ERT cover 29-4 31/8/05 13:46 Page 1

CONTENTS Theme: The New Reality in Christ E V Editorial – The New Reality in Christ A N

page 291 G E L I

The Postmodern Gospel C A

JAMES P. DANAHER L R

page 292 E V I

Challenges Facing African Christianity in the E Post-Modern World W O

FRANK ADAMS F T

page 296 H E Evangelism, Theology and the Church O L THORSTEN PRILL O G

page 309 Y V

Facing New Paradigms In Worship: Learning New O Articles and book reviews reflecting L

Lessons From Old Masters U

M global evangelical theology for the purpose

WALTER MCCONNELL E

2 of discerning the obedience of faith

page 331 9 , Fighting Fire with Fire: Community Formation N O

in 1 Corinthians 12-14 4 ,

DAVID A. ACKERMAN O c t

page 347 o b e

Book Reviews r 2

page 363 0 0 Index Vol 29 5 page 381

Volume 29 No. 4 October 2005 Laser Proof

PATERNOSTER PATERNOSTER PERIODICALS 0144-8153(200510)29:4;1-P PERIODICALS

0 Evangelical Review of Theology

EDITOR: DAVID PARKER

Volume 29 • Number 4 • October 2005 Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith Published by

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission

PATERNOSTER PERIODICALS ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 29 No. 4 October 2005

Copyright © 2005 World Evangelical Alliance Theological Commission

Editor David Parker

Committee The Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission Dr Rolf Hille, Executive Chair

Editorial Policy The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor or the Publisher.

Manuscripts, reports and communications should be addressed to the Editor and sent to Dr David Parker, 17 Disraeli St, Indooroopilly, 4068, Qld, Australia

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Typeset by Profile, Culmdale, Rewe, Exeter, Devon EX5 4ES and Printed in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS by Polestar Wheatons Ltd., Exeter, Devon. ERT (2005) 29:4, 291 Editorial: The New Reality in Christ

AS ANOTHER VOLUME of our journal con- teristics of contemporary Christianity cludes, reflection on the year that has is experimentation in worship in an gone by underlines the uncertainties attempt to reflect biblical principles for that the world faces. So our opening the new age. Drawing upon the fresh article by James Danaher of New York appreciation of the past that is one of helpfully identifies the transitional the elements of the postmodern turn, nature of the cultural mood known as Walter McConnell of Singapore urges ‘postmodernism’. Although the cer- those responsible for worship to ask tainties of the Enlightenment period key questions about its essential may have gone, he argues, this does nature by studying the principles not mean there is less scope for the developed by the Puritans who faced gospel. In fact it is quite the opposite paradigm changes. The biblical ele- because, ‘We are now free to pursue ments they identified can serve as forms of rationality more compatible ‘route markers’ for us. with a Gospel that is personal and mys- This brings us back to Scripture, teriously beautiful rather than objec- and in his study of 1 Corinthians, David tive and mathematically precise.’ Ackerman of Australia, who completes This is no mere western concern, as our global panel of authors for this Frank Adams of Ghana shows in his issue, highlights another important element of the postmodern context, paper which explores some of the ways community, and how the apostle was in which the Christian message needs conscious of its importance when deal- to relate to the African scene. He con- ing with one church’s immaturity and cludes, ‘The Christian message is one inability to break free from their pagan and unchangeable, but the people environment: ‘Paul attempts to reso- employ their worldviews and the total- cialize the Corinthians in light of the ity of their being to understand the new reality in Christ. He tries to create message of Jesus Christ, to make it rel- a new community by placing the bound- evant to their daily life.’ Thorsten Prill ary of love around the church and by focuses on contemporary evangelistic enhancing fellowship within the methods in another cultural setting church.’ rich in tradition – Germany; he evalu- It is this ‘reality of Christ’ that will ates models and practices in a national give authenticity to the Christian life church to encourage more authentic and mission in this uncertain age as biblical insights which would result in surely as it has in any other period, and holistic outcomes arising out of a gen- to which this journal remains dedi- uine grass-roots commitment. cated. One of the most noticeable charac- David Parker, Editor ERT (2005) 29:4, 292-295 The Postmodern Gospel

James P. Danaher

KEYWORDS: Enlightenment, science, Ancients like Plato and Aristotle had mathematics, romantics, metanarra- believed that a precise and certain tive, modernity, biology, psychology, knowledge of the world, after the class, atheism model of mathematics, was impossible. The reason it was impossible was that the world was made up of many differ- WEARETOLDTHATwe live in a postmod- ern age, but what exactly is meant by ent kinds of things. A mathematical ‘postmodern’? Our age is being termed understanding requires that things be postmodern quite simply because of a of the same kind (five apples plus six general rejection of modernity and the oranges equal what?). The advent of principles upon which it was founded. the corpuscular philosophy, which Modernity refers to the modern period would evolve into atomic chemistry, of the 17th and 18th centuries which is solved this problem by reducing every- often dubbed, ‘The Enlightenment’. thing to the same basic matter or The cornerstone of the Enlightenment atoms which could be quantified. Isaac was the belief in a new and enlightened Newton then took these two tenets of form of science. This new science was Bacon and Descartes and brilliantly founded upon two modern beliefs. The combined them in such a way that his one, advanced by Frances Bacon, was mathematical calculations were veri- that science ought to be based on objec- fied in observation, and his observa- tive, empirical study rather than philo- tions were quantifiable. sophical speculation. The other view, The belief that the world was championed by Rene Descartes, was orderly, which dated from at least the that our knowledge could be made pre- Greeks, took on a new form. The order cise and certain after the model of of the universe was now in the form of mathematics. universal and mathematically precise This second view required that the laws that could be detected with scien- world be reduced to matter or a single tific reason. The early fruits of this new kind of thing that could be quantified. science were so impressive that

James P. Danaher, Ph.D., M. Phil. (City University of New York) is Head of the Department of Philosophy, College of Arts and Sciences, Nyack College, NY. He has published articles in many philosophical and theological journals, including ‘A Contemporary Perspective on Atonement’ (Irish Theological Quarterly, 69/3, 2004); ‘The Love of God’ (Evangel, 22/2 Summer, 2004); ‘Language and Theology in a Postmodern Age’ (New Blackfriars, 84/991, Sept, 2003), pp. 408-414); and ‘A Christian Notion of Happiness’ (Evangelical Journal, 202, Fall, 2002). He is the author of Postmodern Christianity and the Reconstruction of the Christian Mind (Academica Books, 2001). The Postmodern Gospel 293 progress quickly came to be seen as to 40,000 thousand children dying synonymous with the new science. In each day from the effects of hunger and time it became the great metanarrative malnutrition. By the end of the 20th and model for all right thinking. century the very existence of the planet Of course, from the start, Enlight- was being threatened, and science did enment science was not without its not seem capable of doing anything opposition. The romantic poets of the about it. The Enlightenment’s faith in 18th century, as well as philosophers scientific reason had failed to deliver such as Leibniz, Berkeley, and Hume, what it had promised, and something were among the first to take opposition else was obviously needed. But what is to either its materialism or optimism. it that postmodernism promises as an In the 19th century further opposition alternative? arose from philosophers as diverse as There seems to be a mistake in sup- Hegel, Nietzsche, and William James, posing that postmodernism offers an to mention just a few. With the 20th alternative to modernity. It certainly century the attack increased. New does not. At this point, we know that insights into the nature of language by modernity has come to an end but, as of the likes of Saussure and Wittgenstein yet, we know little more than that. We undermined the idea that an objective can no more say what typifies this new, view of the world was attainable. Fou- postmodern age than someone in 1650 cault persuasively argued that our idea could have defined modernity or of truth was a social construct created Enlightenment. By 1650, Bacon and by those in positions of power. Others Descartes had already published, and from Thomas Kuhn to Derrida showed the medieval world was passing away, how perspectival and relative our but Isaac Newton was only eight years understanding really was. With Ein- old, and it was far too early to say what stein even the scientific community modernity was to become. Likewise, had to admit that we had no objective the publications of Derrida, Foucault, or privileged place from which to make and Lyotard are not enough to estab- our observations. The social sciences lish the nature of a postmodern age. of anthropology and sociology brought What popular culture considers even more light to the fact that our postmodernism is merely the fact that human understanding was enormously there is, at present, no metanarrative biased by our culture and history. What that we all embrace, in the way most of truly brought about the end of moder- us embraced the myth of Enlighten- nity and its claim to be the path to ment science for the last 300 years. progress, however, was not so much Today, the only consensus is that the the work of intellectuals but rather the science of modernity is not capable of history of the 20th century. bringing us into the wonderful world it The vision of the Enlightenment promised. We are thus left for the was that three hundred years of scien- moment without any definite direction. tific progress would bring us to utopia. That creates a great opportunity for However, quite to the contrary, the the gospel. 20th century witnessed over 100 mil- Modernity’s model of knowledge as lion people killed in wars, and 35,000 empirical, objective, and precise was 294 James P. Danaher certainly not conducive to the idea of Likewise, Marx’s idea of class knowing God through a personal faith analysis certainly provides a valuable relationship. With the demise of the insight, but to believe that this is the myth that the scientific model was the Rosetta stone or underlying principle model for all real knowledge, room has behind all social interaction is to make been made for the kind of knowledge of it into a metanarrative. It is certainly a which the gospel speaks. With the valuable insight, but not the insight to debunking of the scientific idea that all which all others are subordinate. knowledge must be objective knowl- Freud too certainly contributed to edge, we can now speak of a God who our understanding of human behaviour is not an object but a subject – indeed, by introducing us to the unconscious. a person. However, to believe that the uncon- Furthermore, there is more good scious holds the key to all the secrets news concerning the end of modern sci- of human existence is again founded ence as the great metanarrative and upon the modern belief that we had the only way to truth, for with its finally become enlightened and discov- destruction modern atheism lost much ered the universal principle central to of its foundation. Atheism found sup- all understanding. port in the modern period from the As these sources of modern atheism Enlightenment myth that there were are undermined, Christianity, by con- objective laws or principles to which trast, remains intact. That is because we had access through scientific rea- Christianity is not a metanarrative in son. If language is relative to culture spite of all efforts to make it one. Chris- and a language community, and our tianity will always be a personal rela- understanding is cast in language, tionship with the risen Christ, and there can be no metanarrative that never an explanation of how things are objectively and universally explains for everyone everywhere. Of course, the reality of our existence. That post- there are similarities between our per- modern insight that the metanarrative sonal relationships because we are in was an Enlightenment notion whose relationship with the same person, but time has passed eliminates the support those relationships differ as well due to modern atheism found in Darwin, the fact that we are all different people, Marx, and Freud. with different conceptual understand- Certainly biological species may ings, and at different points in our rela- change over time, and they often may tionship with God. God meets us where change for the reasons Darwin gave, we are in our respective understand- but it was the belief of modernity that ings, so we all begin in different places. such a principle was a universal and Our initial understanding of God is absolute law which governs all always that of a tribal god who is species. But why should species largely a product of our own culture change or remain unchanged because and understanding. Through humility of a single reason or principle? Why and a genuine desire to know him, how- does there have to be one totalizing ever, we can, in time, come to know the metanarrative? Why not multiple prin- God who transcends all culture. This ciples or explanations? knowledge of God will never be the The Postmodern Gospel 295 kind of objective and precise knowl- Modernity provided us with a method edge that modernity sought. But that gave us a confidence in our certain although this God cannot be discov- and precise understanding, but the ered through the methods of science, gospel leads us to an understanding he is faithful to reveal himself to those founded upon a divine beauty that we who humbly seek him. behold in humble awe. The truth of The lie of modernity was that truth modernity was something we could get and meaning were to be found only in a hold of, but the truth of the gospel is that which could be known objectively something that gets a hold of us. and with the kind of narrow exactness Fortunately, we now know the that we find in mathematics. That was method that modernity insisted upon is the great metanarrative of modernity not the universal form of right reason it to which everyone was forced to con- had claimed to be, but it merely repre- form if they wished to be considered sents one form of reason. This should rational. Of course, such thinking did be good news to Christians, since it means that we are no longer forced to produce a technology that we may not accept a logic so antithetical to the want to be without, but it was not capa- gospel. We are now free to pursue ble of leading us to the kind of truth forms of rationality more compatible and meaning that lies at the base of the with a gospel that is personal and mys- Christian life. It certainly was not an teriously beautiful rather than objec- appropriate model for intimately know- tive and mathematically precise. ing persons, either human or divine. Thus, a postmodern gospel is not Modernity taught us to seek a truth one in which all order, meaning, and that was objective, certain, and pre- truth is lost. Rather, all that is lost is cise, but the gospel sets before us a the kind of order, meaning, and truth God who is a subject and not an object, that modernity had insisted upon. The and like any subject or person can good news of the postmodern gospel is never be known by the method of that, with the end of modernity, we knowing that modernity insisted upon. now have an ever greater opportunity Modernity told us that we should rid to order our lives, not based upon an ourselves of all bias in order to dis- understanding of some universal and cover an objective truth untainted by objective truth, but rather upon an inti- our prejudice. The gospel, however, mate understanding of a truth that is tells us that we are to bring the preju- personal and subjective – indeed, a dice of faith to every circumstance. truth that is a person (John 14:6). ERT (2005) 29:4, 296-308 Challenges Facing African Christianity in the Post-Modern World

Frank Adams

KEY WORDS: Contextualization, the person who formulates it.1 Traditional religions, Afrikania move- Since Christianity must be cultur- ment, missions, exclusivism, plural- ally continuous, we must retrieve and ism, time, universalism interpret these fundamental religious values in the African traditional reli- gion and identify how these values pro- CHRISTIANITY IS the outcome of the response of faith of the early church to vide a way of understanding the gospel, that is, God’s revelation in the saving presence of God in the God- Christ. The revelation of God in Christ man, Jesus Christ. That saving pres- is forever available to people of all gen- ence was radiated through the life, erations and cultures. This eternal ministry, death, resurrection and availability of God’s saving presence in ascension of Jesus Christ, the Incar- Christ is rooted in the historical incar- nate Word of God. ‘The Word became a nation. However, the very fact of his- human being and lived among us. We torical incarnation suggests that the saw his glory, full of grace and truth. presence of Christ is not always effec- This was the glory which he received tively mediated to one culture.2 There as the Father’s only Son’ (John 1:14). Any authentic theology must start ever anew from the focal point of faith, which is the confession of the Lord 1 D. von Allmen, ‘The Birth of Theology: Jesus Christ who died and was raised Contextualisation as the dynamic element in for us; and it must be built or rebuilt in the formation of New Testament Theology’, in IRM Vol. 64. (January 1975), p. 50. a way which is both faithful to the inner 2 O. Imasogie, Guidelines for Christian The- thrust of the Christian revelation and ology in Africa (Accra: Africa Christian Press, also in harmony with the mentality of 1983), p. 18.

Rev Dr Frank Kwesi Adams is General Secretary of All Africa Baptist Fellowship (Regional Office of Baptist World Alliance). He holds a MTh from International Baptist Theological Seminary, Switzerland and a PhD from the University of Wales through the Oxford Centre for Mission Studies with research in the the Asante Odwira Festival and its significance to Christianity in Ghana. He is interested in Christian mission and its influence on African traditional life, as well as faith, tradition and modernity, and communicating the gospel in other cultures through the engagement of people of those cultures. Challenges Facing African Christianity in the Post-Modern World 297 is always a search for living and rele- ations irrespective of different world- vant symbols that mediate the saving views and self-understandings.4 presence of God in Jesus Christ. The Africans may not come to a full basic question now is; ‘Does God have understanding of Christ unless Christ something to say to the African People is presented to them from the perspec- through cultural ideas of faith?’ Does tive of their worldview. According to African traditional religion provide Bediako, ‘…the African who has clues to name this ‘More’ of God? become a disciple in the kingdom is This exercise of rediscovering and called to bring his “Africanness” into naming this ‘More’ of God in African that kingdom to enrich it and to con- traditional thought has become neces- tribute to its varieties of beauty’.5 Mbiti sary because the early missionaries did also makes the point that ‘Christianity not recognize the potency of the reli- must become “native” in tropical Africa gious value in the African worldview just as it is “native” in Europe and and how it could be used to interpret America. It must therefore deepen its Christianity in Africa. The superficial- roots in the context of our community ity of the average African commitment life, the soil where the gospel is being to Christ is the result of the failure of planted.’6 early missionaries to take African cul- There are several challenges facing ture seriously. Christianity in Africa and we will dis- Historically, Christianity was cuss the following: (i) Christianity and brought to Sub-Saharan Africa after it African Traditional Culture; (ii) had taken definite form in the West. African Christianity and the concept of ‘The framework of the theology time and history; (iii) African Chris- brought from the West to Africa how- tianity and religious pluralism, and (iv) ever, was set, forged in the interaction African Christianity and Afrikania between the original Jewish world view Movement. and that of the Greeks and later Euro- peans.’3 After over a thousand years of its existence in the West, Christianity 1. Christianity and African was introduced to Africa with little or Traditional Culture no attempt at local cultural integra- The critical debate between the mis- tion. Christianity was equated in the sionaries and traditional leaders posed minds of Africans with western Chris- serious questions regarding the role of tianity, education and civilization; it culture in Christianity. The traditional was a foreign religion, which had been leaders took the approach of ‘cultural transplanted to a foreign soil and revivalism’, that is, reviving the cul- which had not taken root. The early missionaries thought that their under- standing of God as revealed in Christ had an identical application in all situ- 4 Bediako, Theology and Identity, p. 19. 5 Bediako, Theology and Identity, p. 371. 6 ‘The Ways and Means of Communicating the Gospel’ in Christianity in Tropical Africa, 3 Kwame Bediako, Theology and Identity ed. C.G. Baeta, (Oxford: University Press, (Oxford: Regnum Books, 1992), p. 229. 1968), p. 337. 298 Frank Adams ture in its totality. The missionaries ues and grow from those roots rather took the approach of ‘cultural anti- than trying to be an extension or off- revivalism’, that is, doing away with or shoot of other traditions’.10 Lastly, they throwing away the cultural practices.7 argue that reviving the cultural past The ‘cultural revivalists’, including will contribute to national integration the Afrikania movement, argue firstly and nation building. that the commitment to the cultural The argument of the ‘cultural anti- heritage of the people will serve as the revivalists’ (referring to the missionar- basis of the search for cultural identity ies) is that if Christianity is going to and cultural pride and unite them as a grow in Africa and also ‘catch-up’ with society. Secondly, reviving one’s cul- modernity, then Africa must abandon a ture would also create authentic val- great part of its cultural practices that ues for the future, ‘their perception of are archaic and primitive.11 The atti- reality, their understanding of them- tude of the church towards all tradi- selves, and their shared apprehension tional beliefs suggests that Christians and interpretation of societal experi- should abandon any form of contact ence’.8 Thirdly, there is the assumption with spirit-powers and spirit–ances- that recovering and developing one’s tors, all use of magic and fear of witch- cultural past becomes the basis of craft.12 Any attempt to revive the cul- making a contribution to global civi- tural practices would be irrelevant to lization. Fourthly, they argue that cul- the goals and concerns of the African tural revivalism will lead to mental Christian. freedom from a colonial mentality. The firm stand of these two groups According to Okomfo Damuah, ‘mental has led to tensions, confusion, contro- bondage is mental violence, religious versies and inconsistencies; this is due bondage is invisible violence and cul- to the failure to distinguish between tural bondage is cultural suicide’.9 what may be regarded as positive and Colonial rule makes the colonised peo- negative elements in the culture. It is ple intellectually servile to the ideas this failure that led the revivalist group and values of the colonial government. to regard the entire culture as positive, Fifthly, they argue that the reason why good, and perfect, while the anti- some societies in Ghana are not devel- revivalist group saw everything in the oping is because they tend to use for- culture as negative, worthless and eign ideas to which they have no ideo- good for nothing. logical attachment. Okomfo Damuah The grounds for evaluating when a mentioned that, ‘the main trend is to tradition should be accepted, refined or discover our own authentic native val- abandoned may be several. Some may

7 K. Gyekye, Tradition and Modernity 10 K. Damuah, Afrikania Handbook, back (Oxford: University Press, 1997), p. 232. cover. 8 K. Gyekye, Tradition and Modernity, p. 233. 11 Gyekye, Tradition and Modernity, p. 235. 9 K. Damuah, Afrikania Handbook— 12 S. G. Williamson, Akan Religion and Chris- Reformed African Traditional Religion (Accra: tian Faith (Accra: Ghana University Press, Afrikania Mission, 1983), back cover. 1965), p. 81. Challenges Facing African Christianity in the Post-Modern World 299 see a tradition to be dysfunctional and awareness of the negative features of hampering the progress of a society, the culture that impede progress, is ‘others may see it as discordant with misguided and his view will be coun- the ethos of a new set of cultural val- terproductive. ues that a new generation is bent on My position is neither cultural establishing’,13 while others still may revivalism nor cultural anti-revivalism, see it as morally unacceptable to the but appropriating the positive ele- society. ments in African culture. By appropri- In my view, neither the revivalists ation I mean critically examining ideas nor the anti-revivalists are entirely cor- and values embedded in African cul- rect in their argument and criticism. ture and giving them a theological Both of these positions are mistaken meaning. Some of the values would and unjustifiable. The anti-revivalist have to be retrieved, refined, improved, position (I am referring to the extreme and re-evaluated. There are values that group) implies that though culture is can be regarded as so fundamental to the embodiment of a people’s way of the existence of the African culture life, nothing useful can be derived from that they transcend every generation. the ideas, values and practices of their Appropriating these elements and giv- culture. They see no reason why the ing them theological meaning will sug- past must be revived. Gospel and cul- gest that something worthwhile can be ture are for them ‘polar’ concepts that developed from the African cultural cannot be integrated.14 In my view, to past. argue that a great part of a people’s culture must be rejected is unaccept- able. In fact, a total rejection of one’s 2. African Christianity and cultural past would be absurd. The the concept of Time and revival of some cultural values is very History legitimate and relevant, and this is Another significant feature in dealing what this study is seeking to do. But with African Christianity in the post- not every aspect of a cultural heritage modern world is the African conceptu- ought to be revived. alisation of time. It is a renewal of his- Thus, it will be impossible for me to tory, a fresh appreciation of past support the position of the revivalist, if events revisited in the present and pro- that position were to advocate the jected into the future. It runs ahead revival of the whole corpus of the cul- towards the new, towards the future, ture. For the revivalist also argues that even in repetitions. As Paul Tillich for development to take place the explains, ‘the time of creation is not whole culture must be revived. I dis- determined by the physical time in agree with this position, because some which it is produced but by the creative cultural elements hinder progress. The context, which is used and trans- revivalist who does not show any formed by it’.15 Mbiti’s understanding

13 Gyekye, Tradition and Modernity, p. 223. 15 P. Tillich, Systematic Theology III (Lon- 14 Gyekye, Tradition and Modernity, p. 238. don: SCM Press, 1963), p. 317. 300 Frank Adams of the African view of time was first The modern Africa is discovering the expressed in his doctoral thesis, in future dimension of time due to Christ- which he attempted to examine New ian teaching, western education and Testament eschatology from an modern technology. Mbiti’s concept of African cultural perspective. He did a time may be identified with the study of the Akamba (his own tribe in Akamba tribe, but it is an over-gener- Kenya) and came to the conclusion that alisation to state that this concept of the Akamba’s view of time can be con- time is true for all of Africa. Nor is it the ceived of as two-dimensional ‘with a ‘key’ for understanding ‘the African long past and a dynamic present’, but worldview’. the future is virtually non-existent.16 The diversity of Africa with over a He later generalised this to be true of thousand languages shows that the the thinking of all of Africa. concept of time among the Akamba The linear concept of time in tribe may be different from that of oth- Western thought with an indefinite ers. The concept of time of the Asante past, present and infinite future is people (a major ethnic group in Ghana) practically foreign to African think- is different from that of the Akamba ing. The future is virtually absent people, because the past is revisited in because events which lie in it have the present and projected into the not taken place, they have not been future. It is more than cyclical or lin- realised and cannot, therefore con- ear; it has the notion of a ‘spiral’. While stitute time…. What is taking Mbiti’s understanding of time cannot place now no doubt unfolds the be accepted as definitive for all Africa, future, but once an event has taken it does give valuable insights into a place, it is no longer in the future concept of time among Akamba that is but in the present and what is very different from that of the Asante. past.17 What is different between the Akamba According to Mbiti this understand- and Asante is that while in Akamba ing of time undergirds the African future is virtually non-existent, in understanding of himself or herself, Asante the past is projected into the the community and his or her universe. future. This means that any religion He asserts, ‘when Africans reckon that does not give the Asante a linkage time, it is for a concrete and specific to his past as a key to future orienta- purpose, in connection with events but tion is likely to be misunderstood or not just for the sake of mathematics’.18 ignored.

3. African Christianity and 16 J.S. Mbiti, New Testament Eschatology in an African Background (London: University Religious Pluralism Press, 1970), p. 24. Christianity exists in a world of reli- 17 J.S. Mbiti, African Religion and Philosophy gious pluralism, so the Christian atti- (Oxford: Heinemann International, 1970), p. 17. tude to other religions is a pressing 18 J.S. Mbiti, African Religion and Philosophy, issue on today’s pastoral agenda. In p. 18. Africa one of the major challenges fac- Challenges Facing African Christianity in the Post-Modern World 301 ing the continent as a clash of civiliza- many questions like: Does the Quran tions is religious pluralism. The three preach violence? Do Muslims hate major religions in Africa are: Chris- Jews and Christians? Why is the mes- tianity, Islam, and African Traditional sage of peace and compassion of the Religion (ATR). world’s religion lost in the din of anger The major question confronting the and hatred? African Christian is the Christian atti- tude to other religions. How do we con- The Challenge from the Non- fess the Lordship of Jesus Christ as we Christian Religions live and work together with neighbours of other faiths? Why have Islam and It is often said that our age is one of the ATR, the other major religions in increasing materialism, which has Africa, posed a great challenge to resulted in the widening the gap Christianity, denying the claim of between the rich and the poor. This has Christianity to be the final or even the also resulted in a revolt against all highest type of religion? The Christian forms of religion. Sometimes these faith has always claimed that Christian developments are associated with religion is not only superior to all oth- political movements, and politicians ers, but is final and absolute truth for use these occasions for their own ends. all time. This claim has indeed never A combination of politics and religion been admitted by these major religions. produces a compound of immense In 1922, Syed Ameer Ali, in his book dynamic energy. This has been the The Spirit of Islam, maintained that case again and again in the history of every department of the life, teaching the church. A typical example is the and example of Mohammed is superior Reformation period. In Africa we find to that of Jesus Christ.19 S.A.W. many of the non-Christian religions, in Bukhari of the Jamalia Arabic College, alliance with political movements, Madras, writes; ‘Revelation is not the asserting their claims with fresh 21 monopoly of one section of the people vigour. to the exclusion of another. Allah is not They bring a challenge that is both the God of the Jews or Christians or positive and negative. On the one hand Muslims only.’20 they deny the claim of Christianity to In Africa, Islam and ATR are react- be the final or even the highest type of ing to the global transformation that is religion; on the other hand, they invite taking place. The reaction is a mixture Christians to join with them in resist- of anger, incomprehension and violent ing the advance of materialism, unfair hatred—a clash of civilizations in trade, civil wars and ethnic tensions, 22 which Muslims and ATR are seen as and HIV AIDS. the main opponents. This has raised The main tradition of Christendom has always claimed that the Christian religion is not only superior to all oth-

19 E.C. Dewick, The Christian Attitude to Other Religions (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- versity Press, 1953), p. 16. 21 Dewick, The Christian Attitude, p. 13. 20 Dewick, The Christian Attitude, p. 21. 22 Dewick, The Christian Attitude, p. 14. 302 Frank Adams ers, but is final and absolute truth for Hendrik Kraemer’s Exclusivist all time. This claim has, indeed, never Approach been admitted by the adherents of Kraemer, an advocate of exclusivism, other faiths. In 1862, Sir Syed Ahmed says, ‘God has revealed the Way and Khan, founder of Aligarh Muslim Uni- the Life and the Truth in Jesus Christ versity, published a commentary on the and wills this to be known through the Bible at Ghazipur. He commented, ‘We world. That salvation is found only Mohammedans hold that Jesus Christ through the grace of God revealed in is honourable in this world, and in the Christ.’ world to come…. The Apostles of Christ were inspired men…. The Injeel Byang Kato’s Exclusivist Approach (Gospels) are all true and sacred Byang Kato’s starting point is that the records, proceeding primarily from Bible IS God’s Word in its entirety, God.’23 In 1922 Syed Ahmer Ali main- without errors. It is the final authority tained that in every department of life in all that it affirms. He considered the teaching and example of Muham- ‘inerrancy’ so important that he would mad is superior to that of Jesus Christ. not accept infallibility as an adequate Sir Md. Iqbal has affirmed that while description of the trustworthiness of European (Christian) ideas are today the Bible.25 In Kato’s view, the whole hindering the progress of humanity, exercise of exploring other religious Islam alone points the true way of values and ideas and appropriating advance.24 them for a possible contribution to African Christian thought is a denial of Approaches to Religious ‘the sufficiency of the scriptures as the Pluralism in Africa sole authority for faith and practice’. He is of the view that the church in There are three different approaches to Africa is heading towards universal- religious pluralism: Exclusivist, Plu- ism, which he defines as ‘the belief that ralist and Inclusivist all men will eventually be saved whether they believe in Christ now or a) Exclusivist Paradigm. not’. This approach maintains that all peo- He gives reasons why universalism ple have sinned, including members of poses a threat to African Christianity. other religions, and that Christ offers First, he mentions modern mission the only valid way to salvation. agencies. Some American Baptist mis- sionaries have a universalistic view and those who oppose such a view ask why these missionaries should be 23 Dewick, The Christian Attitude, p. 16. Sir allowed to serve on the mission field. Syed was following the example of the great Muslin theologians of the 11th century who in their controversies with the Christians used to appeal to New Testament text. The O.T. in the 25 Byang Kato, Theological Pitfalls in Africa World Church (London) 1942, p. 152. (Kenya: Evangel Publishing House, 1975), p. 24 Dewick, The Christian Attitude, p. 16. 4. Challenges Facing African Christianity in the Post-Modern World 303

Secondly, the new political awareness as Christians that God is the God of in Africa promotes universalism. There universal love, that he is the Creator is a search for political solidarity and and Father of all mankind, that he wills the goal of African Government is to the ultimate good and salvation of all unify all ethnic groups into one nation. men.’28 Hick asks whether such a God ‘Universalism would be an excellent could have ‘ordained that men must be tool for uniting people of different saved in such a way that only a small faiths.’ Thirdly, Africa is searching for minority can in fact receive this salva- personal identity and this makes the tion’? His answer is ‘No’. It is precisely continent prone to syncretism. the doctrine of a God of universal love Fourthly, the reawakening of African that dictates Hick’s answer. The theo- traditional religious thought by some logical argument of the universal African Christian scholars promotes salvific will of God is a fundamental universalism.26 principle of the pluralist approach. Kato agrees to a partial and superfi- Hick has been criticized by many cial method of adaptation of African theologians for abandoning the central Christianity. His viewpoint is that Christian truth of the incarnation of Christians should be willing to adapt Jesus Christ as the only way to salva- African culture to Christianity pro- tion and subverting the distinctiveness vided it does not conflict with scrip- of Christianity.29 But Hick argues that ture. Kato’s understanding of the rela- ‘New Testament scholarship has tionship between other religions and shown how fragmentary and ambigu- the Christian faith is that they consti- ous are the data available to us’, so tute two distinct and discontinuous much so that he has called Jesus ‘the entities. Kato’s viewpoint on the cen- largely unknown man of Nazareth’. trality of the Bible as the starting point Hence, there is not enough historical for doing theology in Africa is his evidence on which to base a claim for important contribution to modern the divinity of Jesus; such evidence as African Christianity. there is shows that the historical Jesus did not make for himself the claims b) The Pluralist Paradigm that the church was later to make for him.30 According to Hick, the attitude John Hick’s Pluralist Approach of Christians to other religions need John Hick adopts the pluralist view, according to which, God is the centre and all religions serve and revolve 28 G. D’Costa, Theology and Religious Plural- around him. Hick’s theological argu- ism, p. 25. ment is based on the affirmation of the 29 Green, M. (ed.) The Truth of God Incarnate 27 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1977), Ch. universal salvific will of God. ‘We say 1,2,4,5.; J. N.D. Anderson, The Mystery of the Incarnation (Downers Grove: Inter-Varsity, 1978), Ch. 3.; J. Lipper, ‘Christians and the uniqueness of Christ’, in Scottish Journal of 26 Kato, Theological Pitfalls, p. 16. Theology, 28 (1976), pp. 359-68. 27 G. D’Costa, Theology and Religious Plural- 30 D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism, ism (Basil Blackwell: Oxford, 1986), p. 25. p. 27. 304 Frank Adams not be characterized by mistrust, tional Religion may be considered desire to convert or superiority, but a as a likely answer to Africa’s search will to learn and grow together for freedom and self-determination towards the truth. •How African Traditional Religion can exist in its own right on equal Osofo Komfo Damuah’s Pluralist terms with other religions within an Approach ecumenical framework. Komfo Damuah began his Christian The most important part of his the- ministry as Roman Catholic priest. He sis was the last chapter ‘The Search for furthered his education in the United a New Synthesis’. He states what he States. Twenty five years after his ordi- considers to be the problem: nation, he left the Catholic Church and The conflict over the meaning of founded the Afrikania Mission and being African runs through all took the name of Osofo Okomfo (fetish African life today—religion, the priest) Kwabena Damuah. While in the arts and popular culture and educa- Roman Catholic ministry he did his tion—so that it is in these areas PhD at Howard University and wrote that many of the crucial struggles on the topic, ‘The changing perspective over Africa’s future in the world are of Wasa Amanfi traditional religion in being decided. When it comes to contemporary Africa’. The focus for religious values, contemporary Damuah’s study was his own people Africa is the battleground of four group in the Wasa Amanfi, which he contending forces: Traditional came to consider as a statement of Religion, Christianity, Islam and divine self-disclosure through the tra- religiously indifferent materialism. ditional religion.31 Damuah also linked The traditional religions seem to be his study to the modern African search everywhere in decline, … There is for independence from the colonial no attempt to capitalise on any spe- rule. He proposed five key statements cific traditional religion. Nowhere for Africa independence, in relation to in Africa is there anything parallel the profundity of African Traditional to the organised pressures for a Religion and how it pervades every return to Hindu theocracy found in aspect of traditional Africa: India, State Shinto in Japan.32 • How this characteristic is ingrained even today in the twentieth century Having isolated traditional religion non-westernised African as the most crucial index of the critical • How Christianity and Islam do not state of African societies, Damuah seem to satisfy adequately Africa’s then sought to show how neither Chris- quest for identity and self-determi- tianity nor Islam seems to satisfy ade- nation quately Africa’s search for identity and • How a reconstructed African Tradi- self-determination. Damuah’s new synthesis is a reconstruction of the tra- ditional religion, which he affirmed as

31 Kwame Bediako, Christianity in Africa: the Renewal of a Non-Western Religion (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1995), p. 24. 32 Bediako, Christianity in Africa, p. 25. Challenges Facing African Christianity in the Post-Modern World 305 being within the divine purpose for c) Inclusive Paradigm Africa and for the world. He states: The Inclusive Paradigm affirms the The time has come when the salvific presence of God in non-Christ- African intellectual must take a ian religions while still maintaining new look and help resuscitate that Christ is the definitive and author- Traditional African Religion so that itative revelation of God. she can take her rightful place in the struggle for liberation and self- Karl Rahner’s Inclusivist Approach determination. The fact that she Rahner maintains that salvation comes has been able to survive despite the only through faith in God through encroachment of Christianity and Christ and again argues the salvific Islam is an indication that there is presence of God in non-Christian reli- something in the tradition, which gions. To hold the two principles in bal- God wants, preserved.33 ance he argues that: The Afrikania mission that Damuah When we have to keep in mind both established seeks to be a ‘universal’ principles together, namely the religion from Africa and from African necessity of Christian faith and the tradition, reaching to the wider world universal salvific will of God’s love with universal vocation. It is tradi- and omnipotence, we can only rec- tional African religion with the aim of oncile them by saying that some- fulfilling the dream of the new Africa. how all men must be capable of ‘It is Africa’s religion of today’s gener- being members of the Church; and ation, but it is open to all, irrespective this capacity must not be under- of race, creed, colour or ideological ori- stood merely in the sense of an entation.’34 abstract and purely logical possibil- The most fundamental challenge of ity, but as a real and historically Damuah and Afrikania to Christianity concrete one.36 in Africa is the issue of identity – in Rahner gives four theses to explain particular, the problem of the identity his position: of Christian Africa. Damuah sums up 1. Christianity understands itself as the challenge Afrikania poses to Chris- the absolute religion, intended for tianity in Africa: all men, which cannot recognize any Mental bondage is mental violence other religion beside itself as of Religious bondage is invisible vio- equal right. Rahner adds a state- lence ment to this thesis by saying that Cultural bondage is cultural suicide the fact that Christianity under- The time for liberation (is) now.35 stands itself as the absolute religion must be balanced by the difficulties involved in discerning ‘when the existentially real demand is made 33 Bediako, Christianity in Africa, p. 27. 34 Bediako, Christianity in Africa, p. 32. 35 K. Damuah, Afrikania Handbook— Reformed African Traditional Religion (Accra: 36 D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism, Afrikania Mission, 1983), back cover. p. 83. 306 Frank Adams

by the absolute religion in its his- the pluralist removal of Christ and torically tangible form’.37 his church from the centre of the 2. The universal salvific will of God universe of faiths and those exclu- revealed in Christ, God’s grace, can sivist who sever the relationship be experienced by non-Christian between Christ and other faiths. religions. He argues that God must somehow offer grace to all those The Lordship of Jesus Christ who have never properly encoun- and Religious Pluralism tered the gospel. The grace of God must be made available through, The Lordship of Christ is one of the and not despite, the non-Christian’s central affirmations of the New Testa- religion. ment. The manner in which it was expressed was developed in the West 3. A non-Christian may have already where religious pluralism was not a big accepted God’s grace in the depths issue. Those of us Africans whose his- of his or her heart by doing good. If tory, tradition, culture, and social rela- a non-Christian has responded posi- tionship are different from those in the tively to God’s grace, through self- West do not find it easy to bear the bur- less love for another, then even den of this heritage. This means that though it is not known objectively, the involvement of African Christians that person has accepted the God in pluralist communities should be that is historically and definitively taken seriously. The divine-human revealed in Christ. God’s salvation encounter in Jesus Christ is the basis cannot be divorced from Christ; for this confession. hence the term ‘anonymous Christ- The obvious mark of a Christian is ian’ is more appropriate than the confession that Jesus Christ is Lord ‘anonymous theist’. (2 Cor. 4:5; Rom. 10:9; Col. 2:6 etc). It 4. The church cannot be seen as an signifies a new relationship of the elite community of those who are believer to Jesus Christ, of commitment saved as opposed to the mass of and loyalty, of surrendering oneself to unredeemed non-Christian human- God and to the one Lord, Jesus Christ. ity. The church is a tangible sign of It is an affirmation that by virtue of his the faith, hope and love made visi- death and resurrection, Jesus Christ ble, present and irreversible in has been exalted above all lords. Christ. The Inclusive approach There are three main points in the affirms that the only possible nor- New Testament that can help in under- mative truth basis for Christians is standing the Lordship of Jesus Christ Christ, while accommodating the in the context of religious pluralism. salvific experience in non-Christian The first is the connection between the religions. The inclusivist challenges confession of Christ’s Lordship and faith in his resurrection. The second is the relation between the exaltation of Jesus Christ as Lord and his humility, 37 D’Costa, Theology and Religious Pluralism, his suffering, his emptying himself, his p. 84. servanthood. The third is the unique Challenges Facing African Christianity in the Post-Modern World 307 combination of the fatherhood of God Christianity is generally viewed by with the Lordship of Jesus Christ.38 Africans as not indigenously This leads us to a major question as African, but rather a white man’s to how Christians can witness to the religion, because as in other Lordship of Jesus Christ as they live ‘pagan’ areas of the world, with neighbours of other faiths. Chris- Christian missionaries often tians should witness to the Lordship of opposed or denigrated traditional Jesus Christ by proclaiming the salva- local customs and institutions: ven- tion of Jesus Christ and being actively eration of ancestors, traditional involved in the struggle for justice. tribal ceremonies and authority 40 Christians should also share with systems, and polygamy… neighbours of other faith that in Jesus Damuah proposed a solution to the Christ the Ultimate has become inti- problem of what he called ‘the great mate with humanity, ‘that nowhere dilemma facing Africans today’ by call- else is the victory over suffering and ing for a ‘new synthesis’, a reconstruc- death manifested so decisively as in tion of the traditional religion which he the death and resurrection of Jesus considers as the divine purpose for Christ’.39 Africa and for the world. He mentions in the Afrikania handbook what the movement wants to achieve: 4. African Christianity and It is not a new religion. It is a tra- Afrikania Movement ditional African Religion ‘come Christianity is universal, so the partic- alive’, reformed and updated. ularity of African Christianity should Afrikania is here not to destroy but provide a contribution to the universal to fulfil the dream of a new Africa. church. This contribution will defuse It is Africa’s religion of today’s the Afrikania claim that what Africa generation, but it is open to all, needs is African Traditional Religion irrespective of race, creed, colour 41 as an alternate to Christianity. The fol- or ideological orientation. lowing statements of Komfo Damuah Perhaps the most fundamental chal- confirm the challenge the movement lenge Afrikania poses to Christianity in poses to the church. His fundamental Africa is the question of cultural iden- problem with Christianity in Africa is tity: the question of Ghanaian Christ- stated in this way: ian identity. Bediako has raised the fol- lowing questions that need further research. Have churches in Africa, especially the mainline churches, ade- 38 S.J. Samartha, ‘The Lordship of Jesus quately indigenised the Christian Christ and Religious Pluralism’ in G.H. Ander- gospel by making full use of the poten- son, and T.F. Stransky (eds.), Christ’s Lordship and Religious Pluralism (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1981), pp. 19-24. 39 G.H. Anderson, and T.F. Stransky (eds.), 40 Bediako, Christianity in Africa (Edinburgh: Christ’s Lordship and Religious Pluralism Orbis Books, 1995), p. 26. (Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1981), p. 36. 41 Bediako, Christianity in Africa, p. 32. 308 Frank Adams tial elements of faith rooted in our tra- shaped by Africa’s past.’42 As Bediako ditional religions? Does Africanisation rightly mentioned, ‘No Christian theol- of the church hierarchy, leadership and ogy in any age is ever simply a repeti- the ordained ministry amount to an tion of the inherited Christian tradi- adequate rooting of the faith in a com- tion; all Christian theology is an “adap- munity? tation” of the gospel.’ This study has shown that Chris- tianity takes shape in the local setting Conclusion and within the history of the people African Christianity can evolve only concerned. The Christian message is out of the interaction of the gospel of one and unchangeable, but the people Jesus Christ with the cultural experi- employ their worldviews and the total- ence of the people. Christianity has ity of their being to understand the always been incarnate within a cul- message of Jesus Christ, to make it rel- ture—first Hebrew, then Greek, then evant to their daily life. Roman, Western and African. Andrew Walls argues that ‘the principal evi- 42 A. Walls, ‘African Christianity in the his- dence of the ongoing life of traditional tory of religion’ in C. Fyfe and A. Walls (eds), African religion lies within African Christianity in Africa in the 1990s (Edinburgh: Christianity…. African Christianity is Edinburgh University Press, 1996), p. 4.

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Paternoster, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT (2005) 29:4, 309-330 Evangelism, Theology and the Church

Thorsten Prill

KEYWORDS: Models of evangelism, congregation or a national church German Protestant Church, theolo- body, which deeply impacts the evan- gies of evangelism, conversion, evan- gelistic strategies, the church chooses. gelists, social action, theological edu- Consequently, any church that is com- cation mitted to evangelism, needs to have a clear understanding of its theology of evangelism. TO THE SUCCESSFUL 19th century Ameri- can evangelist D. L. Moody one woman said that she did not like his method of Models of Evangelism evangelism. Moody replied, ‘I agree At the heart of every theology of evan- with you. I don’t like the way I do it, gelism lies a certain basic model or def- either. Tell me, how do you do it?’ The inition of evangelism. When we turn to woman replied, ‘I don’t.’ Moody the Bible to look for the terms evange- retorted, ‘Then I like my way of doing lism or evangelisation we face a it better than your way of not doing it.’ dilemma. Neither terms appears in the This well-known story suggests Bible nor is there a clear cut definition that evangelism is a pragmatic hands- of what they mean. What we do find in on business. Whilst it is true that there the New Testament are the verb is the danger of too much talking (and evanggelizesthai and the nouns evangge- writing!) about evangelism and not lion and evanggelistes. Evanggelion is enough evangelism itself, one must not unusually translated ‘Gospel’ (i.e. overlook the fact that evangelistic good message or good news), but it can practice and attitudes are determined also describe the activity of proclaim- not only by the gifts, limitations and ing or announcing that good news. The the commitment of an evangelist, but verb form, likewise, refers to the activ- also by theology. It is the theology of ity of telling the gospel. The term evangelism of a church, that of a local evanggelistes derives from the verb

Thorsten Prill is Assistant Pastor of the German-speaking Synod of Lutheran, Reformed and United Congregations in Great Britain (Midlands District), and International Chaplain at the University of Nottingham. He studied theology at St John’s College Nottingham and Cliff College, Calver, Sheffield, and holds a Master of Theology degree (British Open University), Certificate in Theology and Ministry (University of Nottingham), and Postgraduate Diploma in Leadership, Renewal and Mission Studies (University of Sheffield). He is currently studying for a Doctor of Theology degree with the University of South Africa. He has published articles on evangelism and postmodernity and children’s evangelism. 310 Thorsten Prill evanggelizesthai and means literally and imparting information to the messenger of good. mind…It is communication with a view When we look at the use of these to conversion…It is an attempt to gain, words in the New Testament, it or win, or catch, our fellow-men for becomes clear that evangelism must be Christ.’2 closely linked with the proclamation of An obvious strength of this model is the gospel. However, it should not sur- its emphasis on sharing the good news prise us that different models of evan- of Jesus Christ and on the necessity of gelism have been construed which conversion and personal faith in Christ. more or less take into account the Thus, the apostle Paul underlines the proclamation aspect and claim to be idea that ‘faith comes from hearing the truly biblical. There are many such message’ (Rom. 10:17), and that turn- models, but the following are probably ing to Jesus in faith is the only prereq- the most prominent ones. uisite of salvation (Acts 16:31). Also, the proclamation model helps to deter- Proclamation Model mine if evangelism is actually taking place or not by examining if the gospel The traditional Protestant model of is preached or taught. Last but not evangelism is the proclamation model. least, the proclamation model seeks to The reformed Anglican theologian J.I. do justice to the available biblical Packer, a prominent contemporary material on evangelism. exponent of this approach, writes: A weakness of the proclamation ‘…evangelism is just preaching the model is its view of the aim of evange- gospel, the evangel. It is a work of com- lism. It is arguable whether conver- munications in which Christians make sion, i.e. turning to Christ in faith, is themselves mouthpieces of God’s mes- really the ultimate aim of evangelism. 1 sage of mercy to sinners.’ This trans- The great commission in Matthew mission of the message can be 28:18-20, which is generally regarded achieved through formal preaching and as a mandate for evangelism, does not teaching in a church environment but speak of converts but of disciples also in personal contacts. For the many (mathetes), i.e. learners or followers. supporters of this model, which S.J. Grenz argues that this is in line equates evangelism with verbal gospel with Jesus’ practice as it is presented proclamation, the ultimate aim of evan- by the gospel writers: Jesus expected gelism is conversion to faith in Jesus more from people than mere confes- Christ. By taking the ministry of the sions. He called people to become his apostle Paul as an example that Chris- disciples, even if this was costly.3 Con- tians should follow, Packer concludes: sequently, it would be more appropri- ‘Evangelizing, therefore, is not simply a matter of teaching, and instructing,

2 Packer, Evangelism and the Sovereignty of God, p. 50. 1 James I. Packer, Evangelism and the Sov- 3 Stanley J. Grenz, Theology for the Commu- ereignty of God (London: Inter-Varsity Fellow- nity of God (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, ship, 1961), p. 41. 1994), p. 656. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 311 ate to understand the ultimate aim of ings, prophecies and exorcisms.6 Their evangelism as making disciples, who main function is to help people to over- are determined to become more like come their resistance and thus to make Jesus (Lk. 6:40, Rom. 8:29), to serve them more receptive to the Christian one another (Mk. 10:35-45) and to message.7 make more disciples of Christ (Mt. The strength of power evangelism is 28:18-20). its emphasis on the work of the Holy In Transforming Mission D. Bosch Spirit. It is undoubtedly true, that writes that the whole Gospel according Christians must reckon with the work to Matthew points to the final verses of of the Holy Spirit when they share the the Great Commission. These verses gospel with non-Christians. Such an are a kind of theological programme or attitude guards them against a purely summary of the teaching that is con- technocratic approach to evangelism. tained in this gospel. Because of this, Besides this strength there are also Matthew 28:19-20 must not be taken significant weaknesses. Firstly, there out of context and thus be degraded to is the underlying kingdom theology, a mere slogan.4 These verses must be which overemphasizes the conflict interpreted in the light of the whole between the kingdom of God and gospel, but especially in the light of the Satan. Power evangelism views all ethical teachings that can be found in physical and psychological illness as the Sermon on the Mount (Mt. 5-7).5 caused by Satan. It leaves little room Consequently, the process of disciple- for the personal responsibility that making also involves the teaching of human beings have for their health. It kingdom values such as justice, peace forgets that sickness is part of human and righteousness. life, or, as the apostle Paul writes, that our bodies are perishable (1 Cor. Power Model 15:42). Secondly, there is no proof from the New Testament that Jesus’ The model of power evangelism goes main ministry was power evangelism back to the American pastor John Wim- and that he expected the church to get ber, who argues that Jesus himself involved in it. It is true that Jesus per- exercised power evangelism, and formed miraculous healings and that therefore it is a model which Christians healing is an important part of the must follow. Wimber defines power church’s ministry, but as L. Newbigin evangelism as a highly effective evan- writes, Jesus’ calling was ‘to the way of gelistic method, in which the verbal suffering, rejection, and death, to the proclamation of the gospel is accompa- way of the cross.’8 Newbigin goes on to nied by supernatural signs and won- say that Jesus bore witness ‘to the ders. These signs and wonders include words of knowledge, physical heal-

6 John Wimber, Power Evangelism (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1990), p. 46. 4 David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission 7 Wimber, Power Evangelism, pp. 46-47. (New York: Orbis Books, 1991), p. 57. 8 Newbigin L, The Open Secret (Grand 5 Bosch, Transforming Mission, p. 69. Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983), p. 37. 312 Thorsten Prill presence of the reign of God, not by its obligations…when in reality it has overpowering the forces of evil, but by reduced evangelism to acts of mercy.’10 taking full weight upon himself.’9 For In other words, there is the danger that his disciples Jesus is more than a the verbal proclamation of the gospel is model of divine power. He is the model neglected. But verbal proclamation is of coping with the hardships of life. essential, since social action and per- How else can we understand Jesus’ sonal lifestyle alone cannot communi- remark in Matthew 16:24: ‘If any want cate the content of the good news. to become my followers, let them deny They must be accompanied by appro- themselves and take up their cross and priate explanation. follow me.’? Social Action Model Witness Model Related to the witness model is the The witness model defines evangelism social action approach. The basic idea as anything Christians do in order to of the social action model is that Chris- bear witness to their faith. This may tians respond to human needs and thus include the verbal proclamation of the demonstrate God’s love. This demon- gospel in public or privately, but it stration of God’s love by human deeds focuses on the way Christians live, i.e. will then lead to a positive response to their lifestyle, and the socio-political Christianity.11 This model has its roots involvement of individuals or the in the social gospel movement, which church. All these activities qualify as developed at the end of the 19th cen- evangelistic witness as long as they tury in the USA. One of its most promi- are done out of commitment to Jesus nent exponents was the Baptist the- Christ. Consequently, every Christian ologian, Walter Rauschenbusch. is an evangelist, whether he or she is Rauschenbusch regards social and aware of it or not. political power as sin.12 Since capital- A great strength of the witness ism is based on these powers it must be model is that it underlines the holistic considered as a sinful system. There- character of the church’s mission. Fur- fore, the largest evangelistic task of thermore, it stresses that evangelism the Christian Church and of every sin- should form an integral part of the gle Christian is to convince people of Christian life. On the other hand, this this sinfulness and to awaken the definition of evangelism seems to be desire in them to save the community too broad. W. J. Abraham comments: ‘If everything we do is an act of witness, and every act of witness is a form of evangelism, then everything we do is 10 William J. Abraham, The Art of Evangelism (Calver: Cliff College Publishing, 1993), p. 25. evangelism. This invariably allows us 11 Douglas Webster, What is Evangelism? to pretend that the church has fulfilled (London: Highway Press, 1959), p. 147. 12 Walter Rauschenbusch, A Theology for the Social Gospel, first published 1917, (Louisville: Westminster John Knox Press, 9 Newbigin, The Open Secret, p. 37. 1997), pp. 45-50. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 313 from it. This salvation can be reached and sociological and anthropological only by an intensive act of love, i.e. a insights. Christian A. Schwartz, a con- collective action of the community to temporary German church growth the- change the economic order.13 ologian, identifies eight qualities, The action model is based on a com- which show a strong correlation with pletely horizontal understanding of the numerical growth of a church. salvation. Salvation is perceived as the These characteristic qualities are: an liberation from unjust social and eco- empowering leadership, a gift-orien- nomic orders that oppress people. tated ministry, a passionate spiritual- There is no idea of salvation that was ity, functional structures, inspiring accomplished by Jesus’ death on the worship services, holistic small cross. There is no idea of salvation as groups, need-orientated evangelism reconciliation with God (2 Cor. 5:18- and loving relationships.16 Schwarz 21) or as redemption from personal sin speaks of a natural church develop- (Rom. 8:3, Col. 1:13-14). Sin is mainly ment, which he defines as ‘releasing understood as structural sin. There- the growth automatisms by which God fore, the subjective basis of salvation, himself grows his church’.17 i.e. personal repentance, conversion One of the great strengths of the and faith, play only a minor role in this church growth model is that it empha- approach and are even considered with sizes the importance of discipleship 14 some kind of suspicion. For and the need of cultural sensitivity. Rauschenbusch the touchstone of Evangelism is considered to be more Christian regeneration and personal than verbal gospel proclamation. It is salvation is a high social conscious- also seen as equipping and establish- ness and not personal faith in a per- ing new Christians in a particular cul- 15 sonal saviour. ture. The great danger of this model is that numerical growth becomes the Church Growth Model primary goal of the church. Also, it can According to the church growth model, foster the belief in human principles which was first construed by Donald A. and thus reduce ‘the role of the Holy McGavran, evangelism must have its Spirit to that of a sociological care- focus on the growth of local churches. taker’.18 This growth of churches can be achieved by following certain princi- ples, which are based on biblical truths

16 Christian A. Schwarz, Natural Church Development Handbook (Moggenhanger: 13 Walter Rauschenbusch, ‘Christianizing BCGA, 1998), pp. 22-36. the Social Order’, in John Atherton, ed., Social 17 Schwarz, Natural Church Development Christianity (London: SPCK, 1994), p. 181. Handbook, p. 21. 14 Rauschenbusch, A Theology for the Social 18 A. Scott Moreau, ‘Church Growth Move- Gospel, pp. 96-100. ment’, in Walter A. Elwell, ed, Evangelical Dic- 15 Rauschenbusch, A Theology for the Social tionary of Theology (Grand Rapids: Baker Aca- Gospel, p. 108. demic, 2001), p. 260. 314 Thorsten Prill

Initiation Model emphasis on the kingdom it empha- Having examined the strengths and sizes that evangelism is a Christ-cen- weaknesses of the main evangelistic tred activity. Another strength, espe- models, the Methodist theologian W. J. cially from a postmodern, post-Christ- Abraham argues that evangelism ian western perspective, is the idea of should be construed as the initiation a revived catechumenate, which deals into the kingdom of God. Abraham sees with all the activities of the evangelism process. However, the initiation model evangelism as a variety of actions, leaves an important question unan- which all share the intention of initiat- swered: How can the church make con- ing people into God’s reign.19 Among tact with those catechumenate candi- these actions are the proclamation of dates who have no church links in the the good news of the kingdom, the call first place? to repent and to believe in Jesus Christ, a basic teaching of Christian theology and Christian moral tradition, the act Evangelism in the German of baptism as a prerequisite for full par- Protestant Church ticipation in a Christian community, as well as the equipment of new Chris- tians to serve God in the church and the The (Re-) Discovery of Mission world by helping them to discover and A good example of how much theology to develop their spiritual gifts.20 As the impacts evangelistic attitudes and main agent for such a process of initia- practice of a church can be seen in Ger- tion Abraham calls for a new form of many. It is the example of a church that catechumenate.21 has only recently (re-) discovered its The initiation model seeks to do jus- evangelistic task. tice to the limitations and weaknesses In November 1999 the synodical of other prominent models of evange- meeting of the Protestant Church in lism. Thus, it takes into account that Germany (EKD), a community of then the Great Commission in Matthew 28 twenty-four Lutheran, Reformed, and actually speaks of disciples, baptism United regional churches, took place in and instruction. Furthermore, it pays the East German city of Leipzig. The tribute to the fact that the ‘kingdom of theme of the EKD synod was ‘To Tell God/kingdom of heaven’ is the central the World About God—The Task for theme of Jesus’ teaching. Also, it rec- the Mission of the Church at the ognizes that the church and the king- Threshold of the Third Millennium’. It dom of God are not identical. With the was the first time ever that the EKD synod had discussed the missionary task of the church in depth. At the close of the meeting the Synod made a 19 William J. Abraham, The Logic of Evange- public declaration, calling upon all con- (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001), p. 103. lism gregations, full-time church workers 20 Abraham, The Logic of Evangelism, pp. 104-105. and the laity to remember the mission- 21 Abraham, The logic of Evangelism, pp. 174- 179. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 315 ary task of the Christian church.22 lisation campaign, which is held every Members of the evangelical camp three years. For eight days evangelis- within the EKD regarded the outcome tic programmes, which consist of of the Leipzig synod as a kind of dawn music, interviews, drama and a ser- of a new era. One well-known evangel- mon, are transmitted from a main ical even spoke of a miracle, which had venue live via satellite to locations in happened at Leipzig.23 The positive Germany and other European coun- reaction of some people to the Leipzig tries. At the local level, churches and synod is understandable. In the past para-church groups organize specific the areas of mission and evangelism supporting programmes, but the cen- were fairly neglected by the German tral part of the programme comes from Protestant Church as a whole. Evange- the main site. ProChrist 2003 was lism was basically regarded as the min- transmitted to more than 1,300 loca- istry of evangelical Christians. Today, tions and attended by 1.8 million peo- several years later, the question is ple. The organisers claim that about whether the positive response to the 30,000 people came forward to make a Leipzig synod and its effect for mission commitment of faith in Christ or and evangelism in the regional expressed an interest in the Christian churches were justified. faith. Altogether, 3,712 German churches and groups were involved. Among these were 1,898 free churches Evangelism and Proclamation and 816 EKD congregations. In addi- A good indicator for the role evange- tion to that, 706 congregations and lism plays in the EKD regional youth groups of the Gnadau Union, the churches today is the use of three high- largest evangelical movement within profile contemporary evangelistic the EKD, took part.24 In other words, strategies, which are recognized and 22% of the groups involved were parish recommended by national and regional churches belonging to one of the 24 Protestant church leaders. These EKD regional churches, whilst 51% strategies are ProChrist, Willow Creek were free churches. and Alpha. At the heart of the Willow Creek ProChrist is a classic mass evange- concept are seeker-friendly or sensi- tive services, which are aimed at so- called unchurched people. These ser- vices avoid traditional elements such 22 Kundgebung der 9. Synode der Evangelis- chen Kirche in Deutschland auf ihrer as hymnbooks or clerical robes. 4.Tagung zum Schwerpunktthema ‘Reden von Instead, they are characterised by an Gott in der Welt—Der missionarische Auftrag extensive use of modern technology der Kirche an der Schwelle zum 3. (e.g. video clips), songs, which are Jahrtausend’, published in Das Evangelium modelled on popular music, as well as unter die Leute bringen (Hannover: Kirchenamt der EKD, 2001), pp. 42-50 (p.42). 23 Hartmut Bärend, Worte von oben in der Praxis vor Ort—AMD Studienbrief A60 24 ProChrist e.V., (ed.) Berichtsheft (Stuttgart: Arbeitsgemeinschaft Missionar- Unglaublich. Lesen und Staunen (Kassel: ische Dienste, 2000), p. 2. ProChrist, 2003), pp. 15-21. 316 Thorsten Prill messages, that show a high grade of known evangelistic initiatives shows application. To promote this specific that the number of EKD parishes which approach Willow Creek Community use these strategies are very small. Church, Chicago has spawned a global Willow Creek, Alpha and ProChrist are network of churches from many differ- more or less dominated by evangelical ent denominations. In addition, it holds and charismatic free churches, which regular conferences and seminars. The represent only 900,000 people or 1,5% first German conference took place in of all church members in Germany. For Hamburg in 1996. Since then the num- the majority of EKD churches with a ber of participants has grown con- total membership of 26.2 million, Wil- stantly. At the last church conference low Creek, Alpha, and ProChrist are (together with Alpha Germany) in apparently not evangelistic methods 2003 28% of all conference partici- they are willing to use. This raises the pants were affiliated with EKD question of what kind of evangelistic parishes while14% belonged to the strategies there are in the Protestant Gnadau Union and 57% were members churches. of free churches.25 In the Willow Creek Association Germany 70% of its 188 partner churches are free churches and Evangelism and Social Action 22% are EKD congregations.26 To find out more about the evangelistic Alpha, is a process evangelism situation at grassroots level a closer course, which is used in more than look at the Protestant congregations in 23,000 churches around the world. the Rhineland can be helpful. With Whereas in the United Kingdom there three million members, the Protestant are currently Alpha courses running in Church in the Rhineland is not only one 7,215 congregations,27 the number of of the largest regional churches but it German churches registered with is also one that has been encouraged by Alpha is relatively small. In January the Leipzig Synod to take mission and 2004 there are 784 churches and evangelism seriously. The analysis of a groups registered with Alpha Ger- questionnaire on the understanding of many. 67% of these churches and mission and evangelism, which was groups are Baptist, Methodist, or Pen- distributed among Rhenish pastors tecostal free churches, and only 16% has led to the following results29: belong to the EKD.28 The survey of these three well- 29 In 2003 I constructed a written question- naire to survey the understanding of mission and evangelism in selected congregations of 25 ‘Kongress-Statistik’, WillowNetz 4/2003, the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland. It p. 30. was sent to 100 incumbent pastors, and 26 Willow Creek Deutschland, , accessed 17th tors’ views on the Leipzig Synod and their atti- January 2004 tude towards contemporary forms of evange- 27 Alpha News (March-June 2003), p. 31. lism and mission and mission training offered 28 Alpha Deutschland, , accessed 17th gelical Church in the Rhineland had 817 January 2004 parishes and 1,491 incumbent pastors. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 317

46% of the pastors asked believe missionary task of the church as a pri- that the Leipzig synod has had positive ority, the results are slightly different. effects on the missionary work of the None of these pastors considers Alpha twenty four regional EKD churches. or ProChrist as suitable strategies. The majority of these ministers think Among those who agree that mission is that the Leipzig synod has helped to the priority of the church, 28% think of put mission on the church’s agenda. Alpha, and 24% of ProChrist as appro- The term ‘mission’, as one pastor puts priate ways to evangelise, while 28% it, has lost its ‘negative flavour’. 54% believe in mission weeks. Only 45% of the pastors do not see any clear pos- regard social action as an important itive effects of the Leipzig meeting. part of mission. 49% do not agree with the statement by the synod that ‘the Protestant Evangelism and Theological church sets the theme of faith and the missionary calling in first place’. Training Instead, they see the following areas Regarding the training of EKD minis- as at least of equal importance: ter,s the Declaration of the 1999 finances, church structures, diaconical Leipzig synod states: ‘We urgently and social work, peace, justice, envi- need to give mission training new ronmental issues, pastoral care, unem- impetus. This is true not only for spe- ployment and homosexuality. One pas- cial mission training centres but also tor even says that he is against any for basic and further vocational train- specific evangelistic work by the ing of our ministers at the theological church. The way Christians live, he faculties and the preaching seminar- argues, has either positive or negative ies.’30 A survey of the twenty two uni- effects on others. versity departments and church facul- When asked about particular evan- ties in Germany at which EKD ordi- gelistic strategies, 83% name social nands receive their academic training projects and services, such as second- reveals that a chair of evangelism stud- hand shops, homeless ministries, ies does not exist at any of the depart- advice bureau for people in need or hos- ments. At five universities there are pital chaplaincies, as appropriate evan- chairs of practical theology, that are gelistic tools. 65% think that so-called supposed to cover studies in ‘Gemein- ‘Kircheneintrittsstellen’ and Protes- deaufbau’. At the University of Greif- tant academies are useful. 50% con- swald the launch of an institute for the sider bookshops and cafés run by con- research into evangelism is planned for gregations as good methods of evange- April 2004. lism. Only 12% believe in church plant- An analysis of the syllabus of the ing and 13% think of ProChrist as an twenty two theology departments for adequate method. 17% find the Alpha the years 2002 and 2003 has led to the course to be helpful. Concerts, festi- following results: At six universities vals and church choirs are named by 44% and mission weeks by 15%. When we look at the answers of 30 Kundgebung (Hannover: Kirchenamt der those pastors who do not regard the EKD, 2001), p. 47. 318 Thorsten Prill lectures or seminars in evangelism or clearly aim to evoke personal faith in ‘Gemeindeaufbau’ were part of the cur- Jesus Christ, such as seeker services, riculum.31 At the three Rhenish theol- evangelistic courses, or evangelistic ogy departments that train ordinands campaigns play only a minor role. The for the ministry in the Protestant main emphasis is still on social action. Church in the Rhineland, evangelism Also, one can still see a kind of Con- studies or ‘Gemeindeaufbau’ respec- stantinian state-church mentality tively are more or less non-existent. At among the majority of pastors. Mission the University of Bonn there has not and evangelism are understood as been a single lecture or seminar in this inviting people to join the church by field for the last five years. Instead, contacting a ‘Kircheneintrittsstelle’, a students at Bonn have had the oppor- kind of church recruitment office, tunity to attend 17 seminars or lec- which gives advice about the formal tures in diaconical studies since 1998. steps one needs to take if one wants to become a church member. Further- Evaluation: Evangelism—a more, the laity seems to play a minor Grassroots Ministry!? role in evangelism. Evangelism is seen, if at all, as the responsibility of the The results of the surveys seem to con- ordained clergy. firm K. Schäfer’s evaluation that mis- sion ‘has reappeared as a central term The surveys show that a fresh in the vocabulary of the Protestant understanding of mission and evange- churches’.32 The term ‘mission’ is no lism at leadership level does not nec- longer disregarded among the majority essarily cause local congregations to of the clergy, but it is questionable make evangelism a priority. Schäfer whether this is true for the term ‘evan- rightly underlines that ‘missionary gelism’, too. According to Schäfer the renewal has never come from the top 34 churches have rediscovered the ‘evan- but from the bottom’. He goes on to gelistic dimension of mission’,33 i.e. the say that it is not clear how church lead- necessity to invite people to a living ers can help the whole people of God to faith in Christ. While this may be right rediscover their role as witnesses for 35 for some of the national and regional the Christian gospel. church leaders, the survey shows that The surveys show that this problem, willingness to get involved in evange- which Schäfer identifies, is more than lism at grassroots level is still very a question of the right strategies and low. initiatives, i.e. a purely practical issue. Evangelistic strategies which The issue is also a highly theological one. Schäfer seems to recognize this by saying that there are two camps: those 31 Erlangen, Greifswald, Halle, Jena, who pursue a secular mission through Leipzig, and Tü bingen. political and social action, and those 32 Klaus Schäfer, ‘Mission in Secular and Postmodern Societies: The Example of Ger- many’, International Review of Mission, No. 364, (January 2003), pp. 40-44 (p.40). 34 Schäfer, ‘Mission’, p. 42. 33 Schäfer, ‘Mission’, p. 40. 35 Schäfer, ‘Mission’, p. 42. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 319 who understand mission as inviting those who are converted join the poor people to join the church.36 in the community of the messiah, i.e. As a matter of fact, the problem is the church.38 Furthermore, he stresses more complex than that. There are the horizontal dimension of conversion basically three main groups, who hold and neglects the vertical aspect. ‘Con- different views of evangelism, which version’, he writes means to ‘… turn are more or less rooted in Scripture. All from violence to justice, from isolation these views are, to some extent, to community, from death to life’.39 reflecting the theologies of evangelism For Moltmann the gospel is the of influential German theologians. gospel of the kingdom, i.e. ‘the gospel of the liberation of the people’.40 In The Future of Creation he writes that this Secular ‘Evangelism’ and the liberation includes liberation from eco- Gospel of Liberation nomic exploitation, political oppres- Firstly, there are undoubtedly those sion, alienation between human who understand mission and evange- beings, destruction of the environment lism in an almost secular way. They and human apathy.41 He even claims emphasise kingdom values such as that social and political action groups social justice and peace but pay no real can find their way into the community attention to the personal dimension of of Christ through mere cooperation mission. Their model of evangelism is with Christian congregations.42 If this basically a social action model. For is true, there is no real need to call peo- them the Christian gospel is the good ple to faith in Christ. Moltmann over- news of liberation from political and looks the fact that the New Testament social oppression. They are in danger, also speaks of personal sin and the as Abraham writes, of reducing evan- need for forgiveness regardless of peo- gelism ‘to acts of moralistic witness ples’ social standing (e.g. Rom. 3:23). which are orphaned from the lights and It looks as if Moltmann in his attempt powers of the Holy Spirit’.37 They fail to to show the social dimension of mis- see that God’s kingdom cannot be sion has fallen into the trap of neglect- established by human endeavour. ing the individual side of faith. Stephen A contemporary German theologian Williams expresses this quite clearly who has fostered this view of evange- when he writes: ‘The importance of lism is Jürgen Moltmann, who restricts attaining faith in Christ in this world, the call of conversion to the rich and reiterated in the New Testament, is influential of society. Referring to the beatitudes in Matthew and Luke, he argues that there is no need for the 38 Jürgen Moltmann, The Way of Jesus Christ poor to be converted since God’s king- (London: SCM Press, 1990), pp. 102-103. dom already belongs to them, while all 39 Moltmann, The Way of Jesus Christ, p. 102. 40 Moltmann, The Way of Jesus Christ, p. 96. 41 Jürgen Moltmann, The Future of Creation (London: SCM Press, 1979), p. 110. 36 Schäfer, ‘Mission’, p. 42. 42 Jürgen Moltmann, The Spirit of Life (Lon- 37 Abraham, The Art of Evangelism, p. 35. don: SCM Press, 1992), pp. 242-243. 320 Thorsten Prill scarcely given its due place in Molt- ple to find one’s self.44 The ultimate mann’s theology.’43 goal of evangelism is the transforma- tion of ‘the subjectivity of the lis- 45 Growth ‘Evangelism’: Church tener’. In other words, evangelism helps people to overcome their Membership without estrangement from themselves. Commitment Tillich’s gospel is an existentialist Secondly, there are those who stress gospel. The concept of inviting people the importance of infant baptism, to repent and to believe in Jesus Christ church membership and community, as their Lord and Saviour is strange to but seem to be less interested in the Tillich. This becomes clear when he spiritual side of evangelism. They fol- writes that there is no universal Chris- low a kind of secular church growth or tian message and that ‘it is the silent witness model. They welcome evange- witness of the community of faith and listic initiatives, which lead people into love which convinces the questioner’.46 the church or make them stay. Evan- Tillich rejects strongly the idea of con- gelistic tools, which call upon people to version and salvation through faith in believe in Jesus Christ, are either Christ alone. refused by them or accepted only It is Tillich’s unorthodox view of the because they are seen as useful meth- person of Jesus Christ, which is basi- ods against a further decline in church cally an adoptionist position, that membership. They are in danger of con- causes him to understand evangelism centrating on numbers and human fel- in such a limited way. Tillich distin- lowship regardless of whether or not guishes between the historical person people are really committed to Jesus of Jesus of Nazareth and the Christ who Christ. brings the New Being. While the per- Much of this can be found in Paul son Jesus was received as the Christ, Tillich’s theology of evangelism. he is not the subject of faith. The mean- Tillich argues that evangelism, which ing of Jesus, as A.E. McGrath puts it, consists of apologetics and evangelis- ‘lies in his being the historical mani- tic preaching, belongs to the so-called festation of the New Being’.47 For church functions of expansion. As such Tillich, this manifestation could have it mainly serves two purposes. The happened in any other human being.48 first purpose is self-preservation. Evangelism, Tillich writes, must be cultivated to prevent churches from diminishing in extension. The second purpose of evangelism is helping peo- 44 Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology, 3 vols (London: SCM Press, 1978) vol.3, p. 194-196. 45 Tillich, Systematic Theology, p. 196. 46 Tillich, Systematic Theology, p. 195. 43 Stephen Williams, ‘Jürgen Moltmann: A 47 Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology Critical Introduction’ (Duce Philip and Daniel (Oxford: Blackwell,1998), p. 346. Strange, (eds.) Getting Your Bearings (Leices- 48 Paul Tillich, Systematic Theology, 3 vols ter: Apollos, 2003), p. 107. (London: SCM Press, 1987) vol.2, p. 114. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 321

Proclamation Evangelism: that the mission of the church is the Evangelism as Mere Gospel mission of Jesus Christ who sends her Communication and commands all believers to be his messengers.50 The final goal of all mis- Finally, there are those, who adhere to sionary activity, Jüngel argues, ‘is to the proclamation model of evangelism. help people to the knowledge of Jesus For them the christological character Christ, and that means knowledge of a of the gospel is central. They stress the truth that sets them free’.51 importance of proclaiming the good news of Jesus Christ, conversion, sal- vation, a personal relationship with Towards a Biblical Theology God and church membership. They also acknowledge the role of baptism of Evangelism and discipling (personal prayer, devo- The German example shows that peo- tions, etc.), but do not understand ple who belong to the same church can these as being part of the evangelistic use the same terminology without process. The teaching of the intellec- actually meaning the same thing. In tual heritage of the Christian faith, as such a situation it less helpful to state, it can be found in the creeds or the as German church leaders have done, denominational confessions of faith, is that liberal and evangelical groupings less important to them. The same is in the church are equally committed to true for the teaching of kingdom val- mission and evangelism, when in fact ues. Like the other groupings, they these groups have totally contradic- tend to ignore the teaching of spiritual tory views in these areas. gifts. They are in danger of forgetting The situation in Germany makes that ‘salvation is made present in the clear how important it is for every acts of the Holy Spirit carried out church to develop a theology of evan- through the agents of the kingdom who gelism, which is faithful to biblical are grafted into the body of Christ’. truths, principles and concepts. Like In his introductory lecture given at every theology it will be shaped by the Leipzig synodical meeting, Eber- many different aspects. It will be hard Jüngel promotes such a proclama- shaped by its understanding of God, tion model of evangelism. Referring to the kingdom of God, the church of the biblical meaning of the terms ‘mis- Christ, the gospel, salvation and con- sion’ and ‘evangelism’, he says: ‘Missio version, as well as its attitude towards means sending and evangelising sim- culture. Since it would go beyond the ply means proclaiming the evangel, the scope of this article to look at all these gospel. Missio happens for the sake of aspects I will focus on four areas, evaggelizesthai, which in turn happens which are crucial for any theology of because of mission.’49 He goes on to say evangelism that deserves the attribute ‘biblical’.

49 Eberhard Jüngel, ‘To Tell The World About God’, International Review of Mission, 50 Jüngel, ‘To Tell The World’, p. 238. No.353 (April 2000), pp. 203-216 (p. 207). 51 Jüngel, ‘To Tell The World’ p. 239. 322 Thorsten Prill

The Gospel of Jesus and the wants to set us free from political and Gospel of the Kingdom economic oppression, while for the supporters of an existentialist theol- As discussed earlier, the verbal procla- ogy the gospel tells us that we can mation of the gospel plays a central overcome the estrangement from our- role in evangelism. But what is the selves. gospel, what is its content? For the The New Testament actually advocates of the prosperity gospel52 the speaks about the ‘Gospel of Jesus good news of the Christian faith is that Christ’ (e.g. Mk. 1:1) and the ‘Gospel of people who put their trust in Jesus the Kingdom’ (e.g. Mt. 4:23), but it Christ and give to the church gener- would be wrong to interpret these ously will be blessed by God through terms in such a way as to infer that health and wealth. For liberation the- there are two different kinds of good ologians the good news is that God news. The Gospel writers leave us with no doubt that the good news of the kingdom of God, i.e. of God’s reign, is 52 At the heart of prosperity or word of faith theology, which has its roots in Latin and centred on Jesus Christ. The kingdom North American Pentecostal circles, lies the of God finds its expression in Jesus’ conviction that God blesses people not only deeds (e.g. Lk. 11:20), through Jesus’ spiritually but also materially and physically teaching (e.g. Mt. 18:3-4), and last but when they trust him and show obedience to not least in the person of Jesus (e.g. Lk. him. Often generous financial support of those 17:20-21). To receive or to enter the who deliver this good news of prosperity is seen as an expression of this trust and obedi- kingdom, which is closely linked with ence. In other words, faith in Jesus guarantees being saved and inheriting eternal life, a successful life. Consequently, poverty or ill requires faith in the gospel and in Jesus health become signs that there is something (Mk. 10:17-31) Melvin Tinker con- wrong with one’s faith. In 1995 the World cludes: ‘It is therefore not a strange Evangelical Fellowship made clear that such shift that the one who proclaimed the teachings are not in line with the biblical good news becomes… the one who is teaching on prosperity. The WEF stated: 53 ‘Wealth and prosperity can be a blessing from proclaimed as the good news.’ God, but they can also be Satan’s temptation That the person of Jesus Christ is (Lk. 4:5-7). Wealth can be used in a manner actually the gospel which needs to be that brings great glory to the Lord and great proclaimed is also at the centre of blessing to his people, or it can supplant the Paul’s letters. In 1 Corinthians 15:1-11 place of the Lord in one’s life…Jesus warns us Paul defines the essence of the gospel that we cannot serve both God and Mammon (Wealth) (Mt. 6:24)…Jesus taught us to trust message by listing five gospel truths. God for our daily bread, ie. the necessities of Firstly, Jesus is the Christ (v. 3). Sec- life rather than the luxuries…. Whatever ondly, he died for our sins, was buried wealth an individual Christian or a Christian and was raised to life again (vv. 3-4). community has provides an opportunity for Thirdly, we can know this through the koinonia, for sharing.’ (Statement of the Scriptures and the reports of many wit- World Evangelical Fellowship on Prosperity Theology and Theology of Suffering, in Andrew Perriman, Faith, Health, and Prosper- ity (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2003), pp. 53 Melvin Tinker, Evangelical Concerns 240-241. (Fearn: Christian Focus, 2001), p. 70. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 323 nesses, including the apostles (vv. 4- a strong emphasis on the physical 8). Fourthly, we need to respond to this dimension of salvation. Salvation message ‘by holding firm to it’, i.e. by includes deliverance from illness (Is. faith (v. 2). Fifthly, if we do so, we 38:20) or from enemies (Ps. 22:21, receive salvation (v. 2). Neh. 9:27). But it would be wrong, as Michael Coogan does, to deny categor- Salvation ically the existence of a spiritual dimension in the Hebrew Bible.55 In his book Good News For A Suffering Firstly, the framework of salvation World, Philip King tells the well-known in the Old Testament is generally, story of a Salvation Army worker and a though not exclusively, Israel’s bishop who were travelling on the covenant with Yahweh. The Sinai same train. After a while the Salvation Covenant was the foundational ele- Army worker feels urged to ask the ment of Israelite religion and its reli- bishop, ‘Are you saved?’. The bishop’s gious ethic formed the basis of Israel’s reply takes him by surprise, ‘It social life.56 Terms like ‘priestly king- depends what you mean; I have been dom’ and ‘holy nation’ in Exodus 19:6 saved, I am being saved, and I will be 54 underline this spiritual character of the saved.’ This story indicates that sal- covenant. Secondly, the Old Testament vation is a rather complex biblical con- teaches neither a division of a human cept, which has more than just one being into soul and body nor a division meaning. into soul, body and spirit.57 The term Thus, we can find in the Old and the nefesh for example, which basically New Testament examples of individual means ‘breath’, represents the whole and corporate salvation. Furthermore, person, the physical and the non-phys- both Testaments deal with the physical ical elements.58 and spiritual aspects of salvation. Michael Green rightly points out However, there seems to be an empha- that this holistic view of human beings sis on the physical dimension in the Old Testament, while the New Testament seems to emphasize the spiritual side. While there are examples of salvation 55 Michael D. Coogan, ‘Salvation’, in Bruce in the Old Testament, which can be M. Metzger and Michael D. Coogan, Michael D., eds., The Oxford Companion to the Bible interpreted as liberation from political (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. and economical oppression, salvation 670. in the New Testament does not involve 56 Gary A. Herion, ‘Covenant’, in Freedman, political or economic liberation. David Noel, ed., Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible, (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), p. 291. Spiritual and Physical Salvation 57 Th. C. Vriezen, An Outline of Old Testament In the Old Testament there is obviously Theology (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1970), p. 408. 58 Willem A. VanGemeren, New International Dictionary of Old Testament Theology and Exeg- 54 Philip King, Good News for a Suffering sis, vol 3 (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 1997), World (Crowborough: Monarch, 1996), p. 83. p. 33. 324 Thorsten Prill has consequences for the understand- While salvation in the Gospels has ing of salvation: ‘It safeguards the undoubtedly this holistic character, unity of human existence, it stresses Sider and Parker are in danger of God’s involvement in history, and it overemphasizing the physical dimen- guards the divorce of the sacred from sion and ignoring the predominance of the secular and the spiritual from the the spiritual dimension of salvation. physical.’59 Green goes on to say that in Most of the New Testament passages the Hebrew Bible human beings are in which the words ‘save’ or ‘salvation’ presented as social beings. For them are used deal with the ultimate salva- salvation was a social matter. It not tion of human beings in Jesus Christ.63 only involves the whole person but also Both the synoptic Gospels and the the whole society. They understood Gospel of John present Jesus Christ as salvation as the ‘reign of God in a the saviour. Matthew 10:21-23, for redeemed community on earth’.60 Con- example, tells us that followers of sequently, the acts of physical salva- Christ can expect to experience hatred, tion, such as the liberation from ene- rejection and betrayal, but everyone mies or the deliverance from sickness, ‘who endures to the end will be saved’. which take place within the covenant In other words: salvation is for those relationship also have a spiritual who are loyal to Jesus to the end. Those dimension. who are faithful, ‘will be saved…and In their article, ‘How Broad is Sal- will enter finally into the blessed peace vation in Scripture’, R. Sider and J. promised to the participants in the Parker argue that in the Gospels the kingdom’.64 idea of salvation involves more than This emphasis on the spiritual the forgiveness of human sin. They aspect of salvation can also be found in write: ‘The language about salvation in Paul’s theology. As L. Morris points the Gospels is applied to more than out, salvation from sin and its conse- what we normally think of as “spiritual quences is a predominant theme in 61 concerns”.’ Sider and Parker rightly Paul’s writings.65 In 1 Timothy 1:15 point out that in many healing stories Paul writes ‘Christ Jesus came into the which are recorded in the synoptic world to save sinners’, and in his letter Gospels the word ‘save’ is used to to the Romans he argues that Chris- describe not only acts of physical heal- tians are no longer slaves of sin, since ings but also physical rescues from they have been set free from it (6:17- 62 dangerous situations. 18). This spiritual understanding of salvation can also be clearly seen in those passages that link salvation with 59 Michael Green, The Meaning of Salvation (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1965), p. 40. 60 Green, The Meaning of Salvation, p. 40. 61 Roland J. Sider and James Parker III, 63 Michael D. Coogan, ‘Salvation’, p. 670. ‘How Broad is Salvation in Scripture?’, in 64 Donald A. Hagner, Matthew 1-13 (Dallas: Bruce Nichols, ed., Word and Deed (Exeter: Word Books, 1993), p. 278. Paternoster Press, 1985), p. 93. 65 Leon Morris, ‘Salvation’, in Gerald F. 62 Sider and Parker, ‘How Broad is Salvation Hawthorne, ed., Dictionary of Paul and His Let- in Scripture?’, p. 93. ters (Leicester: IVP, 1993), p. 858. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 325 faith, such as Romans 1:16, 1 Corinthi- Jesus forgave a paralytic man (Mt. 9:1- ans 1:21, or Ephesians 2:8. 8, Mk. 2:1-12, Lk. 5:17-26) and a woman who anointed his feet (Lk. Individual and Corporate 7:36-50) their sins. In the Gospel of Salvation John we are told that a personal new birth and faith in Jesus are essential in While in the Old Testament salvation is order to avoid destruction and to gain mainly within the covenantal relation- eternal life (3:1-16). In John chapter ship with God, Paul stresses that sal- 10, verse 9 we read, ‘I am the gate. vation is open to all people. There is no Whoever enters by me will be saved.’ distinction between Jews and non-Jews Salvation is personal and it is through (Rom. 10:12). All salvation requires is Jesus alone. Besides the individual personal faith in Jesus Christ. In nature of salvation, the corporate Romans 10:9 Paul writes: ‘…if you aspects of salvation are clearly pre- confess with your lips that Jesus is sented in the gospels, too. Thus we can Lord and believe in your heart that God read in Luke’s accounts of Simeon’s raised him from the dead, you will be Song: ‘…for my eyes have seen your saved.’ Consequently, there is quite a salvation…a light for revelation to the strong individual aspect in Paul’s Gentiles and for glory to your people understanding of salvation. But there Israel’ (2:30, 32). The Gospel of John is also a corporate, spiritual dimen- makes it clear that God sent his son to sion. In his letter to the Ephesians 2:13 save the world, and not only the people Paul says that those who have been of Israel (3:17). saved through faith are ‘in Christ Jesus’. For Paul this means that they Salvation and Political- are citizens and members of God’s household.66 They are part of a commu- Economic Liberation nity in which all members intimately The key story of salvation from oppres- relate to Christ and thereby relate to sion in the Old Testament is located in each other,67 or, as S. Travis puts it, ‘I the book of Exodus. For G. Gutierrez cannot be “in Christ” without at the Israel’s exodus is clearly a political same time being in deep relationship to event. Gutierrez rightly underlines that all others who are “in Christ”.’68 the situation of the Israelites in Egypt In the Gospels there are many pas- is one of political persecution and eco- 69 sages which portray salvation as some- nomic exploitation. The Israelites are thing totally individual. Thus the writ- not only forced into slavery (Exod. ers of the synoptic Gospels tell us how 1:11-14) but the Egyptian rulers also try to keep their numbers low by killing every Israelite male child (Exod. 1:15- 22). Consequently, there is an element 66 Ephesians 2:19. 67 Sider and Parker, ‘How Broad is Salvation of political liberation in this story. in Scripture?’, p. 96. 68 Stephen H. Travis, The Scope of Salvation (Sheffield: Conservative Evangelicals in 69 Gustavo Gutierrez, A Theology of Libera- Methodism, 1980), p. 11. tion (London: SCM Press, 1974) p. 156. 326 Thorsten Prill

However, it would be wrong to rule This theme of forgiveness, Travis out any spiritual aspect. The starting writes, is also the central theme of the point of Israel’s liberation is that ‘God Gospels.73 Mark and Luke tell us that remembered his covenant with Abra- John the Baptist offered forgiveness to ham, Isaac, and Jacob’ (Exod. 2:24). the people of Israel on the condition The basis of this covenant is undoubt- that they would repent (Mk. 1:4, Lk. edly an act of faith. Thus we can read 3:3). Mark, Matthew and Luke also in Genesis 17:7 that God not only report how Jesus forgives sins because established a covenant with Abraham, of people’s faith (Mk. 2:5, Mt. 9:2, Lk. who had become a believer (Gen. 15:6), 5:20; Lk. 7: 48-50). In Luke 7:34 and but also with Abraham’s descendants. Matthew 11:19 Jesus is called ‘the In other words, God entered into a friend of sinners’, and in John 20:23 we covenant with Abraham’s descendants can read the following promise Jesus on the basis of Abraham’s faith. gives to his disciples: ‘If you forgive the According to Gutierrez the idea of sins of any, they are forgiven them; if political liberation is also part of the you retain the sins of any, they are New Testament message of salvation. retained.’ He argues that political liberation forms one of three different levels of Salvation, Evangelism and liberation, the other two being the lib- Social Responsibility eration of humankind throughout his- tory and the liberation from sin For evangelism, which proclaims sal- through Christ’s death and resurrec- vation through faith in Christ, this tion.70 For Gutierrez political liberation means that it must neither be equated involves an active transformation of with social action nor must it be seen the social order. He holds that the abol- as separate from it. Social-political ishment of unjust structures is part of action is not a substitute for evange- the work of Christ.71 lism. Socio-political action does not Against this S. Travis rightly argues lead to salvation as it is first and fore- that neither in the Gospels nor in the most understood in the New Testa- ment. But at the same time it is also Pauline letters is salvation presented true that a church, which wants to as political and economic liberation. evangelise, must also be a church that For Paul salvation is about forgiveness recognizes its social responsibilities. and the possibility of a relationship Jesus cared for the human soul and the with God through Christ.72 Thus we can human body. He showed a deep social read, for example, in Ephesians 1:7: ‘In concern for those at the fringes of soci- him (Christ) we have redemption ety. Consequently, word and action through his blood, the forgiveness of belong together. If a church denies its our trespasses, according to the riches social responsibility it puts its credibil- of his grace.’ ity at stake. If it ignores the spiritual dimension of salvation it runs the dan- ger of being no longer church. 70 Gutierrez, A Theology of Liberation, p. 176. 71 Gutierrez, A Theology of Liberation, p. 177. 72 Travis, The Scope of Salvation, pp. 12-13. 73 Travis, The Scope of Salvation, p. 12. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 327

Conversion: Process or Event? must be a process rather than an event. Both in the New and the Old Testament In this case the evangelistic strategies conversion basically means turning. a church chooses are more likely to be The main meaning of conversion in the process strategies such as the Alpha New Testament is that of a person course. But if conversion is seen as a crisis rather than a process then evan- turning to God (e.g. Acts 9:35, 15:19). gelism will be more likely regarded as Often such turning is associated with a one-off event. In this case appropri- repentance (Acts 3:19, 26:20) or faith ate methods will be Willow Creek style (Acts 11:21). seeker services or campaigns, such With regard to the nature of conver- ProChrist. sion we have seen quite a dramatic par- 74 When we look at the New Testa- adigm shift over recent years. While ment we can actually find both aspects in the past conversion was generally of conversion—the journey model of understood by the majority of evangel- conversion and the crisis or event icals as instantaneous turning to God, model. In Acts 16, for example, Luke i.e. a decision for Christ made at a cer- tells us about the business woman tain point in time, it is nowadays con- Lydia and the Philippian jailer who 75 ceived by many as a gradual progress. both experience sudden conversions. In other words, finding faith is seen as Both hear the gospel message and a process or journey and not as an respond to it immediately. There is no event.76 This has consequences for the hint that the jailer had had any contact way evangelism is viewed. If coming to with Christians or the local Jewish faith is a process, then evangelism, too community before he met Paul and Silas in his prison. When we look closer at Lydia’s con- 74 Stephen Cottrell, Catholic Evangelism version we can see that there is a wider (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 1998) p. dimension to it. Lydia, we are told, was 19. a worshipper of God. As such, she 75 M. Booker comments about the idea of conversion as a process and the importance of believed and behaved like a Jew with- relationships within that process: ‘These two out actually having become one. In themes have become accepted within the other words, she was a spiritual Church in Britain with a speed and to a degree seeker. Her journey of faith had begun, that is quite remarkable.’ (Mike Booker, ‘Mis- long before she met Paul and Silas. It sion, Evangelism and the Church of God’, in was only when she met the two mis- Mike Booker and Mark Ireland, eds., Evange- sionaries and heard the good news, lism—Which Way Now? (London: Church House Publishing, 2003), p. 4. that God opened her heart to accept the 76 ‘Belonging before Believing’ has become message. Her conversion was still an a prominent slogan. M. Moynagh writes: instantaneous change, but it was a ‘Encouraging non-believers to feel some kind change at the end of a longer journey of of ownership of the church as they travel into change. faith is vital…Christians must become not Consequently, one can speak of con- recruiters but friends—fellow-travellers…’ (Michael Moynagh, Changing World, Changing version as an event and a process. Church (London: Monarch Books, 2001) p. There is no need to polarise the two, or 113. as Robert Warren puts it: ‘In fact a 328 Thorsten Prill process is a sustained series of events. God, to pray, to lead, to comfort, but he It is important therefore not to set must act as an evangelist also. The ‘event’ (in terms of moments of deci- pastor is to strive to lead souls to sion/choice) in opposition to process.’77 Christ, not only through the public min- For our evangelistic practice this istry, but in one-to-one encounters.’78 means that we should always seek a While it is true that evangelism is mixture of event and process evange- the obligation of all Christians, it lism strategies. seems that many churches, like the German Protestant Church, have for- The Evangelist—the Forgotten gotten that the New Testament also Office!? speaks of evangelism as a ministry in its own right. In Ephesians 4:11 Paul Finally, if we asked different people the mentions five categories of ministers, question ‘Whose responsibility is evan- which have been given to the church by gelism in the church?’ we would prob- Christ: apostles, prophets, pastors, ably get many different answers. Some teachers and evangelists. Their task is would rightly argue that every Christ- to build up the body of Christ. P.T. ian has the responsibility to share his O’Brien writes: ‘Ephesians 4 focuses or her faith. Thus the apostle Peter on the exalted Christ’s action of giving tells us to be prepared to give an these “ministers” to the church. We answer to everyone who asks us to give may assume that they regularly func- the reason for the hope that we Chris- tioned as apostle, prophets, evange- tians have (1 Pet. 3:15). Others would lists, and the like, and that their min- stress that it is the task of the pastor istries were accepted and recognized in or preacher to evangelise. They are the churches. It is appropriate, then, to undoubtedly right, too. The apostle speak of them as “officers”.’79 In other Paul was a pastor and a church words, the early church had ministers planter, but that did not stop him from who had specific evangelistic gifts. evangelising. To the church in Corinth They could preach evangelistic ser- he wrote: ‘Yet when I preach the mons, make the good news relevant to gospel, I cannot boast, for I am com- unbelievers, or help them to make a pelled to preach. Woe to me if I do not commitment to Christ.80 preach the gospel’ (1 Cor 9:16). And to What does this mean for the evan- his pupil Timothy, also a pastor, Paul gelistic practice of a church today? gives the following command: ‘But First of all it means that evangelism you, keep your head in all situations, studies must be part of the curriculum endure hardship, do the work of an at theological seminaries and univer- evangelist, discharge all the duties of your ministry’(2 Tim 4:5). Roger Car- swell comments: ‘The pastor has many responsibilities—to feed the flock of 78 Roger Carswell, And Some Evangelists (Fearn: Christian Focus, 2000), p. 49. 79 Peter T. O’Brien, The Letter to the Eph- esians (Leicester: Apollos, 1999), p. 301. 77 Robert Warren, Signs of Life (London: 80 John R. Stott, Essential Fellowship (Leices- Church Publishing House, 1996), p. 66. ter: Inter-Varsity Press, 1989), p. 163. Evangelism, Theology and the Church 329 sity theology departments. A church sionaries are appointed for their cannot afford to have its future minis- task. They will spearhead evange- ters trained at universities or church listic endeavour in their locality seminaries without having received and beyond. Their emphasis will be any training in mission and evange- the proclaiming of the gospel. lism. Also, it cannot rely on theological Christ crucified will be their abid- students to gain evangelistic compe- ing theme.82 tence on their own initiative. If a church is really serious about evange- lism, then evangelism studies must Summary become compulsory for the theological The German example shows how much training of future pastors. theology impacts the evangelistic prac- Secondly, it is simply not enough to tice of a church. A theology which is help pastors to gain an evangelistic not really grounded in scriptural truth competence. Evangelism is not only or has an unbalanced understanding of the task of the clergy. The church must it can easily lead to a secular ‘evange- make sure that the whole people of God lism’ that is not interested in inviting are trained, encouraged and empow- people to a living faith in Jesus Christ. ered to share the good news. Process If Jesus is seen only as the New Being evangelism courses, such as Alpha, or the political liberator, the message Christianity Explored, or Emmaus, are a of his substitutionary death and resur- good opportunity to involve many rection, of forgiveness and eternal life church members in evangelism. Mark becomes a minor matter. The call to Ireland writes: ‘On every Alpha course follow and trust Jesus Christ as Lord approximately one-third of the people and Saviour degenerates to the appeal involved are leaders and helpers, most to become a better person. of whom would run a mile from knock- The German example clearly shows ing on doors, but who are happy to do how essential it is for every church to evangelism through cooking, serving, have a biblical theology of the nature washing up, leading worship, leading 81 and practice of evangelism. To put small groups, putting out chairs.’ evangelism on one’s agenda is Thirdly, the church needs to identify undoubtedly laudable, but frankly not people who have the gifts of an evan- enough. Neither is it necessarily help- gelist and recognize them as ministers ful to adopt existing evangelistic mod- in their own right. Carswell writes: els uncritically. Instead, every church My plea is for the setting aside of that is serious about evangelism, gifted believers to be devoted to the needs to develop a theology that takes fulltime work of evangelism, in the into account what the Bible has to say same way that pastors and mis- about the aim, the message, and the agents of evangelism, as well as the relationship between evangelism and 81 Mark Ireland, ‘Alpha’, in Mike Booker social action. and Mark Ireland, eds., Evangelism—Which Way Now? (London: Church House Publishing, 2003), pp. 17-18. 82 Carswell, And Some Evangelists, p. 91. 330 Thorsten Prill

Last but not least the example of the when walking down a certain street in German Protestant Church shows how Chicago, D.L. Moody stepped up to a important it is that such a biblical the- man, a perfect stranger to him, and ology of evangelism is owned by the said, ‘Sir, are you a Christian?’ ‘You whole church, i.e. the clergy and the mind your own business,’ was the laity. Evangelism is a grassroots min- reply. Moody replied, ‘This is my busi- istry. Another story of D.L. Moody ness.’ Evangelism needs people who illustrates that quite vividly: Once, make it their business.

Hope for Ever The Christian View of Life and Death

Stephen S. Smalley

Hope in relation to life and death is a topic of great importance. It seeks to make sense of history, with its evil and suffering as well as its good. Moreover, the topic forces us to give a full account of God. The doctrine of hope pushes enquirers to the intellectual and spiritual limits of theological investigation, and helps them to answer questions about the meaning and purpose of life, and the nature and consequences of death. This timely and accessible book focuses on the theology of hope in its Christian and biblical perspective, and shows how the eschatological character of hope is a balance and a tension between the past, present and the future.

Stephen S. Smalley is Dean Emeritus of Chester Cathedral.

ISBN: 1-84227-358-2 £7.99 216x140mm120pp

9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT (2005) 29:4, 331-346 Facing New Paradigms In Worship: Learning New Lessons From Old Masters

Walter McConnell

KEYWORDS: Worship, Puritans, adi- tive as written liturgies are), and the aphora, prayer, the ministry of the establishment of worship committees word, singing of psalms, sacraments, and worship teams in local congrega- Sabbath. tions. Even so, it may still be ques- tioned whether the new emphasis on worship places the jewel in the appro- IN THE NOT TOO distant past, worship was sometimes referred to as the miss- priate setting that will enhance its bril- ing jewel of the evangelical church.1 liance and allow it to sparkle to the However true this may once have been, greatest effect, or whether it allows the during the past few decades an incred- jewel to remain sullied, or even forces ible renewal of interest in the topic has it into a new setting where it does not taken hold of the church so that this fit very well. jewel is missing no longer. In many set- It appears that the new focus on tings, church life has been transformed worship is but part of a paradigm shift by the writing of worship songs and in church life that has brought about books, the offering of worship semi- changes on many levels. Even though nars, the development and implemen- we cannot focus on all of the changes tation of new liturgies (or non-liturgi- in church life that are taking place cal forms that often become as regula- today, we do want to consider the moti- vations that lie behind our new interest in worship. Why are people so inter- ested in worship today? What moves 1 A. W. Tozer, Worship: The Missing Jewel of them to attend worship seminars and the Evangelical Church (Harrisburg, PA: Chris- buy books on the subject? Is this sim- tian Publications, n.d.), and Ronald Allen and Gordon Borror, Worship: Rediscovering the ply the latest fad to hit the church or is Missing Jewel. God moving in some new way? Could it

Dr Walter McConnell teaches Old Testament and Worship at Singapore Bible College where he is the Director of the Ichthus Research Centre for Biblical and Theological Studies. He has a master’s degree from Regent College; his PhD from Queen’s University Belfast is on ecological ethics in the light of the biblical accounts of creation. This paper is a slightly edited form of a lecture given in February 2004 at a Church Music Festival organized by the School of Church Music at Singapore Bible College. 332 Walter McConnell be that we are disappointed by what we every aspect of religious life, can have been used to and want to try instruct us about the kind of questions something new? Do new times require we should be asking today. Even if we new worship practices just like new come to different conclusions, their wine requires new wineskins? answers may well force us to think a My concern is that our renewed little harder as we seek God’s will on interest in worship may in some cases the matter. Our starting point will be to lead to a misunderstanding of the true provide some background on the Puri- nature of worship as revealed in the tan movement. Bible and practised throughout church During the sixteenth century, when history. Since worship centres on the Puritanism was developing, the church person of God, we need to evaluate in England was struggling with the whether our new worship styles are an implications of the Reformation and its honest attempt to experience more rejection of many medieval Roman completely God as creator, redeemer, Catholic doctrines and practices. The comforter, and friend, or whether we Puritans were convinced that many in have adopted them in order to be rele- the English church had not gone far vant to the people of our age. enough in their reformation of thought As we consider our approach to wor- and practice. They viewed with suspi- ship today, we would do well to exam- cion and rejected many of the practices ine the way the subject was long associated with the medieval approached by other believers at dif- church, not because they were old, but ferent points in history. This gives us because of the theology that lay behind an opportunity to learn from their wis- them and the superstition that was fre- dom (and mistakes), and also allows us quently associated with them. The goal to see ourselves as an integral part of of their reformation was not to replace the church that has been led by God certain old practices with new ones throughout the centuries. Although that might be relevant to their time, but church history gives us many examples with older ones that had been used by of people and movements that have dealt with worship, this paper will be the early church and were clearly God- limited to an examination of the Puri- centred and Bible-based. As the bibli- tans’ approach. cal basis and God-centredness of wor- The Puritans are chosen, not ship should be foremost in the minds of because they have the final word on those today who are modifying their how worship should be understood or worship practices, we will begin by performed, but because their wrestling examining the Puritan view of biblical with this issue provides us with some authority, as it forms the foundation for reference points that will enable us to all that will follow. think more clearly about the issues that should influence our current prac- tice. In particular, the questions they The Biblical Basis for asked when they faced a paradigm Worship shift, both in the way worship was con- As true Christians and the spiritual ceived and performed and in almost descendants of the earlier reformers, Facing New Paradigms in Worship 333 the Puritans inherited a high view of different line. Realizing that many of Scripture. They accepted the Bible as their English compatriots maintained the authoritative ‘rule of faith and life’ medieval superstitions deep in their for all people.2 They wanted to obey hearts, they wished to see a complete what it said people should do, and reformation of the church in their coun- refrain from what it prohibited. In this try, a reformation based on the teach- they followed their predecessors. The ings of the Bible alone that would Puritans, however, differed from those remove what they believed to be imped- who went before them in that they iments to the true worship of God. For believed that the Bible prescribed them, sola scriptura became the foun- everything that was necessary in life. dation, not only of theology, but also of Whereas the magisterial Reformers worship. This emphasis set them apart left room for adiaphora—things that from the other Reformers. did not matter—the Puritans devel- The central place of the Bible in oped a unique doctrine of biblical war- their theology of worship is plainly rant which stated that everything in seen in the Westminster Confession of life was to be regulated in accordance Faith. with the written word of God. As we The acceptable way of worshipping will see, their desire to base all of their the true God is instituted by him- thoughts and actions upon what they found in the biblical text had wide ram- self, and so limited by his own ifications that actually led them to revealed will, that he may not be reject a number of doctrines and prac- worshipped according to the imagi- tices that were acceptable to the other nations and devices of men, or the reformers. Although this is true about suggestions of Satan, under any a number of issues, we will examine visible representation, or any other only its implications for worship. way not prescribed in the holy 3 The magisterial Reformers believed Scripture. that much of the church’s worship had Notice that this statement does not been corrupted by the traditions intro- make allowance for any worship prac- duced over the years of Roman tices unless they come from Scripture. supremacy. It was these man-made According to the Puritans, since God changes that spurred them on to institutes worship in his revealed reforming worship. Even so, they held word, he should not be worshipped by that many medieval practices could be considered matters of adiaphora and did not need to be rejected or even 3 ‘Confession,’ XXI: i, in Westminster Con- altered as long as believers were edi- fession, p. 90. One of the Westminster divines, fied through them. Jeremiah Burroughs, Gospel Worship, ed. Don The Puritans, however, took a very Kistler (Pittsburgh: Soli Deo Gloria, 1993), p. 13, put it this way in sermon form: ‘in God’s worship, there must be nothing tendered up to God but what He has commanded. Whatsoever 2 ‘The Confession of Faith,’ I: ii, in West- we meddle with in the worship of God must be minster Confession of Faith (Glasgow: Free what we have a warrant for out of the Word of Presbyterian Publications, 1985), p. 21. God.’ 334 Walter McConnell any method devised by either people or medieval practices. They desired that the devil, and he should not be wor- every aspect of the worship of God be shipped with the aid of any kind of vis- supported by an explicit statement ible representation of him. The right from Scripture or at least that it could way of worshipping God is that which be deduced from what is found there.5 he prescribed in Scripture. Any other This led them to search the Bible dili- source that provides ideas about what gently in order to discover what God should be included in worship is had commanded about worship. rejected. The Puritan view that God From our perspective, the Puritan has revealed the way he should be wor- desire to understand and act upon shipped in the Bible, which serves as what Scripture says about worship is the only source for truly Christian wor- the trait that should be emulated by ship, has become known in many cir- modern worshippers, even if this leads cles as the ‘regulative principle’.4 The to worship practices that are some- Bible regulates what should be what different from theirs. They were included in worship and what should correct to insist that everything the not. New Testament texts say regarding worship should be practised in the Thus it was that the Puritans, desir- church during all ages. Even so, it says ing to follow scriptural principle and to so little about the nature and content of rid England of all superstitious worship that it is not possible to base Catholic practices, began their attack all of one’s worship practices upon on those elements they believed did not New Testament revelation alone. Even serve the edification of the church the Puritans added elements to their because they were not mentioned in worship that were not clearly stated in the Bible. These included such things the New Testament text or easily as the vestments worn by clergy, mak- deduced from what was found there. ing the sign of the cross when a person Examples include the preaching of was baptized, the use of wedding rings, and kneeling for communion. These were rejected in the main because they 5 It should be noted that even though the were seen to reinforce, in the minds of Puritans agreed that the Scriptures revealed the common man, ideas that had been God’s will for worship, they did not always invented by the Roman church rather agree upon which practices had Scriptural than God. The thoughts of the Puritans warrant. For instance, when Thomas about necessary changes, however, did Cartwright expounded the first two chapters not end with the removal of certain of Acts at Cambridge University in 1570, he argued for a Presbyterian church polity based on his belief that the early Church should be the model for the entire church age and that 4 Although this term is commonly used in a the apostles practised that form of church gov- number of Presbyterian and Reformed circles, ernment. Even though they would have agreed R. J. Gore Jr., Covenantal Worship: Reconsider- with Cartwright that church practices should ing the Puritan Regulative Principle (Phillips- have biblical warrant, many Puritans (particu- burg, NJ: P&R Publishing, 2002), p. 38, claims larly those belonging to Anglican or Indepen- that he can find no specific reference to the dent circles) rejected his conclusions about term prior to the twentieth century. church polity. Facing New Paradigms in Worship 335 expository sermons and the wearing of the problem lies with our practice, we preaching gowns. It thus seems wiser should correct it. This is because the to adopt the practice of the earlier word of God should serve as the pri- Reformers, who admitted that people mary source for our beliefs and prac- should be allowed a certain degree of tices. freedom with regard to worship prac- That we should reexamine the Puri- tices that are not mentioned in the tan interpretation of the Bible where Bible.6 their conclusions and practices differ No matter what conclusion one from ours leads us to the second scrip- reaches concerning the regulative prin- tural challenge that they bring us. ciple, the Puritan desire to base all Though the Puritans were extremely worship practices upon God’s revela- diligent biblical scholars, they some- tion in Scripture should serve as a times made mistakes with regard to twofold challenge to the modern the meaning of God’s word, and were, church. First, it should compel us to at times, more influenced by their envi- evaluate whether our worship prac- ronment and the controversies of their tices were designed to reflect what the day than they would have cared to Bible says about God’s requirements admit.7 That the Puritans did not for worship or whether they were always come to the correct conclusion adopted for some other reason. The with regard to biblical interpretation or Puritans believed that God expressed practice should not cause us to dismiss his will for the worship of the church in all that they said. Rather, it should his word. They therefore worked hard serve as a warning to us, that, even to identify and implement it. As we will when we attempt to follow biblical see below, the Puritans’ desire to find principles, we could be mistaken about scriptural warrant for all of their wor- the correct way to interpret or apply ship practices led to the inclusion of a Scripture. It should therefore cause us number of practices that are missing to be doubly critical about our own from many modern worship services. If understanding of the Bible and of our any of the practices the Puritans iden- reasons for establishing or maintaining tified as elements of worship that were the worship styles that we prefer. required by God are omitted from our services, we should reexamine both our practices and their reading of the Components of Public Bible to see where the problem lies. If Worship the problem lies with Puritan interpre- tation we should ignore them. But if The Puritans’ examination of the Bible

7 Gore has demonstrated a number of flaws 6 It is strange to find that although the Puri- in their approach that led to the regulative tans believed that God regulated worship, they principle. See his book Covenantal Worship, did not believe he regulated other parts of life particularly chapter 6, ‘Thy Will be Done’, for in the same way. As the New Testament never his explanation of the principle and how it makes this kind of distinction, it seems a bit departs from both the biblical and standard inconsistent for them to do so. Reformed understanding of worship. 336 Walter McConnell enabled them to see that worship cov- of life. The focus of this paper, how- ered all of life lived out before the Holy ever, will be narrowed to the aspects God. But even though they saw all of they deemed important when believers life as worship, they frequently nar- came together for communal worship. rowed the meaning to include the Specifically, this includes prayer, the things that were necessary in the pub- ministry of the word, the singing of lic worship of God. The best sources on psalms, the administration and recep- their thoughts about worship can be tion of the sacraments, and keeping the found in the Westminster ‘Confession Sabbath. As their study of the Bible of Faith’, ‘Catechisms’, and ‘Directory helped them determine that these ele- for Publick Worship’, and Richard Bax- ments were essential for public wor- ter’s Reformed Liturgy, along with what ship, we should consider the place is recorded in their printed sermons on given to them in our corporate worship the subject. services. These works make it clear that the Puritans identified a limited number of Prayer essentials they believed were ‘all parts Prayer was considered ‘a special part’ of the ordinary religious worship of of the worship of God whether per- 8 God’. These include prayer (with formed privately, within the context of thanksgiving, confession, and suppli- the family, or within the assembled cation); the reading, preaching, and congregation.11 Puritan prayer was hearing of the Scriptures; catechizing; wholly Trinitarian. It was to be made to the singing of psalms; the administra- God the Father who called us to pray to tion and reception of the sacraments him, offered in the name of Jesus Christ (which were limited to baptism and the who acts as our mediator so that we Lord’s Supper); and keeping the Sab- can approach the holy Father, and bath. On special occasions such duties made with the help of the Holy Spirit as performing ‘religious oaths and who knows our weakness and is able to vows, solemn fastings, and thanksgiv- help us when we do not know how to ings’ were considered to be in order.9 pray as we ought. As an offering up of Although excluded from most lists, the our desires to God, it included both Larger Catechism adds church govern- confession of sins and thankful ment, discipline, and the rejection of all acknowledgment of God’s mercies.12 forms of false worship.10 Prayer should not, however, be self- Clearly the Puritan understanding centred. Rather, it focuses on the of worship encompassed many aspects needs of the whole church of Christ, as well as for government officials, minis-

8 ‘Confession’, XXI: v, in Westminster Con- fession, p. 93. 9 ‘Confession’, XXI: iii and v, in Westminster 11 ‘Catechism’, question 179, in Westminster Confession, pp. 91-4. Confession, p. 268. 10 ‘The Larger Catechism’, question 108, in 12 ‘Catechism’, question 178, in Westminster Westminster Confession, p. 192. Confession, p. 268. Facing New Paradigms in Worship 337 ters of the gospel, and for others both they would rule in a way that is pleas- known and unknown. Those who pray ing to God, for church leaders that they should always remember that we are might live holy lives and have powerful unworthy, by ourselves, to bring our ministries, for educational facilities requests before God, and that we need that they might pass on both learning the grace of God which is found in and piety, and for the local city or con- Jesus Christ who personally leads us gregation that they might be blessed by into the presence of the Father. Thus the ministry of the word of God. Even our prayers not only reveal our needs, the weather was considered a matter they also demonstrate our penitent and for prayer so that crops would not fail. thankful hearts, as well as our faith in Prayer for the ministry of the word and love for the God to whose will we of God received special consideration.13 submit ourselves. Prayer, to the Puri- This was in part because the Puritans tans, was a serious business, and were aware that spiritual lethargy rightly so, because we are encouraged often causes people to ignore God’s to pray in the Bible. word. They therefore prayed for both Before gathering for worship, Puri- the preacher and the congregation that tan believers were encouraged to pre- God’s word might perform its task in pare themselves by praying individu- their hearts and lives. Their desire was ally and as families. When they assem- that the minister could preach and the bled publicly, immediately after being listener hear God’s word aright and called to worship, the service would then go on to obey his will. begin with a prayer that reminded them Although they were very clear about of their unworthiness to draw near to the kind of things that should be God and of their need for his forgive- prayed for during a church service, ness and help so that they would be they did not require set prayers, but able to worship him and learn from rather gave individual ministers free- him. From that point on, public worship dom in bringing their requests to God. was frequently punctuated by prayer. And bring their requests to God the Prayers were made in confession of Puritans did. Many Puritan pastors sin with the hope that the Lord Jesus would open a service with a fifteen- Christ would intercede and grant minute prayer, conclude the service remission, that the Holy Spirit would with a longer prayer, and offer up sev- bring assurance of pardon and recon- eral more prayers to God in between. ciliation, and that God’s people would According to Davies, ‘Some ministers put sin to death so that they could live prayed for as long as they preached’, lives that were truly pleasing to God. Prayers were made that the gospel might go forth so that Christ’s kingdom could spread to all nations, that churches might be free of spiritual 13 According to Horton Davies, The Worship tyrants, and that the church would not of the American Puritans (New York: Peter Lang, 1990, reprinted Morgan, PA: Soli Deo be split by schism. Prayers were made Gloria, 1999), p. 146, the Puritans believed for those in political authority that ‘Prayer even made the preaching effica- (whether kings or lower rulers) that cious’. 338 Walter McConnell and they often preached for more than during the wilderness years when an hour.14 Moses and the children of Israel turned With such a prominent place given to God in prayer. The psalmists further to it in a service, and the range of top- modelled it by producing both praises ics brought before the Lord, prayer was and laments designed for both individ- clearly an important part of Puritan uals and congregations to bring their worship. They ardently followed what requests before God. In the early they understood to be the Bible’s direc- church, prayer was one of the things tions to pray for everything and every- the believers devoted themselves to in one. This devotion to prayer in worship addition to the apostles’ teaching, fel- presents us with a challenge to con- lowship, and the breaking of bread sider the place prayer has in our wor- (Acts 2:42). Filling themselves with ship today. We need to ask ourselves God’s word and ways, the Puritans fer- what it is that we pray for and what vently engaged in prayer both in pri- kind of time do we set aside to worship vate and public worship. As the word of God in this manner during our corpo- God guided them in this, so it should rate services. guide us so that we too can be recog- While many churches continue to nized as people of prayer who know see prayer as an essential part of a ser- that it is an essential part of worship vice, others seem to devote very little and who design our services in such a time to prayer during corporate wor- way that all who gather will see its ship. Could it be that some believers importance and long to respond to God have separated prayer from worship, in faith by bringing their requests to seeing it as something that should be him as well. engaged in at some different time? Is it possible that the fear that worshippers The Ministry of the Word might get bored makes us uneasy Of the worship elements they discov- about bringing multiple requests ered in the Bible, the Puritans often before God? Even if we do not follow considered the reading, hearing, and the Puritans slavishly as to their prac- particularly the preaching of the Bible tice of prayer, we should reconsider to be the climax of worship. Through our own practice in the light of theirs the preaching of God’s word, the Spirit and in the light of what we find in the was able to minister directly to the peo- Bible. ple in a number of ways. Through the As we have seen, the Puritan spoken word, people could be both edi- method was simply to follow the pat- fied and rebuked. By listening to the tern that had been set for them in the exposition of Scripture, they could Bible where worship was filled with receive God’s grace which brings spir- prayer. This is seen from the time of itual healing where necessary, and the Patriarchs when they called upon leads to repentance and salvation. Due the name of the Lord. It was evident to the great spiritual benefits the lis- teners were expected to receive, preaching was regarded as an act of 14 Davies, American Puritans, p. 148. great seriousness, and it was entered Facing New Paradigms in Worship 339 into by people of great seriousness. as serious as the Puritans in asking Since the preaching of the word was about the place of the reading and the power of God unto salvation and preaching of the word of God in their one of the greatest and most excellent services. Even though Paul com- works belonging to the ministry of the manded that Scripture be read publicly gospel, it was of the utmost impor- (1 Tim. 4:13), many churches give lit- tance. Those who performed this task tle if any time to Bible reading. Another should ensure that they were spiritu- contemporary problem lies in the way ally able and had spent the necessary many churches make a clear distinc- time getting to know what God said in tion between the ‘worship’ and ‘teach- his word. In this way, they would be ing’ parts of a service. qualified as workmen who would not If we understand worship as a be ashamed, be assured of their own proper response to who God is and salvation, and be able to save those what he has done, the hearing of his who listened to them.15 word read and taught must be consid- The seriousness and centrality of ered an essential aspect of worship, as the act of preaching was felt both by it is the only foundation upon which the minister and his congregation. In true worship can be built. Further- an age when many people bought and more, as it is the word of God that sold their goods during the weekly changes lives so that those in rebellion market day, Sunday — or as they often against God can become worshippers called it, the Lord’s Day — was con- and those who believe in God can grow sidered the market day of the soul. The in their faith, churches should ensure word of God preached on that day was that the saving and sanctifying power deemed to be the spiritual food that of the Bible is released as we worship would nourish the soul for the follow- our Lord. Similarly, we should consider ing week. In order to have something the Puritans’ injunction to prepare our- spiritual upon which to ruminate, selves adequately for preaching, lis- everyone was supposed to work hard tening to, and practising what God has to participate in the act of preaching. revealed in the Bible. In an age that Every member of the community was suffers from biblical illiteracy, follow- expected to recall, recite, and strive to ing in the path of the Puritans may help understand and practise what had been us overcome spiritual lethargy and preached to them. Doing so would nat- lead to healthier congregations urally lead people who loved the Lord through a renewed focus on God’s word. into the other parts of worship, espe- cially prayer and praise. As churches today evaluate the par- Singing of Psalms adigms under which they arrange acts The Puritan desire that the Bible pro- of worship, they should attempt to be vide the basis for all worship practices greatly influenced their use of music in a congregational setting, and in a way 15 ‘The Directory for the Publick Worship of that will surprise most of us. Their God’, in Westminster Confession, p. 379. understanding of the Bible led them to 340 Walter McConnell reject the use of all musical instru- state something should be used, it was ments for worship. In addition, they to be rejected. Should anyone raise the rejected the singing of all songs in their issue of the use of instruments in the church services except for the a capella worship of the Old Testament, they singing of metrical psalms.16 As this would respond that God had permitted practice may be incomprehensible to this in the earlier period much as he many Christians today who virtually had permitted the Israelites to offer equate music and worship, the Puritan sacrifices. Such acts were permissible practice needs to be explained in more under the old covenant, but in the detail. church age were neither necessary nor It is important to understand that to be allowed, as they did not receive the Puritans were neither antagonistic God’s explicit sanction. toward music in general nor had they Whereas musical instruments were anything against musical instruments. removed from the sphere of worship Many of them, in fact, had musical because they were not mentioned in instruments in their homes and the New Testament, the singing of learned to play quite well. Puritan psalms was retained as several New poets often allowed their secular Testament passages mention their use poems to be set to music. John Bunyan in the early church (Eph. 5:18-19; Col. is even said to have carved a flute out 3:16; Jas. 5:13). Furthermore, they of a chair when he was in jail. They sang psalms in worship because they therefore had nothing against music were the only songs that could be con- per se. Their concern, rather, was the sidered inspired. That the Puritans place of music in worship. were ardent psalm singers is testified The Puritans’ distinctive rejection by their frequent updating of collec- of musical instruments in worship was tions of metrical psalms. The psalms based upon their reading of the New were so important to them that after Testament. As they saw it, since the the Puritans settled in New England, New Testament never mentions the the first book they published (which use of musical instruments to accom- happened to be the first book printed in pany worship, they should not be used the Americas), was a collection of during the church age. Their stance psalms, The Bay Psalm Book. was that if God did not specifically Many modern Christians would find limiting themselves to the singing of nothing more than metrical psalms 16 A metrical psalm is a psalm that has been extremely difficult.17 What is not appre- translated according to poetic meter so that it ciated is that the writing and singing of can be more easily sung. A metrical version of Psalm 1:1-2 as found in Sternhold and Hop- kins’ psalter from 1562 is given as an example. 1 The man is blest that hath not lent / to 17 Many will also find it strange that people wicked men his ear, / Nor led his life as sinners would sing psalms that were written to exhort do, / nor sat in scorner’s chair. worshippers to use many different instru- 2 But in the law of God the Lord / doth set his ments in the praise of God and yet reject the whole delight, / And in the same doth exercise use of any instrument except for the human / himself both day and night. voice. Facing New Paradigms in Worship 341 metrical psalms by the early Reformers Coming to grips with the way the and Puritans was a radical step for Puritans faced their new paradigms in their age. Before the Reformation, music should challenge modern believ- singing in the churches of Europe was ers who consider adopting new wor- restricted mainly to the priest and ship styles or musical instruments. choir, both of whom sang in Latin. This The challenge is not to accept or reject situation began to change almost the Puritans’ conclusions about the immediately in Germany, Switzerland, place of music and musical instru- and France when Luther and the believ- ments in worship in an uncritical man- ers who followed Calvin began to write ner. Neither is it to accept modern (or hymns and metrical psalms in the ver- traditional) worship practices uncriti- nacular. Suddenly, voice was given to a cally. The challenge is to be willing to congregation that had previously been ask the difficult questions of whether mute. Praises that had been reserved our decisions for or against a particu- for a few were returned to the people. lar musical style, or instrument, or Songs that had been heard only in a for- even song, is made because of our bib- eign language could now be understood lical understanding of worship, or for by and sung by all. For such a change to other reasons, be they pragmatic, or come upon the church was arguably related to tradition, relevance, fun, or much more radical than anything pro- whatever. duced by the so-called ‘worship wars’ Another consideration is whether that have been waged in recent years. the music that is presented in church Metrical psalmody served as a new truly enables the whole congregation paradigm in church music that played to participate in the praise of God or an important role in the development of whether it reserves praise for a gifted congregational singing. According to few. Many churches today have, proba- Davies, the Puritans did nothing new bly inadvertently, returned to a pre- in returning praises to the people of Reformation model of worship which God. This was simply a rediscovery of has silenced many in the congregation something that had been used in the and restricted praise to the lips of a few early church and in Israel. Their origi- leaders. For various reasons, many nality was seen in their versifying the churchgoers have given up singing and Psalms in a contemporary poetic form become spectators who stand by and that could be easily memorized and watch those who are able to do a much sung by the people of their day. This in better job. This sad, and somewhat turn paved the way for the develop- ironic, state of affairs has come about ment of hymns, when Isaac Watts and due to a number of reasons that include others paraphrased the Psalms in a the professionalism of a new worship manner that made them far easier to elite, electronic sound systems and memorize and sing.18 acoustical designs that make it impos- sible for people to hear themselves sing, and the projection of words with- 18 Horton Davies, The Worship of the English out musical score for singers to follow. Puritans (Morgan, PA: Soli Deo Gloria, 1997), Anything that silences congregations p. 162. so that they fail to participate in praise, 342 Walter McConnell should cause church leaders to reeval- tained somewhat variant customs uate their custom and follow the lead of based upon their own understanding of the Puritans by returning to the early what the Bible meant, or perhaps church practice of having whole con- based upon traditions they failed to gregations express their praise for God identify as coming from other sources. together in song and prayer. This is true with regards to their under- standing and practice of both baptism Administration and Reception and the Lord’s Supper. Like modern believers, the Puritans of the Sacraments split on whether baptism should be From the beginning of the Reforma- reserved for believers alone (as the tion, Protestant believers have almost Baptists held) or whether children universally accepted that, contrary to should be baptized (as supported by the teaching of the medieval Roman the Presbyterians and Independents), Catholic church, the church should rec- and whether the mode should be by ognize only two sacraments or ordi- immersion or by sprinkling or pouring. nances—Baptism and the Lord’s Sup- Since different Puritan groups held to per. As followers of this tradition, the divergent practices for the same rea- Puritans all agreed that these two sons given by Christians today, we will sacraments should be practised as part skip over the explanations given for of the worship of the church, and that these beliefs. However, we should not they should be conducted by a recog- ignore their shared belief that baptism nized minister of the gospel rather than was an essential part of their worship by just anyone. They also agreed that of God, and that it should be performed baptism should be administered in the as part of the public celebration of God. context of public worship rather than While we have passed over their dif- in private.19 ferences with regard to baptismal prac- In keeping with their approach to tice with scant comment, we will bene- the Christian life, the Puritans desired fit from a somewhat longer discussion that Scripture guide their practice of about the differences in the way the the sacraments of the Lord’s Supper Puritans celebrated the Lord’s Supper. and Baptism. However, in common We should begin by stating that they with several other areas, the Puritan all believed that the Lord’s Supper was desire that the Bible serve as the only a means of coming into communion, guide for worship acts did not result in not only with members of the church, uniformity of practice. As is experi- but with their Saviour himself. Fur- enced within modern evangelicalism, thermore, they were convinced that different groups of Puritans main- their practice should be grounded in what was revealed in Scripture. It was at this point that they divided in their practice, sometimes due to different 19 Davies, English Puritans, pp. 220-1, says emphases in biblical interpretation and that while this was originally the case, by the Eighteenth Century the Independents (i.e., sometimes for other reasons. Congregationalists) had begun to baptize in An examination of the different homes rather than in the church. ways they celebrated this sacrament Facing New Paradigms in Worship 343 will provide us with a means to exam- Clearly none of us will agree with ine our own practices. Most Puritans the Puritan approach to the sacra- celebrated this sacrament on a ments on every point, as they did not monthly basis. Some, however, cele- agree with one another about every brated it weekly, while others only four point. But again, this should prompt us times a year.20 Some congregations to think about the biblical meaning of would remain seated in their pews these practices and the symbolism while the elements were passed attached to them and how that affects around, while others would sit around our practice of these ordinances. No a table in order to partake of the ele- one will deny that our Lord com- ments as did Jesus and his disciples.21 manded these practices. And since Some churches would partake of com- Jesus required them, the Puritans were munion during the day time22 while oth- surely correct to consider how they ers would hold the ceremony only should be celebrated. This should ‘after Supper’ in the evening, as they encourage us to evaluate the way we participate in the sacraments so that believed that Christ set this as an they add to our worship of God and do example when he partook of the last not become a supplemental add on that supper with his disciples. In some we maintain due to tradition or for churches, both the bread and wine some other reason. were blessed at the same time, while in others the elements were blessed sep- arately. All churches agreed that those Keeping the Sabbath who were ignorant or were living in sin In their desire to obey the Bible, as they should not be allowed to partake of the understood it, the Puritans were will- sacrament. ing to change their way of living and the way things were done in the church. This characteristic can be clearly seen in their approach to Sab- 20 Since ‘The Directory for the Publick Wor- bath keeping. Not only did they desire ship of God’ was written to give guidelines to several different types of churches, it declines to set the day aside for the worship of to say anything specific about the regularity of God to a greater extent than did their the Lord’s Supper, except that it ‘is frequently neighbors, they were also more serious to be celebrated; but how often, may be con- about their use of the day than were the sidered and determined by the ministers, and Continental Reformers. As a result, other church-governors of each congregation, they developed a way of keeping the as they shall find most convenient for the com- fort and edification of the people committed to Lord’s Day that set it apart from the their charge’ (Westminster Confession, p. 384). other six days of the week by the 21 None would kneel for communion, as they nature of the work that was allowed. believed it supported the Roman Catholic the- Although normal activities were to be ology of the Mass in the minds of most people. suspended, it was not a day of rest in See Davies, English Puritans, p. 204. the sense of requiring inactivity, but as 22 The writers of ‘The Directory for the Pub- lick Worship of God’ suggest that the Lord’s being set aside for rigorous spiritual Supper should be celebrated ‘after the morn- exercise. Their approach to the day ing sermon’ (Westminster Confession, p. 384). exerted such an influence on the way 344 Walter McConnell people thought about the Sabbath, that tion of Christ, was the last day of many people in England and other the week; and, from the resurrec- parts of the world still follow their pat- tion of Christ, was changed into the tern down to the present day. Accord- first day of the week, which in ing to Packer, Scripture is called the Lord’s Day, The Puritans created the English and is to be continued to the end of Christian Sunday—that is, the con- the world, as the Christian 24 ception and observance of the first Sabbath. day of the week as one on which God, so they believed, had built a both business and organised recre- Sabbath rest into the very fabric of cre- ations should be in abeyance, and ation. It was his will that everyone, Jew the whole time left free for worship, or Gentile, Christian or not, should fellowship and ‘good works’.23 ‘rest’ on that day. Furthermore, they How did they do this? As usual, they were convinced that since it was a cre- did it by attempting to understand ation ordinance, it was eternally in God’s word and apply it to their own effect. lives. They began with an examination A second reason they found for of the Fourth Commandment. From keeping the Sabbath is its place in the their perspective, God’s command- Ten Commandments. As they consid- ment to remember the Sabbath and ered the Decalogue to be a delineation keep it holy was binding upon all peo- of God’s eternal moral law, they again ple for two simple reasons. First, God’s concluded that the Sabbath was incum- rest on the seventh day after the six bent upon all people. Its close connec- days of creation, and proclamation that tion with the first three commands it was holy, meant that God had indicated to them that its central focus intended that, not just Jews, but every- was on the worship of God. Since the one should rest on that day. Their day was to be set aside for worship, understanding that the Sabbath law is other activities should be left aside. eternally binding can be seen in the Again, the Confession of Faith states statement recorded in the Westminster the common understanding. ‘Confession of Faith’. This sabbath is then kept holy unto As it is of the law of nature, that, in the Lord, when men, after a due general, a due proportion of time be preparing of their hearts, and set apart for the worship of God; so, ordering of their common affairs in his word, by a positive, moral, before-hand, do not only observe an and perpetual commandment, bind- holy rest all the day from their own ing all men in all ages, he hath par- works, words, and thoughts about ticularly appointed one day in their worldly employments and seven for a sabbath, to be kept holy recreations; but also are taken up unto him: which, from the begin- the whole time in the publick and ning of the world to the resurrec-

24 ‘Confession’ Chapter XXI, VII, in West- 23 Packer, Among God’s Giants, p. 311. minster Confession, p. 95. Facing New Paradigms in Worship 345

private exercises of his worship, clude that this approach to keeping the and in the duties of necessity and Sabbath would greatly impact their mercy.25 Sunday lifestyles, and indeed it would. It has already been stated that the But the Puritans never considered this Puritans did not view the Lord’s Day as lifestyle to be drudgery. Rather, they a day of rest in the sense of a day of believed it was a duty before God that inactivity. In fact, they believed that it should be accepted with delight. And was a sin to waste time on any day, and what could cause more joy than wor- even more so on the Sabbath.26 Even shipping the Lord? What could be more though they desired that people would freeing than doing those things that rest from their normal business and are pleasing to him? What could be bet- worldly talk and activities, they ter than doing that for which God cre- replaced this with an immense amount ated us? of spiritual activity. According to the Even if we do not fully agree with ‘Directory for the Publick Worship of the Puritans’ understanding of a Chris- God,’ individuals and families should tian Sabbath, they still give us ample prepare themselves for worshipping reason to reconsider our use of Sun- God by praying for themselves and for day. Their conclusions about how the their minister. In addition, they should Lord’s Day should be used were based meet together with other believers to worship the Lord, spend time reading, upon principles they derived from their meditating on, or repeating the con- study of the Bible. Their determination tents of the sermon (especially within to refrain from certain activities on the families), catechizing the members of Lord’s Day was similarly based upon the family,27 praying, singing psalms, their understanding of Scripture. Fol- visiting the sick, coming to the aid of lowing their lead, we need to consider the poor, and practising the ‘duties of what influences our decisions about piety, charity, and mercy’.28 how to spend that day. Are we guided Many modern Christians will con- more by the world or God’s word? If we take the position that all days are alike, we then need to ask when we will work on developing our spiritual lives 25 ‘Confession’ Chapter XXI, VIII, in West- minster Confession, pp. 95-6. and when we will schedule the acts of 26 Packer, Among God’s Giants, p. 317, piety, charity, and mercy that the Puri- quotes John Dod and Robert Cleaver, A Plaine tans believed were a fundamental part and Familiar Exposition of the Ten Command- of the Christian lifestyle. Were they ments (London: 1628), p. 143, as saying, ‘Idle- correct in their understanding of Scrip- ness is a sinne every day: but much more on the Lord’s Day.’ ture with regard to the Sabbath and a 27 The Puritans included household ser- Christian lifestyle? If not, why not? If vants as members of the family who should so, how should that influence our receive spiritual instruction and who should actions today? If we desire to worship be freed from work in order to take part fully God in a way that pleases him, it is in the worship of God. 28 ‘Directory,’ in Westminster Confession, p. essential that we consider why we do 386. or do not do certain things on Sunday. 346 Walter McConnell

Conclusion ship, it does lay the foundation upon We began by looking at the new which the structure should be built, a emphasis placed on worship in the foundation that the Puritans discerned church in recent years, an emphasis was made up of prayer, the ministry of that should give us reason to rejoice, as the word, the singing of psalms, the churches seek to relate to God in an administration and reception of the intimate and personal way. This desire sacraments, and keeping the Sabbath. to meet with God has led to the devel- From their perspective, any worship opment of new paradigms of worship, designed without taking this biblical and, in some cases, the resurrection of foundation into account, will be a old forms. That people should want to memorial to man’s ingenuity, some- worship in a fresh way is understand- thing the Puritans would have pro- able and desirable. But as we have claimed carnal, not worthy of God’s seen in our analysis of Puritan wor- great glory. ship, any changes we make should What is needed in the modern come, not as a reaction against an old church is for people to reevaluate their form simply because it is old, but only worship in the light of Scripture and after spending time and effort thinking the historical precedence of the about the biblical and theological church. The guideposts set out by the aspects of worship. Worship is, after Puritans as they identified the basic all, a spiritual activity that focuses on biblical elements of worship, should a spiritual being — the Triune God who serve as route markers for us to follow has revealed himself in the Bible. It is as we think through the many possible also an activity that can be rightly per- ways to worship our Lord. And even if we do not agree with them on every formed only by people whose hearts detail, we will find that the Puritans have been spiritually awakened. will make excellent guides as we As the Puritans insisted, our wor- search for the treasure of worship ship must be based upon what is taught today. If worship is the missing jewel in the Bible. Whether or not they were of the evangelical church, we had bet- correct to insist that nothing should be ter rediscover it, polish it up, and make added to worship that is not specifi- sure that it is mounted in the best set- cally mentioned in Scripture, the Puri- ting possible, for as one of the Puritans tans were surely correct to search rightly stated, ‘worship is the nearest God’s word in order to ensure that they resemblance of heaven’.29 performed everything that is pre- scribed there. While the Bible does not instruct us as to the proper method 29 David Clarkson, Works, III (Edinburgh: with regard to all the details of wor- James Nichol, 1865), p. 194. ERT (2005) 29:4, 347-362 Fighting Fire with Fire: Community Formation in 1 Corinthians 12-14

David A. Ackerman

KEY WORDS: Corinthians, love, mind the 21st century where on any given of Christ, spiritual gifts, tongues Sunday diversity may include age, gen- speaking, Christian maturity, commu- der, social or economic status, cultural nity formation background, language and denomina- tional heritage, what can draw us together rather than pull us apart? The Crisis When certain individuals or groups call for rights, power or position, how can Friction can be a good thing when it church leaders focus the church on its sharpens dull edges, but if allowed to purpose for existence? Paul’s experi- progress unchecked, it can create ence with the Corinthian church can excessive heat, eventually igniting a offer us some valuable and applicable fire. We laugh at the joke that a church lessons for developing the church as split over the colour of the carpet, but community. experience tells us that the smallest When Paul wrote 1 Corinthians, he spark can ignite an explosive situation. was facing a community that was heat- Sometimes the fuel for the fire is ing up because of unchecked friction clearly evident, for example, if there is between the members. The church had immorality among church leadership. not yet caught fire, but all the ingredi- Other times, the problems are deeper, ents were present for catastrophe. more subtle, and only over time do they Some forestry services have learned an appear. When we begin to look at the important lesson: sometimes it is nec- issues, we may find that most church essary to prevent damaging fire by problems can be traced back to deeper burning ‘fire lines’ or ‘controlled spiritual matters. Jesus prayed, ‘Make burns’. This is exactly what Paul does them one, Father’ (John 17:21). The in this letter. Paul assumes the posi- question is, how? In congregations of tion of a pastor trying to quell dissen-

David A. Ackerman is an ordained minister in the Church of the Nazarene and lectures in Bible at Nazarene Theological College, Thornlands, Queensland. He earned his Ph.D. in Biblical Interpretation from Iliff School of Theology and the University of Denver (2000). Previously he taught at Asia-Pacific Nazarene Theological Seminary in Manila, Philippines, and was editor of the seminary journal, The Mediator. 348 David A. Ackerman sion in a church that has lost its focus the Corinthians. If he is successful, on the cross. this positive friction should put an end From Paul’s perspective, the criti- to any negative friction within the com- cal problem with the Corinthian Chris- munity. If he is unsuccessful, the tians was that they failed to develop disharmony within the community ‘the mind of Christ’ (1 Cor. 2:16). His could eventually destroy the fellowship primary concern is the spiritual imma- and ruin the church’s witness to unbe- turity of these believers. He writes in lievers; this ‘church’ would fail to be 3:1, ‘I cannot address you as spiritual ekklesia, the ones ‘called out’ of the (pneumatikois) but as fleshly (sarki- world to be united with Christ. The crit- nois), as infants in Christ.’ All the vari- ical tension is not behind the text, ous problems facing this church that between the members within the com- Paul addresses throughout the letter munity, but within the text, between can be traced back to this critical issue. Paul’s ideal of unity in Christ and the Significant in this letter is how Paul failure of the community to reach this attempts to resolve the growing crisis ideal. If the Corinthians would conform in Corinth. It is noteworthy that Paul their behaviour to Paul’s ideal, then begins the first section of his letter the problems with being community with the message of the cross (1:18- would have the necessary reference 2:16). In the foolishness and weakness point for being resolved. of the cross lay hope for the Corinthi- There are many passages in the let- ans to experience the power and ter that could illustrate this point. Per- strength of a church united in Christ. haps one of the most revealing comes Paul devotes a significant amount of after Paul’s call to imitate Christ in the letter to exhorting the Corinthians 11:1. This verse concludes a major sec- to act like the ‘saints’ God had called tion on the topic of eating food sacri- them to be (1:2). Although they had ficed to idols (8:1-10:33) and prepares been purchased and freed from sin at a for issues related to the community supremely high price, they were not liv- gathered for worship. The critical ing like redeemed people (6:19-20). question in the letter is this: what does They were still being adversely imitating Christ involve? What does it affected by their pagan environment. mean to have the mind of Christ in the Internally, their lack of fellowship as a pluralistic city of Corinth? The answer community showed in their lack of love comes in the middle of a difficult and for one another. Externally, they failed somewhat controversial section of the to distinguish themselves from their letter. unbelieving neighbours by avoiding In chapters 12-14, Paul tackles behaviour inconsistent with a holy what may lie at the heart of the ethic. Corinthians’ self-understanding. At Paul attempts to create dissonance issue in these chapters are ‘spiritual between their behaviour and the model things’ (ta pneumatika, 12:1). The provided by Christ on the cross (11:1). Corinthians may have considered The power of his words should create themselves to be mature (teleos, 1:6) friction between his interpretation of believers because of certain gifts of the the cross and the present behaviours of Spirit. Their use (and perhaps abuse) Fighting Fire with Fire 349 of these gifts, however, only showed Paul reminds the Corinthians through- deeper problems. Paul’s goal in chap- out chapters 12 and 14 that their ters 12-14 is to free the Corinthi-ans behaviour modelled the unbelieving from their ignorance (agnoien) about Gentiles around them and was incon- being spiritual (pneumatikos; 12:1). sistent with living ‘in Christ’ (see Paul has already foreshadowed his 14:23). They needed clear direction in argument earlier in the letter in 8:1-3 their community and a new definition where he uses the key words ‘knowl- of spirituality. edge’ (gnosis) and ‘love’ (agape), which The modern reader must carefully are also important terms in chapters discern Paul’s method of argumenta- 12 and 13. The ignorance of the tion in these chapters to find the clues Corinthians was already demonstrated to help resolve church division. Paul in chapter 8 by their lack of love for the cautiously crafts his argument in these weaker members of the community. In chapters lest he create too much fric- chapters 12-14, Paul goes on to con- tion and cause the Corinthians to burn demn their wrong interpretation of his letter. In order to avoid this, he spirituality. Gifts of the Spirit can be uses a rhetorical feature called insinu- wonderful tools for the church if put atio. Insinuatio is used in difficult situ- through the filter of the cross, but if ations when the audience may be hos- used in self-service, they can become tile and the speaker must criticize the fuel for a fiery demise. something highly favoured by the audi- ence. The author hides the subject mat- Internal Combustion ter behind something else at the begin- 2 Paul confronts the same underlying ning and later articulates it. Paul here problems in chapters 11-14 as he does hides the problem of speaking in elsewhere in the letter. The more tongues behind the issues of spiritual apparent problem is exhibited in the gifts and unity in the Spirit. The more Corinthians’ spiritual enthusiasm and pressing issue for him is the Corinthi- individualism without regard for com- ans’ faulty understanding and practice munity most clearly seen in speaking of community. in ‘tongues’ (glossolalia), resulting in The unifying force in the commu- the breakdown of ‘fellowship’ nity is the Holy Spirit who enables (koinonia). The deeper problem is sim- believers to confess, ‘Jesus is Lord’. An ply a lack of love for others. They could indicator of being ‘spiritual’ is to rec- show their spiritual maturity by ognize Jesus as Lord. Being ‘unspiri- enhancing their fellowship of love. tual’ is shown by ‘cursing’ Jesus. If the In 12:2 Paul attributes their igno- rance to their former lives as unbeliev- ing Gentiles, led aimlessly about as in a pagan procession.1 In a subtle way, 2 Joop F. M. Smit, ‘Argument and Genre of 1 Corinthians 12-14’, in Rhetoric and the New Testament, ed. Stanley E. Porter and Thomas H. Olbricht (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1993), p. 1 Terence Paige, ‘1 Corinthians 12.2: A 213, referring to Cicero, De inventione 1.15, 20- Pagan Pompe?’ JSNT 44 (1991), pp. 57-65. 21; 1.17.23-24. 350 David A. Ackerman

Holy Spirit is indeed present in this ans: knowledge, tongues, and community, then any ‘speaking’ about prophecy. The position of tongues as Jesus must proclaim him as Lord (cf. last in all the lists in this chapter (12:8- John 16:13-15). The mature Christian 10, 28, 29, 30) suggests it lies at the community is made up of individual core of Paul’s problem with commu- believers who are Christ-focused and nity.4 By putting tongues last and giv- Spirit-filled. It is significant theologi- ing prophecy a more prominent place, cally that Paul begins his discussion of Paul may be preparing his audience for spiritual gifts in the context of Chris- his argument in chapter 14.5 A careful tology, for in Christ lies the answer for look at Paul’s argument in chapter 14 both unity in the church and empower- will reveal his intent for this church. ment for service. At the foot of the In chapter 14, Paul compares cross sits the crucible where the Holy tongues and prophecy. He uses the Spirit melts and moulds the community verb ‘to speak’ (laleo) 24 times in vari- into conformity to the gospel and char- ous forms in this chapter, which sug- acter of Christ. Without the cross, the gests that his problem with the gifts of the Spirit become rallying Corinthians at this point lies with com- points for self-glorification. Without munication.6 Evidently, the Corinthi- the Spirit, the power of the cross is not ans gloried in their ability to speak in able to penetrate to the inner person tongues just as they boasted in their where transformation takes place (see wisdom (sophia, chs. 1-4) and freedom 2:14-16). or authority (exousia, chs. 5-10). They The real issue with this church from may have sought to speak in tongues Paul’s perspective is spiritual matu- because of the impressive nature of rity, or better stated, maturity in the tongues and their eschatological orien- Spirit, and so he attempts in these tation to understand ‘mysteries’ chapters to define further what it (14:2).7 Paul attempts to put the out- means to be ‘spiritual’ (pneumatikos) wardly visible gifts of prophecy and by discussing ‘spiritual gifts’ (charis- tongues into the greater context of mata). The word charismata basically community edification and, by this, to denotes the manifesta-tion of charis or offer the Corinthians an example of ‘grace’. This is a uniquely Pauline word, with half of all uses of the term occurring in 1 Corinthians.3 Paul gives three different lists of ‘spiritual gifts’ 4 Archibald Robertson and A. Plummer, A in this chapter (verses 8-10, 28, and Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the First 29-30). Three of the listed gifts appear Epistle of St. Paul to the Corinthians (Edin- at the centre of discussion and con- burgh: T and T Clark, 1914), p. 280. tention between Paul and the Corinthi- 5 Prophecy is the only consistent gift listed by Paul in all his lists of spiritual gifts (1 Cor. 12:8-11, 28-30; 13:1-2; Rom. 12:6-8). 6 Verse 2 thrice, 3, 4, 5 twice, 6 twice, 9 twice, 11 twice, 13, 18, 19, 21, 23, 27, 28, 29, 3 Rom. 1:11; 5:15, 16; 6:23; 11:29; 1 Cor. 34, 35, 39. 1:7; 7:7; 12:4, 9, 28, 30, 31; 2 Cor. 1:11; 1 Tim. 7 D. L. Baker, ‘The Interpretation of 1 Cor. 4:14; 2 Tim. 1:6; 1 Pet. 4:10. 12-14’, EVQ 46 (1974), p. 230. Fighting Fire with Fire 351 how love within the community over- prophecy. comes personal preferences (14:18-19; In the remainder of this chapter, see further 8:13). Paul develops this thought through Chapter 14 begins and ends with an veiled logic: speaking in tongues fails appeal to keep on seeking love (14:1, the test of being intelligent and under- 39). Paul gives love as the goal of ‘spir- standable, and thus also fails to edify itual gifts’ in 12:31, and in 14:1 he the community (vv. 6-19), but prophecy applies this to the communication meets this test (vv. 20-25). Therefore, problems at Corinth. He shifts his prophecy should be the means of com- attention in 14:1 from ‘spiritual gifts’ munication within the community (vv. to ‘spiritual matters’. The spiritual 26-33a). matter or gift of the Spirit that the In the first step of his logic, Paul Corinthians should pursue relative to claims that speaking in tongues by love is the ability to prophesy. Paul itself serves no purpose in the commu- emphasizes the gift of prophecy in this nity because such speaking does not context as a better gift for the commu- build up the community. Communica- nity because it edifies the gathered tion that benefits the church comes by church. He states this as a thesis in ‘revelation, knowledge, prophecy, or verses 2 and 3, and summarizes it in teaching’ (v. 6). He could be implying verse 4: ‘The one who speaks a tongue here that tongues cannot be described edifies one’s self, but the one who with any of these words unless it is prophesies edifies the church.’ This is made intelligible. He uses several illus- a significant assessment of tongues in trations to demonstrate the unintelligi- the context of the letter because of bility of tongues (flute, harp, horn, Paul’s insistence on placing the con- voices or languages) and then applies cerns of others over those of oneself. these images to the community in He recognizes tongues as a divine gift verses 9 and 12. His basic point is that and does not attempt to hinder the speaking in tongues fails the test of Spirit by totally disregarding speaking intelligibility and therefore has no in tongues, but by his numerous quali- value for the gathered community. He fications of it, especially the significant does give one exception to this princi- one given in verse 4, he basically ple: there must be someone to interpret assigns it an inferior position in the life the meaning of the tongues (v. 13). of the gathered community.8 Tongues He presses the unintelligibility speaking can become useful to the theme in verses 14-17. The speaker in community only if it is interpreted, tongues loses control of the mind even which then makes it equivalent to though his or her spirit is praying.

8 Jerome Murphy-O’Connor, 1 Corinthians in tongues here as part of his rhetorical strat- (Wilmington, DL: M. Glazier, 1979), p. 106. egy. See Joop F. M. Smit, ‘Argument and Perhaps the critical interpretive issue in the Genre of 1 Corinthians 12-14’, in Rhetoric and modern phenomenon of ‘speaking in tongues’ the New Testament, ed. Stanley E. Porter and is the divine-human mix. We also need to allow Thomas H. Olbricht (Sheffield, UK: JSOT that Paul may not blatantly condemn speaking Press, 1993), pp. 211-30. 352 David A. Ackerman

Likewise, others (literally, ‘the one self, something that will ultimately who fills the place of the idiotes’9) can- lead to division and destruction. Paul not understand the message. Paul then then begins to distance tongues from describes his personal use and evalua- prophecy with a quotation from Isaiah tion of speaking in tongues in verses 28:11-12 which stresses the nonsense 18-19. His statement in verse 18 that of speaking in tongues for those who he speaks in tongues more than any of do not know its meaning. He gives the the Corinthians is qualified by a strong real danger with tongues in the com- adversative in verse 19: ‘BUT in the munity in verses 23-25: speaking in church I would rather speak five intel- tongues fails to convict and lead to ligible words to instruct others than worship of God. Unbelievers will call ten thousand words in a tongue.’ tongues speakers mad or insane and be Although he speaks in ‘myriads’ or ten repelled from the message of the thousand words in a tongue, he would gospel (v. 23). Prophecy, on the other rather speak five words that make hand, confronts unbelievers with the sense and edify the community. power of God and leads to salvation (cf. Paul then moves on to show how 12:3). It is not that speaking in tongues prophecy meets the test of intelligibil- is good or bad, but that if allowed to ity and edification. In verse 20, he supersede its intent, it becomes only makes a possible association between another human effort to be ‘wise’ and speaking in tongues and being imma- ‘strong’ (1:25). ture (cf. 3:1-4). Because the Corinthi- In verses 26-33, Paul goes on to ans emphasized speaking in tongues, qualify the only positive use of tongues they were still immature in their think- in the church. His logic is rather ing. Christian maturity is governed by straightforward. For tongues to have love, not the display of certain spiritual any value in the church they must be gifts. Whenever any spiritual gift fails interpreted. In other words, tongues to lead people to Christ, it ceases being must become like prophecy and be intelli- a gift of the Spirit who points to Christ gible to the community in order that the and becomes a means to glorify the community might be edified, convicted, or encouraged. For tongues, or any spiritual gift, to be useful for the church, it must draw attention to the 9 The term can mean an amateur or non- cross of Christ and not be a jewel in the specialist. It can refer to non-members who crown of self. If there is no interpreter, participate in sacrifices (Walter Bauer, A tongues should not be spoken. Speak- Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature, Second revi- ing in tongues must involve more than sion by William F. Arndt, F. W. Gingrich, and one person, while prophecy has no Frederick Danker [Chicago: University of such restriction (v. 31). Possibly one of Chicago Press, 1979], p. 370). It is difficult to Paul’s most stinging rebukes of the determine whether Paul is referring to ‘out- tongue speakers comes in verse 33: siders’ who visit the community or those who ‘For God is not one of disorder or con- are amateurs at speaking in tongues. More to the point is that whoever they were, they could fusion but of peace.’ Prophecy con- not understand what the speakers in tongues tributes to God’s purpose of love in the meant. community, while uninterpreted glos- Fighting Fire with Fire 353 solalia leads only to the breakdown of Adding Fuel to the Fire community and witness. Any ‘spiritual A question often asked of these chap- gift’, no matter how spectacular or ters is, why does Paul deal with even how needed within a church, can tongues speaking only in this letter become a barrier to having the ‘mind of and only with this church? This ques- Christ’ if it is not first put through the tion is probably impossible to answer filter of Christ’s love (13:1-3). with certainty, but understanding the Paul then shows in verses 34-36 religious and cultural environment of that his discussion about tongues is these early believers gives us more of meant to make some in the church an appreciation for their struggles uncomfortable. Apparently there was a towards Christian maturity. Their group of women in the church who did internal problems had external influ- not submit in love to the needs of the ences. If Christ was not their example, community and may have been exalt- then what or who was? ing themselves by speaking out in the The tongues speaking by the times of gathering. These unknown Corinthians has interesting parallels in women were creating the same type of the Hellenistic world of the first cen- confusion evidenced by the tongues tury, which may have influenced this speakers, and Paul mentions them practice by some in the church. One here as proof of his basic point. possible source for this practice may Verse 37 begins the conclusion to have been the Platonic view of Paul’s argument. A conclusion in let- prophecy. Plato distinguished two ters of this time served as an author’s types of prophecy, the first being man- last opportunity to convince the read- tic prophecy, seen in divine possession ers to accept his or hers views, often and inspiration where the prophet giving the good and the bad alterna- serves as the mouthpiece for the tives.10 Paul likewise states the two divine. The mantic goes into a trance alternatives in his discussion in verse and becomes the passive instrument of 39 by way of two infinitive clauses: the divine. The second type of prophecy seek the gift of prophesying, and use is interpretation, where skill is acquired the gift of speaking in tongues in the through practice, and the prophet right way. The bottom line is that all remains in control of him or herself.11 things should be done decently and in Losing one’s mind is part of the order (v. 40). The potential for division process of divination. Cicero (c. 43 B. existed if the Corinthians accepted C.) described this as a soul in frenzy tongues speaking without qualifica- without any reason.12 Plutarch (c. 60- tion. Thus, Paul has subtly side-lined 127 A.D.) wrote that the soul of the tongues speaking and left the better mantis expels sense or mind.13 choice to be love in community. Noteworthy similarities can also be

11 Plato, Tim. 71E-72B; Phdr. 244A-B. 12 Philo, Quis Her. 1.2.4. 10 Quintilian, Inst. 4.1.28-30; 6.1.9-13. 13 Plutarch, De def. or. 432C. 354 David A. Ackerman seen between the Corinthians and the Two nearby practices that may also Hellenistic Jew, Philo. Philo was a Pla- have influenced the Corinthian believ- tonist who viewed prophecy in a way ers were the Oracle at Delphi and the similar to Plato. He distinguished four worship of Dionysus. One of the most types of ecstasy: frantic delirium, famous places of prophetic activity in excessive consternation, tranquillity of the Greco-Roman world was the Oracle the mind, and divinely inspired enthu- at Delphi located less than 50 kilome- siasm. The last type is the best for a tres from Corinth. A priestess, known person to have and involves the inspi- as the Pythia, was the medium of reve- ration of God.14 It is also characteristic lation at Delphi.20 There is some debate of the prophets in the scriptures of as to what happened with the priest- whom Moses is the chief example.15 ess, but apparently she descended into One of Philo’s goals was to experience a pit and sat upon a tripod whereupon prophetic ecstasy, according to the she entered into a trance or some form model of Moses, that came by inspira- of ecstasy. Tatian wrote, ‘Some woman tion of the Holy Spirit.16 When the mind by drinking water gets into a frenzy, is ‘agitated and drawn into a frenzy by and loses her senses by the fumes of heavenly love’, it can enter into frankincense, and you say that she has prophetic ecstasy, leave the body, and the gift of prophecy.’21 The prophetess discern the things of God.17 Speech in would speak ‘strange words’ that she this state stumbles about vainly, ‘being did not understand and that needed the unable by common expressions to give interpretation of a priest who would a clear representation and understand- then reveal the message to the ing of the peculiar properties of the inquirer.22 subjects with which it was dealing.’18 Connected with the activity at Del- The mindless state of the Corinthians’ phi was the worship of Apollo. Apollo speaking in tongues, as Paul describes was an important deity in Corinth since it in 14:14-15, is similar to Philo’s a temple to him was located next to the understanding of ecstatic prophecy.19 Lechaeum Road, the main road through Corinth. Apollo was the god of prophecy and one of the most impor- tant gods in Greek epic. As the son of 14 Philo, Quis Her. 249. Zeus, Apollo interpreted the signs of 15 Philo, Quis Her. 260-63. his father.23 He was the god of healing 16 Philo, Leg. All. III.100-4; Mig. 34-35; Quod Deus 1-3; Gig. 47. 17 Philo, Quis Her. 69-70. 18 Philo, Quis Her. 72, from The Works of 20 Euripides, Ion 42, 91, 321. Philo, trans. by C. D. Yonge (Peabody, MA: 21 Tatian, Or. ad Graec. 19, trans. by Molly Hendrickson, 1993). Whittaker (Oxford; New York: Clarendon 19 For links between Philo and the Corinthi- Press, 1982). ans at this point, see Birger A. Pearson, The 22 Plutarch, Mor. 406. For a different inter- Pneumatikos-psychikos Terminology in 1 pretation of the evidence, see F. J. Fontenrose, Corinthians; A Study in the Theology of the The Delphic Oracle (Berkeley: University of Cal- Corinthian Opponents of Paul and Its Relation to ifornia, 1978), pp. 10, 217-18. Gnosticism (Missoula: Society of Biblical Liter- 23 Walter Burkert, Greek Religion (Cam- ature, 1973), pp. 45-46. bridge, MA: Harvard University, 1985), p. 111. Fighting Fire with Fire 355 and the father of Asclepius (another ing for others (v. 13). It is not beyond god of healing), as well as the god of possibility that some of the women in purification and cryptic oracles. Often the fellowship had visited the oracle disease was viewed as pollution that and had been inspired by the prophet- needed to be purified. Purification esses there. These women may have came through prescribed action made been a major cause of dissension in the known through super-human knowl- church (vv. 34-36).25 Could Paul have edge gained from oracles. Indirect and had in mind the mindless worship of veiled revelation belonged especially Dionysus when he refers to tongues to Apollo who was called Loxias or speaking? It is impossible to tell, but Oblique. the similarities between the Corinthi- A second source of prophetic activ- ans and these cults are striking.26 ity in Corinth possibly known to the Although Paul’s letter is not Christians there was the cult of Diony- explicit, we are still left with the possi- sus. A wooden image of Dionysus cov- bility that the Corinthians’ speaking ered with gold was seen in the Agora activities had been influenced to some (marketplace) of Corinth by Pausanias degree by their Hellenistic environ- who lived in the second century A.D.24 ment. Philo or Platonism, the Oracle of Dionysus was the god of fertility, ani- Delphi, the Dionysiac cult, or any com- mal maleness, wine, drama, and bination of these could have provided ecstasy. He was believed to be present examples of prophetic inspiration to in raw animal flesh, the wine goblet, the Corinthians, not to exclude the pos- theatre performance, and ecstasy. sibility that some of the Corinthians Images show Dionysus always sur- may have even practised such rounded by frenzied male and female prophetic activity before joining the 27 worshippers. The Dionysus cult was church. The assumption behind known for its ritual ecstasy. The wor- Paul’s claim in 14:23 is that if out- shippers often danced to music until in siders visited the church and saw such a frenzied state when they believed activity, they would associate the they became filled with the god and the Corinthians with the frenzy of the god could speak and act through them. manic prophets of the time. Paul’s aim These examples show some curious similarities with what Paul writes about in his letter. For example, the 25 This is the thesis of Antoinette Clark Wire Corinthians’ speaking in tongues is in The Corinthian Women Prophets: A Recon- similar to Plato’s first category of struction through Paul’s Rhetoric (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990). ecstatic prophecy. To counter this, 26 See also Terrance Callan, ‘Prophecy and Paul urges them to seek the gift of Ecstasy in Greco-Roman Religion and in 1 prophecy which uses the mind (14:14). Corinthians’, NovT 27 (1985), pp. 125-40; Like the oracles at Delphi, tongues Christopher Forbes, ‘Early Christian Inspired must be interpreted to have any mean- Speech and Hellenistic Popular Religion’, NovT 28 (1986), pp. 257-70. 27 See further H. W. House, ‘Tongues and the Mystery Religions of Corinth’, BSac 140 24 Pausanias, Desc. of Gr. 2.2.6. (1983), pp. 134-50. 356 David A. Ackerman is to point the Corinthians to the supe- ‘inside’ from those ‘outside’ the rior goal of ‘having the mind of Christ’ church.29 In chapters 8-14 he moves on and not modelling the world around to define what should happen inside the them. When we do not look to the cross community, yet without disregarding for our example, then someone or the community’s relationship with something will take the place, and those outside the church (14:23-25). everything else, even things that Paul uses the tools at hand to bring appear ‘religious’ or ‘spiritual,’ fails about this vital paradigm shift. He basi- the test and will ultimately lead to the cally has three ways to do this: 1) the breakdown of community. God in his persuasive power of his words, 2) the wisdom and power provides the Corinthians’ own desire for spiritual answer in a way that calls us to reverse maturity, and 3) his relationship with course and sometimes run against the the Corinthians as their spiritual influences of the world around us. ‘father’ (4:14-21). Paul uses his posi- tion of power to challenge the Corinthi- ans to accept his interpretation of spir- The Essential Paradigm Shift itual maturity; he uses their desire for In his concern for community forma- spirituality to shame them for their tion, Paul offers the Corinthians a dif- inappropriate behaviour relative to imi- ferent perspective and a new paradigm tating Christ; and he carefully crafts that positively influences relationships his arguments throughout the letter to within the community. Wilhelm Wuell- accomplish this paradigm shift. He ner comments that Paul attempts to reverses common perceptions of create a new social order by ‘transfor- power, gender, and social status, thus mation of the multiplicity of different creating a community governed by social and ethnic/cultural value sys- eternal criteria and not the limitations tems into a unity’.28 of creation or culture. Believers bound Paul attempts to set up a protective in fellowship to Christ can become a boundary of love and holiness around unified community where the typical the Corinthian church. The ‘mind of positions of shame—being poor, Christ’ sets the boundary and defines female, or a slave—are put on a par the church as the people of God. Sim- with positions of honour—being rich, ply stated, to have the mind of Christ male, or free. The same is true con- involves imitating him by living a life of cerning the more public gifts of love in response to the movement of tongues and prophecy. the Holy Spirit in one’s life. In chapters Speaking in tongues represented a 5-7 Paul attempts to distinguish those position of power and honour for the

28 Wilhelm Wuellner, ‘Paul as Pastor: The 29 For Paul’s symbolic universe and descrip- Function of Rhetorical Questions in First tion of ‘insider’ ‘outsider’ language, see Corinthians’, in Apôtre Paul: personnalité, style Jerome H. Neyrey, Paul in Other Words: A Cul- et conception du ministère, ed. A. Vanhoye, 49- tural Reading of His Letters (Louisville: West- 77; BETL 73 (Leuven: Leuven University, minster/John Knox, 1990), pp. 21-55, espe- 1986) p. 73. cially pp. 31ff. Fighting Fire with Fire 357

Corinthians and a possible cause for can be discerned Paul’s own self-pre- boasting. Because of the interest in sentation. Of the seven attributes of ecstatic speech in the vicinity of the rhetorical ‘I’ given in the passage, Corinth, some of the Corinthians may all of the them can be attributed to have been drawn to this charisma out of Paul: Paul spoke in ‘tongues’ (14:18), a desire to be spiritual, but by doing functioned as a prophet (2:2-16; 7:40; this, they created religious stratifica- 14:6; Gal. 1:15-16), knew mysteries (1 tion between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have Cor. 2:1, 7), had knowledge, especially nots’. Paul turns this around and chal- of the ways of God (2:12, 16), could lenges them to give more honour to the perform miracles (2 Cor. 12:12; Rom. hidden gifts which are just as impor- 15:19; cf. Acts 14:3; 16: 16-24; 19:11; tant to community life as the more vis- 28:3-6), gave up himself for Christ (2 ible gifts. The more ‘honourable’ gifts Cor. 4:7-15).30 Paul’s way, as demon- of tongues, prophecy, knowledge, strated through his lifestyle and faith, and even martyrdom count as described in his letter, is the better way nothing without love (13:1-3). When because it reflects Christ (11:1). the Holy Spirit begins to grow a person Then, in 13:4-8a, Paul subtly criti- in Christ, the result will be humility and cizes the Corinthians’ defective spiritu- consideration for others (Phil. 2:1-11; ality. According to James G. Sigountos, Gal. 5:23). Paul’s description of what love is not The new paradigm is given in chap- matches the behavioural problems in ter 13. Love is the greatest manifesta- Corinth. The word ‘jealous’ recalls the tion of being in Christ and the most hon- party strife mentioned in 3:3. The ourable gift to seek. Paul makes a sig- phrase ‘is not puffed up’ speaks to the nificant comparison in this chapter spiritual pride of the Corinthians evi- between his behaviour and that of the dent behind Paul’s rhetoric in many Corinthians. First, in 13:1-3 he puts places in the letter (4:6, 19, 19; 5:2; himself in the position of honour by his 8:1). Then, ‘does not seek the things of willingness to allow love to take prece- itself’ recalls how some of the Corinthi- dence over all the ‘honourable’ gifts ans sought their own good and over- that the Corinthians may have cher- looked the weaker members of the ished. Carl R. Holladay points out the body (10:24, 33). similarities between chapters 13 and 9, The other attributes of love also and suggests that Paul uses the first describe the attitudes and actions of person singular in chapter 13 to offer the Corinthians without using specific himself as an example of love. In chap- words from earlier in the letter. The ter 9, ‘Paul adduces himself as the con- words Paul uses are rare or are used crete paradigm of voluntary, responsi- ble self-restraint for the self-indulgent Corinthians’. He then uses this same apostolic paradigm in chapter 13 in the 30 Carl R. Holladay, ‘1 Corinthians 13: Paul context of community worship to show as Apostolic Paradigm’, in Greeks, Romans, and Christians: Essays in Honor of Abraham J. the blameworthiness of the behaviour Malherbe, eds. David L. Balch, Everette Fergu- of the Corinthians. son, and Wayne A. Meeks (Minneapolis, MN: Holladay argues that behind 13:1-3 Fortress, 1990), p. 84. 358 David A. Ackerman only here in the New Testament, but digms as ‘fleshly’ (sarkinoi) people they address the broader contextual (3:1-3) and failed to see the eschato- issues in the letter. The word ‘be con- logical significance of existence in ceited’ evokes images of rhetorical Christ. boasting which Paul attacks indirectly Ben Witherington comments that in 2:1. The word ‘shameful’ has the love in Christ is the one attribute that connotation of acting indecently in a bridges present reality to the eschato- sexual way, part of the problem in logical reality.32 Paul contends that chapters 5-7. The word ‘provoked’ may love outlasts prophecy, tongues, and refer back to the fractures in the com- knowledge (13:8) since it is the char- munity characterized by strife and jeal- acteristic of the ‘perfect’ or ‘mature’ ousy in chapters 1-4. The phrase (teleioi). Love is the indicator of the ‘counts the bad’ speaks to the problem new existence in Christ inaugurated by of revenge in lawsuits discussed in 6:1- his death and resurrection. The ‘gifts’ 8. Finally, ‘rejoices in the unrighteous’ of the Spirit cannot violate or take the as last of the negative statements and place of love as the highest attribute of in emphatic position addresses the being in Christ without doing violence general disregard for personal and to the church. This was the danger fac- community holiness evident in chap- ing the Corinthians. Their individual- 31 ters 5-11. ism and lack of love created unhealthy Love is the ultimate paradigm for friction in the church and a barrier to relationships within community and unbelievers. Their display of gifts led will also be the mark of the age to come not to faith but to alienation and fur- (13:10-12). Paul wants the Corinthians ther unbelief (14:21-22). They gave to apply this eschatological ethic in permanence to the temporal and their present community since they neglected love, the true mark of the had been redeemed and freed from the eschaton. powers of this world (1:30; 6:19-20). They were not to live according to an ethic found in this world or this age but A Return to the Cross an ethic characteristic of the age to How do you nurture community when come. The source and goal of their spir- certain individuals or groups seem to itual gifts ought to be the Crucified hold more power or persuasion than One. The real test of spiritual gifts is others, making unity in purpose and whether they cohere with the message practice only a theory for church board of the cross. The Corinthians, however, meetings? Friction within a group is remained entrenched to worldly para- natural and can be a positive force for change or to shake members from com-

31 James G. Sigountos, ‘The Genre of 1 Corinthians’, NTS 40 (1994), pp. 255-59; Robertson and Plummer write that Paul aims 32 Ben Witherington, Conflict and Community his rhetoric at the ‘special faults of the in Corinth: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary on 1 Corinthians’ (1 Corinthians, p. 292, quoted by and 2 Corinthians (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, Sigountos, p. 256, n. 54). 1995), p. 272. Fighting Fire with Fire 359 placency. Any growing group will expe- Corinthians to change how they relate rience friction as part of the maturing to one another. His letter is all about process. If the friction, however, is not change and conformity to his pattern of filtered by love, the human tendency life (4:16; 11:1), not because there is for self-glorification will contaminate anything special in himself, but the fellowship, leading to a breakdown because he represents the One who of community. brings honour to all by bringing unity in Paul begins his letter with the the community. As steward of the kerygma of Christ crucified because divine mystery (2:1, 7; 4:1), Paul has in this messages serves as the filter of mind a model for the Corinthians that love for the church in Corinth (1:18- could influence social and religious 2:16). All the crises facing these Chris- standards within the community. tians have the common denominator of What God had done for them in a failure to live by the model of the Christ should have impacted how they cross. Paul’s purpose in writing this lived as community. God revealed his letter is to urge these believers to wisdom, power, and love in the mys- ‘grow up’ in Christ (3:1-2). The choice tery of the Christ-event, for it is on the is clear. The Corinthians should have cross that true love is defined. Christ been ashamed of their boasting in cer- becomes for believers their righteous- tain gifts of the Spirit, especially ness, holiness, and redemption (1:30), speaking in tongues, which were not objectively making relationship with bringing unity but destruction to the God possible. The Holy Spirit makes community. Anything that causes divi- this a reality subjectively in a person’s sion in the church or causes certain life and teaches him or her the mind of people to be overlooked would be con- Christ (2:10-16), resulting in a life of sidered shameful by Paul and contrary love (Gal. 5:22). Love is how one who to the message of the cross. is ‘in Christ’ ought to live. Whatever Shame results in two ways. The the reports Paul may have received first occurs on the experiential level in from or about this church, his basic the Corinthian church. When individu- answer to them is love, a love lived out als are exalted within or excluded from in tangible ways and that brings hon- the Body of Christ because their spiri- our to all whom it contacts. This love tuality is deemed either superior will also confront cultural practices (because of tongues speaking) or that succumb to the dishonouring force unnecessary (because their gifts are of self-glorification, whether that be less visible than others), their isolation taking fellow Christians to court (dis- brings disharmony to the community honouring a brother, 6:1-11), sexual where everyone should have a vital immorality with temple prostitutes role to play as the ‘body of Christ’. Sec- (dishonouring our own body, 6:12-20), ond, shame results before God as peo- or even speaking in ‘tongues’ like the ple find themselves resourced by their emissaries of the gods (dishonouring own power or according to cultural the whole community, ch. 14). This norms, thus isolating themselves from church had overlooked the fundamen- the divine plan of conformity to the tal attribute of the mystery of Christ— likeness of Christ. Paul expects the the self-giving love seen in the divine 360 David A. Ackerman paradox of the cross. The most signifi- for the church. Any virtue apart from cant ‘gracing’ (charis) of God for Paul is love threatens the well-being of the communion with Christ. The Spirit will church.34 Love keeps faith and hope give other ‘gracings’ (charismata’), but ‘from deteriorating into little lapel but- these serve only to help the community tons which we flaunt to proclaim our live out communion in Christ and thus own cleverness, our own commitment, conform to the mind of Christ. or our own capacity to believe and Even though the Corinthians had trust. In reality, love means actually to been graced by the Spirit, they were be what one is together with one’s fractured and functioning like an brothers and sisters to the benefit of unhealthy body. Love is the one thing the building up of the church.’35 Love that can create unity within the God- and community go together. ordained diversity in the church. The Spiritual gifts wrestled into the ser- Corinthians may have wanted to be vice of self more often than not will ‘spiritual’ but had been going about it ultimately lead to a breakdown of love in the wrong way. Because they lacked within the community. By definition love in their community, they were and intention, spiritual gifts must be ‘nothing’, as Paul (the ‘I’) calls himself self-giving in the model of the cross. All in 13:1-3. Not all the Corinthians may gifts of the Spirit, even Paul’s favourite have had problems with tongues and gift of proclamation, can be surren- prophecy (ch. 14), but Paul’s solution dered to the abuse of selfish motives. for the church is community-wide and Paul was familiar enough with self- requires all of them to love. The gifts exalting preachers who proclaimed given to them by the Spirit (12:7) Christ out of envy and rivalry and not would remain useless for the commu- out of hearts of love (Philp. 1:15-17). nity unless accompanied by love. Ernst Käsemann comments, ‘The test of a genuine charisma lies not in the fact Fanning the Flame in Our that something supernatural occurs Churches Today but in the use which is made of it. No What makes reading and interpreting 1 spiritual endowment has value, rights Corinthians so relevant for contempo- or privilege on its own account. It is rary Christians is that human nature validated only by the service it ren- and experience have not changed ders.’33 much. Like the believers in Corinth, we Paul summarises the issues very find ourselves in communities strug- clearly at the end of the letter: ‘Let gling to be the church of Christ in a everything that concerns you be world filled with superficial love. In marked with love’ (16:14). Krister societies of litigation, rampant Stendahl remarks that love is concern

34 Krister Stendahl, Paul among Jews and 33 Ernst Käsemann, ‘Ministry and Commu- Gentiles and Other Essays (Philadelphia: nity in the New Testament’, in Essays on New Fortress, 1976), p. 58. Testament Themes, trans. W. J. Montague (Lon- 35 Stendahl, Paul among Jews and Gentiles, p. don: SCM Press, 1964), p. 67. 59. Fighting Fire with Fire 361 immorality, and glorification of the rich him, and remind them of his teaching and famous, what paradigm do we fol- (John 14:26; 16:13-15). The Holy Spirit low? We live in an age where the spec- is the divine, drawing force compelling tacular grabs the news headlines. The us to faith in Christ. As Paul says in 1 church succumbs to this glorification Cor. 2:10-16, the Spirit teaches us ‘the of ego and the pursuit of the latest. mind of Christ’. Another way to say How do we balance the need to be rel- this is that Holy Spirit helps us make evant and contemporary in message every thought captive to Christ until and method and not neglect the greater our thinking becomes his thinking, our matters of spirituality? In days of ‘pur- perception of others becomes like his pose-driven’ ministries, what power perception of others, and our love drives the church forward? Pastoral becomes self-giving like his love. The burnout is a hot topic among denomi- true greatness of the Christian faith is national leaders and theological edu- that God’s love poured out in our cators. Could misplaced priorities hearts by the Spirit (Rom. 5:5) indeed among both clergy and laity be con- transforms us into the likeness of tributing to this problem? It would not Christ (2 Cor. 3:18) and enables us to be easy for any minister to be pastor to fulfil our destiny in this world of being a church like the one in first-century the holy people of God (1 Pet. 2:9-10). Corinth. In many ways, the problems in These issues can be engaged in sev- Corinth give us warning of what not to eral ways. Theologically, the Corinthi- do as the church. Their disorderly wor- ans became focused on the Spirit and ship, neglect of the quieter, ‘weaker’ spirituality rather than Christ and rela- members, lack of fellowship, and all tionship. They considered themselves the other issues can be boiled down to ‘spiritual’ (pneumatikos) and proved the root cause of sin. When the ways of this by their demonstration of actions the world become our standard and not that could be construed by some as the mind of Christ, we will find our- divinely inspired, one of these being selves in the same danger as the speaking in tongues. Their focus on Corinthians and ancient Israel, as Paul spirituality actually lacked the one describes in chapter 10. Even though divine resource that could build up the Israel looked spiritual from the outside community—love. Paul’s evaluation of by their baptism into Moses, eating of them in chapter 14 seriously calls into spiritual food and drink, and having the question their efforts to be spiritual. very presence of God with them, they A spirituality that is not focused on yielded to temptation and participated Christ lacks the force that can unify in the evil practices of their idolatrous individual believers into a community and immoral neighbours. Paul calls the full of vitality and mission. The Spirit Corinthians back to the fundamental of cannot do his work in us when our love relationship to the Lord Jesus Christ, for God and others is not pure, when we symbolized in the community meal of pursue spirituality for any other motive the Lord’s Supper (1 Cor. 10:14-20). To except the love that God has planted in eat of the bread and drink of the wine our hearts. Jesus told his disciples that is to acknowledge the supremacy and the Spirit will lead to him, speak about sovereignty of Christ in our lives and 362 David A. Ackerman the exclusion of any other ‘lord’. in Christ impacts community and is the This is so fundamental to true spiri- necessary component for the body of tuality and to why Paul sees the deeper Christ to thrive in wholeness and unity. problem in this church to be spiritual Love should be the supreme way immaturity (3:1-3). Any human enter- Christians relate to one another in the prise, even the well-intentioned pro- church. It is the greatest evidence of grams of the church, will hinder the spiritual maturity, and without it, a divine gracing of the Spirit unless person remains a mere ‘babe in Christ’, Jesus Christ is acknowledged as Lord prone to fall into temptation and sin. both by verbal confession and through Paul wants the Corinthians to realize lives of self-giving service. The gifts of that they had been washed from the the Spirit are only means to an end and corruptions of sin and were to be dif- not the end itself. God gives these gifts ferent from their unbelieving neigh- as the channels for his love to flow bours (6:19-20). As Joop Smit notes, through us to others. If we stop this since the Corinthians continued to love by hoarding it to ourselves or by speak in tongues like pagan worship- stopping it because of our desire for pers, Paul is led to believe that nothing self-glorification, we will not grow into had changed when they became believ- mature Christians. The end result of ers in Jesus Christ.36 God’s gift of his love should be that he Paul attempts to resocialize the is exalted, not us. The cross as para- Corinthians in light of the new reality digm is not about human power and in Christ. He tries to create a new com- wisdom, but divine grace and love. munity by placing the boundary of love Fellowship with Christ should lead around the church and by enhancing to a church characterized by love for all fellowship within the church. Although members with particular care given to they could not leave the world (5:10), those who are easily overlooked, less their community boundary could be visible, or neglected. To be united with clarified. Vincent L. Wimbush com- Christ means to have the same mind as ments, ‘The world was affirmed by he (2:16), first and foremost portrayed Paul as the sphere of Christian exis- by sacrificial love for others (Philp. 2:1- tence… but the world was rejected by 11). A verse revealing of Paul’s under- him as a source of value and identity.’37 standing of the divine mystery is Gala- Their standard for behaviour should be tians 2:20: ‘I have been crucified with the love Christ modelled on the cross. Christ, and I no longer live, but Christ This standard has not changed since lives in me. The life I live now in the then. Love should still be the primary flesh, I live by faith in the son of God characteristic of all mature Christians. who loved me and gave himself in my behalf.’ Here Paul states that union with Christ through identifying with Christ in ‘death’ is a result of the prior 36 Joop F. M. Smit, ‘Tongues and Prophecy: love of Christ shown on the cross. This Deciphering 1 Cor 14:22’, Biblica 75 (1994), p. 188. union for Paul is not nebulous but 37 Vincent L. Wimbush, ‘The Ascetic experiential and rooted in community. Impulse in Ancient Christianity’, TToday 50 Love as the way of the mystery of God (1993), p. 427. ERT (2005) 29:4, 363-380 Books Reviewed Reviewed by Ray Laird Reviewed by Amos Yong Gordon D. Fee Edited by John C. England, Jose Kut- To What End Exegesis: Essays Textual, tianimattathil sdb, John Mansford Exegetical, and Theological Prior SVD, Lily A. Quintos RC, David Suh Kwang-sun, and Janice Wickeri Reviewed by Norman Barker Asian Christian Theologies: A Research Walter Brueggemann, William C. Guide to Authors, Movements, Sources Placher and Brian K. Blount Struggling with Scripture Reviewed by Andrew D. Kinsey Miriam Adeney Reviewed by David Parker Daughters of Islam: Building Bridges Nick Spencer with Muslim Women by Miriam Adeney Parochial Vision: The Future of the Eng- lish Parish Reviewed by John Sweetman Walter C. Wright Reviewed by George W. Harper Mentoring: The Promise of Relational Dale T. Irvin and Scott W. Sunquist Leadership History of the World Christian Move- ment, vol. 1: Earliest Christianity to Reviewed by David A. Ackerman 1453 Joel B. Green and Mark D. Baker Recovering the Scandal of the Cross: Reviewed by H. H. Drake Williams, III Atonement in New Testament and Con- Darrell L. Bock temporary Contexts Jesus according to the Scriptures: Restoring the Portrait from the Gospels Reviewed by John Sweetman Roger Standing Reviewed by James J. Stamoolis Finding the Plot: Preaching in Narrative Michael Griffiths Style Lambs Dancing with Wolves: A Manual for Christian Workers Overseas

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ERT (2005) 29:4, 364-365 to eidwloquta, and Philippians 2:5-11 among others. Typical of Fee’s willing- To What End Exegesis: Essays ness to swim against the tide is his han- Textual, Exegetical, and dling of the Philippian’s passage. Here he Theological argues strongly against this passage hav- Gordon D. Fee ing a former life as a hymn. He holds that it is Pauline in origin, without denying Grand Rapids / Cambridge: that some strands may have been Eerdmans and Vancouver: Regent acquired by Paul from elsewhere. He sees College, 2001 378 pages it as the theological foundation of the ISBN 0802849253 whole letter and the heart of Paul’s understanding of God. This is stimulating Reviewed by Ray Laird, South Australia reading to say the least. Graduate School of Theology, Adelaide, Australia For this reader the theological studies hold the most interest. The final seven This volume is a collection of essays and chapters of the book focus on Paul’s articles by Gordon Fee that have been Soteriology, Christology, Pneumatology, previously published in a variety of jour- Eschatology and Trinitarian Theology. nals and books over a period of twenty- These are dealt with by analyses of whole five years. As the sub-title suggests the or large sections of particular New papers range over a wide spectrum of Testament books. This has a two-way issues, conveniently arranged under the effect. Fee’s insights on the text informs general areas of textual criticism, exeget- his understanding of Pauline theology, ical studies and theological studies, with and his grasp of Paul’s theology in turn seven chapters devoted to each area. In informs the text. This is probably a cumu- the first seven chapters thorny textual lative thing built up over many years of issues are addressed, in some cases diligent study. Here, in particular, is one revealed, as in Chapter 5 which supplies of the values of this book in that the read- a fascinating revelation on how some er is allowed to share some of the mature commentators avoid or miss critical tex- fruit of the journey of those years. In this tual variants in their works. Also, some final section is found the ‘signature’ old favourites are treated. For example essay from which the title of the book is John 20:31 comes under scrutiny and Fee taken. Here we find Fee’s answer in an gives a convincing argument for the pre- essay which is not only exegetical but is sent subjunctive of pisteuw over against quite personal as well. He demonstrates the aorist with the conclusion that its use here that the vital purpose of the text is is meaningful for the believing communi- to lead the reader/hearer to praise and ty. worship in the presence of the awesome For many, the exegetical studies in the grace of God in Christ. Exegesis, Fee next seven chapters will hold greater argues, must always have this end in interest. Fee takes up passages such as view. Exegesis is simply a means to this John 7:37-39, 1 Cor. 7:1 in the NIV, 1 end. Corinthians 8 through 10 with attention There will be readers of this journal who Book Reviews 365 will have read many of these essays else- sions. Brueggeman speaks warmly of the where and may think that they will not place the Bible has had in his life, in the find anything new in this book from this working out of his confirmation text, significant New Testament scholar. They Psalm 119:105. could be wrong, for what is valuable He is an exponent of a literary, rather about this book is that it invites its read- than literal, understanding of the Bible as ers to join the unfolding of the story of ‘essentially an open, artistic, imaginative the development of the interest of the narrative of God’s staggering care for the author from critical textual analysis to world’. While the literary reading of careful exegesis, and through theological Scripture has undoubtedly added to our reflection on to doxological expression. appreciation, does it replace rather than Here is one reader who thinks it is a jour- supplement the plain reading of ney that every exegete should make. Scripture? Presbyterian William C. Placher begins on a thoroughly evangeli- ERT (2005) 29:4, 365-366 cal note: ‘From reading the Bible, more than anywhere else, I have come to know Struggling with Scripture Jesus, my Lord and Savior.’ Walter Brueggemann, William C. Placher appeals to Charles Hodge to Placher, Brian K. Blount introduce distinctions between the Bible’s Louisville: Westminster John Knox cultural clothing and its real message. Press, 2002. Does Philemon, for example, teach the ISBN 0-664-22485-7 acceptability of slavery or proclaim a Pb 69 pp – No index message about the transformation of reviewed by Prof. N.T. Barker, Emmanuel human relations? Was the case of homo- College, Brisbane, Australia sexuality in Romans 1 just a feature of a deeper and wider religious and moral William S. Coffin introduces three lec- problem? (Placher notes that both Luther tures presented on November 3 and 4, and Barth treat Romans 1 without men- 2000, at East Liberty Presbyterian tioning sex). Church, Pittsburgh, Pa., as part of a con- Biblical defence of slavery, with appeal to ference titled ‘Biblical Authority and such portions as Philemon, has bitten Church’, sponsored by the Covenant deeply into the American Christian con- Network of Presbyterians. Although science. One becomes aware of a sinful slight in volume, the book raises impor- human propensity to use the Bible to tant questions of hermeneutics, theology define limits for others. Some questions and pastoral care in the area of homosex- we view in retrospect with considerable ual ordination causing distress in a num- embarrassment: Brian Blount points to a ber of churches. propensity on the part of American white The writers profess a high regard for preachers to appeal to Onesimus to urge Scripture. Walter Brueggeman is a prod- blacks to keep their proper place. uct of the 1817 Prussian union of Compare the defence of apartheid by Calvinists and Lutherans that produced South African whites, or, still contentious the slogan: In essentials unity – in in our day, the propensity of men to nonessentials liberty – in all things chari- define limits for women in ministry. Is the ty. On this basis he appeals for an irenic heterosexual reaction to homosexuality of spirit between those of different persua- a like nature? 366 Book Reviews

Placher challenges on the level of consis- cal questions are such basic theological tency. The Church goes easy on divorce convictions. ‘because too many powerful and All writers affirm the basic biblical mes- respectable people in our church and soci- sage of God’s grace. As Brueggeman ety are divorced’, whereas, ‘an interpreta- says, the Bible’s message concerns ‘the tive favouritism for the powerful seems God who creates, redeems, and consum- the opposite of Jesus’ own practice’. Paul mates – good news indeed!’. On the other condemns not only homosexuality, but hand, Blount affirms the difficulty of also gossiping. Yet we do not exclude a applying biblical ethical statements. minister who happens to be a gossip! A Whereas the old Liberalism sought a bib- problem with this argument is that the lical ethic without foundation of grace, it church is not asked to approve the gos- seems that this ‘Postliberalism’ affirms a sip, whereas homosexual ordination calls theological foundation without a super- for the church to approve homosexuality structure of ethical teaching. The Bible as a legitimate lifestyle. affirms both – Titus 2:11. The demands of controversy often cause Pastorally, the conflict over homosexuali- overstatement. Brian Blount posits the ty challenges Christians to walk a fine view that the intentions of creation line between homophobia and adherence pushed procreation, not sexual intimacy. to Scriptural standards of sexual conduct. Yet the OT not only places Gen. 2:23-15 alongside Gen. 1:26, and has numerous ERT (2005) 29:4, 366-368 examples of a primacy of intimacy (Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob and Rachel, Ruth and Parochial Vision: The Future of Boaz, Elkanah and Hannah – cf. 1 Sam. the English Parish 1:8, ‘Am I not more to you than ten sons?’ – Hosea’s concern for his wife, Nick Spencer reflecting God’s concern as divine hus- Carlisle: Paternoster, 2004 band, Ezekiel’s wife—Ezek. 24:15, ‘I am ISBN 1-84227-238-1 about to take away from you the delight Pb 171pp of your eyes’). Some modern writers are Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, often too prone to stress that the OT view Evangelical Review of Theology of marriage is more about procreation, possession and power than inter-personal Potential readers of this book should not communion. let its title put them off by making them Blount asserts that Paul’s ‘radical state- think that it is of ‘parochial’ interest only ment’ of Gal. 3:28 supersedes creation to Anglicans living in England! In fact, it distinctions of gender, ethnicity and sta- is a good sample of how matters affecting tus. Are these distinctions inherent in a particular context can have much wider creation or the result of sinful distortion relevance and value. In this case, it is of (Gen. 3:16)? Any defence of homosexuali- interest also to Christians in non-parish ty must face Jesus’ affirmation of the cre- type churches in any part of the world ation bi-sexual nature of humanity (Mk who are concerned to see that the struc- 10:6 par.). The Bible reveals a pervading tures and buildings of the church do not use of the marriage metaphor to describe stifle, but rather serve, its missionary and the relationship of God and humans. pastoral functions. Above and beyond particular hermeneuti- The author has enthusiastically presented Book Reviews 367 a well researched review of the English central church resourcing neighbourhood church parochial system, highlighting its churches and providing enhanced oppor- present needs and showing how certain tunities of fellowship, nurture, ministry, aspects of its long history can be recycled and witness. According to Nick Spencer, and modified to provide hope of a great it was the minster system that effectively future. carried through the evangelization of It is no secret that the parish system has England, and is therefore worth consider- run into difficulties in the modern world, ing again in the post-Christian era where and that in many cases church buildings the missionary focus once more needs to may have value for tourism and the her- be stressed even more than the communi- itage but little or even negative value for ty aspect. Christian life and ministry; as the author He therefore advocates the idea of gradu- suggests, Christian witness may be ally introducing a modern form of the ‘crushed by our own heritage’! This fact, minster system which would be flexible coupled with the problems faced by the and organic, focusing on mutual relation- Christian message in western culture, has ships between the larger central church presented difficult problems for and local churches surrounding it. He Anglicans. The same may be said for non- emphasizes that it would not be a matter conformist churches which have adopted of centralizing ministry by closing down a similar system (in the form of the local outlying parishes, but the networking of church with its solo pastor) although ministry, worship and service into a more without many of the particular legal and effective larger unit which would provide administrative factors present in the the benefits of both the intimacy and English context. identity of the local parish with the Although the parish system has been in resources and scale of the minster. vogue for hundreds of years and therefore It is not too hard to see parallels between seems to many to be of the essence of the this and the emergence of large regional Church of England, the author points out mega-churches in various parts of the that it is only one phase in the history of world, especially in evangelical contexts. the church. Therefore, despite the com- However, one striking difference is the plex legal, ecclesiastical and cultural emphasis Spencer puts on the positive issues involved, change is possible and role of the local units in a dynamic rela- urgently needed to maintain relevance in tion with the larger ones. This is all but the present era. squeezed out in the mega-church where After lucidly describing relevant facts the small group system is typically about the establishment of the church in focused on the advancement of the larger England, the evolution of the parish sys- unit. tem and factors in recent cultural history Of course, Spencer’s vision is not cut and that have put pressure on it, he advocates dried, and he insists that in each case the a solution which equally arises out of the local context and sense of ownership complex history of Christianity in the must determine the exact forms to be country. adopted. In this way, according to the As a solution for the present problems, he author, the dynamic missionary oriented points to the ‘minster’ system which pre- structure of pre-parish minster system dated the parish system. This system con- would provide a relevant and powerful sists of a regional structure with a larger tool for evangelism, worship and fellow- 368 Book Reviews ship in the modern age where it is most their narrative and those elsewhere on its needed and yet under extreme pressure in periphery. the parish system. All in all, this study is But why? According to David Barrett’s an interesting and effective example of World Christian Encyclopedia (1st ed., p. the house owner of the gospel who 796, Global Table 29), although in 1500 ‘brings out of his storeroom new trea- there were only three million Christians sures as well as old’. in Asia and 1.3 million in Africa com- pared to 68 million in Europe, in 1000 ERT (2005) 29:4, 368-370 there were 17 million in Asia and 5 mil- lion in Africa compared to 28 million in History of the World Christian Europe, and in 500 there were 21 million Movement, vol. 1: Earliest in Asia and 8 million in Africa compared Christianity to 1453 to just 14 million in Europe. Dale T. Irvin and The first survey of pre-Reformation Scott W. Sunquist church history whose allocation of pages Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis, 2001. reflects the reality so dramatically docu- ISBN: 1570753962. mented by Barrett’s data is Dale T. Irvin Pb, xvi + 519 pp. and Scott W. Sunquist’s A History of the Maps, illustrations, indexes. World Christian Movement, vol. 1: Earliest Reviewed by George W. Harper, Asia Christianity to 1543. Hands down, this is Graduate School of Theology-Philippines, the most balanced, comprehensive book Manila, Philippines of its type yet published. As to balance, Asian, African, and European develop- Whose story is it, anyway? Is pre- ments are on a roughly equal footing Reformation church history nothing more throughout; for example, the discussion than the tale of the progress of western of Pope Gregory the Great is no longer Christianity perhaps supplemented with a than that of John of Damascus, and the few lines on developments in Asia and two together are no longer than the dis- Africa? That’s the way the story has been cussion of the Patriarch Mar Timothy I or told in textbooks like Williston Walker’s that of Rabban Sauma and the Patriarch History of the Christian Church (1918; 4th Yaballaha. As to comprehensiveness, ed., 1985), Earle E. Cairns’s Christianity what other such textbook devotes an through the Ages (1954; 3rd ed., 1996), entire chapter to the early expansion of and even ex-missionary Kenneth Scott Christianity in India, central Asia, and Latourette’s History of Christianity (1953). China? Or to the medieval church in More recent texts like Robert G. Clouse, Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia? Or to Asian Richard V. Pierard, and Edwin M. Christianity under Mongol rule? The Yamauchi’s Two Kingdoms: The Church answer is simple – there isn’t another. and Culture through the Ages (1993) and Irvin and Sunquist’s volume stands alone. Paul R. Spickard and Kevin M. Cragg’s One of the book’s characteristics is a God’s Peoples: A Social History of stress on early Christianity’s diversity Christians (1994), reissued as A Global within the rather broad limits of basic History of Christians: How Everyday orthodoxy. This leads the authors to Believers Experienced Their World (2001), argue, for example, that in the are somewhat better, but even they place Christological crisis of the fifth and sixth European developments at the centre of centuries, what united those of Antioch Book Reviews 369 and Alexandria was much greater than William of Ockham. Even this familiar what divided them: ‘Those in both the material is leavened with fresh insights Alexandrian and the Antiochene tradi- that reflect the authors’ overarching con- tions of thought considered themselves to cerns. be fully Catholic, although their biblical For example, the text gives voice not only and theological methods of reflection, and to Abelard but to his student and lover often the conclusions that they drew, Heloise (p. 427); it notes that such diverged’ (p. 189). This is essential to women could, and some did, earn doctor- humanizing those of the Monophysite and ates in the universities springing up Dyophysite churches; it allows the across thirteenth-century Europe (p. 425); authors to set them alongside those of and the chapter concludes with a fine dis- the Catholic and Orthodox churches as cussion of the ministry of Hildegard of members of a single all-encompassing Bingen, which the authors see as ‘some- ‘world Christian movement’ (book title, thing of a summary for the entire era’ (p. pp. vii, viii, and passim). 439). Another of the book’s characteristics is Among the book’s other gems is its even its stress on the pivotal role played by handed description of evolving practice in women from the church’s very beginning. regard to baptism. Baptists will take For example, the authors stress the ‘mea- heart at the authors’ observation that sure of freedom’ (p. 48) women found in prior to the sixth century, ‘baptismal can- early Christianity, observing that many of didates were normally in their teenage the first congregations met in their homes years’ (p. 233; cf. p. 348); Catholics may (p. 26; cf. Acts 12:12, Col 4:15). They find some consolation in the note that as note celibacy’s attractiveness especially early as the third century, baptism was to women as a way in which they could, commonly administered to infants at the among other things, free themselves from point of death (pp. 105, 233, 348); traditional male domination (p. 142) and Reformed paedobaptists will have to set- achieve ‘a greater degree of social equali- tle for the qualifying comment that the ty’ (p. 151). They argue that although the sacrament was only available on this church’s egalitarian spirit soon began to basis to the infant children of Christian fade, in monasticism women continued to parents (pp. 105, 348). find ‘a degree of social freedom that I’ve taught church history for a long time, allowed them to exercise gifts of ministry but I gained new insights from every and spirituality which might otherwise chapter of this book. Occasionally my jaw have gone unexpressed’ (p. 158). even dropped in astonishment – for exam- Given these unique strengths, it might ple, at this simple statement of fact: have been expected that the book’s treat- ‘Within a century of the death of ment of time-hallowed textbook topics Muhammad, as many as half of the would be weak, but such is not the case. world’s Christians were under Muslim For example, the chapter on medieval political rule’ (p. 271). Why haven’t other European scholasticism features fine textbooks highlighted this? sketches of the work of Anselm of However, in my opinion, the authors miss Canterbury, Peter Abelard, Peter the mark on at least a few points. For Lombard, and Thomas Aquinas as well as example, they seem to read Cyprian of capsule summaries of the thought of Carthage’s landmark treatise, On the Bonaventure, John Duns Scotus, and Unity of the Church, through the eyes of 370 Book Reviews his contemporary and occasional adver- recorded in the Gospels. In Jesus according sary, Bishop Stephen I of Rome (p. 221), to the Scripture, he argues that when read and in their discussion of Pope Nicholas together, the Gospels provide a clear pic- II’s reform of the procedure for papal ture of Jesus and his unique claim to elections they seem to grant an active authority. His book provides a picture of role not only in the eleventh century but Jesus from the gospels, systematically even today to ‘the people of Rome’ (p. working through the passages from the 389). Still, this volume is an amazing Gospels and relating them to each other. accomplishment. Recently Philip Jenkins The book begins with an overview of each chronicled and celebrated the emergence Gospel, surveying its structure, themes, of a world church in his widely read book, authorship, setting, and date. Bock then The Next Christendom: The Coming of moves on to consider the picture of Jesus Global Christianity. With Irvin and from the perspective of the Synoptic Sunquist’s book, that church finally has a Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke). He worthy survey of its early history. does so by considering the picture of Jesus that emerges from these Gospels ERT (2005) 29:4, 370-371 with regard to Jesus’ birth and childhood, his baptism and temptation, his Galilean Jesus according to the Scriptures: ministry, his teaching relating to God and Restoring the Portrait from the others, his venture to Jerusalem, and the Gospels. Passion Week. His approach is to relate Darrell L. Bock each of the Synoptic Gospel accounts to Grand Rapids/Leicester: each other, allowing each Gospel to speak Baker/Apollos, 2002, for itself but also drawing out a compos- 704 pages. ite viewpoint. ISBN 080102370X He then, considers the Gospel of John Reviewed by H. H. Drake Williams, III, separately. John has been seen as unique Central Schwenkfelder Church, Worcester, among the Gospel accounts throughout PA church history. Bock considers John in three sections: the Word incarnate (John There is no doubt that Jesus of Nazareth 1), the Book of Signs (John 2-12), and the is one of the most important people of all Book of Glory. time. In the past number of years there From this point he brings the main have been multiple studies on him. Many themes from all four Gospels together. It of these studies have been fairly critical, is in this section where the unified pic- attempting to discover the historical ture of Jesus from the Gospels is seen. Jesus who is not the Christ that the Bock devotes extensive space to Jesus’ church has presented throughout history. view of the kingdom. He discusses who Many of these studies have focused on Jesus is from his titles, teaching, and extrabiblical documents or select sections actions. He also draws conclusions on the of the Bible, attempting to discover who community that Jesus calls, the vindica- Jesus is from different readings of the tion to come, and Jesus’ final week. Bock Bible. concludes by stating that Jesus is the Darrell Bock, however, believes that uniquely authoritative revelator of God. insufficient attention has been given to Bock has done a wonderful job presenting the unified way that Jesus Christ is a study of Jesus that is both scholarly, yet Book Reviews 371 accessible. A student of the Gospels could cal Jesus viewpoint. While Bock indirectly easily read the account from the Bible addresses the historical Jesus, a short and then consult Bock’s brief but survey that addresses these directly poignant insights on each section of the would aid his volume. Bible. One final section that could be added Many times, Bock provides important would be a brief section on Christology details from the Jewish world that add from the early church’s perspective. valuable insights to the understanding of While Bock does refer to the old Roman particular passages. For example, in his form of the Apostles Creed as he con- discussion of the Parable of the Ten cludes his book, a reference to the Nicene Virgins, Bock refers to the first century Creed and possibly the Chalcedonian custom of escorting the bride to the Creed would strengthen his argument, for groom’s house. It was likely to be done at he has presented a portrait of Jesus that night with light provided by torches or is in agreement with these statements. sticks soaked in oil. The virgins would have been part of this important proces- ERT (2005) 29:4, 371-372 sion that was not to be ruined. Bock emphasizes the importance of this proces- Lambs Dancing with Wolves: A sion by referring to Jewish literature Manual for Christian Workers where it is shown that rabbis would sus- Overseas, pend lectures, and Jewish ritual obliga- Michael Griffiths, tions would be suspended for these pro- London: Monarch Books, 2001 cessions. Such an understanding would 379pp. Bibliog. Index probably be missed by many readers. ISBN 1854245058 Jesus according to the Scripture is a suit- Reviewed by James J. Stamoolis able textbook for courses on the Life of Wheaton, Illinois, USA. Jesus at both the undergraduate and grad- uate levels. Additionally, pastors, teach- Michael Griffiths has produced an excel- ers, and laity who are interested in the lent manual for cross cultural missionar- Gospels and Jesus, will find this book ies to prepare them for what they will beneficial. Especially helpful is the com- face in as messengers of the gospel. posite picture of Jesus in his concluding Using the popular film, Dances with chapter. For example, his discussion on Wolves (hence the title) as a thematic out- the kingdom and Jesus effectively summa- line, Griffiths parallels the experience of rizes in thirty pages what scholars have the film’s hero with the missionary task been writing about in many volumes. of connecting with the indigenous people Bock’s volume could be helped by having to communicate the gospel. It is an innov- a short section on historical Jesus stud- ative approach and no doubt will speak to ies. The influence from these studies is the younger generation of recruits who becoming increasingly seen in the acade- are more in tune with media. While at my as well as the church. Many pastors times slightly forced in making the com- and laity do not understand the historical parisons, nevertheless Griffiths has hit Jesus presuppositions, ones that are so the right note in communicating what are different from historic Christianity. the essential characteristics of effective Moreover, many do not know how to iden- transmission of the gospel. tify those who are promoting this histori- There is a banner across the right hand 372 Book Reviews corner of the book that is printed to look ERT (2005) 29:4, 372-374 like someone pencilling a note on the cover. ‘Take this book with you’ it reads. Asian Christian Theologies: A That was my impression as I read it Research Guide to Authors, because while some of the material is cru- Movements, Sources. cial before even applying to a missionary (3 vols) society, much of what the book is con- John C. England, Jose cerned with will not be understood by the candidate until he/she is actually in con- Kuttianimattathil sdb, John tact with another culture. Mansford Prior SVD, Lily A. Quintos RC, David Suh Having taught missions and having Kwang-sun, and Janice Wickeri served as a mission executive, I can attest that Griffiths touches on all the rel- (editors) evant issues. He is focused more in this Delhi: ISPCK, Quezon City: book on relationships to national Clarentian Publishers, and Christians, a lack he notes in the intro- Maryknoll: Orbis, 2002-2004 duction in his earlier book on the mission- ISBN 1-57075-484-5 ary life. The new reality is that missionar- xlv + 679, xlix + 684, and xlvii + 768 ies, for the most part, are not in charge pp. any more and the local believers are call- Reviewed by Amos Yong, Bethel University, ing the shots. Therefore the stress on St. Paul, Minn. adapting to the culture and working in a team is a much appreciated emphasis. The 2200+ pages of this three-volume set This is especially true as the dynamics of represent the most comprehensive missions today is that most missionaries overview of Asian Christian theologies in will find themselves on a multi-national any one venue. Volume 1, Asia Regions, and multi-racial team as God calls South Asia, Australasia, provides an intro- recruits from the non-western world into duction to the history of theology in Asia missionary service. The number of non- as a whole, and focuses on Bangladesh, western missionaries is increasing and India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, shows no sign of abating, as the zeal for Australia, and Aotearoa New Zealand. spreading the gospel captures churches Volume 2, Southeast Asia, covers that were formerly missionary receiving Burma/Myanmar, Vietnam, Cambodia, churches. Laos, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, The questions of singleness and marriage Indonesia, and the Philippines. Volume 3, each merits its own chapter and there is a Northeast Asia, concludes with China, lot of sound wisdom in what is written. In Hong Kong, Japan, Korea (South, primari- these chapters as in much of the book, ly, but also North), Macau, Taiwan, and there is gold that can be mined for those inner Asia (especially Mongolia). For the who remain in their home country. most part, the chapters of each volume Indeed, with the developed world becom- are organized by country according to the ing an increasingly multicultural scene, preceding division. study of this manual would benefit stay- As a research guide, most chapters are at-homes who find that there are opportu- divided into several basic sections begin- nities for cross-cultural interaction where ning with a detailed table of contents to they work or live. the chapter and brief historical overviews Book Reviews 373 of the national history and of the history incarnated or contextualized specifically of Christianity in that country or region. in the various regions and countries of This is followed, usually, by a sketch of Asia. Hence, the emphasis throughout is theological reflection in that country, on Asian Christian theologies forged in including historical developments, theo- dialogue with the historical, social, cul- logical styles, and the roles of women tural, political, philosophical, and reli- theologians and of laypersons. The gious movements and traditions of Asia. largest part of each chapter identifies This organizing principle certainly illumi- prominent male and female theologians nates the specific character of each by name, sketching their major contribu- region’s or country’s theologies, but also tions, and providing a select bibliography helps account for the many different of primary and secondary sources related Asian Christian theologies as each to this person’s ideas. (The inclusion of responded to the distinctive challenges of women’s voices and perspectives in every its situation. For example – and the fol- chapter throughout all three volumes is lowing is by no means meant as an one of the signal accomplishments of exhaustive summary – Aotearean theolo- Asian Christian Theologies.) The conclud- gies are those developed in terms of ing sections usually highlight distinctive Maori, Samoan, and Pacific Islander cate- themes, trends, movements, study cen- gories of thought; Indian theologies have tres, and scholarly journals produced in had to deal with the long history of reli- the country under consideration. Each gious pluralism of the Indian subconti- section of each chapter includes a fairly nent; Burmese theologies have been influ- developed (often annotated) bibliography enced by the pervasiveness of folk (leading to some overlap), most of the Buddhism; Indonesian theologies have time of materials published no later than been shaped (almost literally) by its the year 2000. island topography and geography, some- how nourishing a certain mystical reli- In addition, each volume includes exten- giousness and consciousness; Filipino sive introductory material (Roman num- theologies have wrestled with the quest bered pages), as well as paintings, illus- for political independence, and with the trations, and a very helpful list of abbrevi- animistic and Muslim undercurrents; Thai ations. The supplemental indexes of per- theologies can be better understood when sons and subjects work well with the seen as apologetic efforts against the detailed chapter tables of contents to pro- Theravada Buddhist tradition; Vietnamese vide multiple ways of finding information. theologies have responded to the Researchers could approach these guides Confucian-Buddhist synthesis and the variously: by focusing on regional or recent history of Communism; Chinese country studies, by exploring themes theologies have been more creation-cen- across countries or regions, by conduct- tred, perhaps under the influence of the ing diachronic or period analyses, by Confucian-Daoist worldview; Hong Kong engaging with individual theologians, or theologies have laboured under the long even by using these volumes just as bibli- history of British colonization; Japanese ographic resources. theologies have emerged from a long his- The central motif around which materials tory of Confucian-Buddhist-Shinto conver- were collected and considered for inclu- gence, and the traumas inflicted on the sion in the volumes was that of ‘local the- national consciousness by the end of the ology’. By this, the editors mean theology second World War; and so on. While 374 Book Reviews these comments mislead more than they but that Ken Gnanakan and Cho Yonggi illuminate what is actually occurring in are left out means that there are serious on the Asian ground, they provide some lacunae that need to be plugged for the sense of the vibrancy and diversity of second edition (if any). Christian theological reflection across the Yet the scant attention to Asian evangeli- Asian-Australasian continents. cal theologies in these volumes should Inevitably, given the central criterion of raise the question for evangelicals and ‘local theology,’ the pages of Asian readers of this journal about whether this Christian Theologies are dominated by is because evangelical theologians, Roman Catholic and mainline Protestant churches, and movements have been less theologians, movements, and sources. I concerned with ‘local’ or ‘indigenous’ the- hesitate to say that this is a research ological reflection. If so, is this a problem guide to more liberal versions of Asian with the concept of a ‘local theology’ or a Christian theological thinking since the problem with how Asian evangelicals con- liberal-conservative dichotomy is a west- ceive of Asian or evangelical theology, or ern construct which may be forced when both? My suggestion is that Asian evan- applied to the diversity of Asian contexts. gelical theologians need to press beyond But it is surely the case that there are the liberal-conservative divide. If Roman few recognizably ‘evangelical’ voices Catholic theologians do not fit neatly into throughout these volumes. Volume 1 either category, evangelical theologians mentions Chris Sugden, Vinay Samuel, should work more intentionally at articu- and Lesslie Newbigin, but not Ken lating afresh an Asian evangelical theolo- Gnanakan, Ajith Fernando, or Vinoth gy that is not held captive by the issues Ramachandra. Its coverage of theology in stemming from the early twentieth centu- the land ‘down under’ also includes nei- ry modernist-fundamentalist debates in ther the work of Philip Johnson (who, North America. along with others, has attempted to bring Further, Asian evangelical theologians evangelical theology into dialogue with also have at their disposal the wealth of New Age spirituality and themes) nor that theological resources from East and West of those connected to the journal to find a way between and beyond individ- Australasian Pentecostal Studies. Volume 2 ualistic pietism and social liberationism, introduces the work of Denison literalistic biblicism and hermeneutical Jayasooria, Hwa Yung, Yeow Choo-lak, relativism, and this-worldly versus other- and Simon Chan, among others, but fails worldly orientations. Finally, and perhaps to note the work associated with Asia most importantly, readers of Asian Pacific Theological Seminary (APTS, for- Christian Theologies in the West should re- merly Far East Asian School of Theology) awaken to the realization that all theolo- in the Philippines. Volume 3 presents Jia gy is local and contextual, in which case, Yuming,Wang Mingdao, and Wang Weifan the editors of and contributors to these in China, and Takakura Tokutaro in three volumes need to be thanked for Japand, but ignores the ministry of David helping us in the West to ask once again Cho Yonggi and of Pentecostal scholar- the important question: what is the mean- ship in Korea. To be fair, some of these ing of the gospel in our own diverse west- developments in Asian evangelical theolo- ern contexts and situations? gy are more recent – e.g., Philip Johnson in Australia and Wonsuk Ma at APTS – Book Reviews 375

ERT (2005) 29:4, 375-376 how anthropology can help the mission- ary come to grips with the complexity of Daughters of Islam: Building Arab and Muslim society in general and Bridges with Muslim Women how the gospel must become contextual- Miriam Adeney ized with Muslim women in particular. The whole thrust of the book is an Downers Grove: Intervarsity Press, attempt to show how the stories of Jesus 2002 can intersect with the stories of Muslim ISBN 0-8308-2345-X Pb pp224 women. The task of the Christian mis- sionary is to listen to both. Reviewed by Andrew D. Kinsey, The Polycarp Project, Perkins School of To accomplish this, Adeney looks at a Theology, Dallas, Texas. broad cross-section of Muslim women. In the opening chapters, she points out the ‘We stand on the edge of a great immen- myths many people in the West have sity when we write about ministry among about Muslim women, and the way in Muslim women. Recognizing the god-fear- which the church must minister to them, ing spirit of many Muslims, the sacrificial understanding how every person has service of generations of Christians wit- unique gifts from God (p. 19). Muslim nesses and the great grace of God, we women, like all women, are created in the approach humbly’ (p. 7). With these open- image of God and have been given special ing words, anthropologist Miriam Adeney dignity. However, drawing a distinction takes readers on a journey through the with Allah, she also notes how difficult terrain of Muslim culture, and Christianity offers the good news of deals with a topic of growing importance Christ in personal terms, not simply as and controversy within Christian circles: ‘distant’ law. Other contrasts are made the church’s mission to Muslim women. with Islam as well. Adeney argues for a ‘contextualized Adeney’s work, however, raises issues apologetic’ to Muslim women as she elu- regarding the church’s missionary wit- cidates a fourfold approach to the ness among Muslim women. First, church’s missionary agenda: 1) to edu- Adeney offers a model for how to do cate Christians in the West about impor- ‘evangelism from below’, by starting with tant parts of Muslim women’s lives, 2) to the lives of real people. What matters is share mission strategies on how the how the church understands Muslim church may witness to and work among women in their ‘particularity’. For the Muslim women, 3) to offer examples of gospel to become contextualized it must Muslim women, and 4) to encourage per- relate to Muslim women in specific ways, sons who minister to women in Muslim understanding how God liberates and countries (p. 8). Adeney’s book offers redeems in concrete ways (chapter 4). case studies and reveals the diversity of Second, Adeney wants to show how this demographic of God’s creation. important it is for women to relate to Throughout the book, Adeney shares how women. There is a rich biblical texture to ministry among Muslim women must deal Adeney’s missionary approach as she with specific cultural and historical fac- deals with the role of narrative (e.g., tors (e.g., education level, family dynam- women within the narrative of Scripture ics and relationships, financial status, and the stories of Muslim women). ethnic rituals, to name a few). She shows Important is how Jesus himself related to 376 Book Reviews women, dignifying them and, ultimately ERT (2005) 29:4, 376-379 saving them. The task of the missionary is to know how to relate Scripture to per- Mentoring: The Promise of son and context and vice versa. Relational Leadership Adeney’s work provides a good starting Walter C. Wright point for persons who want to engage in a Waynesboro, GA: Paternoster, 2004 helpful study of Islam and missionary ISBN: 1-84227-293-4 attitudes toward Muslim people. What is Pb, pp 160 Index missing, though, is a more corporate Reviewed by John Sweetman, Malyon understanding of the Christian faith and College, Brisbane, Australia the view of the church as a living commu- nity of faithful practice. How are women Walter Wright’s book is written to pro- initiated and sustained in Christian com- vide guidelines on the development of munity over time, for example? The personal mentoring relationships for church must watch for the ways a gospel those who are not experienced in this of individual salvation truncates the need process. It is mainly a practical book that for corporate expressions of faith to sus- makes extensive use of the wide experi- tain Christian identity. The use of story is ences of its author who has made mentor- critical for sharing the gospel, but is ing the foundation of his leadership min- there also not a fear that correlating the istry. By the end of the book, you feel gospel story and a person’s individual that you know Wright and his priorities story can reduce the rich texture of both, very well. at the expense of the church’s corporate I couldn’t help but be impressed that nature and witness? Adeney’s work is someone who has had such significant silent here. organizational leadership roles as, for However, Adeney does have a thought- example, the President of Regent College provoking chapter on learning. Entitled (Canada) for twelve years, could devote ‘Singing Our Theology’, the chapter so much time to one-on-one mentoring. evokes the different ways women come to Perhaps the key is the way Wright per- know the truth of the gospel. At issue is ceives leadership. He states, ‘Leadership the way song, liturgy, and bodily move- is a relationship between two persons in ment bring to the surface the rich texture which one person seeks to influence the of family memory and life. In fact, Adeney behaviour, attitudes, vision, or values of places a great deal of emphasis on peda- another. It is always a relationship and gogy, or on performing the Scripture always rests in the hands of followers.’ through debate, picture language, and For Wright, leadership and mentoring are memorization. Such a pedagogical praxis two sides of the one coin; personal rela- shows how bridges are not only built but tionships are foundational to both and sustained over time with women. It also one inevitably leads to the other. shows how an ‘evangelism from below’ On the one hand, this book does little to may want to proceed. Adeney and other augment our understanding of mentoring. missionaries will want to incorporate However, it does provide references to these and other ways of learning into an other material on mentoring and leader- ongoing churchly practice as a way to ship that display Wright’s knowledge of build bridges with Muslim women. the field of leadership, but there is no Book Reviews 377 indication of research on mentoring of the book. It certainly grounds his ideas beyond the personal experience of the in practice and shows that leadership by author. If you are looking for new infor- mentoring is a reality. It is also strongly mation or critical interaction with the lit- motivational to read the catalogue of dif- erature on mentoring, you will probably ferences that mentoring can make in a be disappointed. variety of practical situations. However, a On the other hand, it does set out to moti- number of the stories are repeated in dif- vate and educate leaders on the impor- ferent contexts throughout the book, tance of mentoring, and this it does which sometimes gives the impression extremely well. If you are unsure of the that it is cyclical and lacking in direction. benefits of mentoring or are uncertain as In particular, Wright’s idolisation to how to establish or develop an effec- throughout the book of Max De Pree, tive mentoring relationship, then this while probably thoroughly deserved, book has a mountain of helpful hints and could be seen as biased since Wright is practical advice flowing from years of Executive Director of the De Pree experience of its author at the highest Leadership Center. Christian leadership level. One new thought that I gleaned from the Wright focuses on formal mentoring rela- book was Wright’s emphasis on mentor- tionships which he defines as ‘intentional, ing as a relationship governed by the exclusive, intensive, voluntary relation- mentoree. He states, ‘Mentors are ships between two persons (usually with resources to assist persons in their own agreed on goals or objectives)’. Major self-directed leadership development.’ chapters deal with the importance of This means that the mentoring agenda is character, what makes a good mentor, driven by the mentoree not the mentor. the nature of mentoring, how to build a Let me finish with a gem I found in the mentoring relationship, what to look for book. Wright says, ‘There is no best in a mentoree and mentoring relationship, model of mentoring. What is important is and the provocative questions that trust, honesty, belonging, encouragement empower mentoring. and hope.’ This accurate and insightful I found the most interesting chapter (enti- statement flies in the face of those look- tled ‘Ambiguity’) explored the tensions ing for a mentoring formula or system. involved in relational leadership. Mentoring is about real relationship as Although the chapter’s connection with Wright constantly emphasizes. I must say mentoring was tenuous, since tensions in that judging from his approach and expe- leadership make mentors vital, it was a rience, I would really benefit from being fascinating examination of the tensions Wright’s mentoree. that provoke the work of leadership. Wright’s experience as a College presi- dent made his illustrations in this chapter personally pertinent to my situation as Principal of a Theological College. For those involved in leadership in theological education, the book is worth the read for this chapter alone. Wright’s heavy reliance on personal illus- tration is both a strength and weakness 378 Book Reviews

ERT (2005) 29:4, 378-379 the death of Jesus is an historical event of such profundity that we can only do it Recovering the Scandal of the violence by narrowing its meaning to one Cross: Atonement in New interpretation or by privileging one inter- Testament and Contemporary pretation over all the others’ (p. 86). Contexts How one views the nature of the atoning God can be incarnated in human relation- Joel B. Green and Mark D. Baker ships. Some feminist theologians contend Carlisle: Paternoster Press, 2003 that penal substitution leads to the view (reprint) that ‘God is the patriarch who punishes ISBN 1-84227-246-2 his son in order to satisfy God’s own Pb, pp 232, Bibliog, Indexes parental honor and sense of justice’ (p. Reviewed by David A. Ackerman, Nazarene 91). At issue is the use of metaphor. No Theological College, Thornlands, Australia atonement metaphor used in the New Testament can stand alone or be taken to Joel Green, Dean at Asbury Theological logical extremes. The authors suggest a Seminary, and Mark Baker, Assistant two-fold task: to ‘grapple with appropriat- Professor Theology and Mission at ing language suitable to communicating Mennonite Brethren Biblical Seminary, the profundity of Jesus’ salvific work to call for a fresh interpretation of the people outside the Christian faith as well atonement. The book has a two part goal: as those inside the church’, and to do this to show the inadequacies of the penal ‘in ways that do justice to the biblical rep- substitutionary theory and to urge contex- resentation of the work of Jesus’ (p. 109). tualization of the message of the cross in Theologians must realize that the culturally relevant ways. metaphors of the New Testament may not In chapter 1, the authors suggest that be relevant for today and perceive how penal substitution does not find adequate these writers adopted and adapted these support in scripture and limits the wealth metaphors for their own contexts. This of imagery about the death of Jesus in the challenges us to be creative in proclaim- New Testament. Scripture does not show ing the cross and not be satisfied with an angry God who needs to be appeased parochial and narrow views of the atone- by an atoning sacrifice but a gracious God ment. who initiates relationship in love demon- Chapter 5 provides historical examples of strated on the cross. The authors spend how culture influences one’s theory of several chapters (2-4) surveying how the atonement. The first is the Christus Victor New Testament writers creatively applied model, advocated especially during the and reinterpreted the significance of post-apostolic period by Irenaeus and Jesus’ suffering and resurrection for the Gregory of Nyssa, that posits the cross as various situations faced by the early a victory over the powers of evil. This church. Particularly insightful in this sec- model was effective because it addressed tion is how the writers of the New the cosmology and needs of the people of Testament were not bound by one partic- that period. The second is the satisfaction ular interpretation but were free to apply model of Anselm, where Christ’s sacrifi- a variety of metaphors or terms that cial death satisfies the human debt of sin spoke to the needs of their audience. ‘The owed to God. The strength of Anselm’s impression with which we are left is that approach was that it addressed the feudal Book Reviews 379 system of his day but in this lay the parts of the world (ch. 8). weakness, for it ‘too easily associated In their final chapter (9), the authors give God’s character with practice with those a theological agenda for renewed appro- of feudal lords’ (p. 134). A third is priation of the cross for contemporary Abelard’s moral influence theory which contexts. They suggest redefining sin to sees ‘Jesus’ life and death as a demon- take seriously the complex issue of the stration of God’s love that moves sinners human condition in all its facets, engag- to repent and love God’ (p. 137). The ing culture with the message of the cross problem with Abelard’s approach is that while remaining faithful to scripture, and it is too abstract, individualistic and realizing the limitations of any theory of exclusive of other approaches. The need the atonement. for the cross is lost in overconfidence in The book is relatively easy to read with a the human ability to find salvation. The limited use of technical terms, and care- last is the penal substitutionary theory, fully documented with scripture citations the dominate model in the West. The and occasional footnotes in conversation authors look at this theory through the with the latest research. The book theology of Charles Hodge who argued returns at various points to the basic the- that God’s justice demands the punish- ses which at times becomes repetitive but ment of sins which was placed upon Jesus also aids the non-specialist reader. This who took our place upon the cross. book will especially be useful for those Among the many problems with this who minister in multi-cultural congrega- approach include its use of terms foreign tions or in missions settings where the to the Bible, diminishing the significance gospel message needs contextualized. of Jesus’ resurrection, the limited concept The authors could have expanded their of sin as transgression of law; it also thoughts at many points but provide a leads to glorifying suffering and tolerance good introduction and catalyst for further of abuse. It is too easy to conclude that dialogue. ‘Jesus came to save us from God’ (p. 150). ERT (2005) 29:4, 379-380 In addition, the penal substitutionary the- ory does not adequately speak to contem- Finding the Plot: Preaching in porary needs, in particular non-western Narrative Style cultures. Using the shame-based interpre- Roger Standing tation from Japan of C. Norman Kraus, Waynesboro, GA: Paternoster, 2004 the authors show how on the cross, Jesus ISBN 1-84227-266-7 took upon himself the alienating shame of Pb, pp 262 Footnotes, Bibliog, sin and revealed God’s authentic image Indices for humanity (ch. 6). Next, the authors Reviewed by John Sweetman, Malyon dialogue with feminist theologian Darby College, Brisbane, Australia Kathleen Ray who reinterprets the Christus Victor motif in an effort to correct Finding the Plot introduces one of the the possible abuses from the penal substi- major recent developments in preaching, tution approach (ch. 7). The authors then the use of narrative style in the presenta- survey several models that effectively tion of sermons. Standing argues that communicate the power of the cross to ‘using a narrative style is not only an contemporary audiences from various appropriate way to open the Scriptures 380 Book Reviews for a congregation, but that it is an seen God use such preaching to speak approach particularly sensitive to the truth. The book finishes with a valuable twenty-first century culture in which we list of annotated resources for further live… Adopting a narrative style is poten- exploring the subject of narrative preach- tially an effective tool to enable us to ing. communicate well with our hearers. It While appreciating this well-researched involves a completely different perspec- book, I have two criticisms. The first is tive on how to conceive, structure and that he suggests that narrative preaching deliver a sermon.’ is principally about first and third person Standing divides his book into four dis- narratives. I see it differently. Issues of tinct parts. First he makes a case for the narrative form should pervade all our use of a narrative style for preaching preaching with third and first person nar- based on two main premises - the impor- ratives being particular, but minor, exam- tance of story in communication in our ples of the use of this form. I wonder if society and the fact that God is a story- Standing may have come to this same teller and his book is full of stories. He conclusion on pragmatic grounds. He also explains how narrative works as a states in his final reflections, ‘For myself form of literature. I found his discussion I have noticed a far greater ease in using of narrative as a genre the most insightful the narrative form with non-narrative aspect of the book. material in regular Sunday ministry than Then he deals with the practicalities of for opting to use a first- or third-person preaching in a narrative style. While this narrative.’ section goes over ground that has been My second concern is that Standing’s well travelled by numerous authors, it argument for narrative preaching is based provides a helpful summary for those who almost exclusively on grounds of commu- may be new to the concept. The section nication. If God uses stories and our soci- concludes with a critique of narrative- ety uses stories to communicate, then style preaching which deals with such preachers should do the same. While this criticisms as: narrative preaching is cav- is true, there is a much stronger ing in to culture; narrative preaching pro- hermeneutical argument - if the meaning motes entertainment over content, and of a narrative biblical text is shaped by narrative preaching does not communi- both form and content, then it will be cate a clear theme. In the third part, most accurately preached using a narra- Standing offers seven of his sermons as tive form. Standing touches on this issue examples. when he says, ‘In treating narrative por- In the fourth part of the book, ‘Preachers’ tions of Scripture deductively it is a Insights’, he interviews eight preachers sobering question to ask whether our who have used narrative styles with vary- preaching actually does damage to the ing degrees of success, and then reflects message we seek to proclaim.’ on his own experience, revealing that he has had serious misgivings about the use Overall, this book provides a useful intro- of first-person narratives because they duction to the theory and practice of nar- involve acting, the nemesis of authentic rative sermons, and is a practical book to preaching. He concludes, rather unsatis- help those interested in this form of factorily to my mind, that first-person preaching. narratives are acceptable because he has Evangelical Review of Theology

EDITOR: DAVID PARKER

Volume 29

2005

Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith Published by

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission

PATERNOSTER PERIODICALS Articles ACKERMAN, DAVID A. Fighting Fire with Fire: Community Formation in 1 Corinthians 12-14 . 347 ADAMS, FRANK Challenges Facing African Christianity in the Post-Modern World. . . . 296 BURGESS, MICHAEL Dimensions of the Faith: A Shaping of Evangelicalism ...... 16 CARROLL R., M. DANIEL Perspectives on Theological Education from the Old Testament. . . . . 228 COLE, VICTOR B. The message and messenger of the Gospel ...... 178 COLEMAN, ROBERT E. The Jesus Way to Win the World ...... 77 COLLINSON, SYLVIA WILKEY Making Disciples and the Christian Faith ...... 240 DANAHER, JAMES P. The Postmodern Gospel ...... 292 DAVIS, JOHN J. The Holocaust and the Problem of Theodicy: An Evangelical Perspective ...... 52 DAVIS, JOHN P. Who are the Heirs of the Abrahamic Covenant? ...... 149 EDGAR, BRIAN The Theology of Theological Education ...... 208 ENNS, MARLENE ‘Now I Know in Part’: Holistic and Analytic Reasoning and their Contribution to Fuller Knowing in Theological Education ...... 251 MARSHALL, PHILLIP Toward a Theology of HIV/AIDS ...... 131 MCCONNELL, WALTER Facing New Paradigms In Worship: Learning New Lessons From Old Masters ...... 331 MCKINNEY, LARRY J. A Theology of Theological Education: Pedagogical Implications . . . . 218 MCLELLAN, DON Justice, Forgiveness, and Reconciliation: Essential Elements in Atonement Index 383

Theology ...... 4 MORROW, JEFFREY L. J.R.R. Tolkien as a Christian for Our Times ...... 164 NOELLISTE, DIEUMEME Theological Education in the Context of Socio-Economic Deprivation . . 270 PRILL, THORSTEN Evangelism, Theology and the Church ...... 309 TAYLOR, STEVE A Prolegomena for the Thai Context: A Starting Point for Thai Theology. 32 VANDERVELDE,G. Church, Evangelization, and the Bonds of Koinonia: A Report of the International Consultation between the Catholic Church and the World Evangelical Alliance (1993–2002) ...... 100 VOLF, MIROSLAV Dancing for God: Challenges Facing Theological Education Today . . . 197

Books Reviewed

Adeney, Miriam, Daughters of Islam: Building Bridges with Muslim Women . 375 Alexander, T. Desmond, From Paradise to the Promised Land: An Introduction to the Pentateuch ...... 90 Barrett, David B., Kurian, George T., and Johnson, Todd M., World Christian Encyclopedia: A Comparative Survey of Churches and Religions in the Modern World ...... 84 Bloesch, Donald G., The Church: Sacraments, Worship, Ministry, Mission . . 191 Bloesch, Donald G., The Last Things: Resurrection, Judgment and Glory. . . 284 Bock, Darrell L., Jesus according to the Scriptures: Restoring the Portrait from the Gospels ...... 370 Brueggemann, Walter, Placher, William C. and Blount, Brian K., Struggling with Scripture ...... 365 Chan, Simon, Spiritual Theology: A Systematic Study of The Christian Life . 286 Davis, Stephen (ed), Encountering Evil: Live Options in Theodicy ...... 185 England, John C., Kuttianimattathil, Jose sdb, Prior, John Mansford SVD, Quintos, Lily A. RC, Kwang-sun, David Suh, and Wickeri, Janice (eds), Asian Christian Theologies: A Research Guide to Authors, Movements, Sources ...... 372 384 Index

Eskridge, Larry and Noll, Mark A. (eds), More Money, More Ministry: Money and Evangelicals in Recent North American History ...... 91 Fee, Gordon D., To What End Exegesis: Essays Textual, Exegetical, and Theological ...... 364 Green, Joel B. and Baker, Mark D., Recovering the Scandal of the Cross: Atonement in New Testament and Contemporary Contexts ...... 378 Green, Laurie, Urban Ministry and The Kingdom of God ...... 82 Griffiths, Michael, Lambs Dancing with Wolves: A Manual for Christian Workers Overseas ...... 371 Hart, D. G., Deconstructing Evangelicalism: Conservative Protestantism in the Age of Billy Graham...... 187 Hilborn, David (ed), ‘Toronto’ in Perspective: papers on the New Charismatic Wave of the mid 1990s ...... 86 Irvin, Dale T. and Sunquist, Scott W., History of the World Christian Movement, vol. 1: Earliest Christianity to 1453 ...... 368 Jensen, Peter, At the Heart of the Universe: What Christians Believe . . . . . 189 Johnstone, Patrick and Mandryk, Jason Operation World: Twenty-First Century Edition ...... 84 Spencer, Nick, Parochial Vision: The Future of the English Parish ...... 366 Standing, Roger, Finding the Plot: Preaching in Narrative Style ...... 379 Stanley, Brian (ed), Christian Missions and the Enlightenment, Studies in the History of Christian Missions ...... 95 Weaver, J. Dudley, Presbyterian Worship—a Guide for Clergy ...... 88 Wright, N.T., For all the Saints? Remembering the Christian Departed . . . . . 93 Wright, Walter C., Mentoring: The Promise of Relational Leadership . . . . 376

The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology Editor: Colin Brown A four volume set offering concise discussions of all the major theological terms in the New Testament against the background of classical and koine Greek, the Old Testament, Rabbinical thought and different usages in the New Testament.

0-85364-432-2 / 4 Volumes, total 3506pp / hb / 240x165mm / £119.99

Paternoster, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT cover 29-4 31/8/05 13:46 Page 2

ABSTRACTS/INDEXING This journal is abstracted in Religious and Theological Abstracts, 121 South College Street (P.O. Box 215), Myerstown, PA 17067, USA, and in the Christian Periodical Index, P.O. What has Infant Baptism done to Baptism? Box 4, Cedarville, OH 45314, USA. An Enquiry at the End of Christendom It is also indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, published by the American Theological Library Association, 250 S. Wacker Dr., 16th Flr., Chicago, Illinois 60606-5834 USA, E- David F. Wright mail: [email protected], Web: www.atla.com/ Infant baptism has been the dominant form of baptism in the Christian West for more than a millennium and a half. How has this affected the understanding and practice of baptism? David Wright conducts a searching critique of traditions of earlier centuries down to the MICROFORM present. This story is variously surprising, disturbing, sobering, not least against the backcloth of the New Testament. Today, in the twenty-?rst century, reform promises a fresh This journal is available on Microform from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, P.O. Box 1346, consensus on baptism. Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346, USA. Phone: (313)761-4700 Written for all with a serious interest in baptism, including church leaders, historians, students of liturgy and Christians on both sides of the ‘baptismal divide’, this enquiry at the Subscription rates end of Christendom is thought-provoking, necessary and historically illuminating. David F. Wright is Emeritus Professor of Patristic and Reformed Christianity, New College, University of Edinburgh. Institutions Individuals

Period USA & Elsewhere USA & Elsewhere ISBN: 1-84227-357-4 £8.99 229x152mm 124pp UK UK Canada Overseas Canada Overseas One Year £30.00 $78.80 £31.60 £30.00 $51.20 £31.60 Two/Three Years, per year £27.00 $70.90 £28.40 £27.00 $46.10 £28.40 Free Church, Free State 2/3rds world, individuals and institutions: The Positive Baptist Vision 50% discount on the overseas sterling (£) rates listed above. Nigel G. Wright All subscriptions to: Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS, UK What exactly is a baptist vision of the church? Tel: UK 0800 195 7969; Fax: 01228 51 49 49 What are the biblical, historical and theological roots of this approach to Christian Tel Overseas: +44(0) 1228 611723; Fax +44(0) 1228 514949 community? Email [email protected] Web Site: www.paternoster-publishing.com What is the place of such a vision in the context of a global church? Free Church, Free State is a textbook on baptist ways of being church and a proposal for the future of baptist churches in an ecumenical context. Nigel Wright argues that both baptist Important Note to all Postal Subscribers (small ‘b’) and catholic (small ‘c’) church traditions should seek to enrich and support each When contacting our Subscription Office in Carlisle for any reason other as valid expressions of the body of Christ. always quote your Subscription Reference Number. Nigel G. Wright is Principal of Spurgeon’s College, London. This appears on the address label used to send your copies to you. ISBN: 1-84227-353-1 £9.99 216x140mm 240pp

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