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The London School of Economics and Political Science The London School of Economics and Political Science Smugglers and States: Illegal Trade in the Political Settlements of North Africa Max Gallien A thesis submitted to the Department of International Development of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, January 2020 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 98,028 words. Statement of Inclusion of Previous Work I can confirm that small parts of this dissertation, primarily in Chapter 6 and Chapter 8, rely on interview data that was generated in the context of previous study for an MPhil in Modern Middle Eastern Studies that I undertook at the University of Oxford, but which has so far been unpublished. I can confirm that parts of Chapter 5 have been published in the context of a single- authored article in Perspectives on Politics. 2 Abstract This project explores the political economy of informal and illegal cross-border trade in North Africa, focusing in particular on Tunisia’s border with Libya, and Morocco’s North-East bordering Algeria and the Spanish enclave of Melilla. Based on extensive fieldwork, the project traces the informal institutions that regulate smuggling across the region, examines the resulting rent streams, and analyses their relationship to the region’s states through a political settlement framework. Following shifts in the domestic politics of Tunisia and Morocco as well as the regional border infrastructure, the project also traces the recent re-negotiation of the role of smuggling in the region. It argues that contrary to common assumptions, smuggling rarely occurs 'under the radar' of the state, but is instead embedded in a tight network of institutional regulation in which the regions' states play a key role. Furthermore, rather than subverting states, smuggling activities are a central feature of the region’s political settlements. The project highlights that the ability of different groups to navigate and negotiate the terms of their inclusion into these settlements is highly uneven, posing serious challenges for borderland populations. 3 To my parents, who ‘made in books’ long before I wrote one. 4 Acknowledgements I wrote this book. Its flaws and limitations are mine. Its strengths are a result of the kindness and insight of the people and communities that helped me research and write it over the past four years. Many without whom this project would have been impossible, I am not able to name here. Some appear as anonymised sources in the following chapters; some do not. I will be forever in awe of people in the border communities of Tunisia and Morocco who gave me their time, their trust, their hospitality and their stories, and I hope that I have been able to do them justice. There are, however, some people I can name: First and foremost, I would like to thank Kate Meagher, whose brilliance, precision and dedication consistently pushed me to dig deeper and think further, who had my back through all the challenges of this project, who taught me to be led by questions rather than academic fashion, whose sharp and constructive comments were invaluable throughout, and who, despite her best efforts, has not been fully able to exorcise my tendency towards obnoxiously long sentences. I am most grateful that I got to learn to be a scholar with her as a role model nearby. At the LSE, I would like to thank John Sidel, whose work on local power has been an inspiration, who came on as a second supervisor and provided great perspective and comments along the way. I would like to thank Susan Hoult, Rose Harris and Nina Craven for their support, Catherine Boone and Moritz Schmoll for their helpful comments and advice. The community of PhD students at LSE has been a constant source of solidarity and inspiration. Portia Roelofs’ advice and example have been invaluable, Nicolai Schulz’ enthusiasm for political settlements was infectious, and Florian Weigand’s unshakeable calm has been a blessing. It was a pleasure to learn from Guoer, Allison, Konstantinos, Michael and Kara. Valentina Zagaria shared invaluable feedback, her hospitality in Zarzis, and the experience of being found suspect by the police of Ben Guerdane. I would also like to thank LSE Health and Safety for their support throughout this project. I am also grateful to George Joffe, Thomas Hüsken, Matt Herbert and Ferdinand Eibl, who provided valuable advice, insight and feedback. I would also like to thank Melissa Leach and Mick Moore at IDS for giving me the time I needed to finish this project. 5 This endeavour started its life in an MPhil programme at Oxford University’s Middle East Centre. Here, I am deeply indebted to Adeel Malik and Michael Willis, who not only provided this project with encouragement, inspiration and advice but have also since shown excessive kindness in their support for me as a student and a scholar. I am incredibly grateful for the teaching and advice of Noa Schonmann, whose enthusiasm as a teacher and a scholar was the reason why I started studying the region in which this project is set, and who has been a role model throughout. Of a hugely inspiring MPhil cohort, I am particularly grateful for the camaraderie of Maria Bruckmann, Jennifer Ruth Shutek, Anna Jacobs and Megan O’Donell, who provided feedback, advice, and endless moral support. In Tunisia, I am most indebted to Mohamed in Ben Guerdane, for his fantastic translation, his patience and trust, his driving and part-time bodyguarding skills, for his insight and perspective. I am also grateful for the support and advice of two CEMAT legends, Larry Michalak and Laryssa Chomiak, and for the inspiration provided by the team and participants of the Tunis Exchange. In Morocco, I am particularly indebted to Jaouad and Mawya, not merely for their translation, but also the engagement, heart and care that they brought to the project, for the enthusiasm with which they showed me their Oujda, and their fantastic work throughout. I am also grateful for everyone in Oujda who took me in and offered me their perspective, particularly Isabelle, the Znasni boys, Soumia, Larbi and Ute. In Nador, my particular thanks go to Fouad Maachi and the team at ATPE, and in Melilla to Laia Soto. I was fortunate during this project to have spent some time as a visiting scholar at the Hilary Clinton Centre for Women’s Empowerment at Al-Akhawayn University Ifrane in Morocco, and at the German Institute for International and Security Affairs (SWP) in Berlin. I am very grateful to both institutions for their support. At AUI, I would particularly like to thank Doris Gray, Katja Žvan Elliott, and the team of Presidential Interns. At the SWP, I would like to thank Isabelle Werenfels for her endless faith, support, and kindness, as well as Stephan Roll, Luca Miehe, Wolfram Lacher, Jürgen Rogalski, Barbara Heckl, and the entire wonderful and brilliant team of the FG06. 6 I acknowledge and am grateful for the financial support of the Economic and Social Research Council, who funded my studentship, fieldwork, language training and overseas institutional visits. I am also grateful to the British Society for Middle Eastern Studies, who awarded me the Abdullah Al Mubarak Al Sabah Foundation prize, which further supported my fieldwork. I would like to thank the staff at The Elgin in Maida Vale, where most of this book was written, the Backwood Café in Brighton, where it was finished, and whoever found my laptop after I’d left it in the Earl of Lonsdale Pub in Notting Hill after a long evening. I am beyond grateful to Whittard of Chelsea for their marvellous Milk Oolong tea, without which the sustained focus that this project required would have been impossible. These have been long, and not always easy years. I am deeply indebted to all of you who stuck with me, put up with me, and had my back. Andy, Varshini, Safa, Sandhya, my parents Andrea and Martin, and my brother Oskar. You know what you did. Thank you. 7 Table of Contents Declaration ................................................................................................................... 2 Abstract ........................................................................................................................ 3 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 5 Table of Contents ......................................................................................................... 8 Table of Figures ......................................................................................................... 13 List of Abbreviations.................................................................................................. 14 Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................. 15 1.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................
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