Development of Marine Renewable Energies and the Preservation Of

Development of marine renewable energies and the Renewable energies preservation of biodiversity - VOLUME 2 - Editors: Marion PEGUIN, under the coordination of Christophe LE VISAGE, coordinator of the contact group "Marine Renewable Energy", Guillemette ROLLAND, President of the Commission on Ecosystem Management, and Sébastien MONCORPS, director of the French Committee of IUCN.

Acknowledgements: The French Committee of IUCN would particularly like to thank: the reviewers of this report: BARILLIER Agnès (EDF) - BAS Adeline (EDF EN) - BONADIO Jonathan (MEDDE- DGEC) - CARLIER Antoine (IFREMER) - DELENCRE Gildas (Energies Réunion) - GALIANO Mila (Ademe) - GUENARD Vincent (Ademe) - LEJART Morgane (FEM) - MARTINEZ Ludivine (Observatoire Pelagis) - MENARD Jean-Claude (ELV) - MICHEL Sylvain (AAMP) - de MONBRISON David (BRLi), the members of the "Sea and Coasts" working group of the IUCN French Committee, chaired by Ludovic FRERE ESCOFFIER (Nausicaa), the participants of the various steering committees: AMY Frédérique (DREAL HN) - ANDRE Yann (LPO) - ARANA-DE-MALEVILLE Olivia (FEE) - AUBRY Jérémy (Gondwana) - ARGENSON Alain (FNE) - BARBARY Cédric (GDF Suez) - BAS Adeline (Ifremer / EDF EN) - BEER-GABEL Josette (expert) - BELAN Pierre-Yves (CETMEF) - BONADIO Jonathan (MEDDE-DGEC) - BONNET Céline (Va- lorem) - BORDERON Séverine (GREDEG-CNRS) - BOUTTIER Jenny (BRLi) - CAILLET Antonin (Alstom Ocean Energy) - CANON Marina (EDPR) - CANTERI Thierry (PNM Iroise, AAMP) - CARRE Aurélien (UICN France) - CASTÉRAS Rémi (WPD Offshore) - CHATEL Jean (RTE) - CHRISTIN Jérôme (CEREMA) - COUSTY-MARTINIE Elodie (FNE) - DACQUAY Vanessa (UICN France) – DELANGUE Justine (UICN France) - DELAPLACE Sophie (EOLE RES) - DELCOURT Vincent (Biotope) - DELIESSCHE Judicaelle (Marineener- gytimes) - DEVISSE Jean-Stéphane (WWF) - DIAZ Bérénice (Sogreah Artelia Group) - DRU Johanne (expert) - DUMEAUX Lorène (Vinci Concessions) - DUMONT Cécile (FNE) - GERARD Léa (MEDDE) - GIRARD Johann (WPD offshore) - GONZALEZ Lauriane (Compagnie du Vent) - GRANDGUILLOT Eric (Altech-ENR) - GREVELLEC Agathe (GDF Suez) - GROSDEMANGE Didier (InVivo Environ- nement) - GUESDON Romain (Compagnie du vent) - GUIBERT Philippe (CREOCEAN) - HATE Elodie (Compagnie du Vent) - IMBERT Nicolas (GCFT) - JOURDAIN Jérôme (CNPMEM) - KERMAGORET Charlène (Ifremer) - LAFON Xavier (MEDDE) - LE CROM Izan (Ecole Centrale de Nantes – SEMREV) - LEFEVRE Christophe (UICN France, AAMP) - LE GOUVELLO Raphaëla (expert) - LEJART Morgane (France Energies Marines) - LEMIERE Samuel (GDF Suez) - LESIGNE Jean-François (RTE) - L’HOSTIS Denez (FNE) - LIEPPE Denis (expert) - LIHOREAU Antoine (GDF Suez) - LOAEC Jean-Marie (EDF-CIH) - MARCELLIER Marc-Adrien (expert) - MARIE Anne-Claire (FNE) - MATHIEN Adeline (FNE) - MENARD Jean-Claude (expert) - MICHALSKI Julie (FNE) - MICHEL Jean-Paul (Pew Environne- ment) - MICHEL Sylvain (AAMP) - MONNET Alice (GDF Suez) - MOREAU Johanna (CEMEX) - NGO JE Jean (expert) - OLLIER Michel • 2 • (Pôle Mer Méditerranée) - PERVES Philippe (Nass-et-Wind) - PIANTE Catherine (WWF) - PIGUET Caroline (EOLE-RES) - RAOUX Aurore (RTE) - REGNIER Mathias (FrancEole) - ROCHE Henri Pierre (EDF EN) - ROGER-DENEUVILLE Roxane (expert) - ROLLAND Guillemette (CELRL) - SAFFROY Damien (RTE) - SCHWARTZ Soizic (MEDDE) - SEBIRE Marie (FNE) - SEVIN Marie-Aude (AAMP) - SIMONET Florence (EDP) - SORNIN Jean-Marc (CREOCEAN) - STERCKEMAN Aurore (AAMP) - THIEBAUD Léa (CETMEF) – THIEVENT Philippe (CDC Biodiversité) - TILOT Virginie (expert) - TINETTI Julie (FFESSM) - TOLLEMANS Antoine (Neoen Marine) - TOULHOAT Lucille (CNPMEM) - TOULOUSE Paul (Alstom Ocean Energy) - UZAN Yohann (Alstom Ocean Energy) - VAISSIERE Anne-Charlotte (Ifremer) - VARRET Claire (EDF) - VEAUVY Mariana (expert) - VIGNAND Bernard (SG-Mer) - WALKER Emily (EDP) for their many contributions.

We also thank our financial partners in this study, without whom this project would not have been possible:

Citation: UICN France (2014). Development of renewable marine energies and the preservation of biodiversity. Synthesis for decision-makers. Paris, France.

Legal deposit: October 2019 ISBN: n° 978-2-918105-81-7 Cover photo credit: © EDF EN-Dave Evans

Reproduction for non-commercial purposes, notably for educational purposes, is permitted without written permission provided that the source is duly cited. Reproduction for commercial purposes, notably for sale, is prohibited without prior written permission from the French Committee of IUCN. The presentation of the documents and geographical terms used in this book is by no means the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the French Committee of IUCN in respect of the legal status or authority of any State, territory or region, or their borders or territorial limits.

The opinions expressed in this report are the sole responsibility of the authors. They do not reflect the position of the members of the steering committee or partner organizations of this study. Contents

Introduction 4

Summary of the issues 6 Energy challenges...... 8 • 3 • Marine conservation issues...... 10 Regulatory context...... 14

Description of the different MRE systems 20 Research and development status...... 22 Techniques, essential conditions and potential in France...... 23

Evaluation of the impacts of different MRE systems, and recommendations 32 Threat: Noise and vibrations...... 35 Opportunities and threats: Habitat modification...... 40 Threat: Barrier effect and collision risks...... 47 The "reef effect": Opportunity and threat ...... 51 Residual impacts...... 52

Synthesis 54

Thematic Summaries 56 Summary 1: Biodiversity protocols: assessment and monitoring ...... 58 Summary 2: Cumulative impacts, conflicts and synergies...... 66 Summary 3: Marine protected areas and marine renewable energies...... 72 Summary 4: Electricity connection: some ideas for consideration...... 78 Summary 5: Dismantling : some ideas for consideration...... 84 Introduction

"Conventional" (coal, oil, gas) or tent nature, some of these technologies emissions must not be achieved at the • 4 • "non-conventional" (tar sands, oil shale, require the complementarity of other en- expense of biodiversity. shale gas) fossil fuels, as well as nuclear ergy sources, including fossil and nuclear energy, currently represent more than energy). In addition, renewable energies France has therefore undertaken, within 80% of the total energy used worldwide are produced locally, thus limiting depen- the framework of the law establishing the (excluding unmarketed wood). dence on imports from other countries, guidelines for energy policy (POPE Law of and creating jobs. 13 July 2005), to reduce its greenhouse The use of fossil fuels is harmful to the gas emissions by a factor of four by 2050. environment. Indeed, their combustion To achieve this goal, the use of renewable contributes massively to global warming energies must be combined with energy It has also made commitments at Euro- due to the carbon dioxide emissions and saving policies focused on energy effi- pean and international levels: as part of their exploitation is often characterized by ciency and reduced consumption. the adoption, under the French Presi- severe impacts to ecosystems. Offshore dency, of the “energy-climate” legislative oil and gas operations in particular have Reducing dependence on non-renewable package, France has committed to a 14% growing impacts (noise, pollution, etc.). resources and limiting GHG emissions reduction in greenhouse gas emissions has become a priority in the fight against from sectors not subject to the Emis- Nuclear energy has a minor impact on climate change. It should be noted that sions Trading Directive (SCE-QE Directive) global warming, but major concerns this poses a threat to biodiversity, with between 2005 and 2020. This commit- remain over the safety of power plants, the IPCC report stating that an increase of ment contributes to the European objec- the disposal of radioactive waste and + 2°C risks the extinction of 30% of tive of a 20% reduction over 1990 levels 1 http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_16/application/pdf/cop16_lca.pdf its dependence on uranium resources. species. Among the many existing options for the second commitment period under Insecurity of fossil fuel supplies is linked for mitigating climate change, renewable the Kyoto Protocol (2013-2020). Today, both to the geopolitical issues of the main energy sources can play an important France is actively participating in interna- oil-producing countries and to the (inevi- role. tional negotiations on the post-2020 re- table in the long term) depletion of fossil gime, and supports the process launched fuel reserves. These energy sources depend on natural following the Cancun Conference of the eco-systems such as forests, oceans and Parties (COP 16), which has the objective In response to this situation, a variety of rivers and their functioning. The exploita- of limiting the warming of temperatures to renewable energy types are increasingly tion of these resources impacts each ex- 2°C by the end of the century1 compared being used to ensure a realignment of ploited ecosystem. Energy choices must with the pre-industrial era. France's ob- production methods. This offers better be made with a holistic view of the broa- jective is to reach an ambitious global cli- protection to the environment, by contri- der issues so that the impacts are local, mate agreement at the 2015 Conference buting to the reduction of greenhouse gas can be offset, and are as low as possible. of the Parties, which it will host in Paris. emissions (even if, due to their intermit- Indeed, the reduction of greenhouse gas In addition to these targets, France plans The study focuses on 5 types of marine to develop renewable energies (RE) in renewable energy technology: offshore order to reach the RE target of 23% of wind (fixed and floating), hydrokinetic -en overall energy consumption by 2020. ergy, wave energy, ocean thermal energy This means on the one hand controlling and tidal energy. There are other types of its consumption, and on the other hand energy from the sea (osmotic energy, for drastically increasing production from example) but, due to the immature stage renewable sources - from 20.6 Mtoe in of their development, we have chosen not 2011 to 37 Mtoe by 2020. to include them in this report.

France has placed particular emphasis This study concerns both Metropolitan on the development of marine renewable and French Overseas territories. energies (MRE), due to its national legal For each energy type, a description of the framework on large maritime areas and operating principles will be provided, as the many forms in which such energy is well as its known or potential negative available. France has the second largest and positive impacts on marine biodiver- exclusive economic zone in the world, co- sity. The impacts are based on a study vering an area of 11 million km², spread carried out by MEDDE3, a study conduc- over the world's four oceans, and with a ted by IUCN4 and other partners, as well considerable and diverse energy poten- as discussions with French researchers. tial. But these areas contain many marine However, it should be pointed out that and coastal ecosystems with high heri- knowledge in this field is still deficient; it tage value (including 10% of the world's is partly based on experience from other reef-lagoon ecosystems, 20% of the wor- countries with particular ecosystems that ld's atolls and 50% of the world's marine are sometimes very different from those mammal biodiversity) and these ecosys- in French waters, thus limiting the direct emissions must not be achieved at the tems are fragile. As a result, the challen- transfer of all of the findings. expense of biodiversity. ges facing France are complex. • 5 • Attention will also be given to differentia- France has therefore undertaken, within The French Committee of IUCN is advo- ting between the construction, operation, the framework of the law establishing the cating for a rapid transition to sustainable and decommissioning phases, which guidelines for energy policy (POPE Law of energy sources. It also seeks to dissemi- have differing impacts on different com- 13 July 2005), to reduce its greenhouse nate existing knowledge on the ecosys- ponents of biodiversity. The objective is gas emissions by a factor of four by 2050. tem impacts of the various alternatives to to provide a global and strategic vision of fossil fuels and on how these impacts can each type of MRE system, and to compare It has also made commitments at Euro- be limited, from the very first stages of their energy performance with their envi- pean and international levels: as part of strategy design (policies, plans and pro- ronmental impact. the adoption, under the French Presi- grammes). dency, of the “energy-climate” legislative In the "Recommendations" section, the- package, France has committed to a 14% The question of environmental offsets2 refore, this study is able to inform deci- reduction in greenhouse gas emissions is not addressed at this stage; indeed, in sion-makers about MRE development from sectors not subject to the Emis- Europe, few environmental offsets have strategies that would have the least pos- sions Trading Directive (SCE-QE Directive) so far been implemented offshore in the sible impact on marine biodiversity. between 2005 and 2020. This commit- context of MRE projects. This subject is ment contributes to the European objec- currently undergoing significant research. tive of a 20% reduction over 1990 levels 1 http://unfccc.int/files/meetings/cop_16/application/pdf/cop16_lca.pdf for the second commitment period under This project particularly aims to: 2 In Belgium, the Seal Action Plan aims to indirect- the Kyoto Protocol (2013-2020). Today, › provide a baseline overview of the in- ly offset the impacts of wind turbines in the Nor- France is actively participating in interna- teractions between renewable marine th Sea: Plan d'action PHOQUE : d’une politique tional negotiations on the post-2020 re- energy and sensitive marine and coastal environnementale défensive à une politique environnementale offensive en mer du Nord. In gime, and supports the process launched ecosystems within French territory (an addition, compensatory measures have already following the Cancun Conference of the overview of pressures, threats and op- been implemented for port developments (e.g., Parties (COP 16), which has the objective portunities), Port 2000 au Havre). of limiting the warming of temperatures to › provide a sound basis on which to guide 3 MEDDE, 2012, Energies Marines Renouvelables, Etude méthodologique des impacts environne- 1 2°C by the end of the century compared policy decisions for ecosystem protec- mentaux et socio-économiques. Lien : https:// with the pre-industrial era. France's ob- tion and/or energy development, www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv.fr/sites/default/ jective is to reach an ambitious global cli- › help raise awareness among energy files/guide_etude_impact_eolien_mer_2017_ mate agreement at the 2015 Conference stakeholders and decision-makers of complet.pdf 4 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy: Identifying of the Parties, which it will host in Paris. the importance of marine biodiversity and managing the biodiversity risks and oppor- and its potential threats. tunities of off shore renewable energy Summary of the issues

• 6 •

Flock of Eurasian oystercatchers (Haematopus ostralegus) in flight © Benoît Dumeau / Marine Protected Areas Agency Summary of the issues

• 7 • Energy challenges

• 8 • Anemones & kelp © Frédéric Lechat

Global warming and the be seen (coral bleaching, ocean-surface Climate change is likely 10 to lead to an in- biodiversity crisis warming, ocean acidification, decline of fo- crease in both the intensity and frequency rest ecosystems, melting glaciers, changes of extreme weather events, resulting in On a global scale, our energy needs are in the ranges of certain species, increases severe environmental, human and econo- constantly increasing. Currently, 81%5 of in invasive alien species, etc.), but it is cur- mic disasters. it is met by the combustion of fossil fuels rently difficult, despite the various scena- (oil, coal, gas and nuclear [uranium and rios that have been developed, to estimate Two types of response are possible (not plutonium]). However, these fuels are the extent of the impacts this may have on necessarily exclusive of each other): limited: at the current rate of consump- biodiversity, ecosystems and the services tion, oil reserves could be depleted in the they provide. However, the IPCC report › Mitigation: this primarily involves redu- coming decades and gas in two to three estimates that a 2°C increase would put cing the greenhouse gas emissions af- centuries. In addition, the use of these 30% of the world's species at risk, making fecting the climate. This requires limiting 5 International Energy Agency, 2011. 6 5th IPCC report, Summary for decision-makers 6 fossil fuels is the main contributor to the climate change one of the main threats to energy use as well as energy efficiency. 7 5th IPCC report, Summary for decision-makers phenomenon of climate change, which is biodiversity in the coming decades. This The development of marine renewable 8 5th IPCC report, Summary for decision-makers linked to the release of greenhouse gases impact will be much greater on ecosys- energies also represents a significant 9 2010 estimate, a sharply-rising figure with a into the atmosphere. tems with limited adaptive capacity, such mitigation measure. 95% increase between 1970 and 2010. 10 From unlikely to very likely, depending on the as coral reefs. type of extreme events considered. The impacts of climate change are already › Adaptation: this concept involves redu- being felt, with an increase of 0.85°C in Humans will also be directly affected: cing vulnerability and improving the re- the global average surface temperature according to IPCC forecasts, the average silience of natural and human systems between 1880 and 20127 (GIEC, 2013). sea level could rise by 26 to 82 cm by to the consequences of climate change. The various models of the Intergovernmen- 21008. This increase could exceed one The nature-based solutions promoted by tal Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predict metre by the beginning of the 22nd cen- IUCN are one such response. The pre- an increase ranging from 1.5 to over 4°C tury and could reach 3 m in 2300 (which servation of mangroves, for example, for the end of the 21st century compared to could affect 270 million people living in helps to limit the impact of storms. the pre-industrial era7. The increase in glo- coastal areas9). Already, it is possible to bal temperatures across the globe will lead link certain human migrations to global These approaches help to limit the effects to multiple, difficult-to-estimate impacts, warming. This phenomenon often affects and risks associated with climate change. especially because of its rapid nature. The populations already vulnerable from other impacts on some ecosystems can already natural disasters. The need for energy transition, DIFFERENT SCENARIOS FOR THE The IPCC report and the potential of MRE DEVELOPMENT OF OFFSHORE RE- estimates that a 2°C NEWABLE ENERGIES THE ISSUE IS DISCUSSED AT THE IN- increase globally would TERNATIONAL LEVEL, AND THEN AT Faced with these challenges, the French put 30% of species at risk. NATIONAL LEVELS government investigated its potential to achieve its objectives. The early 2010s saw In the face of climate change and the the emergence of various scenarios, such predicted depletion of fossil resources, as the NegaWatt model11 and the WWF there is a global-level need for energy model12. transition. This is even more urgent for countries that, like France, have few ex- These models are based primarily on a ploitable fossil fuel resources. This reali- reduction in our consumption while pro- zation is not new, with many political and posing a renewable energies production scientific protagonists sounding the alarm mix, mainly based on biomass and wind bells as early as the first oil crisis in 1973. power for Negawatt, and solar energy for WWF. Marine renewable energies, exclu- The Programming Law establishing the ding offshore wind, occupy only a very Guidelines for Energy Policy (POPE Law of modest place in these scenarios; this is 13 July 2005) had already confirmed, as explained by the authors' desire to only well as the importance of the rational use focus on technologies already validated at of energy, interest in the development of a large-scale industrial level. renewable energies. It responds to a dual challenge: In March 2007, Ifremer13 initiated a prospective study on these energy sources › Reducing France's energy dependence: until 2030. With the support of the Futu- in the medium term, renewable energy ribles organisation, around twenty French sources are valuable strategic alter- partners representing the main sectoral • 9 • natives in our choice of energy options stakeholders participated. Their objectives (it should be noted that uranium is also were to identify technologies, predict the Global warming and the be seen (coral bleaching, ocean-surface Climate change is likely 10 to lead to an in- imported). socio-economic preconditions for their biodiversity crisis warming, ocean acidification, decline of fo- crease in both the intensity and frequency emergence and competitiveness, and es- rest ecosystems, melting glaciers, changes of extreme weather events, resulting in › Contributing to meeting France's in- timate their respective impacts on energy On a global scale, our energy needs are in the ranges of certain species, increases severe environmental, human and econo- ternational commitments to reduce supply and the environment. Contrary to constantly increasing. Currently, 81%5 of in invasive alien species, etc.), but it is cur- mic disasters. greenhouse gas emissions (the Kyoto the preferred models of NegaWatt and it is met by the combustion of fossil fuels rently difficult, despite the various scena- agreement, signed in 2002, committed WWF, the Ifremer study focused on tech- (oil, coal, gas and nuclear [uranium and rios that have been developed, to estimate Two types of response are possible (not France to reduce its greenhouse gas nologies that were still far from mature, plutonium]). However, these fuels are the extent of the impacts this may have on necessarily exclusive of each other): emissions by a factor of four between such as algal biofuels, but appeared to limited: at the current rate of consump- biodiversity, ecosystems and the services 1990 and 2050, in order to reduce its underestimate the evolution of floating tion, oil reserves could be depleted in the they provide. However, the IPCC report › Mitigation: this primarily involves redu- annual emissions to a level below 140 wind power. coming decades and gas in two to three estimates that a 2°C increase would put cing the greenhouse gas emissions af- million tonnes of CO2 equivalent) but centuries. In addition, the use of these 30% of the world's species at risk, making fecting the climate. This requires limiting also to meeting European commitments. These models have been noted, and have 5 International Energy Agency, 2011. 6 5th IPCC report, Summary for decision-makers 6 fossil fuels is the main contributor to the climate change one of the main threats to energy use as well as energy efficiency. provided valuable input into this study. 7 5th IPCC report, Summary for decision-makers phenomenon of climate change, which is biodiversity in the coming decades. This The development of marine renewable Indeed, France is contributing to the 8 5th IPCC report, Summary for decision-makers linked to the release of greenhouse gases impact will be much greater on ecosys- energies also represents a significant achievement of the European Union's ob- The French strategy for the development 9 2010 estimate, a sharply-rising figure with a into the atmosphere. tems with limited adaptive capacity, such mitigation measure. jective of a 20% improvement in energy of MREs has since been developed in 95% increase between 1970 and 2010. 10 From unlikely to very likely, depending on the as coral reefs. efficiency (European Energy-Climate Pac- a CGEDD/CGEIET report from March type of extreme events considered. The impacts of climate change are already › Adaptation: this concept involves redu- kage adopted in 2008) and is committed 201314. We will return to this topic later 11 NégaWatt, 2011, Scénario NégaWatt 2011 : being felt, with an increase of 0.85°C in Humans will also be directly affected: cing vulnerability and improving the re- to increasing the share of renewable en- in the report. Dossier de synthèse the global average surface temperature according to IPCC forecasts, the average silience of natural and human systems ergies to at least 23% of its final energy 12 WWF, ECOFYS, OMA, 2011, The Energy Report: 100% renewable energy by 2050 7 between 1880 and 2012 (GIEC, 2013). sea level could rise by 26 to 82 cm by to the consequences of climate change. consumption by 2020 (Grenelle Law 1, 13 Ifremer 2009. Marine Renewable Energies: The various models of the Intergovernmen- 21008. This increase could exceed one The nature-based solutions promoted by 2009). Prospective Foresight Study for 2030. Collec- tal Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predict metre by the beginning of the 22nd cen- IUCN are one such response. The pre- tive publication, coords. Paillard, M., Lacroix, an increase ranging from 1.5 to over 4°C tury and could reach 3 m in 2300 (which servation of mangroves, for example, In this scheme, it is expected that 3% of D., Lamblin, V. 336 p. 14 MEDDE (Conseil général de l'environnement et for the end of the 21st century compared to could affect 270 million people living in helps to limit the impact of storms. total national electricity consumption will du développement durable - CGEDD)/ Minis- the pre-industrial era7. The increase in glo- coastal areas9). Already, it is possible to come from marine renewable energies by tère de l'économie et des finances - Ministère bal temperatures across the globe will lead link certain human migrations to global These approaches help to limit the effects 2020. It should be noted that the installed du redressement productif (Conseil général de to multiple, difficult-to-estimate impacts, warming. This phenomenon often affects and risks associated with climate change. capacity of French MRE represents only l'économie, de l'industrie, de l'énergie et des technologies - CGEIET), March 2013. Rapport especially because of its rapid nature. The populations already vulnerable from other 0.1% of total consumption as of 2013 de la mission d'étude sur les énergies marines impacts on some ecosystems can already natural disasters. (mainly by the Rance tidal power plant). renouvelables, 104p. Marine conservation issues

• 10 •

General overview of marine Composed of benthic, pelagic, intertidal the nature of the seabed, the penetration and coastal habitats and aerial compartments, the marine en- of light into the water column (limited to a vironment offers a multitude of habitats maximum of a few dozen metres) and the France's marine and coastal habitats ranging from shallow coastal waters to presence of nutrients, organisms will be are highly diverse, providing France with abyssal depths. Depending on the depth, distributed in the environment according immense resources, but also important to the conditions necessary for their de- responsibilities. France is represented in velopment. four of the five world oceans through its overseas territories, and has the second Marine biodiversity, however, is clearly less largest exclusive economic zone in the well known than terrestrial and freshwater ® world (97% of which is located in the biodiversity. It is now estimated that less 15 IGN, BD Carto , 2006, Traitements : SOeS / Occupation du sol sur le littoral Overseas Territories). than 10% of marine species have been described. The anthropogenic pressures The metropolitan coastline comprises nu- on these environments are increasing and merous different ecosystems, including studies show that many are now expe- approx. 1950 km of sandy coastlines riencing degradation, some of which may (35.2% of the total length), 1300 km of be irreversible. These include acidification marshlands and mudflats (23.7%) and linked to climate change, pollution, des- 2,250 km of rocky coasts (41%, of which truction of rare habitats etc. 13% are cliffs)15. Coastal areas are in demand, whether in To these figures, 1,180 km must be mainland or French overseas territories, added for the overseas departments and and therefore at risk. Factors include more than 3,800 km for the overseas ter- demographic pressure (within mainland ritories. Seabream © Frédéric Lechat France, coastal areas have a density 2.5 times higher than non-coastal areas) tourism, increasing urbanisation, disappearance of particularly important and sensitive natural environments, and pollution. These areas require special protection, provided by some regularly-challenged regulations (in particular the Coastal Law and certain categories of marine protected areas, including gaps in the Coast Conservatory, biotope protection orders, etc.).

Some marine habitats of heritage interest16

COLD-WATER CORAL REEFS

Less well known than tropical corals, cold-water coral reefs are found in all oceans, from 50 to 6,000 m deep. They Herbier de zostère marine (Zostera marina) et maërl (Phymatolithon calcareum) en Iroise are especially prevalent in the North Atlan- © Yannis Turpin / Agence des aires marines protégées tic, in waters with a temperature between 4 and 8°C. Off French coasts, they are increased turbidity. At the European scale, similarly found around drop-offs on the they have been selected as an indicator edge of the continental shelf, mainly in of the ecological quality of coastal waters, the northern Bay of Biscay and the Cel- as part of the Water Framework Directive tic Sea, but also in the Mediterranean (in (WFD). some canyons, for example). • 11 • MAERL BEDS As important biodiversity hotspots, reefs can contain three times as many species The term maerl refers to calcified red al- as surrounding soft sediment zones17. gae that live on sediments without being They provide shelter for fish, and many fixed to them. Accumulations can range types of invertebrates inhabit them, in- from a few centimetres to several metres cluding crustaceans, molluscs, sponges, in thickness, and form beds of which only General overview of marine echinoderms and worms. the surface algae are alive, while those at and coastal habitats depth die and bleach. Depending on envi- KELP FORESTS18 ronmental conditions, maerl beds are lo- France's marine and coastal habitats cated from the foreshore to a depth of 30 are highly diverse, providing France with Kelp form huge underwater forests. They m in the English Channel, Atlantic coast- immense resources, but also important are stratified in the same manner as line, and in front of points and headlands. responsibilities. France is represented in terrestrial forests, where each stratum In the Mediterranean, they can occur as four of the five world oceans through its contributes to providing food, shelter and deep as 100 m. overseas territories, and has the second attachment to a wide variety of fauna and largest exclusive economic zone in the flora. The complex architecture of the beds ® world (97% of which is located in the creates many ecological niches, thus re- 15 IGN, BD Carto , 2006, Traitements : SOeS / Occupation du sol sur le littoral Overseas Territories). These forests represent, from a natural sulting in high diversity. The University of 16 Commissariat général au développement du- heritage perspective, the temperate to Western Brittany already lists 1,500 spe- rable - Service de l’observation et des statis- The metropolitan coastline comprises nu- cold equivalent of mangroves or coral cies found within the maerl beds along tiques, May 2011, Références : Environnement merous different ecosystems, including reefs. the Breton coast19 (although the total nu- littoral et marin, Chapitre II : biodiversité et espaces protégés approx. 1950 km of sandy coastlines mber of species is estimated at between 17 Bajjouk T., Derrien S., Gentil, F., Hily C. & Grall (35.2% of the total length), 1300 km of They are likely to be present on rocky bot- 1,800 and 2,000). There are significant J., 2010, Typologie d’habitats marins ben- marshlands and mudflats (23.7%) and toms from the intertidal to depths of more concentrations of commercially important thiques : analyse de l’existant et propositions 2,250 km of rocky coasts (41%, of which than 30 m. Symbolic of Breton waters, mollusc (e.g. king- and others scallops, pour la cartographie. Habitats côtiers de la ré- gion Bretagne - Synthethis note No. 2, Habitats 15 13% are cliffs) . these represent some of the most signi- and venus- and other clams) as well as du circalittoral. Projets REBENT-Bretagne and ficant kelp areas of Europe. fish (e.g. sea bass, sea bream). Natura 2000-Bretagne. To these figures, 1,180 km must be 18 IFREMER/DIREN-Bretagne, Apri 2009, Fiche de added for the overseas departments and Kelp are very sensitive to disturbances. There are also very large banks in the synthèse d’habitat « Laminaires » – REBENT 19 Source: Jacques Grall, researcher in charge of more than 3,800 km for the overseas ter- They do not tolerate changes in tempe- Mediterranean, Corsica, Spain, Malta, coordinating the Fauna and Flora data at the ritories. rature or salinity (Birkett et al. 1998) or Italy etc. Brest Marine Observatory (IUEM) functions are similar to those of eelgrass It also means that when one of these en- and it is found from 0 to 30-40 m deep. vironments comes under stress, the entire local marine ecosystem is vulnerable. They bind the sediments through their rhizomes and have high primary productivity. Goods and services provided by The detached leaves enrich and stabilize marine and coastal ecosystems the sediments, and are a source of carbon for other ecosystems such as canyons. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Many species, including some of high report21 (MEA) of 2005 refers to ecologi- economic value, use the meadows as a cal goods and services, or ecosystem ser- Close-up of a Saint-Jacques scallop refuge, spawning ground and nursery. It vices, as "goods and services that people (Pecten maximus) © Yannis Turpin / Marine is estimated that 20 to 25% of Mediter- can obtain from ecosystems, directly or Protected Areas Agency ranean animal species are found there. indirectly, to ensure their well-being". Broadly speaking, four main types of EELGRASS BEDS ecological services can be distinguished: supporting services (the basic ecological Eelgrass refers to the only two flowering functions), regulating services (direct ser- plants living in the marine environment vices from ecological functions) and pro- on the Channel, North Sea and Atlantic visioning and cultural services (indirect coasts. Zostera noltii grows in the inter- services from ecological functions)22. tidal zone while Zostera marina, which is larger, grows from the base of the fo- Marine and coastal environments provide reshore to some ten20 metres below the an invaluable range of goods and services surface. in terms of food, aesthetics, and air and water quality, etc. We will provide just a They are found on sandy to sandy-silty few examples below23. sheltered foreshores, most notably in • 12 • large bays, gulfs and estuaries, from the REGULATING SERVICES 20 http://doris.ffessm.fr/fiche2.asp?fiche_nume- western Cherbourg Peninsula to Arca- ro=695 chon. The two most significant areas are Marine organisms perform self-purifica- 21 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005, Ecosystem Wealth and Human Well- the Arcachon basin (at almost 7,000 ha, tion functions, thus contributing to the Being, Island Press it is the largest site in Western Europe maintenance of water quality by retaining, 22 UICN France (2012), Panorama des services although it has significantly decreased recycling or breaking down harmful or ex- écologiques fournis par les milieux naturels en in extent in recent years) and the Gulf of cess substances through their metabolic France – volume 1 : contexte et enjeux. Paris, France Morbihan (800 ha of common eelgrass processes. Other molluscs (such as oys- 23 UICN France (2013) - Panorama des services and 530 ha of dwarf eelgrass). It is also ters, cockles, mussels, etc.), for example, écologiques fournis par les milieux naturels en found, mostly in lagoons, in the Mediter- Posidonie oceanica. © Boris Daniel / Marine can filter up to several litres of water per France - Volume 2.2: les écosystèmes ma- ranean. Equipped with powerful rhizomes Protected Areas Agency hour. These organisms are water bio-puri- rins et côtiers. Paris, France. Also noteworthy is the VALMER project, a European project that provide structure to the sediment, fiers because they concentrate pollutants involving 11 partners, with the objective of these plants support invertebrates and al- in their flesh. Some marine microorga- determining how an integrated assessment gae that would not be found on soft subs- SEAGRASS, MANGROVES AND CORAL nisms (fungi and bacteria) can also break of marine ecosystem services can contribute trates in their absence. As complex eco- REEFS IN THE OVERSEAS TERRITORIES down pollutants24. By providing some to the sound management of the marine environment. The project, led by the University systems, eelgrass beds and associated of these detoxification and degrada- of Plymouth, extrapolates from six study sites invertebrate communities represent an Within the French Overseas Territories, tion functions, marine and coastal areas located in the western English Channel. This important food resource for many juvenile seagrass beds, mangroves and coral contribute to good water quality. But it will lead to a better understanding of the links fish and crustaceans and also serve as reefs are valuable ecosystems that pro- should be remembered that the ecosys- between ecosystem services, their valuation, and effective management of the marine en- breeding grounds. Many of these species vide numerous ecological services to tem must remain healthy to provide these vironment. It was implemented from 1/9/2012 are of significant economic value, for exa- neighbouring communities. services. to 31/3/2015. http://www.valmer.eu/?lang=fr mple flounder, red mullet and shrimp. 24 Biodegradation is a degradation of organic These three environments are uniquely PROVISIONING SERVICES matter carried out by living organisms due to the abundance and variety of microorganisms In addition, many birds such as the Eu- interconnected. Mangroves and seagrass in the particular environment. The attack on a rasian wigeon and the Brent goose feed beds filter the water, which provides fa- Marine and coastal areas are the source chemical molecule by microorganisms results on eelgrass. vourable conditions for coral develop- of many food products, thanks to the in its mineralization and the production of me- ment. Seagrass beds and mangroves are abundance of plankton that underlies the tabolites of low molecular weights. NEPTUNE GRASS BEDS also nurseries for many fish species that food chains, as well as the diversity of the inhabit the reef complex. For their part, habitats that they support. Nearly a billion Neptune grass (Posidonia oceanica) is a reefs act as physical barriers to the force people depend on fish as their only source flowering plant that forms vast meadows of waves and currents, and create the of animal protein. Approximately 85 mil- on the Mediterranean coast, and has calm waters necessary for the develop- lion tonnes of fish are caught each year been protected since 1988. Its ecological ment of seagrass beds and mangroves. worldwide. It also means that when one of these en- major destination for vacationers, due to Marine and coastal vironments comes under stress, the entire the beauty of the landscapes and favou- environments pro- local marine ecosystem is vulnerable. rable climate. In summer, in metropolitan France, 13 million tourists vacation by the vide an invaluable range Goods and services provided by sea every year27. The most notable sites of goods and services in marine and coastal ecosystems (Pointe du Raz, Mont Saint-Michel, Dune terms of food, aesthetics, du Pilat, and Porquerolles Island) are The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment among the most visited natural heritage and air and water quality. report21 (MEA) of 2005 refers to ecologi- features. Scuba diving and recreational cal goods and services, or ecosystem ser- fishing are important income-generating vices, as "goods and services that people activities. can obtain from ecosystems, directly or indirectly, to ensure their well-being". High-quality sites can generate significant Broadly speaking, four main types of economic benefits for the local economy. EELGRASS BEDS ecological services can be distinguished: Lagoons and coral reefs are very popular supporting services (the basic ecological for tourists; with 55,000 dives per year in Eelgrass refers to the only two flowering functions), regulating services (direct ser- the coral reefs of New Caledonia alone. plants living in the marine environment vices from ecological functions) and pro- on the Channel, North Sea and Atlantic visioning and cultural services (indirect Fishermen on board of a trawler in the English The ocean and its marine species also coasts. Zostera noltii grows in the inter- services from ecological functions)22. Channel (Marine Natural Park of the Picardy play a key role in the religion of some tra- tidal zone while Zostera marina, which Estuary and Opale coast) © Marie-Dominique ditional communities. Even in contempo- Monbrun / Marine Protected Areas Agency is larger, grows from the base of the fo- Marine and coastal environments provide rary societies, the sea remains a source reshore to some ten20 metres below the an invaluable range of goods and services of spirituality, relaxation and inspiration surface. in terms of food, aesthetics, and air and for many artists. water quality, etc. We will provide just a In 2009, French commercial fishing com- They are found on sandy to sandy-silty few examples below23. prised25 7305 active vessels and em- Preserving these ecosystems is therefore sheltered foreshores, most notably in ployed more than 23,090 people, 88% of essential if they are to continue to fulfil 26 large bays, gulfs and estuaries, from the REGULATING SERVICES them in mainland France . their functions. To this end, it is necessa- 20 http://doris.ffessm.fr/fiche2.asp?fiche_nume- • 13 • western Cherbourg Peninsula to Arca- ry to minimize human impacts on these ro=695 chon. The two most significant areas are Marine organisms perform self-purifica- Due to the richness and diversity of spe- environments and to manage them sus- 21 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005, Ecosystem Wealth and Human Well- the Arcachon basin (at almost 7,000 ha, tion functions, thus contributing to the cies found in the marine environment, it tainably. Being, Island Press it is the largest site in Western Europe maintenance of water quality by retaining, contains numerous resources useful for 22 UICN France (2012), Panorama des services although it has significantly decreased recycling or breaking down harmful or ex- human activities (agriculture, industry, écologiques fournis par les milieux naturels en in extent in recent years) and the Gulf of cess substances through their metabolic medicine). Algae are currently of growing France – volume 1 : contexte et enjeux. Paris, France Morbihan (800 ha of common eelgrass processes. Other molluscs (such as oys- interest as biotechnological components 23 UICN France (2013) - Panorama des services and 530 ha of dwarf eelgrass). It is also ters, cockles, mussels, etc.), for example, in food processing, cosmetology and écologiques fournis par les milieux naturels en found, mostly in lagoons, in the Mediter- can filter up to several litres of water per pharmacology, as well as in biofuel pro- France - Volume 2.2: les écosystèmes ma- ranean. Equipped with powerful rhizomes hour. These organisms are water bio-puri- duction (although this would require very rins et côtiers. Paris, France. Also noteworthy is the VALMER project, a European project that provide structure to the sediment, fiers because they concentrate pollutants extensive cultivation). For example, addi- involving 11 partners, with the objective of these plants support invertebrates and al- in their flesh. Some marine microorga- tives used as stabilizers, thickeners and determining how an integrated assessment gae that would not be found on soft subs- nisms (fungi and bacteria) can also break gelling agents can be obtained. Marine of marine ecosystem services can contribute trates in their absence. As complex eco- down pollutants24. By providing some ecosystems are home to a wealth of natu- to the sound management of the marine environment. The project, led by the University systems, eelgrass beds and associated of these detoxification and degrada- ral resources that we are just beginning to of Plymouth, extrapolates from six study sites invertebrate communities represent an tion functions, marine and coastal areas discover and whose genetic diversity is of located in the western English Channel. This important food resource for many juvenile contribute to good water quality. But it interest in the search for resistant genes, will lead to a better understanding of the links fish and crustaceans and also serve as should be remembered that the ecosys- drugs, etc. The pharmaceutical indus- between ecosystem services, their valuation, and effective management of the marine en- breeding grounds. Many of these species tem must remain healthy to provide these try has discovered multiple substances vironment. It was implemented from 1/9/2012 are of significant economic value, for exa- services. with anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and to 31/3/2015. http://www.valmer.eu/?lang=fr mple flounder, red mullet and shrimp. anticoagulant properties in sea grass, 24 Biodegradation is a degradation of organic PROVISIONING SERVICES sponges, molluscs and corals reefs. matter carried out by living organisms due to the abundance and variety of microorganisms In addition, many birds such as the Eu- in the particular environment. The attack on a rasian wigeon and the Brent goose feed Marine and coastal areas are the source CULTURAL AND RECREATIONAL SER- chemical molecule by microorganisms results on eelgrass. of many food products, thanks to the VICES in its mineralization and the production of me- abundance of plankton that underlies the tabolites of low molecular weights. 25 Ministère de l’Alimentation, de l’Agriculture et NEPTUNE GRASS BEDS food chains, as well as the diversity of the Marine and coastal areas are popular de la Pêche. habitats that they support. Nearly a billion recreational areas, and provide a variety 26 Ministère de l’Alimentation, de l’Agriculture et Neptune grass (Posidonia oceanica) is a people depend on fish as their only source of opportunities for leisure and tourism de la Pêche, 2011 flowering plant that forms vast meadows of animal protein. Approximately 85 mil- activities, such as swimming, fishing, sai- 27 Jean-Claude Jacob, 2009, Tourisme littoral (cf. « Le Tourisme de A à Z » : https://www. on the Mediterranean coast, and has lion tonnes of fish are caught each year ling, scuba diving, sand yachting, walking, veilleinfotourisme.fr/thematiques/juridique/ been protected since 1988. Its ecological worldwide. and wildlife viewing. The French coast is a abecedaire-du-droit-du-tourisme) Regulatory context

• 14 • © Martin

Ocean resources are limited. Therefore, rules on the use of the sea and the ex- responding powers can be shared with or comprehensive integrated approaches are ploitation of its resources, to ensure their transferred to the EU. essential for the management of human conservation and preservation. These activities. Large-scale marine renewable rules, along with the resulting rights and energy installations represent a relatively responsibilities of States, vary according new challenge for integrated coastal ma- to the different maritime areas over which nagement strategies and marine spatial they exercise their jurisdiction. planning. The development of parks in territorial waters must form a component A coastal state has a sovereign right to of Integrated Coastal Zone Management develop renewable marine energy only in (ICZM) approaches, together with spatial areas near its coasts (territorial waters) planning instruments, where appropriate. and in areas known as "under national jurisdiction" (exclusive economic zone). Many instruments have been created at the international, European and national With regard to inland and territorial wa- levels for the management of marine ters, state sovereignty implies the right to areas and uses such as navigation and exploit energy resources in these areas. overflight, resource exploration and- ex Territorial waters extend a maximum of ploitation, the conservation of living re- 12 nautical miles from the coastline. sources, the protection and preservation of the marine environment and marine Article 56.1.a of the convention refers scientific research. to the sovereign rights of the coastal state within its exclusive economic zone, Figure 1. Maritime areas as defined by the MRE and the International concerning "the production of energy International Law of the Sea Law of the Sea28 from water, currents and winds". The EEZ is an area of up to 200 miles in width The United Nations Convention on the Law calculated from the coastline of the coas- Regarding the continental shelf, Article 28 Beer-Gabel (J.), Droit international et informa- tique juridique : dialogue sur le droit de la mer, of the Sea, signed in 1982 in Montego tal state. The state must also ensure the 77 of the convention, which lists exploi- Paris : CNRS, 1995, 434 p. Bay, codifies the Law of the Sea, including protection of the environment. The cor- table resources, does not mention MRE. It is not intended to regulate pelagic areas Once adopted, the authorities, the public nor airspace. Installations located on the and any consulted member state shall continental shelf are mainly governed by be informed, with relevant information the article 80, which introduces, all other made available to them. things being equal, an extension of the regime applicable in the EEZ (Article 60). › and environmental impact assessments / EIA (Directive No. 85/337/EEC, repealed Finally, on the high seas, there is no pro- and replaced by Directive 2011/92/EU vision in the Convention on the Law of the of 13 December 2011 on the assess- Sea that refers to the right of exploitation ment of the effects of certain public and of MRE. By contrast, the exploitation of private projects on the environment). the seabed and its mineral resources, This directive notably states that "pro- which have been designated by the inter- jects likely to have significant environ- national community as "common property mental impacts, in particular because of of humanity", is subject to a regime regu- their nature, size or location, are subject lated and supervised by the International to a permit application procedure and an Seabed Authority under the United Na- assessment of their impact". This EU le- tions Convention on the Law of the Sea. gislation is transposed in France through the provisions of the Environmental European legislation29 Code on impact assessments. In order to identify unforeseen adverse effects European Union (EU) environmental as- as early as possible and to assess the sessment legislation describes the mi- intensity of the predicted effects, signi- nimum conditions that a Member State ficant environmental impacts should be must meet when drawing up a plan or monitored at all scales. programme, and which it may require from a developer throughout the life cy- In January 2014, the European Commis- cle of a project. The information it must sion presented a two-stage action plan • 15 • provide is specifically defined by national to increase the development of marine laws and by the conventions to which the energy and remove the major known obs- country is a signatory. tacles by 2020. Ocean resources are limited. Therefore, Between 2014 and 2016, a forum brin- comprehensive integrated approaches are The EU has several relevant laws concer- ging together all marine energy stakehol- essential for the management of human ning: ders (industry, governments, researchers, activities. Large-scale marine renewable EU, NGOs) should be set up to improve energy installations represent a relatively › the achievement of sound ecological coordination between policy and industry new challenge for integrated coastal ma- conditions in all marine waters by 2020 and to collectively find viable solutions. nagement strategies and marine spatial (Marine Strategy Framework Directive - The Commission will play a facilitation planning. The development of parks in MSFD n°2008/56/EC), and coordination role. This collabora- territorial waters must form a component tive process will result in the drafting of of Integrated Coastal Zone Management › the conservation of nature and the pro- a strategic roadmap. A second forum (ICZM) approaches, together with spatial tection of specific species and habitats will address administrative and financial planning instruments, where appropriate. (Habitats Directive n°92/43/CEE), issues. A working group will also be set up to work on environmental impact as- Many instruments have been created at › strategic environmental assessments / sessments of existing and future instal- the international, European and national SEA (Directive 2001/42/EC on the as- lations, also to review the environmental levels for the management of marine sessment of the effects of certain plans directives applying to marine energies areas and uses such as navigation and and programmes on the environment). and their possible shortcomings. In a overflight, resource exploration and- ex This Directive requires authorities esta- second phase (2017-2020), a European ploitation, the conservation of living re- blishing a plan or programme to prepare industrial initiative could be developed sources, the protection and preservation an environmental impact assessment based on a public-private partnership, of the marine environment and marine (indicating likely significant environmen- to set clear and shared objectives for the scientific research. tal impacts and suitable alternatives) and industrial deployment of marine energy in to conduct consultations (with the pu- Europe. Simultaneously, guidelines could MRE and the International blic, environmental authorities and other be published to facilitate the granting of Law of the Sea28 member states in the event of significant permits and reduce the administrative cross-border impacts). The environmen- burden for authorities and project pro- The United Nations Convention on the Law tal impact report and the results of the ponents. A review of this action plan is 28 Beer-Gabel (J.), Droit international et informa- tique juridique : dialogue sur le droit de la mer, of the Sea, signed in 1982 in Montego consultations are taken into account be- planned for 2020 at the latest. Paris : CNRS, 1995, 434 p. Bay, codifies the Law of the Sea, including fore the plan or programme is adopted. 29 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy, Ibid. National legislation In French overseas territories , local au- create a coherent network in order to pro- thorities work with the state and with re- tect the territory's biodiversity, as required Various laws relate to this subject. gard to each other's powers to develop a by European legislation. In particular, it strategy for each overseas maritime basin must include the designation of offshore THE NATIONAL STRATEGY FOR THE (if necessary cross-border), known as a sites. SEA AND COAST - APPLICATION OF sea basin strategic document. An over- THEMARITIME SPTIAL PLANNING seas maritime council is created at the APPLICATION OF THE "SEA" DIRECTIVE (MSP) DIRECTIVE level of each maritime basin. IN FRANCE

The transposition of the MSP Directive IMPLEMENTATION OF THE HABITATS The Directive has been transposed into under French law is achieved by the DIRECTIVE IN FRANCE French law in various codes. For example, establishment of Marine Environment for the environment, Articles L. 122-4 to Action Plans (PAMMs) (article L 219-9 The Natura 2000 marine network in L. 122-11 and R. 122-17 to R. 122-24 of of the Environment Code enacted on 12 France currently covers an area of 4.1 the Environment Code and, for town plan- July 2010). These form the environmen- million hectares with 207 sites (148 ning, Articles L. 121-12 to L. 121-15 and tal component of future strategic coast- mixed and 59 fully marine). It aims to R. 121-14 to R. 121-17 of the Town Plan- line documents (DSF) resulting from art. L 219-3 of the same code and which themselves define the objectives of the National Strategy for the Sea and the Coast on the scale of each DSF coastline (art L 219-1).

Developed under the responsibility of the maritime and regional prefects, these marine action plans must include the following elements: (i) an initial assessment • 16 • of the state of the marine sub-region, (ii) a definition of the healthy ecological state for the sub-region, to be achieved by 2020, (iii) the setting of environmental objectives, (iv) monitoring and action programmes.

These Marine Environment Action Plans (PAMMs) notably include:

› an analysis of the distinctiveness, essential characteristics, and ecological condition of these waters,

› an analysis of the major impacts and pressures, particularly due to human activity, on the ecological status of these waters,

› an economic and social analysis of the use of these waters and the costs of degradation of this environment.

The PAMM must be developed on the basis of broad consultation with maritime and coastal stakeholders. This consultation is carried out in particular within the Council of the Sea and Coastlines (CMF), which also integrates public institutions in charge of the sea and the coast, nature protection associations, and users of the environment. It is followed by a public consultation open to all citizens. Seahorse © Frédéric Lechat ning Code, and L. 4424-13, L. 4433-7, R. if they cannot be avoided, measures are 4424-6-1, R. 4433-1-1 and R. 4433-1-1 taken to reduce them, and as a last re- of the General Code for local Authorities. sort, any significant residual impacts that could not be avoided or reduced must be The environmental assessment of the compensated for. plan or programme shall include an environmental report which, in accordance The "avoid/reduce/compensate" ap- with Article L. 122-6 of the Environmental proach is described in the EIA Directive, Code, identifies, describes and assesses which requires developers to describe the significant effects that the implemen- the proposed measures to avoid, reduce tation of the plan or document may have and, if possible, compensate for signifi- on the environment. This report presents cant adverse environmental effects of the the measures planned to reduce and, as project when assessing its environmental far as possible, compensate for the signi- impacts (e. g. in the Environmental Impact ficant negative effects that the application Assessment report). of the project may have on the environment. It sets out alternative solutions that In October 2013, the Ministry of Ecology were considered and the reasons why, published guidelines to clarify the use of particularly with regard to environmental the "avoid/reduce/compensate" process31. protection, the project was selected. THE COASTAL LAW The development of marine renewable energies has been the subject of two According to Articles L. 321-2 and R. 321- CRE calls for tenders for offshore wind 1 of the Environment Code, coastal muni- power (launched under the Energy Code), cipalities are considered to be "municipa- coupled with calls for expressions of inte- lities in metropolitan and overseas France rest for demonstration projects. The calls bordering seas and oceans, salt ponds, for tenders were not subject to the Strate- inland water bodies with an area of more • 17 • gic Environmental Assessment required than 1000 hectares" as well as those listed for national plans and programmes. The in Article R. 321-1 of the Code. initial assessments planned under the MSFD were not available at the time of Faced with the increasing concentration the first two wind power tenders. In the of activities and urban development of future, the link between these strategic coastal regions, the Coastal Law (1986) documents and the development of re- establishes four objectives: newable energies at sea will be strengthened. › Preserve rare, sensitive areas and maintain ecological stability; APPLICATION OF THE EIA DIRECTIVE IN FRANCE - IMPACT ASSESSMENT › Economically manage the use of space REGULATIONS for urbanization and tourism development; This Directive is transposed into French law in Article R122-2 of the Environ- › Increase public access to the coastline; mental Code, created by Decree No. 2011-2019 of 29 December 2011, which › Prioritise coastal activities whose deve- specifies that any project categorized as lopment is linked to the sea. "development, structures and works relating to energy" and subcategory No. 27 THE REGULATIONS APPLICABLE TO "Offshore energy production facilities" is INSTALLATIONS IN THE EXCLUSIVE subject to this impact assessment. ECONOMIC ZONE

In the event of significant negative - im As part of the preparation of the Biodiver- 30 UICN France, 2011, La compensation éco- pacts on marine biodiversity, IUCN France sity Law (marine component), the Ministry logique : État des lieux et recommandations. Paris, France stresses the importance of adhering to the of Ecology is required to draft proposals 31 MEDDE, Octobre 2013, Lignes directrices "avoid/ reduce/compensate"30 approach that clarify, complement and safeguard nationales sur la séquence éviter, réduire et in order to design projects that have the the legal framework permitting the de- compenser les impacts sur les milieux natu- least impact on the environment. Imple- velopment of economic activities in the rels. Links: http://temis.documentation.deve- loppement-durable.gouv.fr/docs/Temis/0079/ mentation of the approach is hierarchi- exclusive economic zone while respecting Temis-0079094/20917.pdf cal. Priority is given to avoiding impacts; biodiversity. • 18 •

The Molène archipelago from the air ©Julien Courtel / Marine Protected Areas Agency

Indeed, it has become necessary to pro- France, and the relevant regulations differ ter transfer by an enabling law. The prin- vide a framework for the future establish- between overseas Departments (DOM) ciple of legislative specialisation, whereby ment of MRE installations in these areas and overseas Collectivities (COM). national laws apply to COMs only when and, more generally, for the development they expressly provide for it, has excluded of economic activities (other than mining, In the Overseas Departments, the Coas- these communities from much environ- other mineral and hydrocarbon extraction, tal Law is applicable but with specific mental legislation. When the "Urbanism" and fisheries and aquaculture activities, requirements. The Constitution allows for authority has been transferred, the Coas- which are already covered by other regu- adaptations of the law in the French over- tal Act does not apply to it. However local lations). seas departments. laws still frequently lack the necessary provisions to preserve the coastal envi- This instrument will therefore fill a legal Public land in the French Overseas ronment. void in the regulations, and will strengthen Departments differs from that of metropo- France's capacity to protect its interests litan France: the 50 geometric steps zone Moreover, EU law does not apply eve- and fulfil its commitments under interna- remains within a particular regime. In Gua- rywhere in the French Overseas Commu- tional law32 (United Nations Convention on deloupe and Martinique, the law allows for nities (differences between the outermost 32 Link: http://www.aires-marines.fr/Partager/ the Law of the Sea, Convention on Bio- the transfer of land parcels in these areas regions [ORs] of the EU which are covered Cooperation-regionale 33 Link: https://uicn.fr/wp-content/ logical Diversity, OSPAR Convention, Bar- for the benefit of municipalities, social hou- by Article 349 of the Lisbon Treaty and the uploads/2016/06/rapport_UICN_France_loi_ celona Convention, Cartagena, Nairobi, sing organisations or for squatters. overseas countries and territories [OCTs] Littoral-2.pdf Nouméa and Apia Conventions, CCAMLR which are covered by Part IV of the same Convention) and European law. However, the acceleration of title forma- Treaty). lisation and occupation of the coastline SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER- is leading to the threat of privatisation of In overall terms, a development strategy SEAS TERRITORIES33 access to the coastline and the sea. adapted to these territories is now necessary. Overseas French coasts are not governed In Overseas territories, environmental au- by the same rules as those of mainland thority is local (except in Saint-Martin), af- STANDARDISING DOCUMENTS34 impacts of renewable marine energy, In the Overseas De- 37 September 2012 (98p.) partments, the Coastal Documents that set standards have been › Ifremer has published a protocol for produced by governments. They provide conducting impact studies and moni- Law applies, but with speci- specific guidance on assessment- pro toring of offshore renewable energy fic features. The Constitu- cesses and methods for monitoring en- projects, with numerous recommenda- tion allows for adaptations vironmental impacts. Some examples are tions38. as follows: › EU initiative: The Atlantic Power Cluster of the law in the French › Nature Conservation Guidance on rings together stakeholders from Ireland, overseas departments. Offshore Windfarm Development - Spain, France, Portugal and the United United Kingdom - DEFRA 2005 Kingdom to develop the renewable en- › Guidance on Environmental Considera- ergy potential of the marine and coastal tions for Offshore Wind Farm Develop- environment of these regions in a sus- ment - OSPAR 2008 tainable manner. › Guidelines on wind energy development and nature conservation requirements in the EU - European Commission 2010

In France, several supporting documents have also been produced: › MEDDE (DGEC) released a methodological study in 2012 (361p.) on the environmental and socio-economic impacts of marine renewable energies.35 › France Energies Marines is currently coordinating a guide for assessing environmental impacts of offshore wind 36 turbine technologies (GHYDRO project) • 19 • › The MERiFIC Project has produced a literature review of the environmental

Indeed, it has become necessary to provide a framework for the future establishment of MRE installations in these areas and, more generally, for the development of economic activities (other than mining, other mineral and hydrocarbon extraction, and fisheries and aquaculture activities, which are already covered by other regulations).

This instrument will therefore fill a legal void in the regulations, and will strengthen France's capacity to protect its interests and fulfil its commitments under international law32 (United Nations Convention on 32 Link: http://www.aires-marines.fr/Partager/ the Law of the Sea, Convention on Bio- Cooperation-regionale 33 Link: https://uicn.fr/wp-content/ logical Diversity, OSPAR Convention, Bar- uploads/2016/06/rapport_UICN_France_loi_ celona Convention, Cartagena, Nairobi, Littoral-2.pdf Nouméa and Apia Conventions, CCAMLR 34 IUCN, 2010. Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. Convention) and European law. 35 Link: https://www.ecologique-solidaire.gouv. fr/sites/default/files/guide_etude_impact_eo- lien_mer_2017_complet.pdf SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS OF OVER- 36 Link: https://www.france-energies-marines. SEAS TERRITORIES33 org/R-D/Projets-acheves/GHYDRO 37 Link : http://www.merific.eu/ 38 Link: https://wwz.ifremer.fr/Innovation/Filieres/ Overseas French coasts are not governed Filiere-energie/Energies-marines-renouve- by the same rules as those of mainland Mangroves © Ji-Elle lables Description of the different MRE systems

• 20 •

• 21 • Research and development status

• 22 •

Abalone © Frédéric Lechat

This study concerns 5 types of marine species rather than entire ecosystems. environment differs fundamentally from renewable energy technology: offshore Consequently, there is little information terrestrial environments, not only in the wind turbines (fixed and floating), marine available on the effects on the latter. types of organisms likely to be affected, current turbines, wave energy converters, but also in physical (e. g. sound propaga- ocean thermal energy converters and tidal This report highlights the need for fur- tion) and biological (e. g. regulation of barrages. ther research on specific topics, such as food and energy flows and dispersal of the effects of noise and electromagnetic young) factors. Nor is it possible to sim- Although still in its infancy in France, fields on different species, or the mecha- ply transpose studies carried out for other offshore wind energy is currently, after nisms underlying avoidance behaviour, maritime activities, as marine wind farms tidal energy39, the most developed and with a view to developing appropriate mi- differ from other marine engineering in- mature marine renewable energy tech- tigation strategies. dustries in terms of installation methods, nology, compared, for example, to wave the areas covered and their disturbance and current energy. The associated envi- In addition, the study of the potential be- factors. However, it is possible to find, ronmental problems are therefore better nefits associated with the management for example in the oil and gas or seabed documented. and growth of other activities in MRE aggregate mining sectors, information on sites, and the provision of artificial habi- potential environmental disturbances as Academic research on environmental and tats, should be pursued. well as possible avenues for mitigation ecological issues related to the develop- and restoration efforts. ment of offshore wind energy is mainly Finally, it will also be necessary to de- conducted in Denmark, Germany, the velop analytical tools for assessing the United Kingdom and Sweden40, and more cascading effects on ecosystems and the 41 recently in the Netherlands and Belgium . cumulative effects of MRE with other ma- 39 In fact, tidal energy has been exploited in However, most research programmes ritime activities. France since 1966 (Rance plant), so it is more have only recently begun, and many out- developed than offshore wind energy, and the puts are limited to the development of im- The application of results obtained for environmental impact is well documented. 40 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. pact analysis methods. In addition, most onshore wind farms to the marine en- 41 https://odnature.naturalsciences.be/winmon- studies to date have focused on specific vironment is inappropriate. The marine be2013/report Techniques, essential conditions and potential in France

• 23 •

The energy potential of the oceans is system deployed in France since the This study concerns 5 types of marine significant. Indeed, on a global scale, the construction of the Rance tidal power renewable energy technology: offshore oceans cover 71% of the planet and re- plant. wind turbines (fixed and floating), marine ceive a large proportion of the sun's en- current turbines, wave energy converters, ergy. The latter, by far the principal source Offshore wind energy, like land-based ocean thermal energy converters and tidal of energy in the oceans, is the source of wind energy, uses the kinetic energy of barrages. winds, waves and swells, thermohaline the wind for electricity production. Wind currents and temperature and salinity turbines consist of a mast that can be Although still in its infancy in France, gradients. The oceans also contain tidal fixed to the bottom (currently used) or to offshore wind energy is currently, after and geothermal energy. a floating support (under development) tidal energy39, the most developed and which supports a turbine equipped with a mature marine renewable energy tech- Various systems have been developed rotor with 2 or more (often 3) blades. nology, compared, for example, to wave to harness this energy. Some techniques and current energy. The associated envi- are currently in use, others are still being The electricity is then carried to the ter- ronmental problems are therefore better investigated or tested. As each of these restrial network via submarine cables. documented. systems requires very specific physical conditions, they do not have the same The stronger and less disrupted marine Academic research on environmental and development potential in all waters under winds are more suitable for wind en- ecological issues related to the develop- French jurisdiction. ergy development than those on land. ment of offshore wind energy is mainly However, significant technical challenges conducted in Denmark, Germany, the Offshore wind turbines (fixed exist, relating to the marine environment, United Kingdom and Sweden40, and more and floating) maintenance, transport, logistics and 41 recently in the Netherlands and Belgium . construction challenges. 39 In fact, tidal energy has been exploited in However, most research programmes BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION France since 1966 (Rance plant), so it is more have only recently begun, and many out- The size and performance of wind tur- developed than offshore wind energy, and the puts are limited to the development of im- Currently, fixed wind turbines are the bines are constantly improving: some ma- environmental impact is well documented. 40 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. pact analysis methods. In addition, most most advanced marine renewable energy chines will soon reach 8 MW. In France, 41 https://odnature.naturalsciences.be/winmon- studies to date have focused on specific technologies and the only industrial-scale future wind farms will have an installed be2013/report capacity ranging from 450 to 500 MW and On this occasion, the FEE identified a will each consist of around 100 wind tur- technically exploitable potential of 80 GW bines. In comparison, future wind farm pro- for installed wind turbines and 122 GW jects could have a total installed capacity for floating wind turbines47. of 9 GW in the United Kingdom by 202042. For aerodynamic reasons, the spacing of France's advantages in terms of offshore wind turbines in these wind farms is about wind power are particularly significant, one kilometre, which corresponds to an Figure 2b: Different foundation types including huge maritime areas, industrial installed capacity of about 5 MW per km²; © Infomer and energy expertise, maritime expertise that is, about 100 km² for a 500 MW wind and harbour capacity. Mainland France farm, of which less than 1% is actually oc- benefits from strong marine winds and cupied by the foundations43. In France, on The floating wind turbine, still at the expe- shallow sea beds, which are favourable to the other hand, planned French wind farms rimental stage, is a technology that should the exploitation of this energy. will occupy 50 km² (Courseulles-sur-mer eventually make it possible to exploit large with 75 turbines), 65 km² (Courseulles- marine areas at greater depths (from 50 sur-mer with 75 turbines), (Fécamp with m to over 200 m), thus limiting conflicts 83 turbines), 77 km2 (Saint-Brieuc with of use in the already highly-coveted coas- 100 turbines) and 78 km² (Saint-Nazaire tal areas. Several flotation concepts are with 80 turbines). under development (spar, tension legs, semi-submerged, damping pool) and the associated turbines could differ radically from the fixed wind turbine designs (vertical axis turbines).

DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL

Within the European Union, offshore wind • 24 • farms currently supply 0.3% of total electricity demand: according to the Euro- Figure 3: Map of marine wind resource as pean Wind Energy Association's (EWEA) a function of wind speed at an elevation 1 Oceans of Opportunity report, this could of 40 m a.s.l.48. reach 12% to 16% by 2030. The development potential is therefore enormous. The call for tenders launched by the Go- Ifremer estimates in its prospective stu- vernment in July 2011 was a first step. dy45 that the potential offshore wind en- It will allow the installation of nearly ergy output in metropolitan France is 150 2,000 MW of offshore wind turbines on TWh (4,000 MW). four sites: Courseulles-sur-Mer, Fécamp, Saint-Brieuc, and Saint-Nazaire. The In September 2013, the Wind Committee commissioning of the farms is planned of the French Renewable Energies As- from 2018 to 2020 under the terms of sociation (SER) proposed a roadmap46, the call for tenders49. This first call has 2 based on assumptions that consider the paved the way for a new industrial sector; usable sea potential, the industrial ca- indeed, several plants are currently under pacity of the sector's stakeholders, and construction in France. the crucial consultation between all sea 42 BBC article "New UK offshore wind farm li- cences are announced". users. On this basis, and using a conser- A second call for tenders was launched 43 However, the graded area around the founda- vative approach that considers the diffi- in March 2013, covering two areas (Tré- tions, protection against scouring, and cable culties that other offshore wind projects port, Yeu and Noirmoutier islands). The routing must be considered. around the world have encountered, the commissioning of these wind farms, with 44 www.aquaret.com 45 IFREMER, 2009, Ibid. commission concluded that there was a a maximum capacity of 1,000 MW, is 46 French Renewable Energy Association, 2013, realistic possibility of reaching 15 GW by planned between 2021 and 2023. "A roadmap for offshore wind energy: 15,000 2030 (not including floating windfarms, MW by 2030". which have the greatest potential). In overseas France, the development po- 47 Link: http://fee.asso.fr/politique-de-leolien/ 3 eolien-en-mer/ tential of the offshore wind energy sector 48 www.aquaret.com Figure 2a: Different types of wind tur- Notably, the Wind Energy Association is low, particularly due to bathymetry, but 49 The contract specifications require 20% opera- bines44: 1) three-bladed horizontal axis (FEE), published an action plan in July also due to seismic and cyclonic issues. tional power in April 2018, 80% in April 2019 wind turbine, 2) two-bladed horizontal 2013 2013 aimed at a similar objective However, the usable potential is neverthe- and 100% in April 2020. axis wind turbine, 3) vertical axis wind for fixed wind turbines and a target of 6 less significant in relation to local needs turbine. GW by 2030 for floating wind turbines. (although it is unlikely that the techni- capacity ranging from 450 to 500 MW and On this occasion, the FEE identified a cally usable potential alone will provide Within the European will each consist of around 100 wind tur- technically exploitable potential of 80 GW self-sufficiency for these islands). Union, offshore wind bines. In comparison, future wind farm pro- for installed wind turbines and 122 GW jects could have a total installed capacity for floating wind turbines47. Technical advances in the field of floating farms currently supply of 9 GW in the United Kingdom by 202042. wind turbines might allow the exploitation 0.3% of the total electri- For aerodynamic reasons, the spacing of France's advantages in terms of offshore of areas located much further offshore, city demand. wind turbines in these wind farms is about wind power are particularly significant, where winds are strong and depth is a li- 1 one kilometre, which corresponds to an Figure 2b: Different foundation types including huge maritime areas, industrial miting factor for fixed wind turbine instal- installed capacity of about 5 MW per km²; © Infomer and energy expertise, maritime expertise lation (particularly in the Mediterranean). that is, about 100 km² for a 500 MW wind and harbour capacity. Mainland France This technology also has benefits in the farm, of which less than 1% is actually oc- benefits from strong marine winds and reduction of impacts on marine ecosys- cupied by the foundations43. In France, on The floating wind turbine, still at the expe- shallow sea beds, which are favourable to tems. the other hand, planned French wind farms rimental stage, is a technology that should the exploitation of this energy. will occupy 50 km² (Courseulles-sur-mer eventually make it possible to exploit large As part of the Investments of the Future with 75 turbines), 65 km² (Courseulles- marine areas at greater depths (from 50 programme, AMI Marine Energies, led by sur-mer with 75 turbines), (Fécamp with m to over 200 m), thus limiting conflicts ADEME, has financed two demonstration 2 83 turbines), 77 km2 (Saint-Brieuc with of use in the already highly-coveted coas- projects in the floating offshore wind en- 100 turbines) and 78 km² (Saint-Nazaire tal areas. Several flotation concepts are ergy sector: with 80 turbines). under development (spar, tension legs, semi-submerged, damping pool) and the › The first prototype from the WINFLO associated turbines could differ radically project will be tested from 2015 off from the fixed wind turbine designs (verti- the French coast (Groix) and the first cal axis turbines). pre-production run could be manufac- tured in 2016, depending on the results DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL of these tests. 3 Within the European Union, offshore wind › The floating wind turbine developed as farms currently supply 0.3% of total elec- part of the VERTIWIND project has a • 25 • tricity demand: according to the Euro- Figure 3: Map of marine wind resource as vertical axis to increase its stability. The pean Wind Energy Association's (EWEA) a function of wind speed at an elevation wind turbine will thus have a buoyan- Oceans of Opportunity report, this could of 40 m a.s.l.48. cy system requiring a draught of only reach 12% to 16% by 2030. The deve- around 10 m. The prototype will be lopment potential is therefore enormous. tested in the Mediterranean off Fos-sur- The call for tenders launched by the Go- mer, where an experimental farm of 13 Ifremer estimates in its prospective stu- vernment in July 2011 was a first step. units is already being studied with the 4 dy45 that the potential offshore wind en- It will allow the installation of nearly support of the European NER300 fund. ergy output in metropolitan France is 150 2,000 MW of offshore wind turbines on TWh (4,000 MW). four sites: Courseulles-sur-Mer, Fécamp, The SEMREV experimental research pro- Saint-Brieuc, and Saint-Nazaire. The ject (École Centrale de Nantes) should In September 2013, the Wind Committee commissioning of the farms is planned also be installed soon offshore from Croi- of the French Renewable Energies As- from 2018 to 2020 under the terms of sic. sociation (SER) proposed a roadmap46, the call for tenders49. This first call has based on assumptions that consider the paved the way for a new industrial sector; Marine Current Turbines50 usable sea potential, the industrial ca- indeed, several plants are currently under 5 pacity of the sector's stakeholders, and construction in France. BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION the crucial consultation between all sea 42 BBC article "New UK offshore wind farm li- cences are announced". users. On this basis, and using a conser- A second call for tenders was launched Current turbines are submerged or se- 43 However, the graded area around the founda- vative approach that considers the diffi- in March 2013, covering two areas (Tré- mi-submerged turbines that are moved tions, protection against scouring, and cable culties that other offshore wind projects port, Yeu and Noirmoutier islands). The by the kinetic energy of marine currents. routing must be considered. around the world have encountered, the commissioning of these wind farms, with Structures using the kinetic energy of cur- 44 www.aquaret.com 45 IFREMER, 2009, Ibid. commission concluded that there was a a maximum capacity of 1,000 MW, is rents can take different forms: vertical or 46 French Renewable Energy Association, 2013, realistic possibility of reaching 15 GW by planned between 2021 and 2023. horizontal axis turbines, but also "paddle "A roadmap for offshore wind energy: 15,000 2030 (not including floating windfarms, wheels" or oscillating devices. As with MW by 2030". 6 which have the greatest potential). In overseas France, the development po- wind turbines, current turbines can be 47 Link: http://fee.asso.fr/politique-de-leolien/ eolien-en-mer/ tential of the offshore wind energy sector installed on supports fixed to the seabed 48 www.aquaret.com Figure 2a: Different types of wind tur- Notably, the Wind Energy Association is low, particularly due to bathymetry, but or floating on the surface. The fixed sys- Figure 4: Diagram of the different current 49 The contract specifications require 20% opera- bines44: 1) three-bladed horizontal axis (FEE), published an action plan in July also due to seismic and cyclonic issues. tems may be entirely underwater or have turbine designs51: 1) horizontal axis tur- tional power in April 2018, 80% in April 2019 wind turbine, 2) two-bladed horizontal 2013 2013 aimed at a similar objective However, the usable potential is neverthe- an emerging pylon. bines, 2) vertical axis turbines, 3) oscil- and 100% in April 2020. 50 We only deal here with turbines using tidal cur- axis wind turbine, 3) vertical axis wind for fixed wind turbines and a target of 6 less significant in relation to local needs lating hydrofoils, 4) venturi effect devices, rents; not offshore thermohaline currents. turbine. GW by 2030 for floating wind turbines. (although it is unlikely that the techni- 5) tidal kite, 6) Archimedes’ screw. 51 www.aquaret.com Since tidal currents are predictable, the In France, there are currently no ope- DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL associated electricity production can be rational turbines for commercial pro- accurately predicted. Since the density of duction. However, in the coming years, The Rance plant is the oldest in the world water is 800 times higher than that of air, the blades of dozens of turbines could and the only one in France, with a capa- turbines installed in high-current areas rotate off the French coast. On 30 Sep- city of 240 MW. Installed in 1966, it has are smaller in size than wind turbines of tember 2013, the government issued a provided significant feedback regarding the same power. call for expressions of interest (EOI) to this technology. Currently, no other tidal support the establishment of four pilot power plant project appears to be deve- parks. Two sites have been selected: loping in France, as the lack of suitable Raz Blanchard, at the north-western sites and the environmental impacts of tip of the Cotentin and the passage the watercourses and marine environ- du Fromveur off the coast of Finistère ments involved discourage the develop- (these two areas account for 80% of the ment of further projects along the French energy potential of marine currents in coast. France). It is been suggested that tidal basins be The Paimpol Bréhat site, off Ploubazlanec developed adjacent to the coast55, in large Marine current turbine OpenHydro © EDF / TOMA in the Côtes d'Armor region of Brittany, bays rather than in estuaries: alternatively, has been undergoing field tests since the these huge basins could channel the flow DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL summer of 2012. of the tide towards hydropower plants distributed along seawalls. These projects Located in an area where tides are among Tidal barrages have yet to be subjected to environmental the highest in the world, France has the studies to date, would require very signi- second highest marine hydropower po- BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION ficant construction work, and would also tential in Europe, just behind the United impact on marine environments (extrac- Kingdom. Ifremer estimates in a prospec- In the tradition of the tidal mills spread tion of aggregates for the seawalls, etc.). tive study52 that the potential of marine along the Breton coast, tidal power plants • 26 • hydropower in metropolitan France is 10 such as the one at Rance take the form of Finally, tidal energy projects involving ar- TWh (400 MW), which is 15 times less a dam that creates a basin. Tidal energy tificial lagoons of a more limited size (port than the potential of floating wind energy. uses the difference in water level between basins, etc.) are also being considered. the basin and the sea, a function of the The potential in metropolitan France is tide. Installations can use the entire cycle Wave energy converters found in tidal areas where the average (rising and falling tide), or only part of the current speed is greater than 1.5 m/s, cycle. This type of system requires very BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION such as on headlands or in bottlenecks specific conditions, since it requires both between islands and the mainland, mainly high amplitude tides and a bay or estuary Wave energy converters use the energy in the English Channel. In French over- favourable to the creation of a dam deli- of waves and swells to produce electricity. seas territories the development potential miting a sufficiently large basin surface. A large number of techniques have been of this energy sector is low. Favourable developed to exploit this energy resource: areas are limited (e.g. lagoon passes, floating structures (such as Pelamis, where currents are permanent and often which uses the movement by the swell of very strong) but would allow decentralised an articulated structure), oscillating water production (which may be of interest to columns (which use the compression of some French overseas territories). air due to the variation of the water level in a compartment to operate a turbine), overtopping devices, immersed systems on the seabed, and articulated systems 52 IFREMER, 2009, Ibid. (EMACOP project56 led by CETMEF is a 53 www.aquaret.com system attached to a seawall and equip- 54 www.aquaret.com ped with a articulated arm attached to a 55 Speech by F. Lempérière (Hydrocoop) at the SHF conference "EMR 2013". Link to the Hy- floating element), etc. drocoop website: http://www.hydrocoop.org/

Most of these devices are intended for 56 Link: http://www.letelegramme.fr/iggenerales Figure 6: Map of tidal power resources as offshore installation, except those with regions/finistere/energies-marines-le finistere-a-la-pointe-de-la-houle 54 a function of tidal amplitude . overtopping, oscillating water columns 10-12-2013-2332304.php?utm_source= and articulated arms, which can also be rss_telegramme&utm_medium=rss&utm_ installed on the coast. campaign=rss&xtor=RSS-24

Figure 5: Map of tidal current resources, expressed in terms of current velocity53. Since tidal currents are predictable, the In France, there are currently no ope- DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL France has the second associated electricity production can be rational turbines for commercial pro- highest marine hydro- accurately predicted. Since the density of duction. However, in the coming years, The Rance plant is the oldest in the world water is 800 times higher than that of air, the blades of dozens of turbines could and the only one in France, with a capa- power potential in Europe, turbines installed in high-current areas rotate off the French coast. On 30 Sep- city of 240 MW. Installed in 1966, it has just behind the United King- are smaller in size than wind turbines of tember 2013, the government issued a provided significant feedback regarding dom. the same power. call for expressions of interest (EOI) to this technology. Currently, no other tidal support the establishment of four pilot power plant project appears to be deve- parks. Two sites have been selected: loping in France, as the lack of suitable 2 Raz Blanchard, at the north-western sites and the environmental impacts of 1 tip of the Cotentin and the passage the watercourses and marine environ- du Fromveur off the coast of Finistère ments involved discourage the develop- (these two areas account for 80% of the ment of further projects along the French energy potential of marine currents in coast. France). It is been suggested that tidal basins be The Paimpol Bréhat site, off Ploubazlanec developed adjacent to the coast55, in large in the Côtes d'Armor region of Brittany, bays rather than in estuaries: alternatively, has been undergoing field tests since the these huge basins could channel the flow DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL summer of 2012. of the tide towards hydropower plants distributed along seawalls. These projects Located in an area where tides are among have yet to be subjected to environmental Tidal barrages 3 4 the highest in the world, France has the studies to date, would require very signi- second highest marine hydropower po- BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION ficant construction work, and would also tential in Europe, just behind the United impact on marine environments (extrac- Kingdom. Ifremer estimates in a prospec- In the tradition of the tidal mills spread tion of aggregates for the seawalls, etc.). tive study52 that the potential of marine along the Breton coast, tidal power plants hydropower in metropolitan France is 10 such as the one at Rance take the form of Finally, tidal energy projects involving ar- • 27 • TWh (400 MW), which is 15 times less a dam that creates a basin. Tidal energy tificial lagoons of a more limited size (port than the potential of floating wind energy. uses the difference in water level between basins, etc.) are also being considered. the basin and the sea, a function of the The potential in metropolitan France is tide. Installations can use the entire cycle Wave energy converters found in tidal areas where the average (rising and falling tide), or only part of the current speed is greater than 1.5 m/s, cycle. This type of system requires very BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION 5 6 such as on headlands or in bottlenecks specific conditions, since it requires both between islands and the mainland, mainly high amplitude tides and a bay or estuary Wave energy converters use the energy in the English Channel. In French over- favourable to the creation of a dam deli- of waves and swells to produce electricity. seas territories the development potential miting a sufficiently large basin surface. A large number of techniques have been of this energy sector is low. Favourable developed to exploit this energy resource: areas are limited (e.g. lagoon passes, floating structures (such as Pelamis, where currents are permanent and often which uses the movement by the swell of very strong) but would allow decentralised an articulated structure), oscillating water production (which may be of interest to columns (which use the compression of some French overseas territories). air due to the variation of the water level in a compartment to operate a turbine), overtopping devices, immersed systems 7 8 on the seabed, and articulated systems 52 IFREMER, 2009, Ibid. (EMACOP project56 led by CETMEF is a 53 www.aquaret.com system attached to a seawall and equip- Figure 7: Diagrams of the different wave power concepts57: 1) attenuator, 2) point ab- 54 www.aquaret.com ped with a articulated arm attached to a sorber, 3) oscillating wave surge converter, 4) rotating mass, 5) submerged pressure 55 Speech by F. Lempérière (Hydrocoop) at the SHF conference "EMR 2013". Link to the Hy- floating element), etc. differential device, 6) bulge wave device, 7) oscillating water column, 8) overtopping drocoop website: http://www.hydrocoop.org/ device. Most of these devices are intended for 56 Link: http://www.letelegramme.fr/iggenerales Figure 6: Map of tidal power resources as offshore installation, except those with regions/finistere/energies-marines-le finistere-a-la-pointe-de-la-houle 54 a function of tidal amplitude . overtopping, oscillating water columns DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL 10-12-2013-2332304.php?utm_source= and articulated arms, which can also be rss_telegramme&utm_medium=rss&utm_ installed on the coast. Ifremer estimates, in its prospective stu- that the technically exploitable potential in campaign=rss&xtor=RSS-24 dy58 , the potential wave energy in metro- France is 10 to 15 GW59, mainly on the 57 www.aquaret.com 58 IFREMER, 2009, Ibid. Figure 5: Map of tidal current resources, politan? France to be 40 TWh (200 MW), Atlantic coast. 59 ADEME, 2010. Roadmap for renewable marine expressed in terms of current velocity53. while ADEME, in its roadmap, estimates energy. Figure 8: Map of wave resources as a function of swell size and waves generated by the wind60.

To date, no wave power systems have been installed on the French coast, but various projects are being developed in "Houles Southern" project (EDF EN) © Energies Reunion mainland and French overseas territories. These include the SEA-REV project of the There is also significant potential in Po- Therefore, we can exploit: Ecole Centrale de Nantes, which involves lynesia and New Caledonia and, more lo- a floating system with a weighted section cally, in Guadeloupe and Martinique. › the heat from the upper layers: heat that is set in motion by the swell in the pumps for heating; manner of a pendulum. DCNS and Fortum Ocean thermal energy Conver- are also planning a pilot installation based sion (OTEC) › the cold of the lower layers: "Sea Water on the Wave Roller system to be installed Air Conditioning (SWAC)" for cooling; • 28 • in Audierne Bay, in southern Finistère. The thermal energy of the ocean is as- CETMEF is working to identify suitable sociated with the direct absorption of › the temperature differential between sites for wave power devices integrated solar radiation by the surface waters of surface and deep water: the "ETM" into port dikes, using the concept of an the oceans. The European Union uses (énergie thermique des mers) or "OTEC" oscillating water column or articulated the term hydrothermal energy for "ener- (Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion), is a float. gy stored in the form of heat in surface thermal system (surface-to-deep water water". pump, exchanger and turbine generator) In overseas France, the potential for wave and is designed to produce electricity. energy use is significant, particularly in BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION islands exposed to ocean swells. Projects Unlike most other MREs, OTEC production using the Pelamis and CETO systems The ocean is thermally stratified, with is stable, predictable and continuous on (submerged buoy system set in motion the upper layers reaching higher tempe- a 24-hour basis and could thus directly by the swell) could be developed on the ratures, especially in intertropical areas replace thermal power stations in isolated coast of Reunion Island. A full-scale CETO (above 24°C and up to 30°C), while insular areas. prototype is being installed and tests will the temperature is low in deep water be carried out in 2014. (about 5°C at around 1000 m depth). OTEC power plants can be of three types: open cycle, closed cycle, or hybrid cycle. In an open cycle, the water pumped from the surface passes through an evaporator where the pressure is low in order to lower the evaporation threshold of the fluid. The water vapour drives a turbine coupled to an alternator, then condenses on contact with the cold water pumped from deep below the surface. A closed cycle system (the most common and the only fully developed type), uses a heat transfer fluid (e.g. ammonia) which is evaporated by the heat from the surface water. Af- ter driving a turbine, the vapour passes 60 www.aquaret.com through condenser cooled by cold deep water and returns to its liquid state, and Pelamis © Ocean Power Delivery the cycle is repeated (circulation pump). The hybrid cycle combines the two prin- On Reunion Island, a scaled-down The technique of ex- ciples to produce fresh water by conden- onshore prototype has been built at the ploiting the thermal sing seawater vapour. University technologic institueIUT in Saint Pierre, and a major urban SWAC project gradient is not new, as the is under way to air-condition process was first tested in several buildings in Saint-Denis. 1930. Various types of projects are underway off Reunion Island, Tahiti and Martinique (a full-scale de- monstrator is planned by DCNS).

Some small-scale seawater air Figure 8: Map of wave resources as a conditioning systems have been function of swell size and waves gene- developed or are under study rated by the wind60. (and heating in Seyne sur Mer and Monaco). A well-known sea To date, no wave power systems have water air conditioning project been installed on the French coast, but is in place in Bora-Bora and various projects are being developed in another is already operating in mainland and French overseas territories. Saint-Denis in Reunion Island. These include the SEA-REV project of the Ecole Centrale de Nantes, which involves According to the report of a a floating system with a weighted section study on marine renewable en- that is set in motion by the swell in the ergies62, SWAC is expanding in manner of a pendulum. DCNS and Fortum France; there is a significant de- are also planning a pilot installation based mand in tropical areas but also on the Wave Roller system to be installed in parts of metropolitan France in Audierne Bay, in southern Finistère. where air conditioning is widely • 29 • CETMEF is working to identify suitable used. MTE is expensive but is sites for wave power devices integrated progressing, with a significant into port dikes, using the concept of an niche market in islands. oscillating water column or articulated float. Finally, coastal projects with marine heat pumps (PAC) using In overseas France, the potential for wave seawater already exist for air energy use is significant, particularly in conditioning and heating of islands exposed to ocean swells. Projects Figure 9: Operating principle of the MTE buildings by the coast. They share some using the Pelamis and CETO systems 1) closed and 2) open cycle61. common issues with the SWACs with (submerged buoy system set in motion regard to impacts, and a synergy needs by the swell) could be developed on the to be developed for issues related to the coast of Reunion Island. A full-scale CETO This technique requires the pumping of adaptation of techniques from terrestrial prototype is being installed and tests will large volumes of water, using pipes with to marine environments. be carried out in 2014. a diameter of several metres.

DEVELOPMENT POTENTIAL

The technique of using the thermal gradient is not new, having been first tested in 1930. In metropolitan France, where surface temperatures are low, MTE cannot be used because a temperature gradient close to 20°C is required to obtain sufficient output.

Tropical regions, on the other hand, are particularly favourable to the development of the MTE sector as well as SWAC 60 www.aquaret.com for air-conditioning, as surface water 61 http://www.connaissancedesenergies.org/ fiche-pedagogique/energie-thermique-des- temperatures can reach about 25°C, mers-etm compared to 5°C at 1,000 m depth. 62 CGEDD/CGEIET, March 2013, Ibid. Focus: Development of "Marine renewable energies" projects in Reunion Island

• 30 •

Prototype Onshore Marine Thermal Energy plant (PAT ETM) - DCNS © Energies Reunion

Reunion Island has been engaged for Among the two most advanced projects, by EDF EN. The other well-advanced pro- many years in the development of Marine the PAT system was the product of an ject is the Southern Houles (Houles Aus- Renewable Energies as it aims to be en- agreement between the Reunion Island trales) project based on CETO technology ergy self-sufficient by 2030, i.e. 100% re- Region and DCNS, and was financed by and led by EDF EN. Again, the Region of newable energy. To date, 35% of electri- the French government via a stimulus Reunion Island has taken on the role of city comes from local renewable sources package and by the co-owners, Région co-owner and funds from the stimulus and several Marine Energy projects are in Réunion and DCNS (the system's desi- package have financed the project. The the testing phase. gner). A previous agreement had enabled full-scale prototype currently being deve- a feasibility study to be carried out for an loped will provide data throughout 2014; As regards thermal projects, two SWACs offshore power plant. The University of La it will thus enable the system's perfor- are under review, one for a hospital in the Réunion is also involved in the project as mance to be monitored and the environ- south and the other an urban air condi- operator of the installation (since the PAT mental impacts assessed. The latter is a tioning network in the capital Saint-Denis. is located within ITU facilities) and univer- point of great concern to the co-owners, An onshore OTEC prototype (PAT) has sity researchers are working in collabo- even though the relevant regulations are been operational since mid-2012 to faci- ration with DCNS to carry out tests. This still unclear. Marine mammals, which are litate R&D on the energy system. In addi- research aims to find an optimal energy common in the area, are monitored before tion, two wave energy projects are being system that will be used in future offshore work is carried out, during tests and after launched, with a prototype based on plants. Particular attention has been paid dismantling. In addition, hydrophones will CETO technology currently in the instal- to safety and local, environmental and re- be used to accurately measure the noise lation phase, and a project based on PE- gulatory acceptability. Consultation with generated by the prototype during the test LAMIS technology with a storage system, government departments was carried out phase. which is currently undergoing trials. Of in advance in order to set up processes note is that Reunion Island is unsuitable that were endorsed by all stakeholders. Through these projects and experience for hydropower turbines due to weak tidal gained in the field, in 2014 Reunion Island currents. Reunion Island is therefore ine- The other well-advanced project is the will become the tropical hub of the natio- ligible for the state aid offered to support Southern Houles (Houles Australes) pro- nal project "France Energies Marines". this technology. ject based on CETO technology and led • 31 •

Golden perch or striated emperor (Gnathodentex aurolineatus) in front of corals and sponges © Jérôme Paillet / Marine Protected Areas Agency Evaluation of the impacts of different MRE systems, and recommendations

• 32 •

In the caves of Crozon, at Cap de la Chèvre © Yannis Turpin / Marine Protected Areas Agency Evaluation of the impacts of different MRE systems, and recommendations

• 33 • In examining the impacts of marine energy development, it is important to place local impacts in the context of larger-scale, or even global, impacts. Climate change is a growing threat to biodiversity, but the use of marine renewable energies can substantially reduce greenhouse gas emissions and limit the effects of climate change. Also, through the development of these energy sources, it would be possible to avoid, for example, toxic pollutants related to the extraction, transport and refining of fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, oil shale and shale gas) and local environmental impacts due to large hydropower installations etc. These global and local benefits (positive impacts) must, however, be balanced against the specific -ne gative effects that these technologies can have on marine life. Some prior comments… › To date, no offshore wind turbines, hydropower turbines or wave systems have been installed in France for commercial production. › In the case of fixed wind turbines, we can draw on the experience of our European neighbours, in particular the studies carried out on Danish (the oldest are Horns Rev and Nysted), Dutch (e.g. Egmond aan zee), Belgian (e.g. Thorntonbank) and German (Alpha Ventus experimental park) wind farms. As the "fixed wind" technology is more mature, the knowledge of impacts is also more detailed than for other technologies. › It should be noted that this report only highlights the impacts (positive or negative) identified during • 34 • the construction and operation phases. The issue of decommissioning is the subject of a separate, in- depth section. In addition, cumulative impacts are not discussed in detail. The question of synergies/ conflicts between uses is also the subject of a specific detailed section.

Velvet crab © Frédéric Lechat Threat: Noise and vibration

• 35 •

Offshore wind turbines ronmental noise and the marine species present. POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING THE CONSTRUCTION PHASE Generally, the impacts of noise should be temporary. But the noise caused by pile The construction phase of wind farms will driving can kill or injure fish (especial- inevitably generate noise during seabed ly those with swim bladders), mammals preparation (e. g. levelling, which may and sea turtles, cause behavioural dis- include the use of explosives), foundation turbances or cause them to temporarily installation and ship traffic. abandon or leave an area that can extend for tens of kilometres from the construction The type of foundation (monopiles, tri- site63. The displacement of species is likely pods, jackets, and gravity for fixed wind to seriously affect the use of spawning turbines) has a significant influence on and nursery grounds if appropriate sea- the type and degree of disturbance, as sonal bans are not applied. Marine turtles does the installation technique (e.g. can be particularly sensitive to any habitat driving, drilling, vibratory sinking). The loss, even temporarily, as they appear to construction of gravity foundations is be highly inflexible in terms of their spa- therefore less noisy than pile driving of tial distribution patterns. Fish larvae and foundations, which can cause significant juveniles could be particularly vulnerable acoustic disturbances. The installation to significant noise exposure. Studies on a of foundations by drilling is also, at first few species have not shown any evidence glance, less noise-generating underwa- of direct mortality, but the long-term effects ter than pile driving. The resulting ef- on individual growth remain unknown. Si- fects, however, depend on a number of milarly, areas harbouring resident marine other factors, such as the topography mammals (seal colonies, sedentary mam- and composition of the seabed, the mal populations, etc.) are a major issue for diameter of the piles, the existing envi- this type of project. 63 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. C-Power wind farm on the Thornton Bank (Belgium) © Sylvain Michel

The installation of the anchors used for Further research is therefore essential to behavioural perspective, the effects on the floating wind turbines could result assess the full effects of MRE. marine mammals and fish appear to be in lower noise impacts, although precise low. However, the results of experiments comparative studies are currently lacking. In addition, the structures must be trans- are still incomplete, and as certain species However, in this case, seabed preparation ported by ships from the port where they may be more sensitive to them, additional may also require dredging operations are stored to the installation site. Fur- studies could help to better establish the that produce noise, which is nevertheless thermore, there are other boats needed sensitivity thresholds for the different spe- lower than pile driving, but which causes to prepare the area and install the struc- cies. Available information suggests that the materials to be resuspended. tures. All of these vessels are a source of the impact of airborne noise on birds and • 36 • noise and disturbance for organisms, in bats is low, but these effects are poorly The impact on marine organisms of addition to pre-existing traffic. understood. Bats are mainly affected by noise and vibration caused by various sudden pressure variations in the vicinity marine activities (transport, fishing, oil POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING of the blades. exploration, and civil and military sonar) OPERATION is relatively unknown. Although studies64 Marine Current Turbines have been conducted on the subject, they Noise and vibrations from the rotation of have not yet led to definitive conclusions. the blades travel through the water. Du- POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING This particularly applies to the noise toring the operating phase, the overall noise CONSTRUCTION lerance threshold of each species and intensity is lower than during construction their behaviour in the face of these dis- (and generally lower than that of noise The presence of ships and the prepa- turbances. The studies were conducted caused by other marine activities such as ration of the substrate to accommodate mainly on mammals (pinnipeds and small transportation or associated with natural current turbines generate noise. Depen- cetaceans), whose behaviour is easier to surface movement) and does not appear ding on the particular project, mechani- observe. to cause injury to any organisms. From a cal operations may be necessary, such as pile driving or drilling in the case of a pole-mounted turbine. In comparison, a turbine fixed with ballast that requires no pile driving or drilling could generate less noise during installation.

POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING OPERATION

The rotation of the turbine by marine currents induces vibrations that travel through the water. However, as this sector is still in its infancy, we know little about the noise associated with the operation of 64 Studies relevant to MREs include (among these turbines. others): Cowrie july 2010, acoustic mitigation devices (amds) to deter marine mammals from pile driving areas at sea: audibility & behaviou- It is worth mentioning the study of the ral response of a harbour porpoise & harbour C-Power wind farm on the Thornton Bank (Belgium) © Sylvain Michel Sabella D3 prototype turbine in the Odet seals. Estuary in South Finistere, which has not is poorly known and the potential conse- Additional research is demonstrated significant impacts on the quences on organisms have not yet been therefore essential to behaviour of fish using the estuary. It identified. should be remembered that even in the assess the full effects of absence of hydro turbines, high-current Tidal barrage MRE. areas already experience intense hydrodynamic noise. POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING CONSTRUCTION Wave Energy Converters Tidal power plants do not require struc- POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING tures to be installed deep within the CONSTRUCTION seabed or estuary, so their construction is theoretically less likely to generate un- As with wind and hydro power turbines, derwater noise than other energy systems. floating installations can be transported However, the construction of the barrage from the port of storage to the installation and temporary structures requires a large site by vessels. This source of noise (lower number of lifting devices and specialized than that of commercial vessels operating vessels that move large quantities of ma- The installation of the anchors used for at high speed) is in principle not a cause terials, resulting in a significant increase the floating wind turbines could result of injury or death. in noise throughout the construction site. in lower noise impacts, although precise comparative studies are currently lacking. POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING However, in this case, seabed preparation OPERATION OPERATION may also require dredging operations that produce noise, which is nevertheless The mechanical noise generated by wave Hydroelectric turbines can produce signi- lower than pile driving, but which causes energy converters is probably no greater ficant noise when rotating, especially if, the materials to be resuspended. than the noise emitted by boats during as with other technologies, the mechani- installation, or the natural hydrodynamic cal parts are worn, dirty, or insufficiently • 37 • The impact on marine organisms of noise that increases significantly in the lubricated. These sounds can propagate noise and vibration caused by various presence of waves. through the water for several kilometres, marine activities (transport, fishing, oil but if the plant is located in an estuary, exploration, and civil and military sonar) However, the moving parts of the device its topography limits this propagation to a is relatively unknown. Although studies64 can produce noise over a very different relatively narrow area. have been conducted on the subject, they frequency range than natural noise, and have not yet led to definitive conclusions. its intensity may increase with system However, actual monitoring at the Rance This particularly applies to the noise to- wear or the development of fouling. An- site did not reveal any changes in animal lerance threshold of each species and chor chains can vibrate, but his impact behaviour related to noise. their behaviour in the face of these disturbances. The studies were conducted mainly on mammals (pinnipeds and small cetaceans), whose behaviour is easier to observe.

64 Studies relevant to MREs include (among others): Cowrie july 2010, acoustic mitigation devices (amds) to deter marine mammals from pile driving areas at sea: audibility & behaviou- Power Oyster 800 wave converter developed by Aquamarine Power at the EMEC test site at Bilia Croo, ral response of a harbour porpoise & harbour Orkney Islands (Scotland) © Sylvain Michel seals. Ocean Thermal Energy disturbances on marine wildlife as yet Firstly, the choice of construction period Conversion (OTEC) remain unknown (particularly for marine can help to minimize some negative im- mammals in the AGOA sanctuary). pacts. POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING CONSTRUCTION Recommendations for the By avoiding the migratory times of ma- protection of biodiversity65 rine mammals or the breeding periods of Acoustic impacts during the construction noise-sensitive species, we can reduce of a floating plant will be similar to those For the preservation of marine and coas- the number of affected individuals, or the of any floating devices (wind, hydroelec- tal biodiversity, we recommend, in par- degree of disturbance during the most tric or wave), except that their source will ticular: crucial life history stages for the mainte- be located at a single site, rather than nance of populations. dispersed over multiple points. Underwa- › the development of knowledge on the ter noise generation can be likened to that potential impacts of seismic surveys du- This measure is difficult to implement: the of the installation of a floating oil platform, ring the exploration phase (geotechnical main breeding season for many species with the difference being that the ETM surveys). in temperate regions extends from spring plant will probably be closer to the coast, to early summer, which corresponds to and therefore to the coastal ecosystems. Sound waves (especially low frequencies) the favourable conditions for carrying out The acoustic impact of an onshore MTE can propagate through water for more off-shore operations. It will therefore be plant would be similar to the laying of an than a hundred kilometres. This type of necessary to target, on a case-by-case underwater pipeline, but at a far greater noise pollution is potentially harmful to basis, the critical periods for the most depth (1,000 m) than discharge (was- aquatic fauna, in the same manner as the sensitive species or species at risk, in tewater, industrial effluents) or pumping noise pollution generated by an MRE site. order to minimize the overall impacts of (cooling, desalination) pipelines. operations. Nevertheless, it should be However, high-resolution seismic waves kept in mind that an excessive reduction POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING associated with geotechnical engineering of work windows can lead to delays in the OPERATION use low energy compared to the high-pe- construction schedule, which will then netration seismic waves used for oil ex- extend over longer periods of time and • 38 • Two types of underwater noise would be ploration, which have been associated ultimately have a more prolonged impact generated by an plant. Firstly, noise and with mass marine mammal stranding. on the species and habitats. vibration would come from the operation The former use higher frequencies that of heat exchangers and electrical trans- propagate little; however, they may still › the development and systematic imple- formers in the plant (inside the floating have significant effects on wildlife, and mentation of proven techniques to reduce platform), and secondly, grinding noise these effects need to be studied in order the noise impacts of projects, such as: from submerged pipes up to 1,000 m to be minimised. long, which would increase during periods When several options are possible, de- of high surface disturbance (cyclones). › the consideration of habitat use and mi- pending on the geological characteristics DCNS is conducting a noise modelling gration patterns of sensitive species when of the seabed, the choice of foundation study of a floating plant for its project in developing MRE systems. type can help to reduce the acoustic im- Martinique. However, the effects of these pacts of construction.

It is also possible to reduce sound propagation by forming a curtain of bubbles around the pylons, or by wrapping the latter in acoustic insulation. However, these technologies are unproven in areas with strong tides, such as in the English Channel and on the French At- lantic coast, and their efficacy is strongly dependent on the currents.

Other measures can be taken to encourage organisms to move away from the source of the noise and avoid injury. For example, the 'pinger' device emits sounds that encourage individuals to move away before the commencement of pile-driving. However, the effectiveness of acoustic deterrents must be carefully verified as suitable for the species present under Common bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus) © NASA the environmental conditions of the site, 65 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. disturbances on marine wildlife as yet remain unknown (particularly for marine mammals in the AGOA sanctuary).

Recommendations for the protection of biodiversity65

For the preservation of marine and coastal biodiversity, we recommend, in particular:

› the development of knowledge on the potential impacts of seismic surveys during the exploration phase (geotechnical surveys).

Sound waves (especially low frequencies) can propagate through water for more than a hundred kilometres. This type of noise pollution is potentially harmful to aquatic fauna, in the same manner as the noise pollution generated by an MRE site.

However, high-resolution seismic waves associated with geotechnical engineering use low energy compared to the high-penetration seismic waves used for oil ex- Leaping Common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in the Iroise Marine Natural Park © Sylvain Dromzée / Marine Protected Areas Agency ploration, which have been associated • 39 • with mass marine mammal stranding. The former use higher frequencies that propagate little; however, they may still as their effect may be negligible or even tation of mitigation protocols), as is prac- have significant effects on wildlife, and adverse depending on the species. For tised on seismic surveys or oil exploration, these effects need to be studied in order example, the Ping-Iroise project (PNMI) for example. to be minimised. showed no significant repulsion of - por poises and dolphins by pingers attached › Finally, the "acoustic barrier" effect › the consideration of habitat use and mi- to fishing trawlers, with similar numbers caused by underwater noise can be gration patterns of sensitive species when of incidental captures with or without reduced by gradually phasing in the developing MRE systems. pingers. Furthermore, where repulsion construction of several MRE parks located is effective, it must also be ensured that in the same marine region. it does not lead to a prolonged loss of functional area for affected species (e. g. By staggering the noisiest activities in the abandonment of a feeding area). various projects over time, animals es- caping the disturbance would be able to A gradual increase in pile driving force move to a refuge area. This would require (soft start) is a way to allow time for or- consultation between the various project ganisms (mammals, large pelagics and leaders, and for them to agree to modify marine turtles in particular) to leave the their work schedules, despite generally area before maximum noise emission is very tight operational constraints. achieved. However, the evidence of its effectiveness is unclear. Individuals may become habituated to the noise as the increase occurs, and thus fail to demons- trate avoidance behaviour.

› ensuring visual (and acoustic) monitoring of construction zones during each operation likely to cause disturbance or harm to pelagic organisms (presence of observers and operators of passive acoustic devices on board construction vessels, implemen- 65 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. Opportunities and Threats: Habitat Modification

• 40 •

Torpedo ray © Frédéric Lechat

Offshore wind turbines However, this destruction may be fol- can impact various biological components lowed by recolonisation, particularly on of the area. POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING THE soft substrates with high resilience. But CONSTRUCTION PHASE if artificial structures have replaced the This phenomenon increases turbidity, loose substrate, they will be colonized by and thus prevents the light from pene- > Permanent: species typical of hard substrates, resul- trating the water body. Light is essential Modification of the seabed ting in an ecosystem very different from for phytoplankton development, and the its original state. decrease in photosynthesis can slow their Locally, the natural substrate is comple- development. tely destroyed by drilling, dredging during Resilience is much lower in rocky reef levelling, laying anti-scouring materials, type habitats. We emphasize in particular Turbidity also affects the development of and the footprint of the wind turbine foun- the role and importance of macroalgae, macroalgae, especially when construction dations. Excavation of the seabed for the in particular kelp forests67 described as takes place in the spring when they are foundations (approximately 8 m in diame- some of the most dynamic and biodi- growing. ter by 20 to 30 m deep) and trenches for verse habitats on the planet (Brikett et al., cable burial (several hundred kilometres 1998) (Noderhaug et al., 2007). High turbidity can also lead to blockage in total) can, locally, destroy the benthos66, in fish gills. and will produce quantities of sediment > Temporary: that will impact habitats. Resuspension of materials: fish, Filtering organisms are also affected: in benthos, plankton, filter feeders particular, the digestive tract of hydroids 66 Burial is primarily to protect the cables from fi- These impacts, however, will vary de- and bryozoans can be affected by the shing activities such as dredging and trawling, pending on the type of foundation: a gra- The remodelling of the substrate, neces- absorption of these particles. In addition, but which in turn potentially impacts the ben- vity-based wind turbine is likely to have a sary to accommodate wind turbines or for the deposition of these materials on the thos. 67 Brikett et al.,1998 et Noderhaug et al., 2007; larger footprint than an anchored floating cable burial, results in the temporary, lo- seabed can cover organisms that live data synthesized by J.C. Ménard, Loire Vilaine wind turbine. calized resuspension of materials, which there. It should be noted that the area Estuaries impacted by the resuspension of mate- foundations. This generates (through fil- Resilience is much rials, as well as their deposition, depends tration by fixed organisms) a transfer of lower in rocky reef- significantly on the effects of the swell, organic matter from the water column to the strength and direction of the currents the benthos, but this impact will only oc- type habitats. in the area, as well as the nature of the cur in low-hydrodynamic areas. Research materials. shows that this impact may be quite localized (depending on currents), but further Resuspended sediments can contain va- research is needed to better understand rious pollutants (heavy metals, hydrocar- the extent of these impacts beyond wind bon derivatives such as PAHs, pesticides, farms. etc.), which can disperse in water and contaminate living organisms. This risk is > Permanent or temporary: particularly high if the site is located near Chemical inputs an estuary, a large port or a port sediment disposal area. Antifouling paints (paints that limit the development of marine organisms) have a POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING strongly negative impact on the surroun- OPERATION ding fauna: as their purpose is to limit the colonisation of marine organisms, they > Permanent: are highly toxic to them. However, new Disruption of hydro-sedimentary generation coatings (e. g. silicone based) regimes are much less toxic than earlier ones.

The installation of structures in the wa- It should be noted that these biocides are ter column can locally modify currents. In also used on ships and, more generally, soft substrate, there is a risk of upstream on many artificial marine structures, and erosion and downstream deposition due that their use is regulated. Research is to slowing currents. Installing boulders at underway to develop the use of naturally • 41 • the base of the fixed wind turbines pro- occurring compounds from marine orga- tects against erosion around the founda- nisms in these coatings. tions, but the decrease in current velocity downstream of the structures favours the Also notable are the risks of pollution with deposition of particles that the device the use of chemical lubricants (oils), par- does not protect. These deposits pose ticularly in the event of accidental system a risk to the recovery of habitats around rupture, although their use is regulated Offshore wind turbines However, this destruction may be fol- foundations. and they must readily biodegrade. Risks lowed by recolonisation, particularly on also arise during maintenance operations. POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING THE soft substrates with high resilience. But In addition, the accumulation of orga- This oil typically must be recovered and CONSTRUCTION PHASE if artificial structures have replaced the nic matter (and possibly the associated destroyed by facilities specializing in the loose substrate, they will be colonized by decrease in oxygen) is due to the signi- treatment of highly polluting materials. > Permanent: species typical of hard substrates, resul- ficant development of biofouling on the Modification of the seabed ting in an ecosystem very different from its original state. Locally, the natural substrate is completely destroyed by drilling, dredging during Resilience is much lower in rocky reef levelling, laying anti-scouring materials, type habitats. We emphasize in particular and the footprint of the wind turbine foun- the role and importance of macroalgae, dations. Excavation of the seabed for the in particular kelp forests67 described as foundations (approximately 8 m in diame- some of the most dynamic and biodi- ter by 20 to 30 m deep) and trenches for verse habitats on the planet (Brikett et al., cable burial (several hundred kilometres 1998) (Noderhaug et al., 2007). in total) can, locally, destroy the benthos66, and will produce quantities of sediment > Temporary: that will impact habitats. Resuspension of materials: fish, benthos, plankton, filter feeders 66 Burial is primarily to protect the cables from fi- These impacts, however, will vary de- shing activities such as dredging and trawling, pending on the type of foundation: a gra- The remodelling of the substrate, neces- but which in turn potentially impacts the ben- vity-based wind turbine is likely to have a sary to accommodate wind turbines or for thos. 67 Brikett et al.,1998 et Noderhaug et al., 2007; larger footprint than an anchored floating cable burial, results in the temporary, lo- data synthesized by J.C. Ménard, Loire Vilaine wind turbine. calized resuspension of materials, which Lobster © Frédéric Lechat Estuaries Anti-corrosion devices (cathodic protec- Marine Current Turbines POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING tion) release oxides from metal anodes OPERATION (copper, zinc, aluminium, etc.). It is pos- POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING sible that the accumulation of these subs- CONSTRUCTION > Permanent: tances in sediment and water may affect Disruptions of hydro-sedimentary benthic animals, but no studies have yet > Permanent: regimes been conducted to confirm this. Degradation of seafloor benthos The operation of the turbines modifies Chemicals can also be released into the Again, the footprint of the structure itself the hydrodynamics downstream of the environment through accidental pollution, must be considered. This also concerns structures (wake effect). As the turbine from improper handling during main- the anchoring of electrical cables: in the captures some of the energy, this change tenance operations, or from collisions presence of strong currents, the subs- favours the sedimentation of particles between ships or a ship and a wind tur- trate is generally hard (rocky) and cable transported by the water mass under the bine. burial is therefore not feasible, nor in- influence of currents. Hydro-sedimentary deed always necessary due to the lack modifications can locally modify benthic > Permanent: of dredging and trawling in these areas. habitats in the case of commercial scale Electromagnetic fields (EMF) The impacts on benthos are tied to the hydrological deployment. However, evi- destruction of the habitat at the site, and dence is limited, and this phenomenon EMFs are generated by the cables the possible displacement of the more is not well known in the context of hydro between generators and electrical junc- mobile species. Benthic habitats have a turbines. tion boxes, by the electrical transformer wide range of resilience capacities. station (especially if it is submerged), and For a commercial fleet, composed of a by very high voltage transmission cables > Temporary: large number of turbines, a long-range (several tens of thousands of volts). These Resuspension of materials effect on sediment transit could disrupt cables can be buried in the substrate habitats several kilometres away (e. g. (embedded), laid on the bottom or sit- Depending on the particular project, hydraulic dunes, which play an essential ting in open water (for floating devices). seabed remodelling operations may in- role as nurseries for certain fish species). • 42 • The magnetic field (MF) is strongest at volve the resuspension of materials. Since the surface of the cable and increases the areas suitable for marine current > Permanent or temporary: with the intensity of the current carried. turbines experience fast currents, the Chemical inputs70 It decreases rapidly with distance from quantity of mobile materials is generally the cable. It is therefore stronger in the limited, but the effects of their resuspen- Water turbines are likely to cause impacts vicinity of a cable in open water or laid at sion may be felt for some distance. related to anti-fouling treatments used to the bottom, but weaker when the cable prevent the colonization of machines by is buried or encased. In the latter case, marine organisms, or anti-corrosion de- the cable does not emit an electric field vices. as it remains trapped inside the cable by an external metal screen. Other chemical pollution risks may be limited. The long-term effects of EMF are poorly understood for most groups of marine organisms (cetaceans, elasmobranches, crustaceans, etc.). Although submarine power transmission cables have been installed for decades (connections to islands), few studies are available on the 68 Gill, A.B., Huang, Y., Gloyne-Philips, I., Met- calfe, J., Quayle, V., Spencer, J. & Wearmouth, effects of magnetic fields except, notably, V., 2009, COWRIE 2.0 Electromagnetic Fields the effect of an offshore wind turbine (EMF) Phase 2: EMF-sensitive fish response to cable from the Nysted wind farm on seve- EM emissions from sub-sea electricity cables ral fish species68. However, many groups of the type used by the offshore renewable energy industry. Commissioned by COWRIE Ltd of animals are sensitive to minute varia- (project reference COWRIE-EMF-1-06). tions in magnetic (cetaceans) or electric 69 France Energie Marine (FEM), unpublished, (elasmobranches) fields. It should be Guide GHYDRO, chapter dedicated to EMF. noted that electric fields can be induced 70 For example, the fleet of turbines planned off Paimpol-Bréhat should not include any gear- in the animals' bodies when they pass box, cooling system, mechanical transmission through the magnetic field produced by or power electronics, or lubricating or cooling the cable. It is also necessary to differen- fluid. The off-shore converter would be herme- tiate between EMFs69 associated with al- tic and therefore unlikely to affect the surrounding environment (unless there is a defect or ternating and direct currents, which have leak). It would contain about 4 m3 of a non- very different intensities and ranges. © EDF / TOMA toxic and biodegradable refrigerant. Anti-corrosion devices (cathodic protec- POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING tion) release oxides from metal anodes OPERATION (copper, zinc, aluminium, etc.). It is possible that the accumulation of these subs- > Permanent: tances in sediment and water may affect Disruptions of hydro-sedimentary benthic animals, but no studies have yet regimes been conducted to confirm this. The operation of the turbines modifies Chemicals can also be released into the the hydrodynamics downstream of the environment through accidental pollution, structures (wake effect). As the turbine from improper handling during main- captures some of the energy, this change tenance operations, or from collisions favours the sedimentation of particles between ships or a ship and a wind tur- transported by the water mass under the bine. influence of currents. Hydro-sedimentary modifications can locally modify benthic > Permanent: habitats in the case of commercial scale Electromagnetic fields (EMF) hydrological deployment. However, evidence is limited, and this phenomenon EMFs are generated by the cables is not well known in the context of hydro between generators and electrical junc- turbines. tion boxes, by the electrical transformer station (especially if it is submerged), and For a commercial fleet, composed of a by very high voltage transmission cables large number of turbines, a long-range (several tens of thousands of volts). These effect on sediment transit could disrupt cables can be buried in the substrate habitats several kilometres away (e. g. (embedded), laid on the bottom or sit- hydraulic dunes, which play an essential ting in open water (for floating devices). role as nurseries for certain fish species). The magnetic field (MF) is strongest at Rance Tidal Power Plant © Y. Le Gal - EDF • 43 • the surface of the cable and increases > Permanent or temporary: with the intensity of the current carried. Chemical inputs70 It decreases rapidly with distance from Tidal barrage as they are adapted to specific conditions the cable. It is therefore stronger in the Water turbines are likely to cause impacts under which they survive. vicinity of a cable in open water or laid at related to anti-fouling treatments used to POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING the bottom, but weaker when the cable prevent the colonization of machines by CONSTRUCTION > Permanent: is buried or encased. In the latter case, marine organisms, or anti-corrosion de- Habitat destruction the cable does not emit an electric field vices. > Permanent: as it remains trapped inside the cable by Disturbance of the hydrodynamic The physical influence of temporary an external metal screen. Other chemical pollution risks may be li- regime structures on the ground and the expo- mited. sure of certain areas of the estuary lead The long-term effects of EMF are poor- The construction of a tidal power plant to the destruction of existing habitats. Es- ly understood for most groups of marine involves major work; this phase is best tuaries are areas of high ecological value, organisms (cetaceans, elasmobranches, illustrated by the example of Rance. At and these habitats can be nurseries or crustaceans, etc.). Although submarine the time (it is likely that the procedure spawning grounds; their disappearance power transmission cables have been would be different today), the estuary therefore puts the species that depend on installed for decades (connections to is- was closed for the construction of the ti- them at risk. lands), few studies are available on the dal power plant. To this end, two systems 68 Gill, A.B., Huang, Y., Gloyne-Philips, I., Met- calfe, J., Quayle, V., Spencer, J. & Wearmouth, effects of magnetic fields except, notably, were installed upstream and downstream By transforming the Rance ecosystem, V., 2009, COWRIE 2.0 Electromagnetic Fields the effect of an offshore wind turbine in order to create the dam. This closure the dam has caused its gradual siltation. (EMF) Phase 2: EMF-sensitive fish response to cable from the Nysted wind farm on seve- of the estuary lasted three years, during Some species have disappeared (sandeel, EM emissions from sub-sea electricity cables ral fish species68. However, many groups which time the estuary's functioning was plaice) but others have since returned of the type used by the offshore renewable energy industry. Commissioned by COWRIE Ltd of animals are sensitive to minute varia- greatly modified. As the tide no longer (sea bass, cuttlefish). (project reference COWRIE-EMF-1-06). tions in magnetic (cetaceans) or electric directly affects the estuary, it has been 69 France Energie Marine (FEM), unpublished, (elasmobranches) fields. It should be desalinated by the flow of the Rance Ri- In fact, the fauna has totally transformed, Guide GHYDRO, chapter dedicated to EMF. noted that electric fields can be induced ver. The stabilization of the water mass in as the smaller and faster species now ac- 70 For example, the fleet of turbines planned off Paimpol-Bréhat should not include any gear- in the animals' bodies when they pass the vicinity of the coast at 8 m has led count for the majority of the fauna. Their box, cooling system, mechanical transmission through the magnetic field produced by to a conversion of habitats between 8 speed allows them to pass through the or power electronics, or lubricating or cooling the cable. It is also necessary to differen- and 13.5 m into terrestrial habitats and propellers of the barrage, which is impos- fluid. The off-shore converter would be herme- tiate between EMFs69 associated with al- a significant shrinkage of the foreshore. sible for the slower species (although a tic and therefore unlikely to affect the surrounding environment (unless there is a defect or ternating and direct currents, which have Organisms are very sensitive to changes seal calf and a small porpoise have ma- leak). It would contain about 4 m3 of a non- very different intensities and ranges. in salt concentration in their environment, naged to do so). There are also fish spe- toxic and biodegradable refrigerant. cies such as sea bream (grey and royal), already discussed above. However, ca- Ocean thermal energy mullet (thicklip grey and golden grey), ray thodic protection (active or passive) has conversion (OTEC) (thornback and cuckoo), pollack, wrasse allowed a reduction in the number of and even, for some years, small sea painted surfaces. POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING bream. CONSTRUCTION Wave energy converter POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING > Permanent: OPERATION POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING Modification of the seabed CONSTRUCTION > Permanent: The degradation of the seabed depends Hydro-sedimentary disturbances > Permanent: mainly on the location of the plant. A Modification of the seabed shore-based power plant involves the Electricity production by a tidal power deployment of a large diameter pipe from plant requires a difference in water level This usually involves floating devices, bot- the shoreline to the seabed to reach cold on either side of the dam. To achieve this tom-mounted devices or oscillating water water at a depth of about 1,000 metres, difference, water is impounded, which column systems. Floating systems require with potentially very severe impacts when modifies the periods of natural immersion anchorage points on the bottom; however, considering an installation inside (or along and exposure associated with the tide. these occupy a small area, and the depth the edge of) lagoons, and the presence of As a result, when water is retained in the can be considerable (reduced effect on coral reefs. basin, suspended particles tend to settle benthos). In the case of oscillating water more quickly in the absence of currents, column systems, they can be installed on The footprint of these systems, as well as resulting in siltation upstream of the dam. pre-existing structures, which minimizes the associated anchoring device, should At the same time, however, it has been the natural surface area artificialized by be considered. Floating power plants will shown that the vast majority of sediments construction. However, due to the diver- be anchored to the seabed by chains, for are of marine origin, yet the volumes of sity of wave and wave energy exploitation example. seawater entering at each tide have de- processes, the footprint on the seabed creased due to the operation of the struc- can vary considerably between projects. > Temporary: • 44 • ture, so the volume of suspended solids Resuspension of materials that may be deposited has decreased. POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING While siltation behind the dam and in the OPERATION All mechanical operations that move the calm areas of the Rance estuary is unde- seabed induce a resuspension of mate- niable, it is quite comparable to what is > Permanent: rials into the water column. The impacts happening in similar nearby estuaries. A Hydro-sedimentary disturbances vary according to the type of project, but significant deposit of silt on another type will involve the clogging of fish respiratory of environment, however, can destroy Wave power systems, by extracting some systems, the reduction of photosynthesis it and leave an area where species that of the energy from the wave and chan- in phytoplankton (and thus their develop- used to feed are now absent. ging its propagation characteristics, can ment), and impacts on sedentary filter also modify sediment transport. Indeed, feeding invertebrates on the seafloor. A study by Le Mao71 ((based on fish swells and currents interact, so that any catches in the eastern part of the Rance disturbance of the swell is likely to af- POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING River between 1982 and 1984), demons- fect sediment transport by currents (e. g. OPERATION trated the impact of sudden changes in longshore drift). Waves and swells also levels on certain invertebrate and fish affect the resuspension and deposition > Permanent or temporary: populations. Since then, the operation of processes of sediments. Broadly-spea- Chemical inputs the tidal power plant has been modified to king, wave energy systems reduce the limit tide level variations to values present agitation of the surface and water column, Systems that use the thermal gradient of in the natural environment. thus promoting sediment deposition. the sea also require substances such as ammonia. This point cannot be ignored: a At Rance, the modified ecosystem - un > Permanent or temporary: significant leak of this fluid into the envi- 71 Le Mao P., 1985, Peuplements piscicole et derwent a period of stabilization for se- Chemical inputs ronment would certainly be very serious for teuthologique du basin maritime de la Rance, impact de l’aménagement marémoteur, EN- veral years after construction, before organisms, given the quantities involved. SAR, 125p. reaching an ecological balance (although Wave power systems also raise the is- 72 Trigui Rima-Jihane, Desroy Nicolas, Le Mao Pa- different from that which existed before sue of chemical pollution related to an- To counter the recurrent marine bio-fou- trick, Thiebaut Eric, 2011, Preliminary results construction)72. ti-fouling treatments and anti-corrosion ling problem and improve system perfor- on long-term changes of estuarine benthic communities 45 years after the implementa- devices. mance, a biocide dose (0.02 ppm daily tion of a tidal power station in the Rance basin. > Permanent or temporary: molar concentration) is used, which is Colloque scientifique du golfe normand-bre- Chemical inputs There are also, in the case of certain types five times lower than the US regulatory ton "Biodiversity, ecosystems and uses of (Pelamis for example), risks of pollution threshold. Now, the biocide dose must be the marine environment: what knowledge for integrated management of the Normano-bre- Some submerged metal components re- from lubricants used in hydraulic motors reduced to 0.01 ppm, 10 times below the ton gulf?" 2-3 November 2011, Saint-Malo. quire anti-fouling treatment, with impacts and accumulators. US regulatory threshold. https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00156/26692/ cies such as sea bream (grey and royal), mullet (thicklip grey and golden grey), ray (thornback and cuckoo), pollack, wrasse and even, for some years, small sea bream.

POTENTIAL IMPACTS DURING OPERATION

> Permanent: Hydro-sedimentary disturbances

Electricity production by a tidal power plant requires a difference in water level on either side of the dam. To achieve this difference, water is impounded, which modifies the periods of natural immersion and exposure associated with the tide. As a result, when water is retained in the basin, suspended particles tend to settle more quickly in the absence of currents, Coral reef in Martinique © Thomas Abiven resulting in siltation upstream of the dam. At the same time, however, it has been shown that the vast majority of sediments > Permanent: back into the environment is about 4°C. are of marine origin, yet the volumes of Vacuuming of organisms Organisms can be sensitive to thermal seawater entering at each tide have de- variations, which can influence popula- creased due to the operation of the struc- The exploitation of the thermal gradient tion growth and the presence of species. ture, so the volume of suspended solids between the surface and the bottom of Therefore, it is important to choose the • 45 • that may be deposited has decreased. the oceans requires the pumping of a appropriate water discharge point. This While siltation behind the dam and in the large volume of cold water and surface should consider the water temperature of calm areas of the Rance estuary is unde- water. The suction of water into intake the receiving environment, but also pre- niable, it is quite comparable to what is pipes can affect various organisms. dict the behaviour of the discharge plume happening in similar nearby estuaries. A Some organisms do not have the ability (e.g. sinking due to higher density, dilution significant deposit of silt on another type to escape (plankton, larvae and juve- in the water body due to hydrodynamic of environment, however, can destroy niles) while others can swim and strug- conditions). The composition of species it and leave an area where species that gle against this suction. The organisms throughout the water column strongly used to feed are now absent. affected are those present at the relevant depends on water temperature. Thus, water extraction depths: pumping is ge- it is important to minimize the tempera- A study by Le Mao71 ((based on fish nerally carried out at a depth of about 100 ture difference that may exist between catches in the eastern part of the Rance m (above the thermocline) and at around the discharge water and the receiving River between 1982 and 1984), demons- 800 - 1,000 m (usually in open water). environment e.g. discharging the cooled trated the impact of sudden changes in In addition, a filtration mesh prevents lar- water to the depth corresponding to its levels on certain invertebrate and fish ger organisms from being dragged into temperature. populations. Since then, the operation of the system. The individuals sucked in will the tidal power plant has been modified to suffer physical impacts against the walls > Permanent: limit tide level variations to values present of the pipes, pressures, and also tempe- Upwelling artificiel in the natural environment. rature changes. Plankton are susceptible, with mortality among some individuals. Deep waters are rich in the nutrients At Rance, the modified ecosystem - un Among the macrofauna, their size rela- needed for plankton development. When 71 Le Mao P., 1985, Peuplements piscicole et derwent a period of stabilization for se- tive to the filter mesh and their swimming cold water is pumped (only in an open teuthologique du basin maritime de la Rance, impact de l’aménagement marémoteur, EN- veral years after construction, before speed will determine whether they will be circuit), nutrient-rich water is released SAR, 125p. reaching an ecological balance (although carried into the collecting ducts. Little is into a higher level of the water column. 72 Trigui Rima-Jihane, Desroy Nicolas, Le Mao Pa- different from that which existed before known about the mortality induced by this When the light conditions and nutrient trick, Thiebaut Eric, 2011, Preliminary results construction)72. process, as data is virtually non-existent supply are met, this action can promote on long-term changes of estuarine benthic communities 45 years after the implementa- the growth of plankton, and consequent- tion of a tidal power station in the Rance basin. > Permanent or temporary: > Permanent: ly their consumers. The natural pheno- Colloque scientifique du golfe normand-bre- Chemical inputs Temperature changes menon of upwelling is well known to ton "Biodiversity, ecosystems and uses of fishers, as these nutrient-rich areas are the marine environment: what knowledge for integrated management of the Normano-bre- Some submerged metal components re- The temperature difference between sur- favourable to the presence of fish that ton gulf?" 2-3 November 2011, Saint-Malo. quire anti-fouling treatment, with impacts face extracted water and water discharged come to feed. https://archimer.ifremer.fr/doc/00156/26692/ However, when water contains excessive mats, etc. However, this issue is gene- nutrients, phytoplankton blooms may oc- rally addressed in the design criteria, as cur (which may not necessarily be harm- seabed erosion is a technical design cri- ful, but may change the ecosystem). It is terion for foundations. These expensive therefore important to consider nutrient and sometimes ineffective measures are input from discharge waters, as this can not necessary for all foundations (e. g. if lead to oxygen depletion in the water. This jacket foundations are used). phenomenon may also lead to the proliferation of toxic microalgae (such as Dino- › further development and implementation physis, Pseudonitchia, Alexandrium, etc.). of existing methods to mitigate sediment resuspension during installation (during Recommendations for the pro- ground levelling or cable trenching) and tection of biodiversity73 limit changes in the hydro-sediment regime (by choosing foundations that are For the preservation of marine and coas- elevated above the seabed or those with tal biodiversity, we recommend: a small footprint).

› the development and implementation › limiting the risks of pollution from che- of existing methods to mitigate seabed micals and lubricants. Technological erosion, due to water movement around solutions already exist, with lthe double turbine foundations. These include the sealing of submerged systems and the placement of rock and gravel place- installation of recovery tanks. ment around the base, anti-erosion

• 46 •

73 IUCN. 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid.

Cuttlefish © Boris Daniel / Marine Protected Areas Agency However, when water contains excessive nutrients, phytoplankton blooms may oc- Threat: Barrier effect cur (which may not necessarily be harmful, but may change the ecosystem). It is and collision risks74 therefore important to consider nutrient input from discharge waters, as this can lead to oxygen depletion in the water. This phenomenon may also lead to the proliferation of toxic microalgae (such as Dino- physis, Pseudonitchia, Alexandrium, etc.).

Recommendations for the protection of biodiversity73

For the preservation of marine and coastal biodiversity, we recommend:

› the development and implementation of existing methods to mitigate seabed erosion, due to water movement around turbine foundations. These include the placement of rock and gravel placement around the base, anti-erosion

• 47 •

Offshore wind turbines days a year, when bird navigation is ham- pered by poor weather conditions. Due to its simple physical presence, a wind farm constitutes a barrier to the pas- Similarly, several bird species seem to sage of various species, with a risk of ac- avoid wind farms during their migration. tual collision. The "barrier" effect applies Nevertheless, most migrations are car- not only to migration, but also to daily ried out at night and birds can then be movements between resting, feeding and attracted by the compulsory lighting of nesting areas. wind farms. Studies have shown that the number of eiders and geese cros- Underwater obstacles are fixed and of a sing areas where wind farms are located limited surface area, but the aerial part of has decreased by a factor of 4 or 5 since wind turbines is a concern for birds and construction. However, given the overall chiropterans in particular. length of the migration, the energy losses that can be attributed to the barrier ef- Bats are especially vulnerable to night- fect of a wind farm and its bypass would time collisions because wind turbine appear insignificant. This detour does not lighting (imposed by maritime and avia- seem to increase the risk of mortality du- tion regulations) can attract the insects ring migration, although this conclusion on which they feed, up to several dozen should be qualified in the case where kilometres offshore. many wind farms are located in a migra- 73 IUCN. 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. tion corridor (for example, in the North 74 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. Research on the risk of collisions between Sea). In this case, the cumulative effect of 75 FARQUE P., 2013. Interactions between seabirds and wind turbines is still very li- such detours could significantly impact on birds and offshore wind farms: knowledge, context and solutions on the French coast – 75 mited. A recent study indicated that the the survival rate of some species. On ano- Action 3.C – Report from FAME Project. LPO- majority of collisions occur over just a few ther note, if a fleet is located on a man- SEPN. datory crossing point, such as a strait, the hence the need to plan for this phase to orientation (cetaceans, turtles) or are risk of collision during migration could be be avoided during the migration season. sensitive to natural electric fields (elas- increased tenfold. A proliferation of wind farms separated by mobranches, for example). short distances could create a migration Importantly, different species have diffe- barrier for marine mammals, particularly Sea turtles, which are threatened globally, rent flight heights, and therefore differing in strategic passage areas such as the could be disturbed by the low-frequency risk of collision with the blades. The only English Channel. sounds emitted by turbines. They show estimates of measurable energy costs are extreme fidelity to their routes, which may those of species that cross a region on a In addition, the electromagnetic emis- make them more sensitive to this type of daily basis, for example between feeding sions from cables could cause distur- disruption. sites and resting or nesting sites. In these bances to marine mammals that use the cases, wind farms may cause the frag- Earth's magnetic field for orientation and Therefore, the evasive behaviour caused mentation of coherent ecological units for migration. by wind farms varies greatly depending these birds. on the species. Studies remain neces- There is also the risk of collisions with sary to qualify the barrier effects (visual, It has, however, been shown that some ships, which may increase if shipping acoustic, electromagnetic) associated seabird species (e. g. diving birds and sea traffic intensifies. with wind farms and their impact on diffe- ducks) avoid wind farms (there is no data rent marine animal populations. on other systems), not only during their With regard to marine mammals and fish, construction but also during the operating there are no reports of collisions and in- Marine Current Turbines phase. The significance of effects on local juries associated with the structure itself. bird assemblages depends largely on the They are believed to have the ability to de- Marine current turbines form an obsta- availability of alternative bird habitats. tect and avoid these installations (echolo- cle in the water column with which ma- cation). However, in the case of floating rine mammals, fish and diving birds may For marine mammals, the impacts of wind turbines, the chains connecting the possibly collide. This risk depends on the noise disturbance caused by wind farms floating section to the anchors may cause structure and diameter of the turbine, but on communication and long-distance injuries. The effects of electromagnetic also on the species in question, its size, • 48 • navigation are virtually unknown. In any fields from cables could also be an obs- and its ability to move and identify the case, it is clear that the "acoustic bar- tacle to the movement of certain species obstacle, as well as environmental condi- rier" effect is greater during construction, that use the Earth's magnetic field for tions such as current speed and visibility.

Scopoli's shearwater (Calonectris diomedea) taking flight © Steven Piel / Marine Protected Areas Agency © Piton-Rodriguez • 49 • The number of submerged structures the movement of various species, which should also be considered because it can seriously affect their survival rate or increases the probability of contact from reproductive success. individual animals. The risk of collisions is certainly present, and the avoidance of A study77 conducted in the Rance estuary areas frequented by marine mammals for found that the specific composition and the establishment of marine current tur- diversity of fish and cephalopod popula- bines should be favoured where possible. tions were comparable to those of equivalent Western English Channel populations. A 16 m diameter turbine (such as Open The study populations were characterized Hydro, TGL, etc.) operating at 15 rpm by movements of varying amplitude (round per minute), has a blade tip speed and intensity, and permanent exchange of 12.5 m/s. To avoid the blades76, ani- occurred at all stages of development mals require a swimming speed in the between the impoundment and the open same range as the current and be able sea; the passage through turbines is to detect the obstacle early enough and made without significant direct mortality anticipate blade rotation. It is therefore as shown by sampling in the sluice gates difficult to assess the risk of collisions at and numerous observations. The barrage a particular site and for the species that is therefore open to life, whether plankto- inhabit it, without prior in situ experimen- nic organisms or larger animals (fish, ce- tation. phalopods and even decapods).

Tidal barrage During the operation of a tidal power plant, submerged turbines are driven by The temporary structures required to the flow of water from one compartment drain an area where the dam is being built to the other. This rotation can cause inju- are impassable obstacles to the passage ries to fish. In addition, the structure itself of individuals from one section to another. is a barrier to the movement of orga- An estuary free of any construction allows nisms, particularly those whose life cycle for the passage of certain fish from the is shared between rivers and the marine 76 Wilson et al., 2007 : Collision risks between marine renewable energy devices and mam- sea to fresh water to breed. The place- environment. mals, fish and diving birds ment of obstacles on rivers is a barrier to 77 Le Mao P., 1985, Ibid. Wave Energy Converters bitats where biomass is high, it is pos- the potential attraction for birds and sible to avoid benthic feeding sites for chiropterans, again in compliance with The risk of collision with wave structures seabirds. maritime and aeronautical navigation that could lead to the death of fish or ma- - For example, according to a com- regulations (which could be adapted to rine mammals seems low. However, the monly applied Ramsar Convention avoid over-illumination due to the over- presence of anchor chains can cause in- criterion, an area can be considered lapping of regulatory obligations). juries to these animals, particularly if they important for a species if more than are located in preferred movement zones one percent of its population resides (migration routes, etc.). in it or frequents it. It is possible to obtain detailed specific sensitivity in- Also worth mentioning is the risk of ma- dices for the impacts of wind farms on rine mammal collisions with ships, which seabirds79. (Multiplying these indices could increase if traffic increases. by the densities of bird species for specific areas provides an estimate of Recommendations for the pro- the areas with the highest sensitivity tection of biodiversity78 to wind turbines (and therefore those least suitable for future projects). For the preservation of marine and coastal biodiversity, we recommend: › that, if there is a risk of overlap with migration pathways, corridors several › taking into consideration the migration kilometres wide should be maintained of turtles, marine mammals, birds, bats between wind farms. and some fish, if known, › that it may be possible to rethink the › avoiding important resting, breeding alignment of the turbines in such a way and feeding sites, and the travel routes that they are more visible to birds, in between these sites. However, in many accordance, of course, with the regu- • 50 • cases, these areas are not well enough lations concerning maritime and aero- known. nautical navigation. Lighting could also - By locating fleets where water depths be adjusted to a level that preserves exceed 20 metres, or by avoiding ha- the safety of navigation, but reduces

78 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy, Ibid. 79 MEDDE-DGEC, Juillet 2010, Guide de l’étude d’impact sur l’environnement des parcs éo- liens, page 90.

Cargo in the Strait of Dover © Marie-Dominique Monbrun / Marine Protected Areas Agency Wave Energy Converters bitats where biomass is high, it is possible to avoid benthic feeding sites for The "reef effect": Opportunity and Threat The risk of collision with wave structures seabirds. that could lead to the death of fish or ma- - For example, according to a com- rine mammals seems low. However, the monly applied Ramsar Convention presence of anchor chains can cause in- criterion, an area can be considered juries to these animals, particularly if they important for a species if more than are located in preferred movement zones one percent of its population resides (migration routes, etc.). in it or frequents it. It is possible to obtain detailed specific sensitivity in- Also worth mentioning is the risk of ma- dices for the impacts of wind farms on rine mammal collisions with ships, which seabirds79. (Multiplying these indices could increase if traffic increases. by the densities of bird species for specific areas provides an estimate of Recommendations for the pro- the areas with the highest sensitivity tection of biodiversity78 to wind turbines (and therefore those least suitable for future projects). For the preservation of marine and coastal biodiversity, we recommend: › that, if there is a risk of overlap with migration pathways, corridors several › taking into consideration the migration kilometres wide should be maintained of turtles, marine mammals, birds, bats between wind farms. and some fish, if known, › that it may be possible to rethink the › avoiding important resting, breeding alignment of the turbines in such a way and feeding sites, and the travel routes that they are more visible to birds, in between these sites. However, in many accordance, of course, with the regu- cases, these areas are not well enough lations concerning maritime and aero- Submersion of artificial reefs off Etretat © Jean-Claude Grandchamp, IN VIVO • 51 • known. nautical navigation. Lighting could also - By locating fleets where water depths be adjusted to a level that preserves exceed 20 metres, or by avoiding ha- the safety of navigation, but reduces The structures will provide new areas Estimates of the radius of influence on to be colonized. Ecological succession will wildlife around an artificial reef range take place and thus facilitate the develop- from 5 to 600 metres83. Wilhelmsson ment of biomass. (2006) schematically shows both the positive and negative influences on wildlife Structures that span the water column species abundance as a function of the from the surface to the seabed can ac- radius of impact, during the operation of commodate different organisms depen- offshore wind turbines. For example, the 84 ding on depth and light penetration. At the first 5 metres generally show a positive 78 IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Energy, Ibid. surface in particular, due to the oscillation 'artificial reef' effect (depending on the 79 MEDDE-DGEC, Juillet 2010, Guide de l’étude of the tides, these structures will shelter original environment), with an increase in d’impact sur l’environnement des parcs éo- intertidal and subtidal communities and the biomass of blue mussels, decapods liens, page 90. 80 MEDDE-DGEC, 2012, Etude méthodologique will host a multitude of organisms such (e. g. crabs and lobsters) and benthic des impacts environnementaux et socio-éco- as barnacles, amphipods, bryozoans and fish. Phytoplankton depletion is general- nomiques des énergies marines renouvelables. molluscs. ly observed due to high densities of filter 81 Wilhelmsson, et al., 2006; Wilhelmsson & organisms (mussels) on and around the Malm, 2008; Maar, et al., 2009; Kellison & Se- dberry, 1998; Bray, et al., 1981; Davis, et al., The bases of the structures, depending on turbine, which could affect the growth of 1982; Kurz, 1995; Jordan, et al., 2005 ; Grove, their shape and arrangement, may serve filter feeders on the seabed, up to a radius et al., 1991; Fayram & De Risi, 2007 ; Stewart, as areas for breeding, feeding or refuge of 20 metres84. et al., 2007; Larsen & Guillemette, 2007 from predators80. In this way, different 82 http://www.ifremer.fr/dtmsi/colloques/sea- tech04/mp/article/7.eolien_offshore_im- parts of a food web are established and, The deposition or filtering of organic mat- pacts/7.1.IFREMER.pdf as shown by various overseas studies81 ter from fish and invertebrates associated Drévès L., Berthou P., Latrouite D., Leblond on installed wind turbines, in some cases with turbines can influence benthic com- E./ Ifremer RST-DEL/SR/04.06, Juillet 2004, there is an increase in biomass compa- munities up to 40 metres away85. This Projet de parc éolien offshore de la Côte des Isles : Etude Océanologie & Activités Halieu- rable to that observed around artificial may lead to local changes in the compo- tiques. Rapports de résultats de recherches reefs. sition of macroinvertebrate assemblages, scientifiques et techniques. as well as modifications in physico-che- 83 IUCN. 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. However, some scientists consider this to mical and other environmental characte- 84 Wilhelmsson, et al., 2006; Wilhelmsson & Malm, 2008; Maar, et al., 2009. be more of a concentration of surrounding ristics in the vicinity of the structures. 85 Kellison & Sedberry, 1998; Bray, et al., 1981; biomass than an actual increase82. Maar, et al., 2009. These impacts are only expected to be of ("stepping stone" effect between foun- habitat (and the services it provides) can- major importance in protected habitats dations within a fleet). The project can not be offset by a different one, and that that support vulnerable species or where also, by changing the dispersal patterns additional knowledge is needed about the the scale of development is more subs- and distributions of species inhabiting effect of MRE parks on biodiversity, in tantial. the area, favour opportunistic species terms of both biomass and diversity. such as mussels, brittle stars, Halidrys The net biodiversity gain therefore de- siliquosa, Japanese wireweed, slipper In this context, the gain would result from pends on: snails etc. This will generally benefit the "refuge" or "reserve" effect (more › the diversity of the environment prior to species with a short larval phase (hours than the "reef" effect) due to the impacts construction: not all soft substrate envi- or days) that can spread from one struc- of fishing (take of target species - orby ronments are poor in biodiversity - un- ture to the next. catch, and damage to benthic habitats). derwater sand dunes and mudflats, for The gain is therefore indirectly due to the example, host a rich diversity of species In summary, the marine structures not presence of structures and regulatory ac- and provide invaluable functional roles; only generate an increase in biomass but cess restrictions. However, there may still › the new ecosystem that has been also lead to changes in species compo- be an indirect negative effect, through the created: the "reef" effect can indeed sition; it is therefore difficult to conclude shifting of fishing activity to areas that are favour the introduction or increase of whether this change is positive or nega- under-exploited, better preserved or more non-native, or possibly invasive species tive. What is clear is that the loss of one sensitive to the impacts of fishing gear.

Residual impacts86

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If the developer of an MRE project cables and power stations and in the species despite the mitigation measures works within a mitigation framework and surrounding vicinity. taken to reduce these impacts. 86 IUCN. 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. identifies, avoids and minimizes the- im pacts of a given development, there will › changes in species assemblages due Although the restriction of fishing activi- still be impacts. These may be of varying to the physical presence of the facilities in an area may have beneficial effects importance, depending on the fragility of ties and the impacts they have on the on the marine environment within the the area and species. Residual impacts interactions between predators and MRE farm, some biological and social im- may include (but are not limited to): prey. pacts may still occur if the fishing effort shifts to other areas. › habitat loss on the actual sites of gene- › noise and electromagnetic fields that can rators, foundations, erosion protection, still cause behavioural changes in some MRE project developers are increasingly tions about the degree of equivalence for Research is under-way 88 focusing on taking measures necessary at least two reasons (Levrel et al., 2012 ): on possible compen- to mitigate or compensate for these re- › (1) The indicators used to assess com- sidual effects. Biodiversity offsets are a pensation are short-lived species, satory measures for French way of ensuring that project development and the monitoring carried out on offshore wind projects. avoids a net loss of biodiversity, or even a compensatory measures is too short net gain. Compensation measures, if ab- (5 years), whereas it takes some time solutely unavoidable, must be technically for a disturbed ecosystem to regain and financially feasible. However, the pos- its balance. sibility of implementing offset measures › (2) Two major techniques are used (crea- must not be used as a pretext for allowing ting artificial reefs and transplanting environmental degradation that could be corals) regardless of the type of im- otherwise avoided or reduced. pact measured.

Compensation, which in accordance with Therefore, one cannot overstate the French regulations must be in kind and importance of indicator choices when not in financial form, must be quanti- carrying out compensation activities, fiable. The likely biodiversity losses must and the number of ecological enginee- be predicted and compared with the ex- ring techniques available for the marine pected benefits in terms of species com- environment is at present limited. As the position, habitat structure, ecosystem latter point is a major constraint on the functions and the use of biodiversity by implementation of compensation, further Residual impacts86 other users. R&D would be desirable. In this context, we note recent French initiatives such as Research is underway on possible com- those certified by the Pôle Mer Méditer- pensatory measures for French offshore ranée89. These projects focus in particu- wind projects (theses supported by EDF- lar on eco-design (building materials are EN and IUEM). designed to be eco-friendly or even to • 53 • provide added ecological value through Furthermore, the Business and Biodi- the creation of habitats), as well as the versity Offset Programme (BBOP)87 is transplantation of sea grass beds and the currently considering many of these improvement of artificial reefs. aspects in relation to real case studies and is working with developers to design and implement biodiversity offset projects for their operational sites (but this is currently only applicable to terrestrial sites). The objective is to achieve zero net loss of biodiversity (no net loss) by projects, or even a net gain (net positive impact).

Even though compensatory measures in the marine environment are still relatively new in Europe, the United States has been implementing them for the past ten years or so, but only in coastal areas (mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds). For example, the State of Florida has developed a method for calculating the size of offsets specific to 86 IUCN. 2010, Greening Blue Energy. Ibid. terrestrial and marine wetlands. Known 87 Link: https://www.forest-trends.org/wp- as the Uniform Mitigation Assessment content/uploads/imported/Biodiversity%20Off- Method (UMAM), it allows the evaluation set%20Design%20Handbook.pdf 88 Levrel H., Pioch S., Spieler R., 2012. Compen- of the ecological value of an ecosystem satory mitigation in marine ecosystems : Which on the basis of numerous functional in- indicators for assessing the « no net loss » goal dicators. of ecosystem services and ecological functions? Marine Policy, 36, 1202-1210. 89 Liste des projets labellisés par le Pole Mer Mé- However, compensation in the marine diterranée : http://www.polemermediterranee. environment in Florida raises some ques- com/ Synthesis

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Marine energy sources could be rapidly ration, maintenance, or decommissioning However, further research is needed to developed in the coming decades, espe- to reduce risks to local biodiversity, such minimise the impact of these technolo- cially if sufficient support is provided by as adapting construction dates, avoiding gies in a climate of continuous improve- governments and industry for the tech- sensitive sites, or developing a design ment (lack of opportunity for hindsight nologies that are still at the experimental that takes into account the ecosystem in should not be an obstacle, but rather an stage. It is essential to identify and assess which the project is located. incentive to share data and experiences). negative as well as positive effects on the marine environment (both of which must However, not all technologies have the It should be recalled that in this study, only be assessed to determine the net environ- same impacts. biodiversity has been taken into account: mental impact of the project, and thus al- the French Committee of IUCN is well low the design of possible compensatory aware of the other issues that legitimately measures). This is an essential condition It is essential to consider the influence political decisions (such as the if MRE systems are to be accepted locally. most productive and least maturity of the sector, the potential costs impacting energy systems, of production in the short and long term, This report by the French Committee of while taking account of the social acceptance etc.), and especially IUCN broadly evaluates the impact of the development times of each the need to promote short-term technical various existing techniques. The major system. solutions, in order to create and boost the potential impacts of the development of industrial sector at the national level. marine renewable energies on the marine environment that were assessed in this Ongoing research, working models, and In view of this first global analysis of the study include: noise, habitat loss or modi- development of test sites for techniques impacts of these sectors on the envi- fication, the "barrier" effect for migration, with less impact on the environment are ronment, it would appear that floating the risk of collision, disturbances related all essential. Indeed, the further deve- wind and offshore wave energy (wave to electromagnetic fields, and ship- lopment of mature technologies such as power through coastal development, port ping-related hazards for certain species. wind power, which are valuable in terms dikes and coastal areas have similar im- of economic development, structuring ac- pacts to coastal current turbines) are the However, various mitigation measures can tivities, and knowledge of environmental most appropriate options for a biodiver- be implemented during construction, ope- impacts, benefit all types of MRE. sity-conscious MRE development strategy. As these technologies are not yet at a ma- It is therefore important to remember that ture stage of technological development, MRE projects do not and will not form it would take some years to develop them the sole source of impacts to marine and in French waters. coastal environments. It is therefore essential to assess the cumulative impacts It is also important to be better able to of MREs and existing activities at a rele- compare MRE systems with existing ma- vant scale. Strategic environmental ana- rine activities and to remember that MREs lyses conducted on the various French are in combination with pre-existing dis- coastlines, as part of the Marine Envi- turbances. Depending on the technique ronment Action Plans, should be used to used and the species concerned (marine contain these impacts. mammals, for example, for whom fishing is the primary source of anthropogenic mortality), fishing, for example, could have potentially greater impacts than MRE. This may also be the case for oil platforms and for some impacts (noise) of maritime transport.

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At this stage of the assessment, and from the biodiversity perspective, it is worth highlighting the following conclusions:

the development of floating wind turbines appears promising compared to the development of fixed wind turbines, because this technology reduces the degradation of the seabed and makes it possible to utilise more distant marine areas, thus mini- mising use conflicts - the question of the risk of collision between marine mammals and anchor lines nevertheless remains as an issue to be addressed;

the development of large-scale, offshore exploitation of ocean currents and wave energy, or systems that are integrated into existing coastal structures, would appear to result in only limited potential damage to the coastal environment;

during construction, and over extended periods, tidal power barrages cause major disturbances to estuarine ecosystems, which are of high biodiversity value. In comparison, even if developed on a large scale, marine current turbines (although closer to the coast), and floating wind or wave power, would probably have a lower impact on biodiversity. However, these technologies are not currently among the most advanced, and it will take several years before they can be deployed in French waters.

Of course, these preliminary results must be carefully examined and confirmed by environmental assessments at the appropriate scale (strategic assessment). In addition, beyond the overall considerations relating to the different systems, the level of impact remains highly dependent on each project, and must be assessed as part of the impact study. In addition, knowledge is still limited and some technologies are not mature, which can distort the assessment of their effects. Research and expe- rimentation must therefore be carried out as a matter of priority in order to better understand the impacts of emerging and mature technologies that have not yet been applied on a large scale or in environments typical of French waters. Thematic Summaries

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Thongweed (Himanthalia elongata) on the Sein causeway © Yannis Turpin / Marine Protected Areas Agency Thematic Summaries

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Thongweed (Himanthalia elongata) on the Sein causeway © Yannis Turpin / Marine Protected Areas Agency BIODIVERSITY PROTOCOLS: ASSESSMENT AND MONITORING PROVIDE AN INITIAL CONDITION REPORT AND RELEVANT AND COORDINATED FOLLOW-UP

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Common dolphin © Pelagis/Gautier

Explanatory notes and an assessment of their impact". This France, it is indicated in the annex to Ar- EU legislation is transposed in France ticle R122-2 of the Environmental Code Directive 2011/92/EU stipulates that through the provisions of the Environmen- created by Decree No. 2011-2019 of 29 "projects likely to have significant envi- tal Code on impact assessments. December 2011 that any project falling ronmental impacts, in particular because into the category of development, works of their nature, size or location, shall be European countries have transposed this and works "Energy" and Subcategory 27 subject to a permit application procedure directive into national law. In the case of "Offshore energy production facilities" is subject to impact assessment. Thus, development projects for MRE projects must adhere to the "avoid/reduce/compensate" process and must present the measures proposed in the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).

THE TWO LEVELS OF ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT

The main instruments used to assess the environmental impacts of projects and programs are:

› Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) – the assessment of environmen- Degraded kelp field © Frédéric Lechat tal impacts related to projects and programmes (including multiple projects), undertaken primarily by government authorities to ensure that the plan or programme meets environmental objectives;

› Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) – used for individual projects by (a) a developer to enable, based on environmental impacts, decisions to be made regarding project development, mitigation plans and ongoing monitoring, and (b) authorities, to verify that a given project complies with environmental legislation.

THE REFORM OF IMPACT STUDIES IN FRANCE © Ifremer In accordance with the Grenelle laws, the reform of impact assessments, a key tool › 8° descriptions of the methods used to of environmental law, took shape with the both establish the baseline condition re- enactment of Decree No. 2011-2019 of ferred to in "2." and to assess the effects 29 December 2011 on impact assess- of the project on the environment. Where ment reform for construction or develop- more than one method is available, an ex- ment projects, which came into force on planation of the reasons for the choice is 1 June 2012. required;

This legislation reforms the content and › justification if the petitioner is unable to • 59 • scope of impact studies on construction compensate; or development projects. Henceforth, the projects referred to in the annex to article › a description of the main methods of R. 122-2 of the Environmental Code are monitoring the measures and their ef- now subject to impact assessment only. fects, an estimate of the costs relating The list of projects submitted becomes to them, as well as a discussion of the positive, and simpler (removal of the fi- expected effects of these measures. nancial threshold of a work programme). We note that Category 27 states that all Effects monitoring by the state is also offshore energy installations are subject being strengthened with the issuing of to an impact study, and that it is man- orders, deadlines for assessments and datory in all circumstances (no longer a the strengthening of the administrative threshold concept). police.

The text also redefines the content of an General principles impact study (R122-5). In particular, there is an increase in the number of topics to CONSIDER THE ECOLOGICAL SERVICES be addressed (including cumulative ef- PROVIDED BY MARINE AND COASTAL fects) and an obligation for the developer ECOSYSTEMS90 to present measures according to the "avoid/reduce/compensate" approach To preserve marine and coastal biodi- (article R122-4-II-7°) as well as new versity, we recommend assessing the measures including: suitability of different MRE development scenarios at different scales, taking into › 5° the obligation to present an outline account the vital ecological services pro- of the main alternatives considered by vided by marine and coastal ecosystems. the petitioner or the contracting authority It is worth noting that these services are and the reasons why, with regard to en- provided by any ecosystem in a healthy vironmental or human health effects, the state of conservation and not only by submitted project was selected ('avoid/ MPAs. 90 UICN France (2014). Panorama des services écologiques fournis par les milieux naturels en reduce'); France - volume 2.2 : les écosystèmes marins et côtiers. Paris, France. TAKE CUMULATIVE IMPACTS INTO and monitoring of projects (human and the duration of the work increases. It is ACCOUNT AT THE APPROPRIATE financial resources), but also the appro- therefore essential that the construction SCALE priate regulatory tools. of a large fleet be carried out in a phased approach, which consists of dividing the The issue of cumulative impacts as- Operational principles construction into several phases, building sociated with a new activity must be part of the fleet completely and connec- addressed in these analyses. For the preservation of marine and coastal ting it to the grid, and then building the biodiversity, we recommend: other sections later. Consequently, the im- As mentioned above, environmental (and pacts will be localized in time and space socio-economic) impacts should be as- › CREATING MAPS OF THE SEABED, during the construction stage. sessed in the broader context within the WITH EMPHASIS ON THE NEED FOR project area of influence (not only for the ECOLOGICAL CONNECTIVITY › IMPROVING KNOWLEDGE, CAPITALI- project itself) to provide an overall picture ZING ON INFORMATION AND IMPRO- of cumulative impacts. Planning over space and time is vital. In VING ACCESS TO THAT INFORMATION keeping with this concept, site studies DEVELOP STRATEGIC ASSESSMENTS should be carried out before the tendering We have little knowledge of the impacts (SEAS) BASED ON MONITORING OF process begins, as is done in the United of these structures over time: during the INDIVIDUAL PROJECTS (EIA) Kingdom (DEFRA). In this way, there is litt- construction phase, during operation, but le duplication, and it avoids the conflict of also during decommissioning. Knowledge Suitable assessments of cumulative ef- uses (projects can be staggered over time of the effects of repeated disturbance also fects at the scale of the individual impact using initial scoping studies). needs to be improved. study could be incorporated into strategic documents produced on a broader scale. In France, this approach would allow ope- Appropriate baseline data on the state of rators to be aware, upfront, of the risks the marine environment, the distribution ESTABLISH A BODY TO OVERSEE related to their project site. Here, they find of sensitive species and habitats, and the ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT themselves with sites with environmental migration routes of birds, fish and mam- "constraints" (and related costs) that they mals are generally very scarce in relation • 60 • For offshore wind power tenders, the only discover when carrying out their re- to the requests for impact assessments. French government plans to set up a search. There is a need to increase research consultation and monitoring committee on species distribution and abundance, for each project (see paragraph 6.4.1 of We have noted that planning is mandatory including annual cycles and population the specifications). This body will be in at European level (cf. Directive 2001/42/ structure and status, but also to develop place for the duration of the project (deve- EC). In general, what has not been done analytical tools to assess ecosystems and lopment, construction, operation, decom- in the planning phase must be done in possible cascading effects. missioning). It is intended as a forum for the project phase, then in the operational dialogue and can make recommendations phase, thus multiplying the costs. It would also be of interest to carry out to ensure that local issues are given grea- strategic research to develop spe- ter consideration. However, it is not speci- The planning phase has several ob- cies-specific sensitivity indices for fically aimed at environmental issues. jectives: to ensure the compatibility of offshore wind energy installations (they Energy/Ecology plans and programmes, currently only exist for birds) at different Overall, it was noted that there is no na- to anticipate cumulative impacts, etc. life stages and in different regions. tional working group with experts from all sides to discuss these topics. We should It requires a solid understanding of eco- More research is also needed on the move towards a more holistic approach to systems, particularly high-value areas, for effects of noise on different species, as research, with an ecosystem approach, a a thorough impact assessment. well as on the mechanisms and indica- national vision, etc. A strong "MRE" axis, tors underlying bird avoidance behaviour, for example, will be developed within in order to develop appropriate mitigation COMER. We recommend leaving "blue" strategies if necessary. This is also the areas between MRE sites case with regard to the impacts of elec- CSRPNs can also play a key role in as- to retain a refuge, habitat, tromagnetic fields that act as barriers to sessing the effectiveness of measures corridor or feeding ground for fish migration. taken to remove, limit or compensate biodiversity. for the impacts of projects on the marine We emphasize the need for studies to be environment, if they are given this autho- conducted in a completely independent rity. Organisms respond differently depen- scientific manner, and with oversight. ding on the size of the EMR fleet under It will also be necessary to consider the construction (duration of impacts varies Finally, with respect to cumulative ef- role of the future French Biodiversity over time, from a few months to seve- fects, there is limited methodology, and Agency: we recommend that it be given ral years). The risk of mobile organisms knowledge of these effects remains poor. sufficient resources to ensure the control abandoning the area is likely to rise as © Frédéric Lechat

projects, hence the importance of setting One response may be to create up an environmental monitoring pro- a database of marine impact gramme to verify the assumptions used. studies. Some EIA standards require up to two successive full years of data before they can approve the construction of wind This research could be fi- farms. However, these time delays should nanced in the first instance be viewed as a pragmatic approach as • 61 • by the government, making they are generally too short to fully unit possible to retain public derstand the ecological effects for each data, or be carried out collec- site in question, including the seasonal tively by operators (within the and year-to-year variability at the ecosys- framework of France Energies tem and species levels. Marines, for example). The baseline data available for a given marine area strongly influences the qua- This is done in Anglo-Saxon countries. lity of the EIA, which must be taken into account during the site selection and au- In France, after selection in the tender thorization processes. process, all costs are borne by the chosen developer, which creates a number of un- EIAs for offshore wind farms are car- certainties. ried out at various scales, with different scopes and with differing levels of detail. This collaborative approach to research This is a consequence of a lack of com- appears to be an opportune way of limi- parable national standards and of diffe- ting costs and ensuring more effective ring interpretations of EIA requirements planning. by the authorities that must provide their consent. France Energies Marines could partici- pate in the coordination of these studies. To avoid arbitrary or unsound › IMPROVING THE MONITORING OF EN- approaches, we recommend VIRONMENTAL IMPACTS, INCLUDING the development of sound, CUMULATIVE IMPACTS, AT BOTH THE scientifically rigorous stan- "EIA" AND "SEA" LEVELS dards and the definition of thresholds for impact assess- Knowledge of the marine environment ments at the national level that remains deficient. Much information will can be adapted at the regional therefore come from feedback from early level. It should be noted that such an approach › IMPROVING THE LINKING OF PRO- is underway via the consultation launched JECT OVERSIGHT AND MONITORING To this end, we therefore by the DGEC to establish a guide for stu- PROGRAMMES BY STRENGTHENING recommend the following: dying the impact of offshore wind farms. SYNERGIES AND COORDINATING PRO- TOCOLS Create seabed maps that highlight the need for ecological We recommend the establi- We also stress the need to harmonize connectivity shment of international gui- the protocols developed as part of these delines and the development follow-ups, at a national level, or even to Enhance knowledge, capitalize of information exchange standardize them. All stakeholders, first on information and improve ac- networks (such as EMODNET - and foremost operators, are in favour of cess to it European Marine Observation a framework for carrying out EIAs. This Network) to guide the execu- would provide certainty for the process Improve the monitoring of en- tion of EIAs. and avoid subjective interpretation by vironmental impacts, including different administrative bodies. cumulative impacts, at both the EIA and SEA levels The relevant criteria on which predic- It is vital that project developers not be left tions of impacts are based should be to tackle these issues on their own. Improve the link between clarified. Effects on populations (parti- project tracking and monitoring cularly sub-populations) and on species However, this would require an agreement programmes by strengthening are essential in impact assessments and between developers and, above all, insti- synergies and coordinating pro- aggregation processes, if conducted at tutional leadership. tocols the appropriate scale (for example, for marine mammals, there will be no benefit Finally, we would emphasise that not all in conducting an assessment over a small uses of the marine environment current- area). ly require an impact study ! However, by Ongoing monitoring will be crucial in ana- operating through other activities, mo- lysing the extent to which early mitigation • 62 • However, there are generally no regional nitoring could be better coordinated (for strategies have been successful in avoi- or national agreements on acceptable le- example, taking advantage of transport ding or reducing impacts on the marine vels (i.e. impact intensity) or scales (i.e. vessels or weather towers to carry out environment. reference population chosen and biogeo- environmental monitoring in the area). graphical distribution affected) of distur- Future decisions can incorporate the bance for the species in question. These Conclusions latest advances and thus mitigate new weaknesses need to be addressed at the threats. national and transnational levels. The Reducing negative impacts and fostering establishment of standards is necessa- potential positive effects requires com- By conducting rigorous environmental im- ry: the MSFD could provide the relevant prehensive and holistic studies of the en- pact studies and systematic environmen- framework in continental Europe. vironmental impacts of marine renewable tal management, the industry will be able energy projects. to continuously improve its practices and procedures.

For more information IUCN. 2010, Greening Blue Energy

Marine mammals - Monitoring methods, limits and areas to be developed

Contact: Ludivine Martinez ULR Valor – Observatoire Pelagis Université de La Rochelle – CNRS

Email: [email protected]

Harbour seal © Pelagis/Vincent

One important part of the environmental makes it possible to respond to this pro- monitoring process when installing a wind blem by observing individual movement farm is the monitoring of marine mam- strategies and habitat use. mals. These animals are often difficult to However, extrapolation to the colony on track due to being unobtrusive, spending the basis of just a few animals is difficult. little time on the surface and/or travelling In short, no single monitoring method is • 63 • long distances. ideal, with each having its advantages and limitations. A combination of several However, this is a major issue in MRE methods will reduce bias. projects: the acoustic sensitivity of marine mammals makes them particularly vulne- Even using these methods, it remains rable to noise. Collisions with ships and difficult to assess with certainty the level changes in habitats and resources are of impact of an EMR installation on a gi- also potential impacts for these animals. ven site. Indeed, that requires a detailed knowledge of the distribution, migration Overseas experience generally suggests patterns, behaviours and sensitivities of three main ways of monitoring marine marine mammals, which we do not cur- mammals as part of MRE: visual monito- rently have. ring (aerial or by boat), passive acoustics and telemetry. These are classic popula- Therefore, the advancement of knowledge tion monitoring methods that have proven about marine mammals on the French their efficacy. coast should be encouraged in order to better understand the potential impacts However, the choice of method(s) requires of MRE parks and their possible conse- a case-by-case study to determine their quences, with a view to proposing cohe- relevance and whether conditions suit rent and relevant mitigation measures. their implementation. Indeed, aerial vi- This could include involvement in existing sual surveys make it possible to cover a or future research programs. This could large area but their cost makes it impos- also involve sharing monitoring rather sible to sample at a fine temporal scale. than site-by-site monitoring, which would Boat observations can be used to target increase the coherence of the study area a specific area more precisely, but are and the analyses carried out, while opti- highly dependent on weather conditions. mizing costs. Passive acoustics provides continuous monitoring of the study area, but the cost of instruments and analyses makes large- scale spatial sampling impossible methods specifically targets seals: telemetry FOCUS: FOCUS:

The GHYDRO project The protocol developed by the Concarneau MNHN for monitoring the impacts of developments

The objective of the GHYDRO project is › developers of marine current power pro- This protocol was adopted as part of the to develop a methodological guide that jects, MSFD. This annual inventory makes it • 64 • will provide stakeholders in marine cur- › environmental consulting firms, possible to monitor the changes in fauna rent power projects with decision support › users in areas being considered for fu- and flora during projects developed in the tools for the environmental integration of ture marine current power projects. marine environment. equipment and fleet operations. The "ECBRS" protocol of the Concarneau This document proposes an initial set of MNHN, implemented by the Estuaire Loire recommendations and methods to: Vilaine on the Guérande bank, provides for › describe the initial condition, annual monitoring (transects) of subtidal › identify and analyse potential ecological rock communities at 9 sites between the changes, Loire and Vilaine estuaries since 2009. It › develop an environmental monitoring focuses in particular on: program. › the depth ranges of the different algal zones; The scope of the GHYDRO project includes › the composition and density of the spe- the three phases of a hydroelectric project © EDF-DCNS cies defining the depths (kelp and other (installation, operation and decommissio- macroalgae); ning) as well as all of its marine elements In the coming months and years, GHYDRO › species composition (characteristic spe- (turbines, converters, cables, ships, etc.). will evolve through an iterative process as cies and opportunistic species); marine current power projects progress, › floristic species richness; To bring together as many skills as pos- and initial feedback on interactions with › the study of Laminaria hyperborea sible, France Energies Marines has for- the marine environment is received. blades and their epibiosis. med a consortium of specialists in tidal current technology and in the marine environment. They come from research institutes and industry. France Energies Contact: Contact: Marines has also consulted numerous Morgane Lejart Jean-Claude Ménard experts in the marine environment field, France Energies Marines Estuaires Loire Vilaine technology developers and coastal zone users. Email: Morgane.Lejart@ Email: [email protected] france-energies-marines.org The methodological guide is intended to be widely distributed, to: › environmental authorities, FOCUS: FOCUS:

The SIMEO buoy, a marine Description of the SEM-REV project, led by the Ecole Centrale ecosystem monitoring station Nantes

AN INNOVATIVE MULTIFUNCTIONAL BUOY FOR MONITORING MARINE BIO- DIVERSITY

The SIMEO project - Instrumental Station for Ecological Monitoring in the Ocean - aims to develop a range of floating marine instrumented stations dedicated to the observation of marine vertebrates and their environment. It is a collaborative project led by Biotope, in partnership Nke Marine Electronics, IRD, Ifremer, the Mer Méditerrannée and Mer Bretagne Atlan- © ECN/SEM-REV tique clusters, Transferts LR and Oséo. SEM-REV is an experimental site of the The SEM-REV sea trial site also provided The principle is to combine on the same Ecole Centrale Nantes with the necessary input for the European SOWFIA (Streamli- autonomous buoy several advanced mea- equipment at sea and on land to develop, ning of Ocean Wave Farms Impact As- suring instruments (radar, sonar, video in operational conditions, systems for the sessment) project, by providing feedback system, etc.) which can conduct obtain collection of marine energies, mainly from under real-world conditions. almost continuous measurements in or- waves and offshore wind. The Research der to collect biological, meteorological, Laboratory in Hydrodynamics, Energetics The SOWFIA project aims to facilitate the physical and hydrological data and trans- and Atmospheric Environment (LHEEA) of development of coordinated, standar- mit this data to the land for further use. the Ecole Centrale Nantes and CNRS thus dised and monitored environmental and • 65 • actively participates in the development of socio-economic impact assessment (IA) SIMEO APPLICATIONS marine renewable energies. As a partner tools at the European level for the deve- of industrial enterprises and research lopment of offshore wave energy. At a time when Marine Renewable En- laboratories, the Laboratory plays an im- ergies (MREs) are in full development, portant role in the development of new As part of this project, a summary of the the consideration of ecosystems is an energy production facilities. situation country by country was pre- important issue. In the realm of marine pared, analysing: biodiversity monitoring, SIMEO is a suc- To this end, the School has a concession › the manner in which environmental im- cess story, allowing unique data sets to for a 1km² offshore site off the Guérande pact assessments are conducted, be analysed and synthesised to serve as bank, which has been delineated, refe- › the process of obtaining approvals, a decision-making tool: renced and has been equipped with ins- › the planning of the use of the maritime › for site investigations; truments since 2009 (to obtain data on public domain, › in the context of impact studies for deve- waves, currents and weather in the area). › the consultation process. lopment projects such as offshore wind The school has also acquired an oceano- farms; graphic vessel to facilitate onsite work, Operational recommendations have been › for the monitoring and surveillance of and has provided a local scientific team proposed for implementation in the short Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). with monitoring and control facilities at Le term. Strategic recommendations will fa- Croisic. cilitate actions and strategies in the longer-term. The wave energy collection prototypes will be positioned in the centre of the offshore area, and connected to land by cable to transfer the generated energy. The power Contact : connection from the SEM-REV site has Contact: Erwan Roussel been studied and optimized in coordina- Izan LE CROM et Patrice Woerther tion with the various stakeholders. Ecole Centrale de Nantes – Biotope / Ifremer SEMREV Since January 2014, it has also had the Email: [email protected] et necessary permits to test floating wind Email: [email protected] [email protected] turbines. The first production system will Web: https://sem-rev.ec-nantes.fr be in place by mid-2015. CUMULATIVE IMPACTS, CONFLICTS AND SYNERGIES

• 66 •

Horns Rev wind farm off Esbjerg © Fabrice Nodé-Langlois

Explanatory statement A marine spatial planning will not only and financial resources more efficiently. alow to solve these issues but also the This therefore creates power relations France has great potential for the deve- following ones. In principle, the ocean is that drive underlying conflicts, whether lopment of some types of MRE, but they a public space open to all users, even if between uses, between old and new oc- vary in terms of environmental costs and in certain areas (MPAs) it is possible to cupants, between industries etc. socio-economic benefits. We must then try to restrict certain uses. These conflicts address the issue of conflicts: MRE sys- impact on biodiversity, because when a This has consequences for project ap- tems require natural maritime space, and decision is made to close one place to provals, due to the fears of elected offi- this has consequences in terms of com- an activity, the pressure is usually shifted cials and residents of coastal municipa- petition for existing or planned uses. elsewhere. lities, or professional users worried about facing limitations or bans in or around Maritime and coastal areas are used for Moreover, we cannot systematically ins- MRE fleets. many purposes such as transport, the tall environmentally-impacting structures exploitation of marine resources (mineral, in natural environments where there are It is therefore essential to examine the biological or energy), leisure activities and no users. impacts of MRE projects not only in tourism. The development of renewable isolation, but also to consider the other marine energy is therefore occurring in Currently, marine activities overlap, but uses of the marine environment in areas already subject to multiple pres- there is little focus on cumulative impacts question. sures. or optimizing usage to use the human Cumulative impacts A hybrid device coupling a floating wind turbine and a hydro turbine is also being tested in Japan91. Facilities could share the same foundations, power transfer We recommend the standardi- lines and maintenance operations. These zation of criteria and methods different energy sources also have com- for assessing cumulative plementary periods of maximum perfor- effects, at appropriate spa- mance. tio-temporal scales. However, a concentration of different types of MRE also means concentra- Cumulative impacts can be assessed at ting and aggregating the environmental two levels: impacts (e.g. in terms of barriers to mi- › local impacts of a given project com- gration and the loss or fragmentation bined with other existing human pres- of habitats etc.). Broadly speaking, the sures In France, the reform of legis- cumulative impacts may be more pro- lation on impact studies now provides nounced than the sum of the impacts of for these cumulative impacts to be each project. addressed (cf. Decree No. 2011-2019 of 29 December 2011). › larger scale impacts that occur as a Specific examples of interac- result of the existence of several MRE tions with other activities systems in an area or region.

AQUACULTURE AND MRE FARMS

These impacts must be as- While it is becoming difficult to find areas sessed at the strategic scale for aquaculture development on our • 67 • (i.e. at the level of the national coasts (urbanization, pollution etc.), MRE development policy or pro- farms could offer opportunities to exploit gramme). This scale would areas further offshore thanks to their in- ideally match the ecoregional frastructure. scale (biogeographic region). These areas would experience less land-based pollution: experiments on blue mussels in particular have yielded Synergies between activities excellent results, showing fewer cases of parasitism than among mussels har- The viability of a combined wind and wave vested from the coast. farm is currently being tested in Denmark.

91 See: http://www.mer-veille.com/mix-energe- tique/un-systeme-eolien-hybride-innovant-au- © Marius Born, Winterthour large-du-japon-22084426 FISHING AND MRE FARMS However, ecosystems differ from site to excess environmental impacts, two ap- site, and thus require case-by-case stu- proaches are possible, including: There is no technical or regulatory rea- dies. › concentrating mitigation efforts on the son why certain fishing activities (except last activity to be introduced (the MRE trawling, which raises obvious technical General principles fleet), at the risk of significantly increa- questions) should not be conducted in sing production costs, marine energy production areas, which It is important to stress that this new › sspreading the efforts across all activi- generally use space in a non-intensive activity should be as biodiversity-friendly ties that impact the environment (e.g. li- manner. as possible, and that when MRE systems miting certain fishing techniques, or the are deployed, the cumulative impact movement of commercial vessels in the There is a general trend of increasing should be at most equal to the impact area, or the number of visitors by plea- marine biomass around immersed MRE of pre-existing activities, and if possible sure craft etc.). structures. This "reef effect" is also fa- lower. This should logically, in some vourable to commercial species, with cases, lead to a reassessment of other For the same environmental result, this a possible spillover effect to adjacent activities in order to distribute the bur- type of strategy can maximize socio-eco- areas. These areas could therefore have den equitably over all maritime activities, nomic benefits. a positive effect on fish stocks, provided taking into account all associated envi- that fish spend enough time there and do ronmental, social and economic impacts Figure 11 below illustrates the possible not avoid them because of noise or other and benefits. effects in terms of employment and forms of nuisance. Another prerequisite wealth generated in the area, before and for positive effects on fish stocks is that after the establishment of a wind farm fish reproduction or feeding efficiency (which allows the development of a new is not significantly affected in the MRE We recommend, given that the offshore aquaculture activity). area. development of MRE is a public policy objective and the The joint development of resource ma- state regulator can define the nagement projects and an MRE project conditions for carrying out all • 68 • may therefore prove to be a useful solu- activities in an area, that to tion, both to ensure the sustainability of ensure that cumulative im- the resource and to strengthen coastal pacts are kept at an accep- fishing. table level, any constraints are imposed on all existing However, this increase in biomass is maritime activities in the area, partly related, in the case of foreign ex- rather than on MRE genera- perience, to the absence of fishing in the ting facilities alone. vicinity of the farms. A further explanation relates to the greater availability of food, originating from species fixed or attracted Figure 10 illustrates this approach: if the to the hard artificial substrates of the MRE proposed MRE project would result in Figure 11 structures. Bottom trawling, which seriously threatens the benthic environment, poses obvious safety concerns due to the underwater cables that connect the fleets to the land. As a result, trawling is often prohibited or reduced within fleets, and these areas, ranging to several square kilometres in size, become marine areas within which no-take zones may exist. Thus, the long-term impacts may appear positive with the creation of these restric- tive zones in terms of harvesting natural resources.

These activities are therefore becoming more suitable to long-lived species. However, opportunistic species are the first to benefit from the availability of new hard substrate when they colonize foundations. Figure 10 Such an approach would clearly require as feeding areas, attracting many indivi- environmental assessments for activities duals. This concentration, combined with that are not subject to regulation. fishing in close proximity, could increase the probability of incidental capture. These approaches will probably be explored in the DCSMM's monitoring and › TO PROMOTE SYNERGIES: measurement programs.

Operational principles 3. the setting up of a joint procedure for applying for au- For the preservation of marine and coas- thorisation for several marine tal biodiversity, we recommend: uses (wind power, artificial reefs, algoculture, fishing, etc.) › TO LIMIT CONFLICTS: in the same area.

1. that existing users of the At present, several procedures are ne- marine environment be infor- cessary under different legislation, and med of the progress of the pro- the issue of co-uses (e.g. seaweed culti- ject and that it be carried out in vation + wind power) is not satisfactorily consultation. addressed by sectoral regulations. This change would allow for an assessment of cumulative impacts, which is currently The pre-existing stakeholders are able, the sole responsibility of the most recent through their experience in the area, to arrival. provide technical expertise to the baseline description of areas and in the assessment of the ecological impacts 4. the improvement of dialogue • 69 • and economic consequences for their with the research, meteorolo- activity. gical and maritime transport communities.

2. the study of the option to exclude trawling within French Indeed, the technical resources (general- MRE project areas. ly expensive) can, in this case, be jointly used for different purposes.

Generally, trawling appears to concen- This objective is, notably, pursued by the Figure 11 trate the problems, since it potentially synergistic "Marine Energy" group within leads to additional costs, technical dif- the French Maritime Cluster ('Cluster ma- ficulties (cable protection) and risks for ritime français'). benthic biodiversity.

It is clearly not a question of prohibiting all fishing practices within the fleets. Some fishing practices have environmental impacts that do not compound those of the MRE fleets, or better still, have diminished impacts due to project synergies, so it is entirely legitimate to consider maintaining them. We therefore believe that a case- by-case study is necessary.

In addition to the safety zones surrounding MRE fleets, it may be useful extend the "no-take zones" to increase the benefits for marine and their habitats. This would benefit marine mammals in particular, for whom incidental catch is the most serious pressure in France. MRE parks often act Victor 6000 © Ifremer, Olivier Dugornay Indeed, the development of MRE is an opportunity to acquire new scientific knowledge about the marine environment.

5. to take action in terms of taxation.

In particular:

› the introduction of a tax or the abolition of the tax advantages (e.g. adjustment of tax bonuses or penalties), in cases where the exploitation is conducted in an unfavourable way for the preservation of marine and coastal biodiversity. For greater coherence, other activities might also be covered. This tax can then be used for environmental purposes (knowledge, evaluation, remediation, etc.), Plongeur au-dessus d'un champ de laminaires dans le Parc naturel marin d'Iroise › a review of the allocation of the tax on © Yannis Turpin / Agence des aires marines protégées offshore wind turbine installation • 70 • Currently, the tax is intended to al- locate 50% to coastal municipalities, 35% to fishers and only 15% to pro- Similarly, this mechanism93 could be used In order to optimize the use of space jects "that contribute to the sustainable to finance the cost of biodiversity scree- while limiting cumulative impacts, certain development of maritime activities or ning assessments and monitoring, which impacting activities could thus be limited, to the achievement or maintenance are essential for the proper management or even prohibited, to compensate for the of an ecologically sound marine en- of marine biodiversity, which is directly impacts of new MRE installations. vironment, as provided for in Article impacted. L. 219-992 of the Environment Code". However, if the development of projects is well planned and coordinated, the marine environment could in some cases benefit This would require a revision from these developments, as might cer- We recommend that this tax of the allocation of the tax on tain activities that depend on it (fishing, could be amended so that it wind turbine installations, so for example). could more greatly (if not total- that it can directly contribute ly) benefit the enhancement of to biodiversity-related pro- knowledge and the protection jects, which would be selected of the marine environment. by a steering committee that Through spatial planning of the would include professional fi- marine environment combined shers. with action plans involving all In effect, paradoxically, a proposed new stakeholders, cumulative and activity would be required not only to be synergistic impacts could be conducted in a sustainable manner, but better anticipated and ma- Conclusions 92 Decree of 27 January 2012 on the use of also to finance the transition to sustaina- naged, with impacts and op- resources from the tax introduced by Ar- bility of other, potentially competing ma- MRE installations represent new maritime portunities for all sea users ticle 1519 B of the General Tax Code. Article ritime activities which are not subject to activities requiring permanent occupa- taken into consideration. L. 219-9 corresponds to the implementation of environmental assessment. tion of maritime space. This will require the MSFD via the PAMM to meet the planning and preservation needs of the environment. the various stakeholders, the State in the 93 Note that the tax is based on the capacity (me- As mentioned, those projects promoting first instance, to consider the compatibi- gawatts) of each production unit. Its tariff is set biodiversity would in turn benefit fishing lity of uses and cumulative impacts, and at 13,623 Euros per megawatt, as provided and other environmentally dependent ac- to organise coordinated management of for in Article 1519 B of the General Tax Code, but its amount changes each year according tivities (tourism, etc.). the sea. to the "value index of the total gross domestic product". Indeed, the development of MRE is an FOCUS: opportunity to acquire new scientific For more information, see knowledge about the marine environ- IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue Floating offshore wind farms ment. Energy in the Mediterranean Sea: CNDP, 2010, Bilan du débat pu- opportunities for fishing and blic - Projet de parc éolien en aquaculture? mer des Deux Côtes Contribution de Green Cross France et Territoires (GCFT), In 2013, the Pôle Mer Méditerranée car- juillet 2013, Commission parti- ried out a study on the feasibility of de- culière du débat public pour le veloping fishing or aquaculture activities In particular: projet de parc éolien en mer au within floating offshore wind farms. large de la baie de Saint-Brieuc, › the introduction of a tax or the abolition Cahier d’acteur This prospective study aimed to identify of the tax advantages (e.g. adjustment Danish Offshore Wind, no- Research & Development projects, as well of tax bonuses or penalties), in cases vembre 2006, Key Environmen- as potential national or European collabo- where the exploitation is conducted in tal Issue, published by Dong rations likely to lead them. an unfavourable way for the preserva- Energy, Vattenfall, The Danish tion of marine and coastal biodiversity. Energy Authority, and the Danish The study was based on: For greater coherence, other activities Forest and Nature Agency might also be covered. This tax can then ADEME (Pays de la Loire), Rap- 1. A collaborative approach involving fi- be used for environmental purposes port : Quelques éléments de shermen, aquaculturists and energy (knowledge, evaluation, remediation, retour d’expérience sur l’éolien specialists; etc.), fixe en mer (from Dan Wilhelms- son, Department of Zoology, 2. A thorough assessment of the environ- › a review of the allocation of the tax on Stockholm University) ments of floating offshore wind farms; offshore wind turbine installation Currently, the tax is intended to al- 3. A discussion on fisheries and aqua- • 71 • locate 50% to coastal municipalities, culture in the context of the deploy- 35% to fishers and only 15% to pro- Similarly, this mechanism93 could be used ment of floating wind farms; jects "that contribute to the sustainable to finance the cost of biodiversity scree- development of maritime activities or ning assessments and monitoring, which 4. A socio-economic assessment. to the achievement or maintenance are essential for the proper management of an ecologically sound marine en- of marine biodiversity, which is directly vironment, as provided for in Article impacted. L. 219-992 of the Environment Code". Contact Michel Ollier Pôle Mer Méditerranée

www.polemermediterranee.com Email: [email protected]

In effect, paradoxically, a proposed new activity would be required not only to be conducted in a sustainable manner, but Conclusions 92 Decree of 27 January 2012 on the use of also to finance the transition to sustaina- resources from the tax introduced by Ar- bility of other, potentially competing ma- MRE installations represent new maritime ticle 1519 B of the General Tax Code. Article ritime activities which are not subject to activities requiring permanent occupa- L. 219-9 corresponds to the implementation of environmental assessment. tion of maritime space. This will require the MSFD via the PAMM to meet the planning and preservation needs of the environment. the various stakeholders, the State in the 93 Note that the tax is based on the capacity (me- As mentioned, those projects promoting first instance, to consider the compatibi- gawatts) of each production unit. Its tariff is set biodiversity would in turn benefit fishing lity of uses and cumulative impacts, and at 13,623 Euros per megawatt, as provided and other environmentally dependent ac- to organise coordinated management of for in Article 1519 B of the General Tax Code, but its amount changes each year according tivities (tourism, etc.). the sea. to the "value index of the total gross domestic product". MARINE PROTECTED AREAS AND MARINE RENEWABLE ENERGIES

• 72 •

Explanatory statement classifying 20% of areas under French marine environment contribute directly or jurisdiction as MPAs by 2020. To date, 7 indirectly to preserving healthy and pro- The United Nations Convention on the marine natural parks have been created ductive environments and the activities Law of the Sea requires States Parties or announced. that depend on them, such as reduction to protect and preserve the marine en- of marine pollution, noise, artificialization, vironment. The Convention on Biological As of 2013, the MPA network occupied etc. However, this study must examine Diversity sets the objective of establishing around 4% of the waters under French the compatibility of MRE developments a coherent and linked network of marine jurisdiction in mainland and French over- and MPAs with various states of protec- protected areas by 2020 on a global seas territories. With the creation of the tion, thus raising the question of whether scale. At the regional level, France is a Coral Sea Natural Park in New Caledonia, the presence of artificial structures such party to six regional sea conventions that this will increase to 16%. as those associated with the production concern the seas that lie within its terri- of MRE, and the existence of associated tory. In addition, at the EU level, France However, MPAs incorporate different impacts on the marine environment, are is involved in the management of Natu- forms of protection with various objec- compatible with the protection objectives ra 2000 sites. It also commits itself to tives, from strong protection (wilderness of a marine protected area. achieving, by 2020, the good ecological areas, core national parks) to sustainable status of its waters within the framework integrated management of marine natural The Environment Code defines an open of the new European Marine Strategy resources such as PNMs (marine nature list of marine protected areas (Law of 14 Framework Directive (MSFD). parks). The various protection instruments April 2006)94 : can have a regulatory status (such as › maritime parts of national parks (L.331- In 2007, the national strategy for marine nature reserves) or land status, such as 1), national and regional nature reserves protected areas was based primarily on Conservatoire du Littoral (Coastal protec- (L.332-1), the extension of the Natura 2000 mation agency) sites. In some cases, a site › biotope protection orders (L.411-1), 94 Act No. 2006-436 of 14 April 2006 relating to rine network and the establishment of 10 can combine both approaches. › marine nature parks (L.334-3), national parks, marine natural parks and regio- marine parks. The "Grenelle Environment › Natura 2000 sites with a maritime por- nal natural reserves. Forum" and the "Grenelle Sea Forum" Marine protected areas (MPAs) play im- tion (L.414-1), then set out the ambitious objective, for portant roles in biodiversity protection. › marine sections of areas under the marine management and protection, of Beyond MPAs, all measures to protect the control of the Conservatoire du littoral. The decree of June 3, 201195 added 9 General principles new categories to this list: › RAMSAR (International Convention on The table below groups the different tools Wetlands) sites, for protecting marine environments ac- › UNESCO World Heritage Sites, cording to their degree of protection in › Biosphere reserves, the IUCN classification, with category I.a › National Hunting and Wildlife Reserves being the strongest protection. The IUCN with a marine section, categories in which they have been clas- › sites protected under the Regional Seas sified show that different management Conventions. objectives can be associated with the same protection status.

EXEMPLES OF IUCN CATEGORIES MANAGEMENT GOALS MPA CATEGORY

National nature reserve, Ia Strict Nature Reserve Scientific research Integral biological reserve (national park)

II National Park Ecosystem protection National park (core area) and recreation

Nature reserve IV Habitat/Species mana- Conservation with Conservatoire du Littoral gement area management intervention site Biotope protection order Natura 2000 site at sea • 73 • V Protected Landscape Landscape conservation National park (buffer or Seascape and recreation zone) marine environment contribute directly or VI Protected area with Sustainable use of indirectly to preserving healthy and pro- sustainable use of natural ecosystems Marine nature park ductive environments and the activities natural resources that depend on them, such as reduction of marine pollution, noise, artificialization, Figure 12: IUCN categories and management objectives etc. However, this study must examine the compatibility of MRE developments and MPAs with various states of protection, thus raising the question of whether the presence of artificial structures such as those associated with the production of MRE, and the existence of associated The development of marine renewable and uses, marine protected areas may impacts on the marine environment, are energies must be accompanied by or may not accommodate MRE projects, compatible with the protection objectives consideration of the potential impacts which may in turn be subject to different of a marine protected area. on marine ecosystems. Depending on constraints and frameworks on a case- their category and their species, habitats by-case basis. The Environment Code defines an open list of marine protected areas (Law of 14 April 2006)94 : › maritime parts of national parks (L.331- 1), national and regional nature reserves (L.332-1), › biotope protection orders (L.411-1), 94 Act No. 2006-436 of 14 April 2006 relating to › marine nature parks (L.334-3), national parks, marine natural parks and regio- › Natura 2000 sites with a maritime por- nal natural reserves. tion (L.414-1), 95 Decree of 3 June 2011 identifying the categories of marine protected areas within the scope › marine sections of areas under the of competence of the Marine Protected Areas control of the Conservatoire du littoral. Agency (AMP).. The table below shows the analysis made by the Agency of Marine Protected Areas (AMP) of the possibilities of implementation according to the type of MPA. We have added a column to explain the regulations that refer to it.

POSSIBILITY OF ESTABLI- TYPE OF MPA SHING RENEWABLE MARINE COMMENTS ENERGY SYSTEMS

National nature reserve Incompatible They benefit from strong protection, as a ministerial decree prohibits any activity harmful to the environment

Regional nature reserve or Vigilance Corsican nature reserve

Marine National Park Not compatible in the core areas Not all areas of the park are subject to the same degree of of parks protection. In the heart of a marine park, works and installations are prohibited, while in the buffer zone, they require the authorization of the national park managing authority

Marine Natural Park Vigilance The PNMs combine protection with the sustainable management of activities and natural marine resources. The establishment of an activity likely to significantly alter the marine environment is subject to authorization from the Marine Protected Areas Agency or by delegation from the PNM Management Board

Natura 2000 site at sea Vigilance An impact study must accompany applications for approval for • 74 • installations, works and structures that may affect these sites Biotope protection order Incompatible Important protection: the prefectoral decree prohibits, regu- lates and makes certain activities subject to authorization

Conservatoire du Littoral Incompatible An environmental schedule of conditions accompanies the sites Public Maritime Domain (DPM) Temporary Occupation Autho- rization

Figure 13: Categories of MPA and the potential for the introduction of marine renewable energy systems

Some high-protection categories may ap- › This applies to the Fécamp area selected Operational principles pear incompatible with the development for the first wind power tender, and the of MRE. These include national nature re- Paimpol-Bréhat tidal current turbine test For the preservation of marine and coas- serves, national park cores or areas sub- site, both of which are located in Natura tal biodiversity, we recommend: ject to biotope protection orders. 2000 areas. Raz Blanchard, the main site proposed in a call for expressions › 1. DEFINING NATIONAL AND REGIO- However, it should be noted that the of interest to set up pilot current farms, NAL ZONING TO BETTER PRESERVE percentage of marine protected areas that is located close to the future Normand MARINE AND COASTAL HABITATS. are apparently incompatible with the de- Breton Marine Natural Park. The second velopment of MRE in fact represents less site (the Fromveur Passage) is located in On land or at sea, the importance of the than 2% of waters under the jurisdiction the heart of the Iroise NIP; project's impacts is directly linked to the of mainland as well as French overseas choice of location. This goal therefore de- territories. This is very low overall, even › The Tréport wind farm project, proposed mands consideration of: though they are a significant percentage in the second call for tenders, would in coastal areas. have 20% of its surface area in the Ma- › the areas that should not be exploited, rine Natural Park of the Picardy Estua- Some "MPA" areas (IUCN categories IV to ries and the Opal Sea. › new marine biodiversity reserves to be VI) are already being used or are under created to preserve endangered species consideration for the development of par- or habitats, ticular technologies: › the technologies to be promoted in order to preserve the ecological services provided by marine and coastal environments,

› the cumulative impacts of several MRE fleets within the same region.

A number of studies abroad and in France (ADEME, SMNLR) have identified these impacts. However, we reiterate that there is no complete study tailored to French ecosystems.

In addition, fragile habitats are sometimes selected by project proponents, at the risk either of unacceptable legal impacts or uncertainties if the project is approved, A typical underwater landscape of the Iroise Sea, with Laminaria hyperborea or of significant financial losses for the © Yannis Turpin / Marine Protected Areas Agency developer. This would allow the definition of different However, prior knowledge of the habitats levels of sensitivity: present on the site and their level of sen- › For any protected or particularly sensi- sitivity would allow areas of particularly tive species or habitat, it would seem rich habitats with no or low resilience to necessary to consider relocating the be excluded at the time of site screening. operation to another area, the only way to completely avoid destruction of the Knowledge of the impacts of MRE on sedentary or less mobile species and • 75 • marine and coastal biodiversity needs habitats present, to be improved, but we know that there › in certain high-value areas, it would be are breeding and nursery areas, such as necessary to conduct more in-depth en- seagrass and eelgrass beds, kelp forests, vironmental studies than in other areas, coral reefs etc., which provide ecological to plan longer-term monitoring, and to services that cannot be easily restored gi- recommend the assessment of cumula- ven current knowledge. tive impacts. The latter may be mitigated by limiting certain existing activities in the area.

To better support operators, we recommend the creation of marine habitat, coastal habitat Generally, we recommend that and ecological issues maps priority be given to develo- at the national and coastline ping projects in marine areas scales. already impacted by human We recommend, where this is activities not already provided for in the regulations of specific MPAs, that particularly sensitive › 2. CHECKING THE COMPATIBILITY OF areas be identified and that THE MRE PROJECT WITH THE CUR- restrictions be placed on the RENT MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES OF development of MRE parks. THE MPA

This concept can be incorporated into the Marine Environment Action Plans Generally, we recommend (PAMMs), which are the environmental avoiding MPAs, even if regula- component of future coastal strategic tions allow their development. plans. However, it is clearly necessary to consi- However, other types of MPAs could be MPAs can thus contribute to expediting der local conditions. Collaborative mana- affected indirectly or remotely, even if no the emergence of MRE technologies that gement in MPAs (see the following box) structures are installed within their area. are most eco-friendly. is an attractive solution to enhance the value of an MPA. Finally, it should be noted that initial site condition studies conducted as part of This is not always possible, however, for We therefore recommend that EIAs can contribute to the improvement highly localized energy resources (e. g. for each project: of knowledge of the marine environment. tidal currents). Thus, the Marine Protected Areas Agen- a decision is made by CSRPN, cy is jointly responsible with Ifremer for Currently, only Natura 2000 sites and following an analysis of the direct the marine component of the Nature and Marine Nature Parks appear to be the and indirect impacts of the pro- Landscape Information System (SINP), focus of MRE projects. Since the mana- ject, to which these studies can contribute gement objectives generally include the information. If MRE proponents provide sustainable management of activities and managers of adjacent marine the data acquired through their projects resources, the development of MRE does protected areas (within a defined to MPA managers, they will contribute to not seem incompatible as long as it does radius depending on the size of the effective preservation of the marine not degrade sensitive habitats. the project) are also involved in natural heritage. decision-making. Conclusions

When the only available ener- It will therefore be necessary to consider, gy resources are located in a › 3. USING THE OPPORTUNITY TO on a case-by-case basis, the desirability sensitive site for which regu- ESTABLISH AN INDUSTRIAL SECTOR of developing MRE projects in sensitive lations do not prohibit exploi- IN A CONTEXT OF COLLABORATIVE areas such as MPAs, taking into account tation, and if the social bene- MANAGEMENT all the risks and benefits to biodiversity. fits are significant, then the We must not forget that MPAs have • 76 • permitted exploitation should challenges related to the functioning of be coupled with recommenda- Some MPAs, in particular marine ecosystems, whether as habitat tions such as: PNMs, are areas of research for many protected or fished species, as (knowledge of interactions, migratory stops for marine mammals and the establishment of stricter, ecosystem services and the birds, or as a major contributor to biodi- well defined specifications, reserve effect, maximisation of versity. In addition to these 'ecosystem' synergies in terms of multiple challenges, there are multiple uses within exhaustive monitoring of en- activities, and socio-economic a limited space. The concept of marine vironmental impacts, combined integration in exploited areas) protected area has a tangible application with evolving measures to reduce that are favourable to both de- here. and compensate for the impacts velopers and MPAs. observed,

consideration of reducing other Indeed, these natural environments are activities with the same impacts better documented and their condition (fishing, dredging, etc.), in order better monitored than elsewhere. Mana- For more information, see to control cumulative impacts. gers can also provide their expertise on IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue The priority activities will be those the impacts of human activities on their Energy with lower socio-environmental site. The interactions between MRE sys- Mission d’étude parc naturel benefits than MRE. tems and marine ecosystems will there- marin 3 estuaires, August 2010, fore be easier to study and improve. These contribution to the public debate on wind power projects on two The management boards of the marine coasts natural parks will systematically decide AAMP website: http://www. on the development of MREs in their area, This monitoring will make it pos- aires-marines.fr/Concilier/ since the regulations require their assent. sible to build on information, par- Energies-marines-renouve- To this end, it is essential to make a clear ticularly on the resilience of eco- lables-et-AMP decision on the exploitation of marine systems around such structures French Committee of IUCN renewable energies based on the park's and on the positive and negative 2010, Protected areas in France: management guidelines. In addition, all impacts on biodiversity, reserve a variety of tools for biodiversity marine user groups must be adequately effect, etc. conservation represented on the Management Board. FOCUS :

The development of marine current power in the Iroise Marine Natural Park

Contact: Thierry Canteri Parc naturel marin d'Iroise Agence des Aires Marines Protégées The island of Ushant from the air © Julien Courtel / Marine Protected Areas Agency Email: The Iroise Marine Natural Park is subject of these parameters will influence the [email protected] to two marine renewable energy projects, coastal and littoral environmental im- both of which are hydro-turbines. pacts.

Firstly, the installation of a current turbine Based on available information, the park working model by SABELLA ("Sabella management approved the deployment of D10" project) in the Fromveur Passage a pilot tidal current farm in the Fromveur (the core of the park) is planned for the Passage, intending it to be a benchmark summer of 2014, after receiving approval site of excellence at the national and Eu- • 77 • from the park's management in 2011. ropean levels. The Board made several recommendations: Secondly, a call for expressions of inte- › The seabed footprint should be limited rest for the establishment of a pilot farm by favouring elevated installation sys- was launched at the end of 2013 by the tems rather than a system lying flat on Government via ADEME in the same area. the seabed; › In situ monitoring of equipment will bet- Iroise Marine Natural Park management ter understand the potential impacts of provided feedback on the two projects. a possible industrial-scale deployment. To this end, they deemed that the envi- This monitoring will need to consider the ronmental impacts of renewable marine possible environmental impacts (habi- energies depend on the sensitivity of the tats, species, etc.) and impacts on other natural heritage. These impacts are also uses, particularly commercial fishing; proportional to the size of the project and › The electrical connection cables must the number of production units located be buried and their routing must favour on the site. Farms may have different sedimentary substrates, while avoiding effects on the natural environment. For the rocky bottoms of the Molène archi- example, impacts from a farm comprising pelago. The landfall of the cables on the one or more machines capable of making mainland must be in keeping with the an unconnected island (such as Ushant) integration of the infrastructure into the self-sufficient will differ from a farm landscape; comprising several dozen units, which › The site will be restored at the end of the may impact marine currents and whose experiment. main electricity production will need to be routed to the mainland. The management board felt that the presence of the marine park would allow It is also necessary to consider the cable for more comprehensive environmental length, its path (in the middle of benthic monitoring, and would allow for effective communities) and the landing area of feedback. these cables on the mainland (which may vary depending on the output power). All ELECTRICITY CONNECTION: SOME IDEAS FOR CONSIDERATION

• 78 •

Explanatory statement challenges associated with sensitive The electricity produced by the turbines is coastal areas? routed to an offshore substation built by Currently, the energy produced by MRE the producer. This is the starting point for fleets is exported as electricity (although IMPLEMENTATION PRINCIPLE the connection to be built by the Electricity other forms may eventually be conside- Transmission Network (RTE). red for distant fleets, such as hydrogen Several factors should be taken into or ammonia). It must be routed ashore via consideration: 2 / RTE is responsible for the public elec- submarine cables that are connected to 1 / After a call for tenders by the French tricity transmission network. As such, it the electricity grid. A cable provides this government, the chosen consortium is is responsible for connecting the wind routing for each production site (compri- responsible for building and operating the farm from the offshore substation to its sing several machines) to the coast. This future offshore wind farm. very high voltage electricity grid on land. applies to offshore installations rather than coastal installations such as tidal power plants. Cables are buried or anchored to the seabed between production 1 Power transmission grid sites and the coast for technical reasons (risk of displacement under the influence of currents or swells) or to avoid damage from maritime activities (dredging, trawling, anchoring) that may or may not

be allowed in the area. Landfall junction Underground junction Electrical connection n o i t

Offshore station a

c i n

electric u

The same issue may arise on the coast, m

Underwater connection m

station o le s C

with the possibility of conflicts: how to l e x reconcile the passage of cables connec- 2 Electrical connection diagram A ting to the onshore power grid with the Figure 14: Diagram of the operating principles (Source: RTE) To avoid any disruption or damage, THE RULES IN FORCE the cable is trenched or covered at the seabed. Facilities related to the connection of MRE Trenching consists of digging a furrow in parks to the shore-based electricity grid the sea floor in which the cable is laid. must comply with the Coastal Law. This technique is preferred. However, some types of very hard or inconsistent Article 25 of the Brottes Act96 clarifies the substrates are unsuitable: the cable specific provisions related to MREs under is then laid on the seabed and covered the Coastal Act. with rock-fill, for example. Surveys of the substrate determine the feasibility of Article 146-6 of the Town Planning Code, trenching. which sets the conditions and limits of oc-

Figure 15 (Source: RTE) • 79 •

Once on land, the submarine cables are cupation and development in outstanding connected to the underground cables areas, now provides that "conduits within within two "junction chambers" installed the public electricity transmission or dis- underground, each approx. 20 m long by tribution network designed to promote the 6 m wide and 3 m deep. This is known as use of renewable energies may be autho- "landfall". rized in outstanding areas."

The optimal landfall location is defined in Article 146-4 of the Town Planning Code consultation with local stakeholders. lays down the conditions for urbanisation on the coast, and in particular within the Connections can be submarine and/or 100 m strip. It prohibits any construction underground. The connection must be or installation other than in urban areas such that the upstream network is able to within 100 m of the upper shoreline, but evacuate the power fed into it. As a result, now specifies that "cthis does not apply to substations (between the underground works connecting marine renewable en- link and the public electricity transmission ergy installations to the public electricity grid), a structure of a few hectares, are transmission or distribution networks". most often pre-existing. The substation is chosen according to the strength of the It also states that: upstream network. Sometimes they must "These structures must be installed un- be specially built (as in Saint-Nazaire for derground and with minimal environmen- the wind project), but this is not normally tal impact. the case. Modifications of this substation Approval for the construction of facilities, may also be considered to promote its in- mentioned in Point 1 of Article L. 323-11 tegration into the landscape. of the Energy Code, is refused if the pipelines are likely to harm the environment or remarkable sites and landscapes. Their implementation is subject to a public 96 Law n°2013-312 of 15 April 2013 aimed at preparing the transition to a low-carbon ener- inquiry in accordance with Book I, Title II, gy sector and containing various provisions on Chapter III of the Environmental Code." water pricing and wind turbines. General principles environment where cables are not buried. in the immediate vicinity can be significant (since there is a dead zone for a few IMPACTS ON THE MARINE > Chemical pollution weeks, resuspension of materials, risks ENVIRONMENT of noise, wildlife disturbance). It is, howe- The risks of contamination of the water ver, spatially limited around the trenching > Release of heat with chemical substances (and the health footprint, and temporary (wildlife recolo- risks from pollution of bathing and shellfi- nized the substrate, and within one year, When electricity is routed through the sh areas) due to long-term wear and tear density or diversity were comparable to cables, there is a loss of energy which of submarine cables are unlikely (cables that of control areas). is manifested by heat release in the im- being trenched, covered or fixed). In addi- mediate vicinity of the cable. Organisms tion, it is worth noting that modern cables > Impacts on hard substrates are adapted to specific conditions, so do not contain heavy metals. local temperature increases can cause The level of impact on benthic ecosys- some marine species sensitive to very Nevertheless, the BERR study (see biblio- tems on hard substrates depends on the small temperature variations to move in graphy) indicates that "cable burial will substrates in question and the degree of order to be in their optimal temperature reduce potential environmental effects colonization by wildlife (in highly hydro- range. Species composition among sen- [...]" and that, "ISO 14001 certified cable dynamic areas, species are specialized, sitive species may therefore be modified manufacturers are required to demons- but not abundant). Further studies are around cables. trate effective ways to minimize environ- underway on the Paimpol cable. mental risks". However, the Connecticut Siting Coun- > Impacts on the coastal environment cil (CSC, 2001 - see bibliography) exa- At the end of the operation or cable life, mined the effect of heat radiating from developers must restore the site so, in The electricity transmission network cables welded to the seabed as part of theory, no cables should be abandoned. on the French coast (very high voltage) the "Cross Sound Cable Interconnector" On the other hand, it will be worth consi- is currently not very dense, and poorly project, a system of high voltage direct dering the advisability of removing inert adapted to the absorption of large quan- current, trenched cables between New cables in view of the environmental im- tities of energy. Except for a few spe- • 80 • England and Long Island, New York. The pact associated with this removal. cific areas (nuclear or coastal thermal CSC estimated that the increase in sea- power plants), there is limited capacity. floor temperature immediately above the > Impacts of trenching (burial) In addition, the network does not extend cable was 0.19°C while the correspon- offshore (existing subsea interconnec- ding increase in water temperature was Cable trenching is often recommended tions cannot accommodate the produc- 0.000006°C. Potential heating is there- because it reduces or even cancels the tion from offshore parks). To overcome fore considered impossible to detect in impacts related to electromagnetic fields these issues, each area of favourable relation to natural fluctuations in the sur- (reduction) and heat (cancellation) res- conditions is the subject of a study by rounding sediments. pectively. This technique is also used at RTE on connectivity, the purpose of which the request of other users (fishers, sai- is to assess the impact on the network. > Electromagnetic fields lors, divers), because the cables between These impacts are highly dependent on the transformer and the shoreline are at the size of the MRE installation and the The effects of generated electromagnetic risk of entanglement. Trenching is thus a shore-based network. Given the current fields are difficult to determine. Existing safety measure in response to this risk. It network design, its development to ac- connection cables (to islands) are not nor- may also be a technical choice, particu- commodate large quantities of energy mally monitored, although in the United larly in view of the risk of cable degrada- produced at sea could be achieved by Kingdom, an in-tank study was carried tion when exposed to currents, waves and developing additional high-voltage land out on sharks and rays: swells. Finally, cable trenching within the lines, which raises land use planning, fleets is commonly called for to maintain environmental and acceptability issues. "For the Thanet Offshore Wind Farm site, activities such as trawling and dragging: English Nature stated that (given the cur- in this case there is an accumulation of rent level of information available to date) impacts related to marine activities and These effects could be re- there would be no significant impact on trenching operations. duced by creating at-sea elasmobranch populations inhabiting the extensions of the transmission wind farm area and along export cables". Conversely, in the absence of any fishing network that could accept the activities in the area, trenching is not ne- MRE fleet’s output. However, the results did not allow any cessarily required and the environmental conclusions to be drawn on the effects impacts are minimized. Thus, the choices on fish. made in the design and management of 97 https://www.rte-france.com/sites/default/files/ parks will determine the impacts. Such deployment is envisaged as part synthese_sddr_2014.pdf Temperature and electromagnetic field of long-term strategic planning, which is parameters are especially important to The Paimpol experience shows that the implemented by RTE in particular in the study and monitor when located in a rocky impact of siltation on benthic ecosystems ten-year network development plan97, and in the immediate vicinity can be signifi- in TYNDP98, a European plan drawn up by cant (since there is a dead zone for a few the ENTSOE network operators' associa- weeks, resuspension of materials, risks tion. The impacts of network extensions of noise, wildlife disturbance). It is, howe- are studied as part of an economic and ver, spatially limited around the trenching social study. footprint, and temporary (wildlife recolo- nized the substrate, and within one year, Operational Principles density or diversity were comparable to that of control areas). For the preservation of marine and coastal biodiversity, we recommend: > Impacts on hard substrates › 1. DEFINING A GENERAL STRATEGY The level of impact on benthic ecosys- FOR OFFSHORE NETWORK EXPANSION tems on hard substrates depends on the AND CONNECTION substrates in question and the degree of colonization by wildlife (in highly hydro- The connection of an offshore produc- dynamic areas, species are specialized, tion site to the onshore network requires but not abundant). Further studies are the cables to pass through a point on underway on the Paimpol cable. the coast. The Electricity Transmission © EDF / TOMA Network (RTE) organization is responsible > Impacts on the coastal environment for connecting offshore wind farms, as outlined of the call for tenders issued in site, the nature of the soil, the elevation The electricity transmission network July 2011. range, shipwrecks of cultural significance, on the French coast (very high voltage) etc. The circular of 9 September 2002 is currently not very dense, and poorly on the development of public electricity adapted to the absorption of large quan- To avoid a proliferation of transmission networks details the consul- tities of energy. Except for a few spe- cables and connections, a tation and planning methods aimed at en- cific areas (nuclear or coastal thermal strategic vision of the offshore suring the integration of the network into • 81 • power plants), there is limited capacity. extension of the electricity grid its environment. The Environmental Code, In addition, the network does not extend must be developed, taking into in Article R122-5, then requires that these offshore (existing subsea interconnec- account interconnection needs choices be clearly explained in the impact tions cannot accommodate the produc- and future areas of offshore study. tion from offshore parks). To overcome production capacity. these issues, each area of favourable conditions is the subject of a study by RTE on connectivity, the purpose of which This approach should allow for progres- We recommend, in general, is to assess the impact on the network. sive development, optimization of invest- to avoid natural coastal areas These impacts are highly dependent on ments, and overall reduction of the envi- when siting this connection, the size of the MRE installation and the ronmental impacts associated with cable but it is clearly essential to shore-based network. Given the current laying. develop a strategic, global network design, its development to ac- vision for the whole region. commodate large quantities of energy This vision must address not only land produced at sea could be achieved by network connections, but also the growing developing additional high-voltage land need to integrate the development of land Of course, it is also necessary to ensure lines, which raises land use planning, and maritime power grids. that areas are protected along the entire environmental and acceptability issues. length of the route from the MRE farm › 2. OPTIMIZING THE CHOICE OF (not only at the landing point). Also, the CONNECTION SITES TO REDUCE longer the cable length, the greater the ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS environmental impact, and the greater the volume of raw materials required It is worth noting that the choice of (copper etc.). It will be important, project route is the result of consultation with by project, to conduct a study and choose all stakeholders, leading to compromises the routes that result in the lowest overall with regard to environmental and techni- environmental impact. cal constraints. For junctions, as for other structures in the Various approaches appear possible and 97 https://www.rte-france.com/sites/default/files/ Such deployment is envisaged as part public electricity transmission network99, should be explored, including: synthese_sddr_2014.pdf of long-term strategic planning, which is the choice of location must be that of › the use of already highly artificialized 98 https://docs.entsoe.eu/dataset/ten-year- network-development-plan-2014 implemented by RTE in particular in the "least environmental impact", depending areas such as ports rather than natu- 99 http://circulaire.legifrance.gouv.fr/ ten-year network development plan97, and on the sensitivity of the habitats on the ral areas that we are trying to preserve pdf/2009/03/cir_26580.pdf © Sylvain Michel

(note that this can be made difficult by improve knowledge so that appropriate an already congested subsurface, or by measures can be implemented if needed. In conclusion, we recommend: heavy traffic). ongoing monitoring to analyse › where no artificial space available, or › 4. DEVELOPING A COMPLETE PIC- the extent to which early mitiga- when other factors warrant it, the use of TURE OF THE POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE tion strategies succeed in avoi- appropriate technologies such as direc- IMPACTS ASSOCIATED WITH CABLES ding or reducing impacts on the tional drilling allow the land-sea boun- marine environment, dary to be crossed underground over further research be conducted several hundred metres to the exit point. Similarly, to ensure that all in this field, environmental issues are that impact studies be conduc- › 3. IMPROVING OUR KNOWLEDGE OF addressed in their entirety, and ted by integrating new knowledge THE EFFECTS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC in accordance with current as soon as it becomes available. FIELDS EIA regulations, the impact assessment must include an Electricity production from MREs requires assessment of the impacts of the transmission of energy to the onshore all aspects of the project. • 82 • grid. The connection cables emit an elec- For more information, see tromagnetic field, the effects of which are poorly understood. No significant impacts Although complete ring-fencing is not the IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue have been identified in the available- li desired result within a wind farm zone, the Energy terature, although the limited number of presence of connection cables between Kalaydjian R., 2011. Submarine studies make it impossible to derive firm wind turbines can lead, depending on the cables. Ifremer Issy-les-Mouli- conclusions on this subject. A tank-based way the farms are managed, to a total or neaux. study was conducted in the United King- partial ban on certain maritime activities, English Nature, 2006, Thanet dom but, although some fish changed particularly for safety reasons. For exa- Offshore Wind Farm site their behaviour, the researchers were mple, the use of some trawling devices in BERR_Câbles, 2008, Review of unable to reach any general conclusions fisheries activities may lead to cable entan- cabling techniques and environ- about the effect on fish. glement. These potential costs should be mental effects applicable to the measured in relation to the existing activity. offshore wind farm industry – p°108 : "The potential increase We recommend that research In return, an area no longer trawled, for in temperature is therefore programmes be developed on example, would be expected to see im- impossible to detect in relation this subject, which are essen- provements in ecosystem health. This to natural fluctuations in the tial for impact assessment and would increase the biomass available for surrounding sediments" the design of effective mitiga- fisheries around the prohibited area, as a Connecticut Siting Council tion measures. result of the "reserve effect". (CSC), 2001, projet "Cross Sound Cable Interconnector" The designation of these areas must be MEDDE-DGEC, 2012, Étude Research should benefit from the use done in consultation with all marine user méthodologique des impacts of existing island-continent connection groups (fishers, in particular). environnementaux et socio-éco- cables and monitoring data, where avai- nomiques des énergies marines lable. Conclusion renouvelables

It is worth noting that wind farms, but es- Reducing negative impacts and promo- pecially tidal current turbines and wave ting potentially positive impacts requires energy converters, may be located in research into the environmental impacts rocky substrates, and therefore the cable of marine renewable energy production will be anchored rather than buried. Again, projects in a comprehensive and strategic additional research must be conducted to approach. FOCUS:

Experimental restoration of eelgrass beds

The wind turbine demonstration farm developed by EDF on the Horaine plateau off the island of Bréhat will be connected to the distribution network by a 16 km submarine cable to a shore-based delivery station located in Ploubazlanec (Côtes d'Armor).

This cable, laid in June 2012, crosses dwarf and common eelgrass beds at the landfall in Launay Cove. As these are environments of great ecological interest, EDF has tasked "In Vivo Environnement" with trialing an experimental measure June 2012 to restore these beds after burial of the cable. This will test transplanting techniques and improve knowledge of the recolonization mechanisms of these plants. The experiment involves trials of cuttings (without sediment) and the collection and replanting of clods (with sediment) and comparing the results with natural recolonization. • 83 • By monitoring the area around the cable and the dynamics of eelgrass bed recovery in areas of transplanted stock, the impact of cable burying on eelgrass beds was accurately quantified, and the "rootball" August 2012 transplant method for both species was validated. The survival of the transplanted stock and their growth varied according to bathymetric depth but were generally satisfactory. The best results were observed for the lower foreshore Zostera noltii meadow and the deepest Z. marina meadow, where growth was comparable to that of the natural control meadows.

For both species, the first signs of natural recolonization were observed 10 months after the end of the work in areas where the cable excavation had been reconso- lidated. August 2013 Transplanted dwarf eelgrass © Julien Dubreuil / IN VIVO

These results were presented at the SHF's "Energies marines renouvelables" (Renewable Marine Energies) conference Contact: in Brest in October 2013. Agnès Barillier, EDF and Julien DUBREUIL, IN VIVO

Email: [email protected] and julien.dubreuil@invivo-environnement.com DISMANTLING: SOME IDEAS FOR CONSIDERATION

• 84 •

Explanatory statement decree no. 2004-308), as well as the soon as the operation ends, and requires payment of a State fee; the provision of the appropriate financial Since the life cycle of an average offshore › an impact study and a public inquiry guarantees. MRE fleet is estimated at 25 years, there (the above decree and art. 553-2 of is little data available on the issue of de- the Environmental Code in the case of General principles commissioning. However, experience in offshore wind turbine cable). the oil and gas sector can be adapted for IMPACTS ON THE MARINE wind farms. In the same way as oil plat- The obligation to remove cables at the ENVIRONMENT forms, wind turbines could be dismantled end of the concession or operation stems and recycled, disposed of in approved from Articles L2122-1, L2132-2 and > Fixed and floating wind turbines landfills, or reconditioned and reused. The L2132-3 of the CGPPP (protection of the turbines could also be partially removed use and integrity of the DPM), of the afo- Degradation of the seabed or tipped over on site. rementioned Decree 2004-308, art. 2, Currently, no existing farms have reached which requires the concession applicant their operating life of approx. 25 years, Concerning cable removal, since 1998 to specify "where applicable, the nature so no dismantling operations have been the Ospar Convention has prohibited the of the operations necessary to reverse the conducted. However, it can be expected total or partial abandonment of disused modifications to the natural environment that the decommissioning of wind tur- offshore facilities, unless otherwise and the site, as well as for the restora- bines will have negative impacts on the agreed. The ICPC has identified good tion or rehabilitation of the site at the end seabeds on which they are fixed as well practice for the management of disused of the licence or its use". Article 8 of the as on the new habitats created as a result cables. same decree requires the operator "to of the construction phase. ensure the effective reversibility of modifi- In France, the laying of cables in the pu- cations made to the natural environment". Resuspension of materials blic maritime domain is subject to: Regarding offshore wind turbine cables, The dismantling of installations will inevi- › obtaining a licence to use the DPM (art. article 553-3 of the Environmental Code tably lead to a resuspension of materials, L2124-3 of the General Code on the makes the operator responsible for their which, as during the construction phase, Property of Public Persons, CGPPP, and dismantling and for site restoration as will affect plankton, lfilter feeders and fish in particular, but pelagic fish are presu- talling the anchors and connecting cables. mably able to avoid an area with too high Depending on whether it is a coastal or a turbidity level. If the substrate has been offshore installation, the removal of pipes polluted during the construction or opera- used to pump water can locally destroy tion phase, this resuspension makes the the benthos. The disappearance of the pollutants present available to organisms. artificial upwelling created by the MTE OTEC? may also have an impact. Noise The dismantling phase will involve the > Wave energy converters presence of ships, which are sources of noise emissions and disturbances for Here again, depending on the type of organisms. Depending on the techniques structure considered, the methods used used during this phase, the type of foun- during dismantling will differ. It is not dations initially chosen, and the choices currently possible to determine what the made regarding site remediation, there impacts will be during this phase. will probably be other sources of noise pollution. For example, if you choose > Tidal barrages to remove everything, the gravity foundations will be a problem: one solution It is difficult to describe the impacts of this would be to use explosives, but the im- phase. During the dismantling of a tidal pacts could be very significant. power plant, various disturbances such as noise, the resuspension of materials and > Marine Current Turbines seabed degradation are likely.

Note: Only current turbines using tidal Operational principles currents are discussed here, and not offshore thermohaline currents. For the preservation of marine and coastal biodiversity, we recommend a discussion • 85 • These technologies are still relatively new on decommissioning at the national level. and there is still no feedback on the dismantling of current turbines. Noise emis- OPTION 1: COMPLETE REMOVAL sions, local degradation of the seabed and resuspension of materials can be If a wind farm is completely removed, the expected. same should apply to all related disruptive effects. However, some sediment resus- > Ocean thermal energy pension problems can occur, especially if the cables had been buried, resulting in It is difficult to assess the impacts of de- the disturbance of any sensitive habitat. commissioning, as the technology is not In addition, there is a risk of disturbing ha- sufficiently advanced to be able to elabo- bitats that have been created and evolved rate on this point. However, as with any over the years, in many cases constitu- dismantling operation at sea, damage to ting islands of comparatively undisturbed the seabed can be expected when unins- hard substrates in regions otherwise do-

© Dubois minated by soft substrates. Moreover, if OPTION 3: ONGOING MODERNIZATION Conclusion a wind farm has effectively protected an entire area from the destructive effects of In contrast to oil and gas, wind resources It would be advisable to create a national other impacting activities, this protection are renewable, and are not exhausted working group dedicated to decommis- is likely to disappear along with its struc- at the end of the concession: it is there- sioning, with the following focal points: tures. fore conceivable that the wind farm can › Establishment of initial environmental remain in operation, with continuous states before decommissioning, New technologies may provide better al- maintenance and improvements if neces- › Ongoing review of decommissioning ternatives, but experience to date with the sary. In this case, both the positive and plans in accordance with new tech- dismantling of oil platforms has favoured negative impacts of the operation of the niques that may become available within explosives and cutting-up. Explosives kill facilities on the marine environment will 20 or 30 years, most animals living in the area closest to continue. › Analysis of the new ecological balance each turbine, and fish with swim bladders achieved within the wind farm, in par- are the most affected. Given the large In conclusion, decisions on the fate of ins- ticular at the base of the submerged number of turbines and the surface area tallations will inevitably have to be taken structures. they cover, the impacts could be signifi- on a case-by-case basis. cant if this technique were used. Ultimately, we currently have little infor- Even if, originally, it was assumed that mation. For more information, see all turbines would be removed, the dismantling of the parts of the wind turbines The issue of optimal decommissioning IUCN, 2010, Greening Blue below the seabed surface could, in many plans must be addressed in due course. Energy cases, be called into question. Kalaydjian R., 2011, Submarine cables, Ifremer Issy-les- OPTION 2 : LEAVE THE STRUCTURES However, we recommend: Moulineaux IN PLACE, NOTABLY BY TIPPING THEM that during the impact study, OVER all options are assessed in ad- • 86 • vances; Another option is to leave the structures that the dismantling plan be submerged in place. The turbines on the developed progressively, in an bottom would emit no noise and would no adaptive manner, but that it be longer have moving parts. If left in place, clarified several years before the structures would become permanent dismantling. This will allow all because the degradation rate of high-car- stakeholders to be prepared, and bon steel is extremely slow. Any habitat the authorities to still have the that has been created, and any habitat al- capacity to exert pressure at the teration caused by the physical presence time of the decision. of the facilities, would then be maintained.