ABSTRACT EDWARDS, MICHAEL BRUCE. Place Disparities In
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ABSTRACT EDWARDS, MICHAEL BRUCE. Place Disparities in Access to Supportive Environments for Extracurricular Sport and Physical Activity in North Carolina Middle Schools. (Under the direction of Dr. Michael Kanters and Dr. Jason Bocarro). Although the causes are complex, decreased levels of leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) are often cited as a significant reason for increased rates of childhood obesity in the U.S. Because of individual economic and social disadvantages, as well as a lack of accessible public recreation resources, adolescents who live in rural areas may be especially at-risk for obesity. Research has shown that well-designed extracurricular physical activity programs in schools can improve the LTPA levels of these adolescents. The purpose of this study was to determine whether local differences existed in access to supportive environments for extracurricular school physical activity for middle-school students in North Carolina. It also examined institutional and community systems that may influence the provision of LTPA opportunities. This study used Macintyre’s (2000) deprivation amplification model as a conceptual framework to examine differences in supportive environments for LTPA in middle schools. Because of fewer available recreation resources for adolescents in rural communities, schools are important to the delivery of LTPA programming. An investigation of disparities in access to supportive environments for extracurricular school LTPA programs was needed to understand the opportunities rural children have to be physically active. The units of comparative analysis for this study were schools and their communities. Schools were clustered in school districts and therefore the analyses incorporated two levels. Through the use of multi-level modeling, the emergence of contextual place disparities at the school and community level as well as school district level was examined. Multiple sources of data (e.g., self-administered questionnaire to personnel at 325 public middle schools, N.C. Department of Public Instruction school report cards, and U.S. Census FactFinder) were integrated to analyze place disparities in access to supportive environments for LTPA in North Carolina’s public middle schools. Aggregating environmental supports, a composite index for supportive environments was created for each school to use as a single dependent variable. Using multi-level modeling techniques to control for non-independence of schools clustered within school districts and to compare school/community-level (Level 1) and district-level (Level 2) influences on environmental support, regression models predicting environmental support from school compositional factors, community contextual resources, and collective social functioning were generated. Study findings demonstrated that adolescents who live in more deprived rural areas in this sample had fewer environmental supports for extracurricular physical activity at their schools. These deficits were largely explained by a lack of economic resources. However, socio-cultural factors in rural areas may also influence the provision of school-based physical activity programs. More racially homogenous rural areas were more likely to overcome fiscal scarcity to offer broader physical activity programs, provide community access to school facilities, and partner with community organizations to support physical activities. School structure in rural areas was also associated with levels of environmental support. Lower levels of environmental support for extracurricular physical activity in rural schools may be a contributing factor to decreased LTPA and higher obesity rates observed in these areas. Place Disparities in Access to Supportive Environments for Extracurricular Sport and Physical Activity in North Carolina Middle Schools. by Michael B. Edwards A dissertation submitted to the Graduate Faculty of North Carolina State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management Raleigh, North Carolina 2009 APPROVED BY: _______________________________ ______________________________ Michael Kanters Jason Bocarro Committee Co-Chair Committee Co-Chair _______________________________ ______________________________ Myron Floyd Karla Henderson _______________________________ David Brady DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my wife Melissa - an amazing partner who supported me in more ways that anyone can imagine; and to our girls - who inspire me to make this world better. ii BIOGRAPHY Michael Edwards is a native of Johnston County in rural eastern North Carolina. He grew up in Princeton (population 1,066) and moved to the big city of Smithfield (population 11,500) at age 14. One of Michael’s most life-defining moments came in 1990 when, at age 16, he was selected to be a Rotary International Scholar in Blackburn, Lancashire, England. It was also soon after returning from England that Michael took a summer job with the Carolina Mudcats minor league baseball team. He enjoyed working behind the scenes at the ballpark, particularly the way in which games seemed to bring families and communities together. Following graduation from Smithfield-Selma Senior High School, Michael matriculated to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill where he majored in History. Most importantly, however, it was during his freshman year at Carolina that Michael met and fell in love with Melissa, whom he married in December 1998. After graduation, Michael embarked on a decade-long career in professional baseball executive management. When he was hired as the general manager of the Burlington Indians, a Cleveland Indians minor league affiliate, he was the youngest general manager in Minor League Baseball. Michael proceeded to lead organizations in Columbus, GA, Lake County, OH, and Wilson, NC, receiving numerous awards including Executive of the Year on two occasions. However, Michael became increasingly frustrated with what he saw as a shift in organizational goals within minor league baseball from the development of social and iii community capital in communities to profitability. At that time, he re-evaluated his personal priorities and long-term career goals and decided to pursue a career as a professor. Michael’s original intention was to pursue scholarship in sport management. His master’s degree at East Carolina University, under the direction of Dr. Steve Estes, was in this field. However, following his matriculation into Recreation, Parks, and Tourism Management, and working closely with the faculty members at North Carolina State, Michael became committed to research and scholarship that emerged from a wider perspective of leisure, recreation, and physical activity than sport management could offer. Developing from his interests in rural community development and social justice, Michael saw in this field the opportunity to conduct scholarship in the context of sport and physical activity that was relevant to societal issues and improved the quality of life for individuals and communities. In March, 2006, Michael and Melissa had their first daughter, Margaret James (Molly) and have another daughter due in June, 2009. In the fall of 2009, Michael will begin his career as an assistant professor in the Department of Recreation, Parks, and Tourism Sciences at Texas A&M University. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of a Ph.D. would not be possible without the tremendous help and support I received during this process. At the top of the list must be my best friend and wife Melissa. With unbelievable patience (only a few times a day did she ask, “Why couldn’t you just be a banker?”), especially considering the morning sickness and hormones, she provided encouragement, perspective, support, editorial assistance, ‘work weekends,’ and much- needed motivational kicks in the rear. This was our journey together and everything I do is for us. If there is ever a spouse who deserves a P(utting) H(im) T(hrough), it is she. I also have to thank my daughter Molly - the source of unending joy in my life. For letting Daddy work on his ‘invitation’ in ‘Mr. McGregor’s Garden’ to providing essential escape during my graduate studies, you always let me know where my priorities should be and showing me what it truly means to play. I must also thank my parents, Bruce and Rene Edwards. Although it took a while to realize, their influence on me is immense and I am appreciative for their shaping me into the person I am today. I am also thankful for their financial investment in me during the past few years during some pretty tough times. They believed in what I was doing and I hope I can make them proud. There are numerous individuals at N.C. State that have assisted in many ways, large and small, over the past three years. My co-chairs Dr. Michael Kanters and Dr. Jason Bocarro have been brilliant and deserve tremendous credit for getting me here. I thank them v specifically for leading me down an unexpected path that has ignited scholarly passion, for their unbelievable flexibility in allowing me to work around my special circumstances, for motivating me to achieve great things, and for telling me to stop when necessary. I also sincerely thank the rest of my committee members: Dr. Myron Floyd, Dr. Karla Henderson, and Dr. David Brady. Thank you for your help throughout this project and for the respect you have given me. I also want to thank a long list of other faculty, staff, and graduate students who have contributed in some