ency (all places the winner party will receive). The B. They can differ depending on quantity of its system of a double simultaneous voice which was components. As a rule, they have two components. applied when electing presidents of the countries of But can have three and more elements. So, on elec- Latin America, is too an example of simultaneous tions to assembly of Hong Kong 4 methods at the existence of the majority and proportional principles. same time (proportional system, FPTP, block vote, Moreover, purely proportional systems are sel- AV) [17, p. 162–173]. dom applied. In many countries they are in fact dis- proportional because of the various rules distorting C. The considered systems can differ depending proportional representation of parties (protecting on what components are used. As a rule, it is election barriers, artificial quotas, bonuses and so forth). systems on one–mandatory districts and according to By the way, the majority system of the relative party lists (the majority of the countries). Also other majority (FPTP) in general is not majority, but

265 D. M. Khudoley minority (the winner often represents not the major- 4. Zarubezhnoe izbiratel’noe pravo: ucheb. ity, but minority of voters). The name of the catego- posobie; pod red. V. V. Maklakova. [Foreign ry "the mixed system" also does not correspond to Suffrage: textbook; ed. by V. V. Maklakov]. the contents. So, proportional system with open Moscow, 2003. 288 p. (In Russ.). lists and system of one transferred voice are hybrid, 5. Ivanchenko A. A., Kynev A. V., Lyubarev A. E. Proportsional’naya izbiratel’naya sistema v and, owing to this fact, mixed since at distribution Rossii: Istoriya, sovremennoe sostoyanie, per- of mandates both the proportional, and majority spektivy. [Proportional Electoral System in principles at the same time are applied. Also mix- Russia: History, Current State, Prospects]. ture of various techniques is observed and when Moscow, 2005. 333 p. (In Russ.). electing the President of France. Strictly speaking, 6. Konstitutsionnoe (gosudarstvennoe) pravo za- the coexisting and parallel systems, unlike connect- rubezhnykh stran: Chast’ obshchaya; pod red. ed, are not mixed at all, these are various, but not B. A. Strashuna [Constitutional (State) Law of uniform systems. Foreign Countries: General part; ed. by B. A. Strashun]. Moscow, 2000. Vol. 1–2. Conclusions 784 p. (In Russ.). 7. Lakeman E., Lambert J. D. Issledovanie ma- Thus, we oppose expansion of the category zhoritarnoy i proportsional’noy izbiratel’nykh "electoral system" and its identification with all sistem [A Study of Majority and Proportional suffrage and process. In our opinion, the electoral Electoral Systems]. Moscow, 1958. 366 p. system is a technique of distribution of mandates. It (In Russ.). is quite obvious that all electoral systems first of all 8. Sravnitel’noe konstitutsionnoe pravo: ucheb. are subdivided depending on between whom man- posobie; pod red. V. E. Chirkina. [Comparative dates are distributed: between candidates in indi- Constitutional Law: textbook; ed. by V. E. Chir- vidual quality (election systems on one–mandatory kin]. Moscow, 2002. 448 p. (In Russ.). districts); between lists of candidates who are, as a 9. Taagepera R., Shugart M.S. Opisanie izbi- rule, proposed parties (election systems according ratel’nykh sistem [Description of Electoral Sys- tems]. POLIS – Polis. Political Studies. 1997. to party lists); at the same time between candidates Issue 3. Pp. 114–136. (In Russ.). and, actually, lists of candidates (an election system 10. Khudolej K. M. Konstitutsionnoe pravo za- on multimandatory districts); at the same time be- rubezhnykh stran SNG i Baltii: ucheb. posobie tween the specified subjects by various rules (the [Constitutional Law of Foreign Countries of the combined systems). This criterion influences other CIS and the Baltic States: textbook]. Perm, signs (mathematical criterion, the maintenance of a 2009. 240 p. (In Russ.). voice, number of rounds, type of constituencies and 11. Bawn K. The Logic of Institution Preferences: so forth). Additional criteria allow us to subdivide German Electoral Law as a Social Choice Out- these or those systems into subspecies that speaks come. American Journal of Political Science. about their minor character. 1993. Vol. 37. Issue 4. Pp. 965–989. DOI: 10.2307/2111539. (In Eng.).

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