The Marimba in Mexico and Guatemala

Home , Arpa jarocha, Coatzacoalcos River, Frenesi, Helmut Brenner, Huapanguera, Jarana huasteca

Its Musical Development with Special Emphasis on the Four Mallets Technique and the Improvisation

Dissertation

Universität für Musik und Darstellende Kunst Graz Institute für Ethnomusikologie

José Israel Moreno Vázquez

Datum der Abgabe: July 2016

2 Abstract

The marimba takes part of a great diversity of the Latin-American music, in Guatemala and the southeast of Mexico it is a symbol of identity of the popular culture. Throughout its development many marimba players, compositors, and marimba constructors have been distinguished, offering us an extended repertoire of diverse musical styles that through the years has endured by the oral transmission and the sustained teaching in the familiar tradition. The authors that have written about the marimba in this countries, in the majority, they have addressed aspects of the origin of the instrument, and its history mainly focused on the morphological transformations. Very few have documented the musical development of the marimba with its contributions and influences. In this work it will be presented for the first time the matter of technical development of the performance on the marimba with four mallets, and the improvisation improvement, one of the most important elements for the comprehension of the development and evolution of the marimba. The musical development of the marimba is studied more in detail considering its historical processes to get to understand the reasons of the high technical and musical level of the marimba groups, its musicians, and how the improvisation reaches the importance that has gotten in the present. Through an analysis of the historical process and the recording of the XX century new elements are offered to comprehend the contributions of the marimba from a musical perspective along with the historical and social context where they were developed. The performance of the four mallets on the marimba are studied and analyzed, as well as its technical and musical maturity, and the contributions of the main exponents. A classification of the different types of improvisation with their historical reference are suggested, and it generates the basis for the study of the improvisation in the traditional marimba with more certainty, centered in the monitoring of the contribution of new techniques of performance, transcriptions, adaptations, and composers that continuously keep transforming the marimba music.

3 Abstract

La marimba forma parte de la gran diversidad de la música de Latinoamérica, en Guatemala y el sureste de México es un símbolo de identidad de la cultura popular, a lo largo de su desarrollo se han distinguido gran cantidad de intérpretes, compositores y constructores, ofrecién- donos un vasto repertorio en diversos estilos musicales que, a través de los años, han persisti- do mediante la transmisión oral y la enseñanza sustentada en la tradición familiar. Los autores que han escrito sobre la marimba en estos países, en su mayoría han abordado aspectos del origen del instrumento y su historia enfocada principalmente a las transformaciones morfoló- gicas, muy pocos han documentado el desarrollo musical de la marimba con sus aportaciones e influencias. Con este trabajo se abordada por primera vez el tema del desarrollo técnico de la ejecución de la marimba a cuatro baquetas y la improvisación, uno de los elementos más importantes para la comprensión del desarrollo y evolución en la marimba. Se estudia de manera más detallada el desarrollo musical de la marimba considerando sus procesos históricos para llegar a entender las razones del alto nivel técnico y musical de las agrupaciones marim- bísticas, de sus ejecutantes y de cómo la improvisación alcanza la importancia que tiene en la actualidad. A través de un análisis de los procesos históricos y de las grabaciones del siglo XX, se ofrecen nuevos elementos para comprender las aportaciones de la marimba desde una perspectiva musical aunada a el contexto histórico y social donde se desenvuelven. Se analiza y estudia la ejecución de las cuatro baquetas en la marimba, su desarrollo técnico y musical, así como las aportaciones de sus principales exponentes. Se propone una Clasificación de los diferentes tipos de improvisación con sus referentes históricos y genera las bases para el estudio de la improvisación en la marimba tradicional con mayor certeza, centrado en el segui- miento a la aportación de nuevas técnicas de ejecución, a las transcripciones, adaptaciones y composiciones que continuamente siguen transformándose.

4 Abstract

Die Marimba ist Teil der musikalischen Vielfalt in Lateinamerika. In Guatemala und Südost- mexico ist sie ein Symbol für die Identität der Volkskultur. Ihre Entwicklung ist durch eine große Anzahl an Interpreten, Komponisten und Herstellern, die uns ein umfangreiches Reper- toire an Musikstilen bieten, beeinflusst. Dieses Repertoire hat im Laufe der Jahre fortgedauert und dank mündlicher Weitergabe und Unterricht hat sich verfestigt. Die meisten Autoren, die in diesen Ländern über die Marimba geschrieben haben, haben die Entstehung des Instru- ments beschrieben und sich auf ihre Geschichte und vor allem auf die morphologische Trans- formationen fokussiert. Nur sehr wenige haben die musikalische Entwicklung der Marimba, ihre Einflüsse und Beiträge dokumentiert. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich zum ersten Mal mit der technischen Entwicklung der Ausführung der Marimba auf vier Schlägel und mit ihrer Improvisation. Dies ist eines der wesentlichsten Elemente für das Verständnis und Ent- wicklung der Marimba. Es wird die musikalische Entwicklung der Marimba im Detail unter- sucht, indem die historischen Prozesse berücksichtigt werden, um ein besseres Verständnis über die Grunde des hohen technischen und musikalischen Niveaus der Marimba-Gruppen und deren ausübenden Künstler, sowie für die Improvisation und ihre aktuelle Wichtigkeit zu bekommen. Die Untersuchung der historischen Prozesse und der Tonaufnahmen des 20. Jahr- hunderts zeigen neue Elemente, um die Beiträge der Marimba von einer musikalischen Per- spektive verstehen zu können, die in Verbindung mit dem historischen und sozialen Kontext, in welchem die Marimba sich entwickeln, steht. Die Benutzung der vier Schlägel, ihre techni- sche und musikalische Entwicklung, so wie ihre Hauptexponenten werden analysiert und un- tersucht. Eine Klassifizierung von unterschiedlichen Improvisationstypen mit ihren historischen Bezugspunkten wird vorgeschlagen. Die Arbeit erzeugt auch die Grundlagen für eine genauere Untersuchung der Improvisation in der traditionellen Marimba, dabei steht die Überwachung der neue Ausführungstechniken, Transkriptionen, Adaptation und Kompositio- nen im Mittelpunkt, da diese sich kontinuierlich verwandeln.

5 Acknowledgements

Throughout this process and to finalize this work I received the assistance and support of many people to whom I wish to express my gratitude. First of all, my counselor Professor Helmut Brenner, for his trust and help and for accompanying me all this time; he not only provided me with his most valuable advice but mostly for his friendship, his moral support and for giving me the opportunity to grow professionally. I also owe my thanks to Professor Gerd Grupe, Director of the Institute of Ethnomusicology at the KUG and to Professor Thom- as Hochradner, at the Universitat Mozarteum Salzburg, for their time and support for the as- sessment of this work.

I am deeply grateful to the Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas for proving me academic freedom, financial aid and for carrying out the necessary administrative procedures that made it possible for me to study a doctorate at the Institute of Ethnomusicology at the Kun- stuiversität Graz.

Most of all I want to thank my family for always being there for me; to my parents, my brothers and sisters, my parents in-law and of course Alejandrina, my wife, for her patience and love and for having my back at all times. I also want to thank my children, Itzam Alejandrino and Dario Itzae who always inspire me to do better.

I am indebted to Miguel Pavia y Calvo for his input while writing this thesis, for the long dis- cussions and encouragement that were pivotal during this process. I owe my gratitude to Blanca E. Navas for her excellent support with the English Translation; to Wendy Sierra and Juan Bermudez for their assistance.

I would also like to thanks to the musicians that gave me advice, help and offered their opinions on the transcriptions: Amir Moreno, Alexander Cruz, Luis Rojas, Roberto Palomeque, Rodrigo Santiago, Abigail Pulido, Francisco Bernal Sanchez, Leonardo Garcia, Miyuki Kojima and Xicotencatl Corzo. I want to acknowledge the chronicler Fernán Pavia Farrera, for allowing me access to his private archives, records and photographs. To journalist Raul Mendoza Vera, who allowed me to review his recordings and interviews of many important

6 musicians in Chiapas. To Lester Godinez and Julio Tarracena Bethancourt for sharing with me their photographic archive. Thank you as well to the UNICACH Historic Archives.

I want to give a special thanks to the persons I interviewed for this project, who generously shared part of their life experiences with me and for the invaluable information they provided to rebuild the epochs, techniques, feelings and emotions that are the soul of this work.

7 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ...... 11

1. Mexico and Guatemala. A look at their past ...... 24

1.1 Mexico and Guatemala; cultural links to New Spain ...... 24

1.2 Cultural Syncretism ...... 28

2. A look at the traditional music from Mexico and Guatemala...... 31

2.1 The Traditional Music in Mexico, Essential Concepts ...... 33

2.1.1 The marimba in the context of Mexican music ...... 44

2.1.2 The improvisation in the traditional Mexican music ...... 45

2.1.2.1 The Son Jarocho ...... 48

2.1.2.2 The Son Huasteco ...... 54

2.1.2.3 The Music of Tierra Caliente ...... 59

2.1.2.4 Transformation of Mexican Music without instrumental improvisation ...... 66

2.3. The Traditional Music in Guatemala, a Reference ...... 68

2.3.1 Traditional music of Guatemala towards the beginning of the 20th Century ...... 73

3. Historical background of the marimba and how it took roots in Guatemala and Mexico ...... 79

3.1. Historical references about the origin of the marimba ...... 80

3.2 Analysis of the American theories of origin ...... 86

3.3 Background and historical references up to the XIX century ...... 94

3.4 Morphological Transformation of the Marimba ...... 101

4. Musical Evolution of the Marimba in Guatemala ...... 110

4.1 The arrival of the chromatic marimba and its development, at the beginning of the XX century ...... 110

4.2 The dispersion of the instrument, the families of marimbists and the contributions of the Guatemalan marimbists in the United States ...... 116

8 4.3 XX century, the Transformation of the repertoire of the marimba and the development of the Marimba Orchestra ...... 123

4.4 The Guatemalan Repertoire, genres and contributions ...... 133

4.5. The Guatemalan Marimba Towards the 21st century ...... 137

5. The musical evolution of the marimba in Mexico ...... 142

5.1 The Marimba in Chiapas. Evolution, Repertoire, Musicians and their Contributions .... 144

5.2 The Marimba Orchestras ...... 172

5.3. The marimba and its dispersion in Mexico ...... 181

5.3.1 The marimba in the South of Mexico ...... 181

5.3.2 The Marimba in Mexico City ...... 189

5.4 Consolidation of the Marimba in Chiapas Towards the XXI Century ...... 196

6. Improvisations with Marimba in Mexico and Guatemala ...... 204

6.1 The first mention of improvisations or solos and their background ...... 204

6.2 The Introduction of four mallets and the development of voicings ...... 214

6.2.1 The advent of the four mallets and their precursors ...... 214

6.2.2 Voicings with four mallets, the first documented evidence in audio and the most influential exponents and their improvisations ...... 220

6.3 Types of Improvisation and Principal Exponents ...... 245

6.3.1 Simultaneous Improvisation over the Melodic line ...... 246

6.3.2 Improvisation of Cadenza ...... 252

6.3.3 Improvisation over the Form, or Chorus ...... 261

6.3.4 Bridge of Improvisation ...... 268

6.3.5 Open improvisation and its elements ...... 274

6.4 Current state of improvisation and the perspective of soloist players ...... 292

7. Biographic Encyclopedia of Marimbists and Marimbas Groups ...... 296

7.1 Marimba Players ...... 297

8. Conclusions ...... 348

9 9. BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 356

10. APPENDIXS ...... 381

10.1 Glossary ...... 381

10.2 Discography ...... 390

10.4 Figure List Information ...... 442

10.4 Interview list ...... 445

10.6 Scree Shots ...... 535

10 INTRODUCTION

We never had anything that belonged more to us than the marimba: we are born with it and we die with it. We learn its song through our parent’s serenades before we even start to live; waiting for us when we come into this world, at baptisms, at the school where its wood has the same dignity as the blackboard or the books. At the first dance recitals and later at the dances; the sweaty palms of puppy lovers, the weddings and “the day-after the wedding” celebrations, the awaited babies, successes and failures always counted with its presence. It all comes from there: from Africa and the slave ships, from the heart, from the Yolotl, from the heartbroken barracks of the slaves, the nocturnal sun of reed bed fires, of war and peace searched for; the invention of one people to build an instrument, their instrument. (Eraclio Zepeda, De la marimba al son).1

In Guatemala and in the state of Chiapas, Mexico, the marimba is the most representative instrument. Its development constitutes an important element in the cultural identity of this region and to this day it maintains great social importance. Chiapas and Guatemala have shared their history since the wonders of the Mayan culture until almost 200 years ago when they separated to become two nations that spite having a border, their roots and many centuries of cultural ties are still here and continue facing similar problems. Their history runs together and they have shared a similar development regarding their ecosystem, economy, traditions and culture, as well as the progress of the marimba.

Although the incorporation of Chiapas to Mexico happened in 1824, researchers and historians who have written about Mexican music have made few references that are very vague regarding marimba music. The case is different in Guatemala, because when the Captaincy General of Guatemala was divided, it formed a country in which the marimba became a symbol that represents it. On the other hand, the marimba in Chiapas has had a more solid rise in mestizo regions and to a lesser extent in indigenous regions, unlike Guatemala, where we can find a diversity of marimbas in different cultures and in both rural and urban regions.

When we visualize the context in which the different genres and styles of traditional and popular music in Mexico are captured, and each style linked to a supply of different instruments, it is interesting to take a peek at marimba music for many reasons, one of them is that marimba music has been instrumental and only sang sporadically, unlike most of the traditional and popular music of Mexico, which is always sung. Another aspect of marimba music is that it is not exclusive to one genre, and it tackles as many genres as possible in their inter-

1 (Zepeda 2000:132) Translated by Blanca Navas

11 pretation and this is how it has been present in the historical and musical process of the country in this region.

We could say that the marimba as we know it now is one of the youngest instruments in Mex- ico and its organological transformation allowed it to become an instrument where a diversity of genres can be played with a variety of styles, becoming part of popular Mexican music and representative of several states of the south of Mexico, like Chiapas, Tabasco, Oaxaca and Veracruz.

The development of the marimba in this region has been supported within the families, with a powerful oral tradition, which has promoted its inclusion in all aspects of their daily life as well as festivities, celebrations of joy and moments of solemnity. In this context my professional experience began when I was 6 years old and I started to play the marimba next to my father who was my first teacher and later on in the environment of family life and in the “business” of playing popular music, to continue later on my academic training as percussionist at the Escuela Nacional de Música at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico and a master’s degree in contemporary marimba at the Amsterdam Conservatory in Holland.

My musical training was very privileged since it comes from different areas (academic and popular), which allows me to have a broader view of execution and possibilities in the performance of the marimba. From this background many questions arose regarding marimba music and its different contexts and progress. For example, why is it that in a professional school where contemporary marimba is the basis for the training and even though it is in Mexico, it has nothing in common with the traditional Mexican marimba? Furthermore, it is perceived as a rudimentary or easy instrument. I couldn’t understand why we had to learn to play the marimba only with foreign methods that came mainly from the United States. Be- sides the common concerns that come up during the performance of music, other questions began to arise regarding the marimba of Mexico and the marimba of Chiapas, with which I had had a relationship for many years and I knew well.

Since I enrolled at the University in the mid 90’s and to this date, I have read several authors who write about the history of the marimba. These books mainly address the origin and de-

12 velopment of the marimba in Guatemala and Chiapas together. Some of these authors are Da- vid Vela (1953), Vida Chenoweth (1974), Mariano López Mayorical (1982), Carlos Ramiro Asturias (1994), Alfonso Bautista-Figueroa (1999), Lester Godínez (2002) and in Chiapas, Amador Hernández (1975), Cesar Pineda del Valle (1984) and Laurence Kaptain (1991), among others. Ever since, this information has given me some concern, especially the one regarding musical aspects, because as a specialized marimba player, I considered that they lacked enough elements to sustain their positions. As I analyzed them from my performer perspective, I perceived the way they undertook their works and I took a different view than “non-musicians”, questioning historical and musical aspects written in such books.

In this variety of documents regarding the history of the marimba we find that some of them have been prepared by authors who lack the necessary knowledge to base topics with musical connotations, ignoring concepts and generating wrong information that is constantly repeated, mainly in Chiapas. Amador Hernández in El Origen de la Marimba (1975) and Cesar Pineda in Antología de la Marimba (1984), which are the most quoted by other authors, they encouraged theories about the origin of the marimba in Chiapas without credible proof and unfortunately they have been repeated over and over again to be considered facts by many people.

Most authors have written about the organological transformations of the instrument and they only refer to the extension of the notes or the keys of the marimba, or number of keys, etc., and disregard musical registers or tessituras. They only take in consideration the contributions of the builder, but not the type and possibilities of the repertoire to perform, or how to have distributed the different voices when playing the marimba. In this regard they have spread out theories of the physical transformation of the instrument with very detailed information but without a foundation, since even to this day there is no reliable evidence to support those theories, especially the ones proposed by Hernández (1975) and Pineda (1984).

The invention of the marimba requinta is another theory circulated in Chiapas that is entirely questionable. It is precisely the lack of musical knowledge by some authors that has contributed to the wrong descriptions of tessitura but what is even more astonishing is that they have never been corrected by any marimbist or any other musician.

13 It is incredible that after a hundred years of physical and musical shaping of the current marimba, documents continue to be generated without a solid foundation or taking as reference previous works without proven theories.

For many years many Americanist theories were encouraged in Guatemala. Authors like Lopez Mayorical (1982) and Asturias (1994), were the ones that promoted those ideas with greater force. However, in Guatemala they succeeded in writing about this more and there is better documentation regarding the historic process of the marimba as well as the musical development of such instrument. Although it should be noted that they also invested too much time writing about the origins of the marimba with confronting opinions but very few have stepped forward to study and document what the marimba is today.

Fortunately, researchers like Alfonso Arrivillaga Cortes and Lester Godinez have carried out works with serious documentation and with a more open vision. They have written about the musical development of the marimba in their country with greater objectivity that has been published during this century.

Another aspect worth noticing is that most authors focused their work from their own local context, in other words, a local or nationalistic perspective, accepting as obvious many concepts that from the common use of their language were accepted as understood, since they thought their readers would be their own nationals and in that context their view is not clear. They did not consider that those texts could be read by citizens of other countries foreign to their culture. Ironically, it has been authors from other countries that without a nationalist attachment have generated more objective documents like Chenoweth (1974), Kaptain (1991) and the most complete work of all until now by Brenner (2007).

In the process of musical development there has not been a proper tracking of the repertoire. We know what music was played during the XX century through the discography and because many marimbists of that time are still alive and they provide us information that helps to know part of the process of incorporation to the repertoire of different genres and how they were integrated to the marimba groups. In the case of the music of the XIX century and before, we can only conjecture based on the oral tradition.

In this sense I consider that in order to understand the marimbist movement of this region it is necessary to go in depth and analyze the historic process and review the documents on this topic that exist today, to ascertain if they can be used to rebuild in part, the transformation of the repertoire developed for marimba during the last 100 years.

In my experience as a jazz musician, questions and doubts arose which made me decide to address the subject of musical improvisation, characteristic of marimba players in Chiapas, which they have developed for many decades, and associate them with their Guatemalan counterparts. This improvisation is very different from the rest of the music in Mexico and other places in Central America. In this process I considered it opportune to know how it got started and to this end it was necessary to review the music of Mexico and the history of Chiapas since it was part of Guatemala. I had to review the bibliography about the history of the marimba and I found out that nothing had been written in Chiapas regarding the musical development of the marimba.

We allowed the years to go by when it was still possible to carry out the proper documentation of the musical processes of the marimba in Chiapas. Today this has become more complicated, if we take in consideration that most of the marimbists that were the principal actors during the 1960’s and 1970’s, “the golden age of the marimba”, have died.

There are no studies that provide information about the development and transformation of execution techniques, the appropriation of new procedures like the use and evolution to four mallets and about the need to include a more complex repertoire. Authors that discussed the physical transformations of the marimba do not include the development of the execution of the repertoire. In my opinion they lack the background to give them credence because in the end those transformations responded to musical needs.

At the beginning this work was conceived to learn and study the concept of improvisation of the marimba in Mexico and Guatemala, however, in response to the previously mentioned arguments, I considered important to address the topic of musical development of the marim-

15 ba in both countries, especially in the XX century, because very little had been written in that regard, and those works were brief and they lack depth.

Therefore, to reconsider the scope that this work should cover was unavoidable when trying to offer more information that is both, reliable and complete. Although there is literature that covers the history of the marimba in both countries, it has been necessary to examine those concepts in a more detailed analysis, uncovering the mistakes of many theories like the “Americanist” origin of the marimba as well as its organological transformations. This is an effort to contribute with greater objectivity the undeniable facts of the historic development of the marimba but unlike other authors, from a sociopolitical perspective where it developed. Furthermore, this work includes a great portion documenting the musical development the marimba had through the musicians and their groups and finally it provides the historic processes of the performance of the marimba, in a technical context and including the improvisation. These topics have never been discussed by other authors.

This work also provides a different musical and historical vision, with musical examples that describe the technical development and the execution that the marimbist have achieved to this day, revealing details of the musical elements that make a difference in the way the marimba is played, improvised and organized in Guatemala and in Mexico.

Under the premise to work from a broader perspective, I planned to address the topic of the musical development of the marimba from the general to the particular, in other words, from the outside to the inside, going from the most general elements to the more specific, designing an outline starting with historic references from the time of the Spanish monarchy, the New Spain, The Captaincy General of Guatemala and later the Mexican music, the Guatemalan music, the development of patterns of improvisation and the analysis of sources and the historic development of the marimba in both countries, to arrive to the musical development, from the most specific, like the technical development of the four mallets and finally the need to find and corroborate the necessary information to understand how improvisation achieved the maturity it has today. I understood then that improvisation is “the tip of the iceberg” in the process of the musical development of the marimba, primarily in Chiapas.

16 To support each other in this approach will help us understand the place where the marimba is situated and everything that surrounds it, then the reader, foreign to the culture of these countries, will be able to expand his appreciation on this topic and the elements of its environment.

This form of working, from the general to the particular helped me define the way and provided the order of the topics to deal with in each chapter, the approaches that are taken during the process, from the historic to the musical. And so, do the historic events around the society where the marimba originates help to understand its process? Why is the marimba different in the context of Mexican music? How can we understand the difference between the traditional music of Mexico and the marimba music? Why its popularity in Guatemala?

Therefore, this framework of diversity of traditional and popular music that was adapted to the marimba once more leads us to ask more questions: Is the marimba today a traditional instrument? Was it ever? Why the diversity of its repertoire? Why doesn’t it belong to a group or special ethnic group? Why does it belong to a specific region? Why does the repertoire is not only integrated by traditional sones from Chiapas or Guatemala? When it plays such a variety of genres? Under which criteria can we focus the term and the concept of improvisation in popular and traditional Mexican music? Did marimbists begin to improvise out of necessity? Was it to seek notoriety in their performance? Was it just for fun? Were the influences from other genres what help the development of new types of improvisation? How was the use of four mallets introduced, to finally develop solos with the dexterity that marimbists have in the control of the voicings? Who were the first ones to play with four mallets? How is marimba improvisation practiced nowadays?

These series of questions are analyzed and answered in each chapter. During the reading the historical and social background will be visualized, starting with the Spanish Conquest, the Captaincy General of Guatemala that Chiapas belonged to, and later on the historical aspects of music in both countries, with the cultural diversity that this involves (19 linguistic groups), the influences and ancestries that formed them, taking in consideration what is known as the three roots of Latin American music: European, American and African, in which Mexico in particular has the greater diversity (62 linguistic groups). In this sense a clearer view is offered of the appreciation for the marimba, for example in Guatemala it is the national instru-

17 ment and it is deep-rooted in a very obvious way in their society, while in Mexico it was only in the southern states that it became popular, placing it in the great musical diversity of the country it shares, trying to be part of the Mexican culture, and it is in Chiapas where it acquires a higher identity value similar to Guatemala.

Mexico and Guatemala had the same process of Christianization of indigenous people by the Spanish, and music played a determining role since it involved the use and legacy of musical instruments similar in many Latin American countries, like several types of harps, violins, guitars, a great variety of drums and reeds, generally used for religious ceremonies. The case of the marimba is different. In Mexico it was mainly adopted by the mestizo population and its music has been mostly festive and pagan. In Guatemala, the development of the chromatic marimba was also generated among the mestizo populations, however the indigenous population is deep-rooted in the marimba and its use has some religious connotations and it continues being a diatonic instrument.

To put this chapter in context, I reviewed the historic literature about New Spain and the historic process in Chiapas, and fortunately the Universidad de Ciencias y Artes de Chiapas had published about it, with several authors that have studied the region in depth, ever since Chia- pas was under the Captaincy General of Guatemala and about the process of emancipation and its later annexation to Mexico. Starting with the analysis of border treaties, independence treaties and others like the ones published by Manuel B. Trens (1957), Sepulveda (1958) and Gutierrez Cruz (1997) among others.

After reviewing and working with different literature about Mexican music I was able to observe that to this date there are no works about the process of improvisation of other traditional genres both Mexican and Guatemalan, making it obvious that there are still a lot of pending research projects to undertake in this regard in both countries.

Further, with the review of documents, photographic records, many of them from private archives, like the ones from Fernán Pavía Farrera, a Chiapanecan chronicler; The journalist Raul Mendoza Vera, as well as from relatives of old musicians; from researchers like Lester Godinez, Julio Taracena Bethancourt and Alfonso Arrivillaga, from Guatemala and Helmut

18 Brenner from Austria; and documents from the historic archive of Chiapas, provided us elements to make a broad and in depth analysis of the musical process of the marimba in both countries. I addressed historical aspects of the development of the marimba, presenting a summary of various authors for those interested in the topic. We tried to make it easier to find in a single document a lot of information that shows a more detailed view of the development of the marimba, including historical, social and musical aspects. Moreover, we make observa- tions regarding Americanist theories on the genesis of the marimba.

For a long time the marimba was played by four musicians, without any other instruments and little by little more players were added to become what it is today, an ensemble of seven marimbists with two marimbas. When Chiapas and Guatemala separated into two regions, two movements were formed regarding the development of the marimba, not only physical but also in their music but they maintained many similarities. We can also appreciate the difference in their styles.

Strangely the marimba today plays very little traditional music, sones and zapateados from regions of Chiapas and in the LP recordings we can appreciate that the groups played mostly dancing and popular music, and their repertoire went from ballroom music, like danzones and cumbias, to rock and roll. Marimbists have adopted all possible music styles from Mexico, from traditional music to classical music and what is called in Chiapas “American Music”, referring to the great jazz orchestras of the 1930’s and 1940’s. This has generated an enormous transformation in the way the instrument is played and it has developed one of the rare elements in Mexican music: the improvisation.

We also discuss the changes that the marimba experienced through its musicians, particularly those who had the greatest influence in the transformation of the instrument and adaptation of its repertoire and marked the different periods of the marimba. Their different styles of interpretation; their technical contributions in the execution as well as their contributions regarding the types of ensembles that were created and that some instrumentalists adhered to, resulted in the creation of marimba orchestras and other types of ensembles. Also the formation of the most representative groups of those periods and the emergence of the most influential musi-

19 cians of that time; the role that political and social processes played and we can see how these transformations respond to different needs that go beyond musical aspects.

To reconstruct these historical and musical processes regarding the development of the marimba, we approached other texts, for example the book by Ruiz Torres about the history of the bandas in Mexico, between 1800 and 1900, because wind instruments have had a fundamental role in marimba orchestras. By the end of the XIX century bandas were the first ones to influence the marimba repertoire. I also looked for texts that dealt with the different political and social conflicts in both countries, from the Mexican Revolution at the beginning of the XX century and the dictatorships in Guatemala during the same century, which marked these societies and their culture. These events allowed us to understand the moments and places where the marimba was most popular. I also worked with publications about Chiapanecan and Guatemalan musicians that settled in the United States and who were an essential part of the musical evolution in those countries like the Solis Brothers from Mexico and the Hurtado Brothers from Guatemala. Authors like David Eyler and Rebecca Kite provided us with new elements to discern the transformations that influenced the three countries.

A very important part of this work was the interviews to marimbists, particularly the old ones, in several parts of Chiapas and cities where the marimba is present, like Oaxaca, Tabasco, Veracruz and also Mexico City. The interviews were carried out with organized questions to help us understand how the marimbists developed in their field. Pleasant conversations were recorded in audio and video that were later transcribed to help us understand the way musical influences were organized. We took special interest in those musicians that were born between 1919 and 1940, and naturally we also worked with those that were born after those years. With the field research, the search in archives and in public and private documents, the outlook became clear about the adaptation process of the huge diversity of repertoire. The influence of some marimbists, some greater than others, generated tendencies that besides looking for correspondence in the topics narrated by those interviewed, helped clarify what happened with the musical development of the marimba since the 1920’s. On the other hand, we also interviewed important marimbists in this field in Guatemala that are fundamental in the transition of the marimba to the current century.

20 Before addressing the topic of improvisation, it was necessary to document the use of four mallets, and how it becomes a fundamental element for marimbists. Their technical and musical ability represents prestige not only in musical circles but in society in general. They became leading figures in their towns or regions.

The introduction of four mallets defined the styles on both sides of the border. In Mexico it became something essential while in Guatemala it was less common; they continue to play with two or three mallets and sporadically they may have an improvisation section.

I began the topic of the different possibilities that led to the implementation of four mallets, both in Mexico as in Guatemala and how their use influenced marimbists to achieve the technical command of their voicings (harmonic movement carried out with four mallets while playing melodic lines generating the movement of the voices with each mallet). The voicings marked their individual style which made them stand out and were recognizable by marimba fans. In this chapter we present several transcriptions of the most remarkable musicians, where the technical and musical development achieved by them towards the end of the XX century can be clearly observed.

Finally we come to the topic of improvisation, that has a very broad definition, based on the fact that improvisation is precisely to create or recreate music spontaneously; this can be free or it can be reduced to a few musical elements that point the way where this improvisation could happen, either with the rhythm or the beat, or a certain number of bars; the tempo, or harmonic and melodic elements like scales and keys among others. In this case I refer to the way melodic lines are created with elements used by the folklore and popular music that contain rhythmic, harmonic and melodic elements of characteristic patterns of each regional style as well as their own virtuosity.

The concept of “improvisation” in marimba has been developed from a perspective closer to concepts of improvisation known as Jazz music. With the support of the interviews made to musicians and the analysis of approximately 2,800 tracks of marimba music, from recordings in library archives, recordings from private and public collections, I came to the conclusion that there are five types of improvisations and

21 each one has its own background, that are addressed with precision with musical examples and transcriptions of recordings of different periods. This classification is very important because it is the first time that has something on this issue and with that accuracy. This five different types of improvisation in the marimba music are: 1) Simultaneous Improvisation over the Melodic Line; 2) Cadenza; 3) Improvisation over the Form, or Chorus; 4) Bridge of Im- provisation; and 5) Open Improvisation.

The transcriptions give us elements to analyze and value the transformation of improvisation, from its origin to become what to this day represents a particular characteristic for the execution of the instrument. Many of these transcriptions of solos or improvisations also offer another contribution; they denote the styles of the great exponents of improvisation, mainly in Mexico. These transcriptions can be studied and analyzed by young musicians to help them learn the different elements that defined the styles of the old marimbists. This is only known through stories or through some recordings. This document also offers musicians a source of study to learn how to improvise in an academic way and not only through oral teaching. This is the same approach used when teaching jazz in professional schools in the United States and Europe.

When we discuss this topic and give examples an analysis is shown of the aspects highlighted by the types and styles of the marimbists, with samples of solos, which can be consulted in the appendix where the complete scores appear, as well as the audio, where it can be better appreciated.

In the text you will find the word marimba hundreds of times. It is important to mention that in Mexico and Guatemala marimba not only refers to the instrument. The mention of “marimba” word, can also mean a group or ensemble with one or two marimbas, in other words, it has a long connotation.

I consider that the present work represents, in the context of documents about marimba, a different view of what has been written until today, with arguments originated through my musical experience. This could offend the sensibility of some marimba lovers who sympa-

22 thize with unfounded theories that unfortunately continue to be acknowledged as bastions in Chiapas and Guatemala.

This work closes a biographic chapter of many marimbists interviewed and others that have passed on but who are important for their contributions to the musical history of the marimba, and because from their musical conception achieved a recognizable sound or a unique style. In short, this study is approached from:

a) History b) Organological development c) Repertoire development d) Execution techniques and voicing analysis e) Development and analysis of improvisation f) Groups and their most important exponents And something else.

In the adventure to rediscover the panorama of the marimba and how it came about, I have counted with the assistance of many people. Specially I want to thank to important persons in this process, to Miguel Pavia for his enthusiasm and the total support he offered me each step of the way through this experience; to my adviser Helmut Brenner for his teachings, his ad- vises, his recommendations, and for opening the door to this wonderful world of musical research.

23 1. Mexico and Guatemala. A look at their past

1.1 Mexico and Guatemala; cultural links to New Spain

The marimba is the most representative instrument of the country of Guatemala and the State of Chiapas, Mexico. Its development process is an important element in the cultural identity of this region, and to this date, it maintains a social root of great importance. The histories of Chiapas and Guatemala have journeyed together and it is impossible to talk about their cultural development, including the development of the marimba, without looking at the historical context which they have shared even before the XVI Century Spanish conquest as part of the Mayan Empire which covered the southeast of Mexico, including the Mexican states of Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo, and of course the state of Chiapas, as well as the central American countries of Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Belize.2

Referring to the historical background of these nations provides the basis to better understand their development process, with music as part of it. Jas Reuter, in his book about the popular music of Mexico, in his vision of “The Music of the Peoples as a Cultural Factor” says: “As it happens with other subjects related to mankind, it is impossible to understand music if we do not take in consideration the human being that produces and interprets it; and it is not possible to understand the individual who makes such music if we do not take in consideration the social community where he lives and the history that led to the present society” (Translated by Blanca Navas)3, In this way, Reuter provides us an opportunity to visualize the development of the marimba, taking into account as many elements as possible.

Later on we will discuss the musical aspects of Mexico and Guatemala, but it is also important to discuss the political and social process that both countries experienced to arrive to their current defining geographical situation and the culture they share, in particular the Mexi-

2 More information in: Virginia M. Fields/Dorie Reents-Budet, Lords of Creation: The Origins of Sacred Maya Kingship, 2006; Robert Sharer/Loa Traxler, “The Ancient Maya”, 2005. 3 “Como ocurre con otras materias relacionadas con el hombre, es imposible comprender la música si no tene- mos en cuenta al ser humano que la produce e interpreta, ni es posible comprender al individuo que hace música si no tomamos en consideración la comunidad social en que vive y la historia que desembocó en la sociedad actual” (Reuter 1982:9).

24 can state of Chiapas, and the country of Guatemala. We will focus mainly on the period covering the end of the XVIII Century to the first half of the XIX century, we will talk about independent Mexico with references to the “colonial period”, as the time dominated by the Spanish Monarchy is known, and to the course of independence of Latin American countries.4

Until 1821, the current territory of Chiapas was part of the Spanish Monarchy5, under the administration of the Captaincy General of Guatemala, and it was formed by the Provinces of Chiapas and the Province of Soconusco, the last one located on the pacific coast.6

The Spanish Monarchy had in New Spain a very well defined political division for the control of the different territories conquered in America. Mexico at the time was “New Spain”, and it did not include Chiapas among its organized territories.7

Fig.1: New Spain

The Captaincy General of Guatemala was a territorial entity established by the “Spanish Crown” during the colonial period (1523-1821), and it included the Central American Coun-

4 More information in: Thomas Hugh, El Imperio Español: de Colón a Magallanes, 2006; La conquista de México, 2007; El Imperio Español de Carlos V, 2010. 5Hispanic Monarchy or Spanish Monarchy; as are known the group of territories governed by the different dyn- asties ruling in Spain, after the discovery of America in 1492. Spain explored and colonized great extensions of American territory, from the current south east of the United States, Mexico, the Caribbean, all the way to Cen- tral America and most of South America. 6 See more in: Luis G. Zorrilla, Relaciones de México con la república de Centroamérica y con Guatemala, 1984. 7 See more in: Juan Brom/Dolores Duval, esbozo de historia de México, México, 1998.

25 tries currently known as Guatemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and the Mexican state of Chiapas, as well as part of the Mexican states of Tabasco, Campeche and Quintana Roo (Gutiérrez Cruz 1997:17).

The Captaincy was in turn dependent on the Viceroyalty of New Spain (currently Mexico), but due to the long distance to Mexico City, which since that time functioned as the capital of New Spain, it enjoyed great independence. The territory, just like the rest of the Spanish Monarchy, was ruled by the Cadiz Constitution and the Monarchy was divided into provinces that were not subordinate among themselves, although military and legal authority was maintained (Gutierrez 1997:17-24).8

Until 1821 The Captaincy was formed by five provinces: the Province of Ciudad Real of Chiapas, the Povince of Guatemala, the Province of El Salvador, the Province of Comayagua and the Province of Nicaragua - Costa Rica, (Gutiérrez Cruz 1997:17-19).

Fig. 2: The Captaincy General of Guatemala, in 1821.

When the intendancies regimen was partially implemented in the Captaincy of Guatemala, the Provinces of Las Chiapas, Ciudad Real, Tuxtla and Soconusco were fusioned into the Intend- ancy of Ciudad Real de Chiapas, whose capital was the town with the same name. Founded in 1528 by Diego de Mazariegos, it successively went through a number of name changes: to

8 More information also in: Julio Pinto Soria, El régimen colonial, Madrid, 1993.

26 Villa Real, to Villa Viciosa, to San Cristobal de los Llanos and to Ciudad Real, today San Cristobal de las Casas (Sepulveda 1958:45-174).

In 1821 the Spanish Courts transformed all their intendancies into Provinces, which granted the right to the new Province of Ciudad Real de Chiapas to have a Superior Political Leader of its own and a Provincial Council of seven members. In the same year, the newly created province was just getting organized when the Mexican Independence which had initiated in 1810 was consummated, with the support and enthusiasm of some Chiapanecan municipalities. The province joined the new born “First Mexican Empire” of Agustin de Iturbide and the Plan of Iguala, as did the other five provinces of Central America, proclaiming their independence from Spain (Gutierrez 1997:24-30).

At the fall of Iturbide in 1823, the provinces of the Captaincy of Guatemala decided to separate from Mexico and formed the United Provinces of Central America and in 1824 the Fed- eral Republic of Central America9. This movement created a strong division in Chiapas, and between the years of 1821 to 1824 it experienced an internal conflict from different sectors including religious, civil and military. Finally, following a referendum, 96,829 residents indorsed the incorporation into Mexico and 60,400 indorsed the newly born Federal Republic of Central America, while 15,724 remained neutral10. The incorporation into Mexico became effective on September 14th, 1824, as it regarded the political parties of Ciudad Real and Tux- tla, while Soconusco maintained a neutral status until 1842,11 when Mexico incorporated its territory in spite of the protests from Guatemala. Nevertheless, the dispute regarding their borders continued until 1882, when the current border was established through the Herrera- Mariscal Treaty (Sepúlveda 1958:145-174).12

9 See more in: “Act of union of Central America to Mexico”, in international treaties, Foreign Affairs Office, Tegucigalpa, 1954, 9.93. 10 Decree of the Commission regarding the file about the annexation of the province of Chiapas, September 9th and 11th 1824. Quoted in Manuel Trens, Historia de Chiapas. Desde los tiempos más remotos hasta la caída del segundo imperio, México: La impresora.1957; quotes also by (Gutierrez Cruz 1997:259). 11 See more in: Manuel Larraínzar, Noticia histórica de Soconusco y su incorporación a la República Mexicana, México, 1843. 12 The boundary treaty Herrera-Mariscal is an agreement signed between Mexico and Guatemala, regarding their borders and signed on September 27th 1842. More information in: Book I of “Treaties and Conventions”1930, 365; Mario Eduardo Valdez Gordillo, Descuentro y encuentro de frontera: El Peten Guatemalteco y el sureste mexicano: 1895-1949, Tuxtla Gutiérrez: UNICACH-UNICH 2006.

27 The borders regarding Guatemala and its limits with Central America took longer to be determined. The Central American Federation was formed by five states: Guatemala, El Salva- dor, Honduras, Nicaragua and Costa Rica. In 1838 a sixth state was formed named “Los Al- tos” with its capital in the city of Quetzaltenango, included the Western territories of Guate- mala and part of the current Soconusco in Chiapas, and it also included the territory of Be- lize.13

Guatemala proclaimed its sovereignty in 1839 and the following year, under the Government of Rafael Carrera it forcefully incorporated the State of Los Altos. As a result, the Central American Federation was dissolved and its Constitution was in fact repealed. El Salvador did not concede until 1841. During those years several armed conflicts were part of the movement that finally marked the border limits of five Central American countries.14

1.2 Cultural Syncretism

During the Spanish occupation in America, initiated in 1492, the main characteristic was to impose the catholic religion and to eliminate as much as possible the culture and customs of the indigenous peoples. They used violence and other strategies to impose the western culture over the indigenous cultures, and as a result entire populations were wiped out and their social systems were destroyed while they plundered their resources (Elliot 1990:125-169).

During the Spanish conquest millions of indigenous peoples perished through extermination and illness or they were subdued as slaves. In 1542, Emperor Charles V prohibited the “mis- treatment” of Indians and so began the promotion of African Slave Trade in several parts of the New World (Fabié 2006:507-518). This practice was adopted by the English, French, Dutch as well as Spanish. Smuggling makes it difficult to calculate the exact number of Afri- cans who came to Hispanic America and Brazil. Enriqueta Vila estimates that more than 250000 slaves arrived in America in the XVII century, of those, 70,000 came in through Ver-

13 See more in: Pinto Soria 1993. 14 See more in: Regina Wagner, Historia Social y Económica de Guatemala1524-1900, Guatemala, 1994.

28 acruz, 135000 through Cartagena de Indias, 44000 through Buenos Aires and the rest through the Caribbean and other zones.15

During “the Colonial Period” the African slaves as well as the indigenous peoples were not entirely subdued and they never accepted their slavery status. There are records that indicate that during the XVI and XVIII Centuries they fought for their freedom. Many of them ran away to areas of difficult access such as hills and mountains, or far away beaches, and therefore many of the African population maintained in some way or form cultural elements inherited from their ancestors who arrived to American continent from Africa16. The indigenous populations retained their roots and some of their customs, even if most of them were adapted to the catholic religion. (Peña Vicenteño 2008:721).

It must be mentioned that religious orders such as Franciscans, Dominicans, Augustinians and Jesuits, in their pilgrimage to convert the natives formed trade and political networks which exerted great influence in the cultural domination of the peoples (Barnadas 1990:185-207), in aspects such as food, clothing and customs, religious festivities and in their activities as well as in music. Their instruments can demonstrate this diversity with similarities or transformations from one region to another, as is the case of the guitars, vihuelas, Chirimias17, harps and drums. Years later, musical elements of cultures that arrived from Africa also found a place in this network of interculturality. Religion played a major role in this musical transformation, since the church governed over the conquered territories, Bishops had total power to decide about new customs, and they were the ones that dictated the prohibition of music original to the cultures of America, including the music of the slaves brought from Africa, since musical education was considered an elemental part of the conversion process.18

15 See more in: Vila Vilar, Aspectos sociales en América Colonial: De extranjeros, contrabando y esclavos, Bogotá, 2001. 16 See more in: Juan Pablo Peña Vicenteño, “Las formas de liberación de los africanos en la Audiencia de Gua- temala, siglos XVI y XVII: el caso del mulato Hernando Díaz”, in: Revista electrónica de Historia, 2008, p. 721. Online: www.historia.fcs.ucr.ac.cr (last access May 14th, 2014). 17 Chirimía is a Spanish term for a type of oboe, introduced to Central and South America in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the Spanish clergy. The chirimía is a member of the Shawn family of double-reed instruments. See more in: Charles McNett, The Chirimia: a Latin American Shawm, 1960. 18 See more in: Gerard Béhague, La música en América Latina (una introducción), Caracas, 1983.

29 An ensemble of different elements created a cultural syncretism in America and it affected these societies overwhelmingly, and many of them were revealed when the colonies became independent. The children of Spanish born in America and known as creoles, and the mix of indigenous peoples, African and other European cultures added to this interculturality creating a distinctive mixture in America, such as mulatos19, Afro-Americans, the purest indigenous peoples and European descendants, all of them created a new culture with their religious traditions, languages, gastronomy, dance and music, shaped by what is known in America as the 3 cultural roots, (Europe, Africa and America) (Locatelli de Pergamo 2004:35-52). Each one with its own diversity, for example the Spanish and Europeans who travelled from different regions with their own customs and influences, like the Spanish from Andalucía, or the French and Austrians in the XIX century with the arrival of Maximillian of Hamburg20.

Thus the cultural identity of the peoples of Latin America is shaped by the diversity that makes them different among themselves, but who preserve conducting threads which bear a resemblance to one another, and in this environment, music is one of the components of identity most representative of the diversities, therefore in the following chapter we will discuss the music relative to Mexico and Guatemala.

Alejo Carpentier makes a very particular description regarding the study of Latin American Music, in comparison with the music of Europe:

“When we are faced with Latin American music, however, we find that it doesn’t develop in relation to the same values and cultural facts, obeying to phenomena, contributions, impulses, due to growing factors, temperamental pulses, racial strata, implants and transplants, which may seem incredible to someone who pretends to apply a certain method of analysis to an art governed by a constant replay of con- frontations between the owned and the borrowed, the autochthonous and the imported” (translated by Blanca Navas).21

19 See more in Glossary 20 Maximilian I of Mexico (Maximilan of Habsburg) was born in Vienna in 1832. He arrived in Mexico in 1884 and reinstated the Second Mexican Empire, although it was very brief and only lasted until he was executed in the City of Queretaro on June 19th, 1867. See more in: Fernando Orozco Linares, Gobernantes de Mexico, Mexico, 1985; Susana M. Delgado Carranco, Historia de Mexico, Mexico, 2004. 21 “Cuando nos enfrentamos con la música latinoamericana, en cambio, nos encontramos con que ésta no se desarrolla en función de los mismos valores y hechos culturales, obedeciendo a fenómenos, aportaciones, impul- sos, debidos a factores de crecimiento, pulsiones anímicas, estratos raciales, injertos y trasplantes, que resultan insólitos para quien pretenda aplicar determinados métodos de análisis de un arte regido por un constante rejuego de confrontaciones entre lo propio y lo ajeno, lo autóctono y lo importado” (Carpentier 2004:8).

30 2. A look at the traditional music from Mexico and Guatemala.

The cultural plurality that developed in America during the colonization, created a wealth between the native or indigenous peoples and the “urban” population formed mainly by creoles and mestizo and although our topic focuses on the marimba, it is important to mention its cultural and musical development in general. The lack of understanding or knowledge of the origins and roots of the Latin American cultures would make it very difficult to comprehend the importance and magnitude of the cultural development of all its elements. In this case traditional music beginning with an outlook of Latin America and centering in the folkloric music of Mexico and Guatemala, and in particular the marimba, to be able to understand the improvisation that has developed with this instrument.

When we refer to the “original music of America”, called pre-Hispanic music, we are talking about the music that existed before the arrival of the Spanish and Portuguese conquistadores and even though it has been studied by historians, archeologists, anthropologists, ethnog- raphers and ethnomusicologists, this information is not accurate. As we know, the Spanish conquistadors got rid of any musical form that had existed previously and introduced western music and musical instruments which the indigenous population appropriated little by little during more than three centuries of conquest.22

The pre-Hispanic instruments from Latin American countries have been recognized and classified into families and periods, keeping in mind that native cultures had been developing for more than 3000 years.23 Many of these musical instruments preceded the arrival of the Span- ish and they represent physical and timbral evidence; we also have the existence of references in mural paintings, stone and ceramic engravings, as well as codex, which show images of these instruments, and although in some cases the images are not very well preserved, researchers have interpreted some of them as instruments. They have not found more accurate and detailed elements of what was possibly the music among indigenous peoples (Gómez

22 See more in: Pablo Herrera Carrillo, La Conquista Musical de América por España, 1941; Lourdes Turrent, La conquista musical de México, México, 1993; Diana Farley Rodríguez, Y Dios se hizo música: la conquista musical del Nuevo Reino de Granada. El caso de los pueblos de indios de las provincias de Tunja y Santafé durante el siglo XVII, Colombia, 2010, 15-34; Julio Estrada, La música de México: I.1 periodo prehispánico, México, 1984. 23 See more in: María Longhena, México Antiguo, Historia y cultura de los pueblos de Mesoamérica, 2006; Michael D. Coe/Rex Koontz, Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs, USA, 2008.

31 Gómez 2006). Regarding Mexico and Guatemala, some researchers such as Samuel Martí (1971 & 1995), Miguel Covarrubias (1955), Miguel León Portilla (1961), Pablo Castellanos (1970), Jesús Castillo (1941), Alfonso Arrivillaga (2006), among others, have conducted studies about how the music then. How it was played and sang before the conquest. They have classified the instruments and studied the codex and we know, thanks to them, that among the mentioned instruments we can be observe clay flutes, ocarinas, scrapers, jícaras, turtle shells, snails, teponaztles (Guzmán 1984:181), with name variations depending on the place but with the reference to a percussion instrument with a reed, like the tunkul for the Mayans and the tinco for the Chiapanecas, also leather drums like the huehuetls of the Aztecs. Other instruments are more emblematic like the Mayan trumpets, as observed in the murals in Bonam- pak.24

However, it is important to visualize that the new musical instruments brought by the conquistadors, like string instruments such as vihuelas and guitars, harps, violins, stringed leather drums as well as many different types of flutes and shawms, were adopted by the natives and adapted, giving birth to the musical syncretism which was generated during three centuries (Carpentier 2004:7-19), adding to this the political processes and the expansion of other conquered nations and new societies installed in America, later, the arrival to Mexico of the French and Austro-Hungarian Empires, both in the XIX century, continuing this processes which concluded with this interesting mix defined in music as the “Latin American Music”.

The identity that conforms the Latin American music is referred as the three roots (Locatelli de Pergamo 1997:35-50). The first is the native indigenous root, the second is the European root and the third root as is called in America is the element provided by the African slaves brought to America by the Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, French and English. Daniel Devoto divides these influences in layers and places them also in order:

• The first layer is the indigenous culture. • The second is the Spanish European Culture.

24 See more in: Roberto Velázquez Cabrera, Análisis Virtual de Trompetas Mayas, 2002.

32 • The third layer is the Arabian influence in the Iberian culture during the period under the Arab control that was incorporated to their culture, considering that many Spanish arriving in America came from Andalucía and Extremadura. • The fourth layer was the influence of African slaves. (Devoto 2004:21-22).

This is how this music starts generating and in certain way it has similar characteristics among its regions, in fact we dare to say that there are many similarities among Latin American countries in spite of the distance between them, in other words, from Central America to South America. It is in these countries where the influence of the African slaves is greater and where they developed the particular elements original to the African regions they were brought from, and their development at their arrival to different places of the Antilles, Cuba, Brazil, in the Pacific, Colombia and Ecuador, to mentioned a few, generated a huge Latin American cultural diversity. The influence of the Spanish, which dominated almost all of Latin America, also produced a similarity in musical elements in large part of the continent (Moreno Fraginals 1996:215-303).

We can define the Latin American musical folklore as “young music” in contrast with the millenary music of Asia or Europe, in fact many of these forms and genre found their definition at the end of the XIX century. In Mexico we are completely submerged in this cultural syncretism and as in the rest of America, its distinguishing elements come from the three roots previously referred to.

2.1 The Traditional Music in Mexico, Essential Concepts

For the study of Mexican music, Jas Reuters says that three important aspects must be considered: First, the findings of musical instruments; second, the representation of music and instruments in the codex and third point, the stories of the chroniclers of the XVI century who witnessed the musical manifestations of the Aztecs, still without the European influence, and according to what the Spanish missionaries recorded or wrote about the instruments and indigenous music, as for example in the “Florentine Codex”, drawn by native artists under the direction of Friar Bernardino de Sahagún (Reuter 1981:22-31).

33 We know that pre-Hispanic music of Mexico and the influence applied by the friars who came with the conquistadors transformed and fused the different elements of what is today Mexican music. Based on this precedent and according to the researchers in Mesoamerica25, there were no string or key instruments before the arrival of the conquistadors, instead, there were aerophones made of clay, cane or reed, although they lacked complex mouthpieces. According to the above mentioned research, pre-Hispanic music was mainly for ceremonial and war rituals (Saldivar 1934:55).

The Spanish through their friars be they Dominicans, Augustinians, Franciscans or Jesuits, taught to the natives ecclesiastic chants and began the christening of the indigenous people and this was mostly done through music. They brought the first instruments such as organs and harmoniums. Little by little, the native populations and the first mestizos adopted the Spanish Romance Songs that the conquistadors used to sing, while these songs continued to be part of the popular music of the Spanish who live in New Spain. Thus instruments like vihuelas, harps, sackbuts, shawms, beak flutes, guitars, some types of violins or vihuelas with arches and cord drums were used (Turrent 1993:115-147).

Besides the influence exerted by the Spanish it should be noted that the African Slave Trade was at its peak and that represented a new influence in the construction of the identity of the Mexican music. In 1580 there were more Africans than Spanish in Mexico. Reuters says: “…in the middle of the XVII century, it is estimated that there were 35,000 negroes and 116,000 mulattos, and at the end of the XVIII century the number of “pure” negroes had been reduced to a little less than 6,000, while it is estimated that there were almost 400,000 mulattos.” (Translated by Blanca Navas)26.

According to the previous information, we can deduce that in Mexico a complete African culture did not develop, as occurred in the Caribbean countries like Cuba, Haiti, or other

25 Mesoamerica; Mesoamerican, adj. Belonging or relative to Mesoamerica, region of high culture as recognized by Americanists, and its borders are found between the line that runs north of the capital of Mexico and another that cuts through Central America by Honduras and Nicaragua. Dictionary of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language. Electronic version of the 22nd edition, 2012. Online: http://lema.rae.es/drae/?val=mesoamerica (last access March 15th, 2015). 26 “…a mediados del siglo XVII se estima que hubo unos 35,000 negros y 116,000 mulatos, y para fines del siglo XVIII. El número de negros “puros” se había reducido a poco mas de 6,000, mientras que se estima en casi 400,000 el número de mulatos.” (Reuter 1981:47).

34 countries in the continent like Brazil, or in the Pacific Ocean like Emerald, in Colombia and Ecuador. The phenomenon of racial mix started early on and the overwhelming cross- breeding did not leave any pure elements, although in much of the Mexican music we can feel the African elements in the rhythm, chants and sounds.27

The development of Mexican music occurred in the same way as in all Latin America; the natives adopted or were imposed upon them European instruments and music, mainly the ecclesiastic music. In Mexico, beginning in the XVI century these elements started the be transformed by the hands of natives, mestizos and mulattos and with the arrival of more European music during the colony, the creation and adaptation of these new instrumental temperaments beginning with the twelve notes of the chromatic scale, became a fusion of rhythms and songs.

As a result, in different parts of the country and according to the existing ethnic regions, musical differences were developed and defined with the same identity lines, together native groups and mestizo peoples were transforming the music in different areas, adding as well other European traditions from some specific zones (German, French, Austrian and others). The instruments and chants were generating this spectrum of forms and styles, which continued to transform during more than 350 years, with the subsequent musical wealth of Mexi- co.28

One of the most important elements that characterizes Latin American music, mainly in the continental part, is the rhythm in 6/8 and [6/8 – 3/4], Knowing as the sesquialtera29, this is a rhythmic characteristic mainly used in Mexico in different genres, while it is only clearly defined in some areas of the rest of Latin America it can be heard in Mexican music. Another characteristic in most of the traditional music of Mexico is that it is sung, that means they are songs and no instrumental tunes. In the regions they come from, many of these folk songs are

27 See more in: Rolando Antonio Pérez Fernández, La música afromestiza Mexicana, México, 1990. 28 See more in: Reuter 1981; Turrent 1993:115-176. 29 Term used for the first time in a publication by Thomas Stanford, (Stanford 1972:68, 77-80), mentioned also by (Geijerstam 1976:23); Vicente T. Mendoza also describes this characteristic of the Mexican music although the name of the sesquialtera is not mentioned (Mendoza 1986:505).

35 classified as Mexican son music (Son)30 and the zapateado music31 and its rhythm is usually in [6/8 – 3/4].

We also have as common element the corridos in 2/4 and songs or ranchero music in ¾, and these belong to the central and northern part of Mexico,32 and those are the most recognized genre of Mexican music and the ones that identify us in other countries, besides the mariachi music and the impetus that this “Mexican music” has received has been mainly strengthen by its commercialization in the media (Brenner 1996:79-94), which began in the first part of the XX century in the radio and the movies. We can include among the most commercialized Mexican music some “sones” from Sinaloa in the Pacific, and “Sones Jarochos” in the Gulf of Mexico, in which the rhythm 6/8 prevails.

The great diversity of traditional music in Mexico responds to the elements of identity coming from the 62 existing indigenous groups33 which contain cultural and musical elements that define and differentiate them from each other, through socio cultural performances or through different instruments. Although many of them were inherited from the Spanish, like string instruments and some percussion and wind instruments (Locatelli De Pergamo 2004:44)34. The musical forms and other elements that conform to it have other beats, tuning forms and melodic sequences, which in turn have a very well defined social function, in many cases these are rituals and healings more than entertainment. Unfortunately, there are very few transcriptions and studies of these genres, which prevent us from knowing more about their diversity and their elements, with the understanding that it is syncretic music.

Today, many of the different styles of Mexican music and perfectly defined by regions, as for example the Sones Jarochos from the state of Veracruz, with very clear characteristics in the

30 More information in: Thomas Stanford, The Mexican Son, 1972:68, 77-80; See as well in Glossary. 31 Zapateado: comes from tapping, dance with stamping. Generally faster. See more in Glossary. 32 See more in: Yolanda Moreno Rivas, Historia de la música popular mexicana, 1989. 33 See more in: Comisión Nacional para el desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, del Gobierno de México. Online: http://goo.gl/iRm3NJ (last access February 12th, 2012). 34 “El folklore latinoamericano es rico en música ejecutada en guitarras, guitarrones y vihuelas de reducidos tamaños; desde México hasta Chile y Argentina no existe prácticamente ningún país donde no figure algún modelo de guitarra” (Locatelli De Pergamo 2004:44). “Latin American folklore is rich in music played with guitars, big guitars and vihuelas of reduced sizes; from Mexico to Chile and to Argentina. Practically every country has a type of guitar” (translated by Blanca Navas).

36 use of verses, and the instruments used which are part of the musical culture of the Gulf of Mexico, Sones Huastecos of the North Central part, towards the Gulf of Mexico (Pareyón 1995:525), with peculiar characteristics regarding their instruments and their way of singing; the Isthmus Sones (Sones del Itsmo) from the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, and the Sones of the Costa Chica, from the State of Guerrero, both from the Pacific zone; Sones Abajeños, (Sones from the lowlands) from the states of Michoacán and Jalisco (Pareyón 1995:524), and the Mariachi Sones from the same state of Jalisco; the wind band music, from the North of Mexico like Sinaloa, the wind band music from the center of Mexico like Guanajuato and the state of Mexico, and the bands of Oaxaca; the ranchero music, the corridos; the jarana Yu- cateca, from the Yucatan Peninsula, and the Marimba music from the state of Chiapas, among others (Moreno Rivas 1989:41-58).35

The following table gives a better understanding of the different types of traditional Mexican music: First: The most popular Mexican music recognized among Mexicans.36 Music Region Instruments Features

Sones de Jalisco, or Jalisco (Western part of Guitar, guitarron (large They interpret sones, Mexico). bass guitar) strumming zapateados, polkas, cor- Sones de Mariachi or guitar, vihuela, violin, ridos and ranchero songs. Today is generally known trumpet and voice, in They can be sung or only Son Tapatío in the entire country as some cases harp or flute. instrumental, with festive Mexican Music. and narrative characters.

Jarabes Western, central and The instrumentation de- Characterized by the southeast Mexico. pends on the region. zapateado dance (tapping dance) in “tempo vivo” at 6/8 – 3/4.

Son Veracruzano or Son Veracruz Requinto jarocho, jarana Characterized by the use Jarocho jarocha, arpa jarocha of ornaments and improv- (Jarocha Harp), leona (small isation with harp and guitar), tarima (dancing currently with the jarana platform) and voice. and leona, in tempo vivo Auxiliaries: pandero jarocho, at 6/8-3/4. quijada, marimbol and güiro.

35 Also in: Vicente T. Mendoza, Panorama de la música tradicional de México, México, 1956. 36 The information of some definitions and characteristics of the tables presented were taken from the collection “Testimonio Musical de Mexico”, (Musical Testimony of Mexico), Record Library of the INAH, (National Insti- tute of Anthropology and History), CONACULTA, (National Council for Culture and Arts), 1993.

37 Son Huasteco Eastern region of Mexico Quinta Guitar or Characterized by the use (Gulf of Mexico) Huapanguera, jarana of falsetto voice. Improv- Veracruz, Hidalgo, San huasteca, violin and isation with violin and the Luis Potosí and voice. unique strumming of Tamaulipas. jaranas and guitars.

Son Istmeño Tehuantepec Isthmus, Guitar, requinto, bajo Characterized by versifi- Oaxaca. quinto, sixth and tercerola cation in Zapoteco lan- guitars. Other guage and by their festive instrumentation are and religious character.

wind ensemble.

Sones de la Tierra Ca- Guerrero. Violins, sixth guitar and liente tamborita (small parota wood drum with double head.

Chilenas, Sones de la Guerrero and Oaxaca Traditionally played with It has its origin in the Costa Chica. Sixth guitar, bajo quinto chilean Cueca, with an and violin. Some are instrumental introduction played with 5 string jara- that alternates verses and nas and requinto. chorus. It is dancing music.

Purepecha Music Michoacán String ensemble or wind Instrumental genre. It ensemble. doesn’t necessarily follow choreography.

Low Lands of Micho- Strumming guitar, harp, Characterized by string acan. violin, vihuela and second music and verse improvi-

violin. sation. -Sones Abajeños Michoacan. String orchestra or wind It is an instrumental gen- band. re. It doesn’t necessarily follow choreography.

Michoacan Guitars, String orchestra It is sung in Purepecha -Pequeños sones Purepe- or wind orchestra. language and it is struc- chas, regional son. tured in two or up to three parts.

-Pirekua

Trova (Ballad) and Jara- Yucatan Jarana, alto saxophone Characterized as instru- na and tenor saxophone, high mental pieces without trumpet, trombone, tim- text. bales, bass drum and guiro. In the Merida region they incorporate the clarinet.

38 Marimba sones Chiapas Marimba Grande and Characterized as instru- tenor marimba. mental. It can have choreography.

Wind band of the Isthmus Tehuantepec Isthmus, Saxophones, clarinets, Characterized by the use Oaxaca. trumpets, trombones, bass of Phrygian mode har- drum and cymbals. monics.

Sones de Sinaloa Sinaloa Tuba, alto saxophone, Characterized by the main clarinet, trumpet, trom- presence of wind instru- bone, bass drum or tam- ments and by a repertoire bora and wood block in which the huapangos, knowing as redoba and corridos, polkas, waltzes, substituted now by snare mazurkas are predomi- drum. nant.

Musica Norteña Northeast Mexico Accordion, low sixth, Characterized by its Eu- tololoche (kind of contra- ropean influence, inter- bass) and occasionally preting polkas, chotis and wood block or redoba and redoba. currently snare drum.

Musica Ranchera Northern states of Mexi- Singer-Guitar player, duo, Characterized by the co: Chihuahua and Coa- trio, quartet, norteño metric: ranchera at 2/4 huila. group, band, etc. (ranchera march or pol- kalized ranchera), ranchera at 3/4 (ranchero waltzes); ranchera at 4/4 (bolero ranchero and ballad ranchera).

Wind Bands Music South and Central Mexico Trumpets, trombones, Stemming from what use tubas, saxophones, clari- to be military bands; nets and percussion (bass almost the same instru- drums, snare drum, cym- mentation was kept and bals, timpani and com- now they interpret a rep- plementary percussion). ertoire with many genres.

We can say that the Mexican music we have just described is the most recognized and in a way it has been taken in consideration, in greater or lesser extent, by the record companies; or it has been most widespread due to the cultural promotions of the states they belong to. Also migration has popularized this music, first of all, towards Mexico City and in lesser degree from the villages to the state capitals. One more aspect that has also had a positive effect in the diffusion of some genres of music has been the film industry, where many of the movies, especially in the fifties and sixties showed music groups from different regions of the country,

39 in particular mariachis, the music from Veracruz like Sones Jarochos and the Huasteca music (Brenner 1996:79-94).

Second: The music of the micro-regions.

We are referring to traditional music mainly developed in villages and indigenous communities that can also be found in some regions where the population is mixed (mestizo); it is based in ancestral traditional music with a perspective focused on their own culture, in other words, the form of executing and diffusion of their instruments and music is based on their town customs, such as religious festivities and the like. Here the diversity is very broad, since the description can be applied to the 62 linguistic groups; there are also variables in sub- groups. These types of music are not very well known in the rest of the country, and are typical of indigenous peoples, although some mixed communities also maintain traditions with ancestral elements that through time were gradually adapted and today are an essential part of their culture.

To mention a few: String music from the highlands of Chiapas, by indigenous Tzotzil and Tzeltal groups; with their unique styles; they use harps, violins, guitars and jaranas. Some use drums and reed flutes, and their music is for syncretic catholic ceremonial use. In Tuxtla Gutierrez, Zoque sons, as well as in other municipalities of the central region of Chiapas, the most common instruments are drums, reed flutes, guitars, jaranas and violins that are played mainly during religious festivities. We have sons played with a drum and whistle of the Chiapanecas in Chiapa de Corzo, Suchiapa and Acala, Chiapas, where the drums and the reed flute lead the religious festivities and they danced to their rhythm; Chontales in Tabasco do something similar with three drummers and reed flutes. Also a very important dance that is very well known is the deer dance in the Yaki Yoreme region of Sonora and parts of Sinaloa, this is a ritual dance about deer hunting, where the players use a water drum (Baa-wéhai), two wood scrapers (Hirúkiam), a reed flute (Bacacusia), a double skin head drum (Cúbahi) and the chanting of one or two of the scrapers players. The heartbeat of the deer is represented by the water drum, which plays up to the time of its death. It is a very emblematic dance of the Mex- ican culture. Yoreme and Tarahumara sons are also from Sinaloa, Sonora and Chihuahua,

40 using voices, violins and drums, for ceremonial rituals during the seasons and are the only ones without a European connotation.

These types of traditional music have had fewer transformations because the regions where they are performed are less accessible to the large cities, although there are a case of traditional musical styles very rooted in certain festivities, even in small cities or borrows of some large cities, which still maintain those features of their identity.

Third: The popular music of Mexico most recognized Music Region Instruments Features

(Villancicos) Carols Throughout the country. Initially it was choral The form is poetic music music. with a renaissance character, resounding expression with a completely Ameri- can character and was born of cathedral music authors. Today they keep mainly their Christmas character.

Children songs (Nursery Throughout the country. Choral Characterized by being rhymes) sung in rhymes and danced around in circles in the European Style.

Marches Throughout the country. Mainly by wind ensem- Characterized by move- bles bands. ment and rhythm, that has the function to keep in step.

Waltzes Different regions of Mex- All kinds of instrumental From the beginning the ico. resources. Mexican Waltz had its own characteristics, it reduced the vertigo and speed of the dance, it became slower and appropriate for listening.

Polkas Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, Accordion and guitar. The polka steps are exe- Chihuahua and cuted in form of a gallop, Tamaulipas. from beat to beat.

41 Musica Ranchera Originally in Western Mariachis, trios, ron- Type of country songs. Mexico. dallas (guitars ensemble), The most common are the etc. sentimental and the bra- vado songs.

Corridos (Ballads) San Luis Potosi, Guitar, accordion, drums. Narrative songs about Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, events in different periods Tamaulipas. of the History of Mexico.

Danzón Yucatan and the rest of Wind instruments, vio- Cuban rhythm that posi- the country. lins, kettledrums or tim- tioned itself in Mexico pani, Cuban percussion. from the beginning of the XX century. It is dancing music.

Mambo and Cha-cha-cha Central Mexico. Brass instruments, per- Tropical music that posi- cussion, piano and voice. tioned itself in Mexico from the 40’s, in the XX century.

Bolero Throughout the country. Originally 3 guitars and Originally Cuban, it posi- maracas, later diverse tioned itself in Mexico instruments. Always since the 20’s in the XX includes the bongo drum century and it became an identity Mexican music genre, infiltrating even the traditional Mexican song and creating the bolero ranchero and other variations.

Contemporary genres of They have been developed all over the country, lead by the commercialization of popular music such as music according to the positioning of television and records companies. They are ballads, cumbias and pop very popular in Mexico as well as in Latin American and many of those songs are music and their varia- reedited like covers from other music hits to these new marketable versions. tions.

In this diversity of traditional genres, we also find a great variety of popular music generated directly from the European music, which was introduced to the Mexican high society of the XIX century. The arrival of European cultures brought with them styles that also became popular and was transformed in the new continent. Such were the Italian opera companies that arrived in Mexico in the mid XIX century with their Arias and Romanzas, the German Lied, they must had affected the musical perception of those years, and even more evident were the styles disseminated in a similar way which arrived from Austria: waltzes, mazurkas and polkas. The comings and goings of Europeans established in America with the entertainment

42 companies also brought the Colombian bambuco and the Cuban habanera (Reuters 1981:131). We can understand how these popular European styles which included besides the polkas, the marches, the chotis and the contradanzas (contra-dancing), were generating in the growing cities new musical trends that took root and transformed the popular Mexican music. The most noticeable difference between the traditional styles was the supply of instruments used, which the musical ensembles incorporated with greater freedom. (Aretz 2004:149) The European music began to take root in Mexican society and even though many of those styles are also common in other Latin American countries, in Mexico and Guatemala they were adopted in such a way that they now form part of the popular music.

This social and cultural interaction produces a musical diversity still currently active and we can appreciate the fusion between traditional with the most popular genres started creating new styles, however, it is important to highlight that unfortunately the media and the uncon- trolled marketing of music in recent years have dictated the methods of musical transformation which respond to economic interests instead to socio-cultural responsibilities or musical criteria. The mass production of “popular contemporary music” such as rock, reggae, jazz, and other musical genres of the XX century as well as political and commercial globalization have had a clear impact in the popular preference, for example Mexico is living a phenomenon called “the northernization of music” referring to the commercial explosion of the norteño music in the whole country, specially the one regarding narco-corridos, with wind ensembles and a performance style that directly affects the identity elements that existed in the different styles of wind bands music in the country.

Nevertheless, it is also true that many societies in this new global dimension of cultural ho- mogeneity, have explored and imprinted their own elements of cultural identity (Aretz, 2004:256),37 that have generated new forms of popular music in the XX and XXI centuries.38

37 Also in: Guido 2004:308; León, 2004:238-254); Aretz 2004:256. 38 See more in: Rubén Oliveira, “Identidad nacional y música en América Latina”, 1992.

43 2.1.1 The marimba in the context of Mexican music

Visualizing the context in which all this genres and styles of traditional and popular music are expressed in Mexico and understanding each of the styles linked to their different instrumental resources, it is interesting to take a look at the marimba music for different reasons. Per- haps the most noticeable is that marimba music was commonly and exclusively instrumental, however nowadays it is possible to find groups that include a singer, but is still uncommon. Another element which characterizes marimba music is that it does not perform a single style, form, or genre, but it is an instrument which allows interpretation according to the historical process of the country and the region.

Even though the integration of Chiapas to Mexico happened in 1824, researchers and historians who have written about Mexican music make no significant mention nor pay much attention to the marimba music. The reason could be that such region has more similarities with Central America, since the relationship with the marimba is more toward Guatemala, where the Marimba even has the status of “National Instrument”39. On the other hand, the marimba in Chiapas has had a more solid boom in mestizo regions and many of the sones interpreted have a mestizo origin and to a lesser degree an indigenous origin, but what is interesting is how this instruments so different from the rest of Mexico, through the years, makes its way and is able to consolidate. We could say that the marimba is one of the youngest instruments in Mexico or that its organological transformation opened the way to become an instrument where a great diversity of genres and styles can be interpreted. Today the marimba is part of the popular Mexican music and is now present in many states of the Republic, like in Tabas- co, Veracruz and Oaxaca; in fact, many Mexicans see the marimba as native to these regions.40

This context of the Mexican music takes us to visualize several aspects and pose the following questions: Why is the marimba different in the context of Mexican music? How can we understand the difference between the traditional music of Mexico and the marimba? Is the marimba today a traditional instrument? Was it ever? Why the diversity of its repertoire? Why

39 Decree 66-78, Congress of Guatemala, declaring the marimba a national instrument of Guatemala, Legislative Palace of Guatemala, on October 17th, 1978. 40 More information about this topic see in Chapter 5.3.1.

44 doesn’t it belong to a group or special ethnic group? Why does it belong to a region? Maybe one of the greatest differences with other instruments is that it does not have the European influence for it has an African background, and perhaps the African population that came from zones where they built instruments with the same characteristics, when they mixed ra- cially, created what we now call marimba. It is important to mention that Chiapas and Guate- mala has the same Christianization process of the natives as did the rest of Mexico, and therefore we find harps, violins, different types of guitars and a great variety of drums and reed grass, but the marimba was mainly adopted by the mestizo societies and their music has been mostly festive.

For a long time the marimba was performed alone, that is without other instruments but little by little more performers were added to the same instrument to reach what it is today, an ensemble of seven marimba players on two marimbas.41 When the regions of Chiapas and Gua- temala separated, two trends formed to develop the marimba and its music and today they clearly show the difference between each style.

Curiously enough, today the marimba does not generally play traditional music, this is referring to the sones and zapateados of the regions in Chiapas, because since the existence of recordings, most of the groups have played dancing music, and modern music, which covers ballroom dancing styles such as danzones, cumbias and even rock and roll, and they have adopted all possible music styles, not only Mexican music which includes traditional music from other states, but also ranchero music, corridos and even classical music and what is called in Chiapas “American music” which refers to the music of the great jazz orchestras of the thirties and forties. This has created a huge transformation in the way the instrument is played and in developing one of the not so common elements of Mexican Music which is improvisation.

2.1.2 The improvisation in the traditional Mexican music

41 See more in: César Pineda del Valle, Evolución de la marimba en Chiapas”, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, México, 1998; Alfonso Bautista Vásquez/Amauri Ángel Figueroa, La marimba en Guatemala, Guatemala, 1999.

45 The definition of improvisation is very open, in the sense that to improvise is precisely to create or recreate music in a spontaneous way, and this can be a free style or reduce itself to some musical elements which set the pace for this improvisation, that is, in the rhythm as in the bar, measure or certain number of beats, the tempo, the harmonic or melodic elements as scales, keys, etc.

Some definitions of improvisation in musical dictionaries are42:

“Improvisation -The art of performing music spontaneously, without the aid of manuscript, sketches, or memory. Also, in a more restricted sense, the art of introducing improvised details into written compositions” (Apel 1974:404-405).

“Improvisation: The creation of a musical work, or the final form of a musical work, while playing. It can be an immediate composition of the work on the part of the performers, or the production or ad- justment of an existing frame, or any other structure. To a certain degree, each interpretation entails some elements of improvisation, although the degree varies according to the time and place and to a certain point each improvisation is based on a series of conventions or implicit rules.” (Translated by Blanca Navas)43.

However, under which criteria can we understand the term and concept of “improvisation” in popular and traditional Mexican music? In this case we are talking about how to recreate the melodic lines with elements used in their own folklore, in other words, with the rhythmic, harmonic and melodic elements of the musical patterns of popular ingenuity.

The concept of "improvisation" in the marimba music, has developed from a perspective more close to the improvisation concepts known today as “Popular contemporary music”44 and in particular jazz45.

42 See more definitios about Improvisation in Glossary. 43 Taken from Spanish versión: “Improvisación: La creación de una obra musical, o de la forma final de una obra musical, mientras se está ejecutando. Puede tratarse de la composición inmediata de la obra por parte de sus intérpretes, o la elaboración o ajuste de un marco existente, o cualquier otra intermedia. Hasta cierto punto, cada interpretación conlleva elementos de improvisación, aunque su grado varía según la época y el lugar, y en cierta medida cada improvisación se basa en una serie de convenciones o normas implícitas”, (Sadie/Tyrrell 2004:647). 44 More information in: Carlos A. Negrini, ¿Qué es la Música Popular Contemporánea?, Resistencia - Chaco, República Argentina. Online: http://musinetwork.com/que-es-la-musica-popular-contemporanea/ (last access November, 2014). 45 When I refer to contemporary popular music I am basing this on the fact that it is a new element used nowadays to define and include the most popular music genres of the XX century and de new XXI century, which consists of the best known in the world as Rock and Jazz, to the most regional and specific of certain geographic areas created in different parts of the world. In this particular case, it includes those created and still being creat-

Within the musical wealth of Mexico, it calls our attention that it is in Chiapas, and not in the rest of the country where improvisation is considered an important concept, to the extent that in Chiapas the great improvisers have had musical and social recognition, for their dexterity in the execution of the marimba, besides the harmonic elements used, they are far from the styles of folkloric music performed in the rest of the country.

But, how can we understand the difference between the different traditional music of Mexico and marimba music? We can hear the improvisation elements performed by the Jarochos, with the harp or the jarana, as well as with the violin in the huasteca music or some short passage of the guitar in the music of Costa Chica in the states of Guerrero and Oaxaca and to have a clear contrast of the differences in the harmonic and melodic elements used. One of the problems we have faced to analyze, compare and contrast the improvisation forms not only of the marimba but also among the popular Mexican music is that there is no research (or if there are they are very few), about music improvisation, whether of a particular genre or several genres in a comparative form. Nevertheless, we believe it is important to show, even if briefly, the improvisation in some genres of Mexican music in order to value the differences of the improvisation styles of the marimba in Chiapas.

To address this topic in general about all Mexican music and its improvisation would be very extensive, therefore we have selected 3 of the most representative genres in the country and in a way the best known, disseminated or commercialized, because if the marimba has had any influence it would be through one of the most popular forms.46

ed in Mexico, such as bolero, danzón, ranchero music, corrido, cumbia, merengue besides folkloric genres as sones, zapateados and huapangos, etc.

46 The following map of Mexico, shows the regions where the most traditional musical genres belong, and which are usually danced.

Fig. 3 Map of traditional music genres of Mexico.

2.1.2.1 The Son Jarocho

The Son Jarocho47 is perhaps the type of son or sones best known in Mexico after the Mari- achi sones. It developed in the Papaloapan River basin in the state of Veracruz; this state was the commercial port between Spain and its colonies in the New Spain. It was the commercial gateway of the slave trade from Africa and therefore this region had a triple mestizaje which came from the Popoluca, Zoque, Nahua and Totonaco natives, Africans from The Congo and Green Cape and the Spanish blood from Andalucía and Extremadura48. The Papaloapan River basin or River of the butterflies, with extensive plains was used as a refuge for an undeter- mined number of mestizos, mulato49 and cimarrones50, who survived of cattle and they were nomads that used their spears as a defense weapon called jara, where the name “jarocho” comes from. The Son Jarocho is a popular festive manifestation, profane and mestiza, transmitted through oral tradition; it is played mainly with string instruments and complemented

47 See more in: Glossary. 48 See more in: Steven J. Loza, Origins, Form, and Development of the Son Jarocho: Veracruz, México, 1982; Booklet of Sones de Veracruz, 06 Testimonio Musical de México, INAH, México, 2002, [CD] Producción: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia y Ediciones Pentagrama. 49 See more in: Glossary. 50 See more in: Glossary.

48 with the percussion rhythm of the zapateado of Andaluz origin. During the period of the In- quisition dances that were not part of the court or the religious festivities were forbidden, nonetheless they were able to preserve their African influence in some sones that came from the chuchumbé51. The mestizaje determined the appropriation of African elements to the Spanish song, which originated the Son Jarocho.

At the edge of the Papaloapan River we find one of the towns with the most rooted tradition of Sones Jarochos named Tlacotalpan, and every year on February 2nd there is a great celebration of the Virgin of Candelaria, and the “soneros” from all around meet to sing and play for several days. These types of meetings are known in the region as “el fandango”, where without a doubt the zapateado has the greatest Andaluz influence. The “fandango Jarocho” is danced on a small wood platform called tarima and the musicians are placed to the sides and the dancers take turns to get on the platform to dance the traditional zapateado. Just like the musical performance, dancing also requires a great degree of improvisation and it is not based on uniformed choreographies although there are basic rules in the structure. The theme of Sones Jarochos is love, woman, land and life. Frequently human behavior is characterized as certain animals and many songs have names referring to them.52

The forms most used in the stanza jarocha is the quatrain (cuarteta), sestet (sexteta) and ten line stanzas (décimas); this last one much more elaborate and is now obsolete, although in recent years it has had a very positive resurgence. The sones are known in different variations, such as in tempo, textual content and instrumental resources. Great part of the Sones Jarochos has been lost without a trace. Today there are close to sixty traditional sones, but it is almost impossible to find a group that can play all of them. The Son Jarocho is a tradition that is alive and that has been adapting to the different contexts and currently enjoys great acceptance in different social circles (Pareyón 1995:1147-1149).

Because the port of Veracruz is a tourist town, it has also become a place for soneros who are trying to make a living and have migrated to that city to play for tourists and in restaurants.

51 See more in: Glossary. 52 Booklet of Sones de Veracruz, INAH, 2002.

49 According to the region, the Son Jarocho uses different instrumental sets; in general it is made up of the fourth (cuatro-requinto), the jarana and the harp. These instruments come from the vihuela, which has a European origin, so it is logical to assume that it is the predecessor of the jarana and the cuatro and the renaissance harp as the predecessor of the arpa jarocha which inherited its diatonic scale. In the regions south of Veracruz and North of Ta- basco the Son Jarocho is played substituting the harp with several jaranas, thus classified as jarana prima, second and third (Pareyón 1995:525). Some instruments added to the Son Jarocho are: in percussion the pandero, the quijada de burro (Donkey jaw)53, and the marimbol, in strings a type of requinto called Leona is also played, and today we can find the violón or tololoche (a variation of the double bass). Their rhythmic characteristics are the mixed beats of 3/4 and 6/8, the binary ternary combination known as sesquialtera, as well the 12/8, although eventually also at the measure of 4 tempos, like in one of the most widely known themes of this repertoire titled La Bamba. Geographically the Son Jarocho is closed to the state of Chiapas, and is among the best known styles of traditional music that has verbal as well as musical improvisation.

The old soneros without reference to the measure taught the rhythmic base of accompaniment with a phrase that says: “Café con pan” (Coffee with bread) which show the pulse in 6/8.

M-Fig.1: Rhythm pattern in son jarocho

Following we will analyze some fragments of two Sones Jarochos that show clear sections of improvisation, in the first one the requinto or Leona.

1) “Toro Zacamandu”; playing by Arcadio Hidalgo, Noé González and Benito González.54 Solo of requinto. (INAH record)

53 See more in: Glossary. 54 Sones de Veracruz, 06 Testimonio Musical de México, INAH, México, 2002, 10ª edición. (P) 1969. [CD] track 5. CONACULTA – INAH.

This is a traditional melody of the Son Jarocho. The example shows the improvisation performed by a Jarocho requinto. One of the main elements for the construction of improvisations is the obvious use of arpeggios as well as the diatonic scale in G Major. The use of a chromatic note with a flam function appears in one of the phrases. One of the features of this improvisation is that it builds two bar melodic patterns and they generally repeat four times and then change into a new melodic pattern.

M-Fig.2: Toro Zacamandu

The accompaniment carried out by the leona (acoustic bass guitar) and jarana (small guitar), play a pattern that besides their harmonic function provide a rhythmic and melodic movement, clearly marking the sesquialtera in the bass. The rhythmic-melodic pattern begins in the

51 second octave note generating the feeling of up-beat. Said pattern is composed by groups of five notes which create a greater polyrhythmic feeling.

M-Fig.3: Toro Zacamandu

To sum up, this version of improvisation bases its elements as follows:

- Melody: Based on the diatonic scale, built with arpeggio phrases and scales for ensemble degrees and thirds. The phrases are composed of two beats and they repeat four times.

-Harmony: Built in (I) and (V) degrees; the accompaniment is based on a melodic line in two bars, emphasizing the notes of the chord.

-Rhythm: Although it uses octave notes; both, the accompaniment and the improvisation phrases highlight the up-beat creating a floating sensation and rhythmic displacement.

52 2) “El Cascabel”.

This transcription shows the introduction of the requinto solo without accompaniment. This piece is very well known and one of the most played by the Jarocho groups. The piece is in F minor and the improvisation is mainly based on the minor melodic scale and minor harmonic and only uses the natural minor scale for brief moments. The improvisation is built mainly in I and V7 degree arpeggios (fm – C7), it doesn’t have the harmonic structure of fixed beats, in other words, by way of introduction, and the solo is restricted to the F minor and C7 chords in a free style.55

M-Fig.4: Cascabel intro-a

It should be noted how the use of phrases are displaced in various beats or long phrases. We can also deduced by the elements used, that the performer besides being a traditional musician also has “academic knowledge” and as a result he is familiar with the elements of baroque music, such as the ostinato and the melodies developed from a common note; the rubato and in the form the melodic lines are arranged.

55 Transcription from the recording by Son de Madera in alive concert in Xalapa, Veracruz in 2006.

53 The rhythmic and melodic complements show the use of permutations and the polyrhythmic phrases of 4 vs 3 and 3 vs 2.

M-Fig.5: Cascabel intro-b

2.1.2.2 The Son Huasteco

The Son Huasteco is also one of the most widely disseminated in Mexico, even if not as popular as the Son Jarocho and the Mariachi Sones, the Son Huasteco is also known as huapan- go56, and is traditional in La Huasteca Mountains, which cover the states of Tamaulipas (south part), Veracruz (north part), Hidalgo and San Luis Potosí, and to a lesser degree, parts of the states of Queretaro, Puebla and Nuevo Leon. The term “Huasteco” derives from the word Huaxtecos or Huastecos, which was the name of the native population of that zone in the pre-Hispanic period, and today they are a minority in the region, and their presence has been reduced to a small part of San Luis Potosí and Veracruz. In the cultural sense there are

56 Type of son developed mainly in the North of Veracruz and widespread in the Huasteca Region (Gabriel Perayon 1995:283).

54 two huastecas, the native and the mestiza, and it is the Son Huasteco which in a way unifies them culturally (Pareyón 1995:1150).

This musical genre became best known in the country because it had a wide diffusion in Mex- ican films in the forties and fifties. In the Son Huasteco improvisation is a fundamental part, and the violin is the leader and protagonist. The other instruments that also participate are the jarana huasteca (a smaller size guitar with 5 strings), the guitarra huapanguera (larger than the sixth and with five string orders).

Like the Son Jarocho, the Son Huasteco is also a product of the cultural indigenous, African and Spanish syncretism that through the centuries was reinterpreted, resulting in this type of complex music with great vitality.

The singing accompanying the instrumental trio is in octosyllabic verse, making various combinations with stanzas of different structures. This also happens when the songs are in a native language, thus we can find fifths and sixths, also known as corrido verses. Poetic improvisation is frequent, in form of dialogue among musicians or as a confrontation. The singing is like a recitation (recitativo) combined with falsettos, in a high register alternating with the voices while at the same time the violin carries the ornaments, that are usually improvisations based on arpeggios and diatonic scales according to the harmonic movement; after the verses there is a melodic section with improvisation based on the melody, showing their great dexterity as performers. The harmonic elements are always the tonic and dominant (I-V) with two 6/8 beats, with the sensation of the sesquialtera present at all times. Although the dominant is the 6/8, sporadically the [3/4 - 2/4] appear, and the mixture of all of them produces irregular beats. The huapanguera makes a peculiar strumming called mánico57, which implies 3 forms of attacking the strings, the first one with the thumb; the second one with the hand in the position of holding a pencil; and the third extending the fingers over the strings and with the hand dampen the sound. The jarana makes a similar strumming but adds multiple rhythmic ornaments either with a flourish or a trill (trinos). Through the years improvisation has also been transforming in the Sones Huastecos and has had a noticeable progress (Pareyón 1995:1151).

57 Mánico; in popular language refers to the form of strumming the strings of different types of guitars, (jaranas, vihuelas, requintos, huapanguera etc.) used in some of the traditional Mexican sones, like the mariachis or hus- taecos. More information in Glossary.

The rhythmic accompaniment carried by the jarana is generally marked by this figure M- Fig.6

From the point of view of the sesquialtera it would be written as follows in M-Fig.7:

In the following example of the piece “La Petenera” we can observe in details the improvisation of the violin with many different ways to play the solo.58

It is one of the best known Huasteco sones in Mexico and it is a minor mode son. In this example it is in E minor. Its harmonic rhythm is executed by the jarana Huasteca.

M-Fig.8: Jarana Huasteca’s pattern

The voice begins after a violin introduction and the melody is structured by a 6/8 phrase and a 3/4 phrase, emphasizing the sesquialtera which clearly identifies Mexican music.

58 Transcription made by Erik Giovanni Valentino

M-Fig.9: Sesquialtera phrasing on voice

The violin begins with a melodic introduction already established or known by the groups but which at the same time provides each violinist the freedom to play their unique touch with some variations, that is, improvising brief ornaments over the melodic line. The most common use of metric patterns is the 3 eighth notes together in the form of arpeggios and the clarity of the sesquialtera in phrases at intervals of thirds.

M-Fig.10: Sesquialtera phrasing on violin

Later, after the first presentation of the singer, the violinist plays the first improvisation with more contrasting ornaments and with greater elements of improvisation than in the introduction. In the last one it is common to hear the rhythmic motives characteristic to the son Huas- teco, as the example of next M-Fig.11:

M-Fig.12: first improvisation on violin

The improvisation is based mainly on the arpeggios of the chords of the harmonic movement, using these arpeggios with different variations, as well as the use of ascending and descending scales by thirds, always marking the rhythmic patterns unique to the Son Huasteco and the ones provided by the style of each violinist.

Later, when the singer makes a new pause, the violinist carries out a full improvisation showing off his dexterity. Here again the most common elements are the arpeggios, diatonic scales over the minor scales except for the dominant V7 where he uses the mixolydian scale; melodic patterns based on melodic lines of thirds and metric patterns of 3 vs 2; flam ornaments, glissandos, as well as the use of double strings, always subjected to the harmony.

M-Fig.13: improvisations on violin

It is obvious that the main base for these improvisations is the combination of arpeggios, scales and rhythmic patterns led by the harmonic movement, always set up by the diatonic scale, in this case the C major scale used in the relative minor, plus the Leading note or the VII degree of a harmonic Em used with the dominant chord.

2.1.2.3 The Music of Tierra Caliente

The Northwest zone of the state of Guerrero known as Tierra Caliente borders with the state of Michoacán, and is one of the seven regions that divide this state in the south of Mexico. The towns distributed in what is known for Tierra Caliente are distributed at the edge of the Balsas River, the Cutzamala River and others that flow into these 2 great rivers. It is called Tierra Caliente because it has a dry and hot weather. The temperature fluctuates between 28⁰ and 40⁰ degrees Celsius, descending sometimes down to 15⁰ degrees and during the summer can reach up to 50⁰ degrees. The elevation of the town also fluctuates between the 400 to 400

59 meters above sea level, although some communities (very few) are in high elevations of approximately 1000 meters over the level see.59

The Balsas Rivers runs west into a depression through the city of Iguala and it opens up in a lower valley, dry and hot, isolated by the walls of the Sierra Madre Occidental range. The main town of Tierra Caliente in Guerrero are: Arcelia, Tlapehuala, Pungarabato (today Ciu- dad Altamirano) and Huetamo (in the state of Michoacán). Most of the population is afromestiza, although it is also shared by some cuitlatecos60, and a few groups of Nahuas61. They are primarily farmers and similar in importance as cattle growers. They were previously sil- versmiths.62

We could say that the Sones and Gustos “tastes” of Tierra Caliente are fairly recent, originat- ing after the model of the “sonecitos de la tierra” (Sones of the Land) and generalized throughout the country at the end of the XVIII century as a festive genre63. According to a series of recordings and documentation produced by the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia (INAH) (National Institute of Anthropology and History, INAH), in a series called The Music of Mexico, mentions that in fact to the day the recordings were made, people still remembered the musicians that developed the local forms such as Don Juan Bartolo, who died in 1924, who created traditional sones and also recreated other ones adapting them to the style of the Tierra Caliente.

The repertoire is made up of basically two genres, the Gusto and the Son; both derived from old Sones and Jarabes. The instrumental group is formed by two violins; one or two sixth guitars and the tamborita, (a parota wood drum of double skin head similar to the military side drum). The guitarra panzona (belly guitar) of six strings was also used but nowadays it is rare. At the beginning the harp was also part of the group but it is not used anymore.64

59 See more in: http://guerrero.gob.mx/municipios/ (last access December 13th, 2014). 60 See more in: Glossary. 61 See more in: Glossary. 62 In Booklet: Sones y gustos de la Tierra Caliente de Guerrero 10 Testimonio Musical de México, INAH, México, 2002, [CD] Producción: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia y Ediciones Pentagrama. 63 “Sonecitos de la tierra” also known as “Sonecitos del país”, are terms commonly used by chroniclers to narrate the places where the different sones developed in Mexico. See more in: (Pareyon 1995:525). 64 See more in: Booklet, Sones y gustos de la Tierra Caliente de Guerrero 10 Testimonio Musical de México, INAH, México, 2002, Producción: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia y Ediciones Pentagrama.

60 The Gusto, is a slower genre than the Son, always singing with lyric and picaresque coplas. The Son is faster, it is commonly instrumental and sometimes it has lyrics with a picaresque content. Mixed couples dance the gusto and the son and it is linked to a very difficult zapateado. Currently these groups also perform other types of genres that they adapt to their instrumental ensemble.

The violin carries the improvisation part of the theme, and those are the bridges where the violinist achieves a great dexterity to the point of virtuosity. Similarly to Huasteca music, the violinist has an individual style that makes his way of playing the instrument very unique.

To exemplify this form of improvisation we have selected violinist Juan Reynoso, as one of the most renown.65

“El Pichón”. In the music of Tierra Caliente, Guerrero, like in the son Huasteco, the violin plays a fundamental role. The next example is a violin improvisation by violinist Juan Reynoso, known in the music industry as the Paganini of Tierra Caliente, for his dexterity and skill with the violin, and naturally with the unique sound of the traditional music of that region.

The theme that we show is “El Pichón”, accompanied by a sixth chord guitar and the drum while the voice carries the main melody. The violin has an introduction of 60 bars, which shows the importance of this instrument in Calentana music.

During the piece, after the entrance of the singer, the violin, as if responding, keeps on playing improvised brief ornaments at the end of each phrase of the text.

65 Transcription of “El Pichón” played by Juan Reynoso, by Israel Moreno and Francisco Bernal Sánchez. Taken from: Juan Reynoso el paganini de la tierra caliente, grabaciones históricas 1972-1993, discos Corasón. 1993, [CD] Track 7, Code CO105.

M-Fig.14: “El pichón”, voice line

The introductory part of the violin is composed of three brief sections: - The first is an interlude that will be used at different times of the piece to connect stanzas or at the end of violin improvisations. - The second is when the violin plays the main theme which will be picked up later by the singer. - The third is a brief improvisation, like a cue to alert the singer to initiate the theme.

M-Fig.15: “El pichón”, violin plays the introduction part

These brief improvisation that respond to the singer’s phrases, are built mainly with arpeggios and diatonic scales, with some brief glissandos or flams and they almost never initiate with the strong tempo or down beat. They generally initiate with an up-beat either on the 2nd, 5th or 6th octave of the bar and will be linked to the harmonic movement.

M-Fig.16: “El pichón”, violin answers to the voice

Following the violin accompanies the singer playing the second voice of his melodic line, indicating the end of the first section to provide an opening for the improvisation of the violinist.

M-Fig.17: “El pichón”, violin plays second voice to the singer

The next example shows common elements of violin improvisations for this type of music, like the use of double strings, arpeggios, diatonic scales and flams, all lead by the harmonic accompaniment.

M-Fig.18: “El pichón”, violin improvisation

In conclusion: The richness of violin improvisation in Calentana music is based on the combination of melodic phrases built in up-beat and cover two to three bars, built over the diatonic scale and the arpeggios of the tonic and dominant (I – V7) chords.

2.1.2.4 Transformation of Mexican Music without instrumental improvisation

In the great diversity of Mexican music we can find many common instruments among different styles and regions, such as membranophones of different sizes and heights, chordophones like violins tuned in different temperaments, harps of different styles and number of strings, different types of guitars and requintos, from the Spanish type guitar to different types of jaranas, vihuelas and others like the leona and the guitarrón66, aerophones like reed grass flutes,

66 See more in: Glossary.

66 and shawms, in addition many other instruments were added which at the same time were being transformed in Europe such as clarinets, trumpets, saxophones and to these many new instruments of percussion were incorporated like the bass drum, cymbals and later the timpani.

Many instruments have had a transformation in their application and performance, even when they may have a similarity with instruments of the same family, even a similar name, for example the jarana from Veracruz, with the jarana from Michoacán, this means they can be found in the Gulf of Mexico but also in the central region on the Pacific Ocean but with a different characteristics and use. The same occurs with drums, violins and plucked strings instruments.

It is important to keep in mind that the musical diversity in Mexico goes hand in hand with the cultural diversity. For example, harps from Veracruz and Jalisco can play sones and jarabes. In Chiapas, in native areas like San Juan Chamula, the Tzotsiles67 play harps specifically for religious music with a completely different sound unknown to the rest of the country.

In this great diversity there are also the wind bands or wind ensembles, adopted from the Eu- ropean system, which we find all over the country, although some states or regions are more recognized for their band music, like the states of Oaxaca, Guanajuato and Sinaloa, where they have taken deeper roots and have developed further.68

The use of instruments inherited or introduced in Mexico during the Colonial Period and their positioning, has also been influenced by the transformations taking place in Spain with the European influences, which in turn transformed the music in Mexico, not only the form of the instruments, but also the repertoire and the instrumental distribution of the ensembles. For example in Michoacán, where the music of the Purepechas who originally used string instruments, the drum, the zapateo (dance on wood) and some shawms, adopted the sackbut (trombone), the trumpet and later on the saxophone. Groups from the northern part of Mexico gen-

67 See more in: Glossary. 68 More information in: Rafael Ruiz Torres, Historia de las Bandas Militares de Música en México: 1767-1929, 2002, Dissertation UNAM.

67 erated new styles of music stemming from the Spanish Romanzas; corridos became norteño music, using the double bass, the guitar and adding later on the accordion and the snare drum.

As previously mentioned, Mexican music is fundamentally sung and the singer has a great dexterity in improvising coplas and verses. We can say that instrumental improvisation is a substantial part of the structure of most styles. Instrumental improvisation is more focused in variations, in short melodic phrases or in the rhythmic patterns of accompaniment established in each style, as are the strumming of the plucked string instruments, the melodic bridges between verses, just to mention a few. Therefore we can say that “formal” instrumental improvisation is not particularly important, the idea that the performer can develop abilities to become a virtuoso in the use of his instrument, plays a small role in traditional Mexican music.

2.3. The Traditional Music in Guatemala, a Reference

To speak of the traditional music of Guatemala beyond the marimba does not have the same connotation when we compare it to what happens in Mexico, because even though in Chiapas the marimba has deep roots mainly among the mestizo population, in Guatemala it has deeper roots and also among the indigenous peoples, not only in their rituals and religious festivals but also in their social festivities. The traditional Guatemalan music is not as diverse as the Mexican music, and just the extension of their territory is smaller. Mexico has many indigenous groups that descend from different ethnic and linguistic groups, contrary to Guatemala whose indigenous population descends mainly from the Maya. The political and territorial division in Mexico is by States while in Guatemala is by Departments; and as we mentioned earlier, the Mexican State of Chiapas has more cultural similarities with Guatemala than with the rest of Mexico, and this since the time of the Maya culture and later during monarchy times, as part of the Captaincy General of Guatemala. Taking all these elements in consideration, it could be assumed that the indigenous Chiapanecan music is in a way closer to the indigenous Guatemalan music. Nevertheless, the indigenous music of Chiapas uses more frequently the drum and reed grass and also string instruments like the harp and violin and many varieties of guitars. In Guatemala besides these instruments the marimba is ever present

68 among them, as are the more voluminous chirimias and drums that are not as common in Chiapas.

Guatemala is a country that has 108,889 km2 in territory and Chiapas has 74,415 km2 and is the eighth largest state in the Mexican Republic.69 Guatemala has 23 indigenous groups of Maya descent, which belong to the Maya Quiché or K’iche branch, with the largest number of Mayan speakers in that country, and it has the second largest indigenous population in Ameri- ca after Bolivia.70 Guatemala has a reduced population of African descendants known as Ga- rifunas, in reference to their language. They are found in the Caribbean lake of Izabal, in Liv- ingston. They can also be found in Honduras and Belize.

Guatemala is divided in 22 Departments and all of them with their diverse groups of indigenous and mestizo population with their own cultural diversity. The main religion is catholic, although since the decade of the nineties there has been a great growth of Christian Religions, evangelical and protestant, notably displacing the catholic religion and with it their old customs, such as patron saint festivals, including their music, dances and syncretic rituals.

In Guatemala as in Mexico, the imposition of a religious culture that included the music was a decisive way of domination. Although there is some physical and iconographic evidence of pre-Hispanic instruments, in this Maya region as well as in the rest of Latin America, there is no evidence of what the music was like before the conquest. The tunkul (or teponaztli) is one of the percussion instruments more representative of the Maya culture, as well as trumpets and ocarinas. They had whistles and ocarinas made of reed and deer bones, also big seashells, reed grass flutes, turtle shells, some lithophones made of rocks and clay, water tambourines, scrapers, rattles and the emblematic Maya trumpets, and wood drums with patches of jaguar, deer or wild boar. (Arrivillaga 2006:21-44).

In one of the graphic representation on the murals of Bonampak there is a sample of the instrumental supply used by the Maya. Arrivillaga describes it as follows:

“The murals in the first room of Bonampak represent a procession headed by three rattle players. Next a

69 Information taken from: http://goo.gl/UnaLj0 (last access Januay 15th, 2015). 70 http://www.iwgia.org/regiones/latin-america/guatemala (last access January 15th, 2015).

69 drummer followed by three turtle shell players with deer antlers, a group of dancers and two trumpet players. The last personality carries a smaller size rattle and appears to play a whistle and carries a turtle shell.” (Translated by Blanca Navas).71

Fig. 4. The Musicians Bonampak

Just like in these murals, there are other iconographic samples that illustrate the diversity of Maya instruments before the conquest.

During the colonization, the main promoters of the phenomenon of musical transformation in Guatemala as in the rest of Latin America were the priests and the Spanish that settled mainly in the city of Antigua, Guatemala (previously Santiago de los Caballeros) and they promoted the musical evolution, popularity and introduction of their musical instruments.

Santiago de los Caballeros, today Guatemala, founded in 1524, was the first city in Guatema- la, with the construction of the dioceses of Santiago de Guatemala, the secular music was introduced by Bishop Marroquin and the polyphony was formally initiated (Lehnhoff 1986:35). An organist and a Chantre72 were assigned, and friar Zambrano who arrived in Mexico in 1535; also the Spanish guitar player Florencio Lopez, who had formal musical training and was the first vihuela player to arrive to the “kingdom” of Guatemala (Rodríguez Torselli/Najera 2004:222-241). Carols played an important part in the teaching of religious texts during the conquest. Later they developed, were adopted and had a significant growth, and many of them still remain to this day. Originally these carols were played during important religious dates and today they have been preserved and are part of Easter and Christ- mas holidays.

71 “Los murales del primer cuarto de Bonampak representan una procesión encabezada por tres tocadores de sonajas. Siguen un tamborero, tres tocadores de caparazones de tortuga con asta de venado, un grupo de danzan- tes, y dos trompeteros. El personaje final lleva una sonaja de menor dimensión y pareciera tocar un silbato y llevar un caparazón de tortuga” (Arrivillaga 2006:16). 72 Chantre: Someone able to sing any song and direct a choir.

During the XVI century the instruments used by the Spanish were introduced in daily life, not only in secular music but also the music and popular songs that were common in Spain at the time73, were taught to the Indians. Rodriguez Torselli quotes the narratives of Bernal Diaz del Castillo in that respect:

“Chapel singers with well synchronized voices, some tenors with sopranos and contraltos, without a fault; and in some villages there are organs and most of them have flutes and shawms and sackbuts and dulzainas. Also trumpets, high and mutes. In my hometown, which is Castilla la Vieja, there are not as many as in that province of Guatemala […] and they make very good Vihuelas” (Translated by Blanca Navas).74

During the XVI century many organ players arrived to play in the religious services (Rodri- guez 2004:27). The instruments introduced at that time were high and mute trumpets, ata- bals, militar drums, vihuelas, organs, sackbuts, dulzainas, flutes, shawms, violas and bells.75

The appropriation and syncretism of the instruments by the natives happened in a significant way and by using them; part of their ancestral culture went with them by inertia, changing in this way the meaning the friars intended when they introduced them. King Philip II issued a royal decree76, ordering the moderation of the music in the Kingdom of Guatemala (Rodríguez/Nájera 2004:229).

“The King President and audience in this royal hearing of the New Spain have been informed that there is excess and superfluity in that land and great expenses with the difference in genres of musical instruments and chants and there are royal and bastard trumpets, clarinets, shawms, sackbuts, and trombones and flutes and cornets and dulzainas and fife flutes and arch vihuelas and rabales…” (Translate by Blanca Navas)77

73 Bernal Díaz del Castillo Tomo IV-1796, CCVIII, 516. – 1630 : 248-b.; (Facimile from Bibliotheca Maison Saint-Agustin (Enghien, Belgique). Quoted also by Rodríguez Torselli/Nájera 2004:226. 74 “- Pues cantores de Capilla de vozes bien concertadas, aSsi tenores como tiples, y contraltos, no ay falta; y en algunos pueblos ay organos, y en todos los mas tienen flautas, y chirimías, y Sacabuches y dulçainas. Pues trompetas altas y Sordas. No ay tātas en mi tierra, q es CaStilla la vieja, como ay en eSta provincia de Guatimala: [..] y hazen vihuelas mui buenas…”[sic]. 75 More information about instruments definitions sees in glossary. 76 Cédula real (AGCA A1 23. Leg. 4588 exp 39541 Fol.43); quotes by Rodríguez/Nájera 2004:229. 77 “El Rey Presidente e oydores de la nuestra audiencia real de la nueva España a Nos se a fecho relacion que ay muy grande exceso y superfluidad en essa tierra y gran gasto con la diferencia de generos de instrumentos de músicas y cantares que ay con trompetas reales y bastardas clarines chirimías y sacabuches y trompones y flautas y cornetas y dulcainas y pífanos y biguelas de arco y rabales…” muy grande exceso y superfluidad en essa tierra y gran gasto con la diferencia de generos de instrumentos de músicas y cantares que ay con trompetas reales y bastardas clarines chirimías y sacabuches y trompones y flautas y cornetas y dulcainas y pífanos y biguelas de arco y rabales…”[sic] (AGCA A1 23. Leg. 4588 exp 39541 Fol.43).

71 This decree shows that the indigenous people used the instruments for their own musical inspiration. The guitar was transformed in Spain and at the same time it was changing in Amer- ica. Other instruments kept their original form and those that transformed or evolved in Eu- rope arrived to Latin America already with a new use and new aspect. Rodriguez Torselli points out that after the independence of Guatemala, the instruments did not have a transcen- dental evolution.

At the time of the Republic, in the middle of XIX century, the operas arrived and with them new musical instruments. In the mandolin and guitar became popular and the so-called “tu- nas” were formed. In that century Guatemala was experiencing the birth of their National Theater and that initiated the performances of music arriving from Europe. The new political European tendencies also echoed in Guatemala; liberal thinking arrived and religious music started to be relegated little by little. Among the first musicians was Benedicto Saenz (Junior) who in many ways changed the course of the musical trends of the time. He was the first musician to travel to Europe and upon his return he promoted the instrumentation of the orchestras; he was a composer of sacred music and he made important contributions to profane music with patriotic hymns and tunes.

The advancement of the musical life in Guatemala was enriched by the contributions of private associations such as the Philharmonic Association (although it was founded in 1813, when they were not completely independent from Spain, it was fundamental for the Amateur Philharmonic Society founded in 1860). These music schools by spreading the tendencies of the European music and the latest trends transmitted the knowledge of authors, their works and styles and as a result in 1835 the first opera was presented in Guatemala.78

During the XIX century the military bands were also present in Guatemala, although not in the same magnitude as in Mexico with the Porfiriato79. At the end of the century wealthy families fond of music were also importing pianos, and young ladies were trying to learn the available classical repertoire of the great European composers. In the capital of the republic

78 See more in: Enrique Anleu Díaz, Historia Crítica de la Música en Guatemala, Guatemala, 1991. 79 The presidential period of General Porfirio Diaz is known as Porfiriato, from 1876 to 1911, a total of 31 years. He resigned at the beginning of the civil war known as the Mexican Revolution.

72 there were approximately one thousand five hundred pianos, either brought from Europe or built by Fernando Montealegre and Manuel Marroquín, both from Guatemala (Díaz 1928:16)

2.3.1 Traditional music of Guatemala towards the beginning of the 20th Century

The historic process of Guatemala was not foreign to international developments and particularly to what was happening in Latin America at the end of the XIX century, which was also happening in Mexico, where social and thought movements were being experienced with con- frontations between the liberal and conservative fractions. In the XX century, the United Fruit Company (UFCO) became the main economic force in Guatemala,80 and the government of President Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1898-1920)81 who was one of the shareholders, granted UFCO great concessions. He wanted the support of the United States to avoid a possible attack from the British fleet. The Foreign Service policies of the United States toward Central America, consisted in maintaining analogous governments and the most peaceful possible to facilitate the construction of an interoceanic canal that initially was planned to be built in Nic- aragua, later in Colombia and finally in Panama. The construction of the Panama Canal, rendered useless the construction of the interoceanic railroad in Guatemala and provoked tensions between President Jose Santos Zelaya, from Nicaragua, and President Porfirio Diaz, from Mexico (Buchenau 1996:62-64). The UFCO controlled more than 40% of the land in the country, the railroad and the installations of Puerto Barrios, the only port on the Atlantic coast of Guatemala and El Salvador, situation that continued until 1944.

As a result Guatemala experienced an armed revolution in 1944, and entered into a period of civil war and in 1958, when Miguel Ydigoras Fuentes came to power, a politician and military man and a fervent anti-communist, as well as a political enemy of progressive governments, after founding the Redemption Party he counted with the support of right wing sectors of the army. During this time there were constant attacks against the indigenous cultures and against student movements, who were looked as sympathizers of communism during the Cold

80 See more in: Geoffrey Jones, The Octopus and the Generals: the United Fruit Company in Guatemala, 2005. 81 Manuel Estrada Cabrera (Quetzaltenango 1857, Guatemala 1924) was President during 22 years and in Gua- temala he is remembered as a dictator but during his term, he gave a great push to the marimba, and the institutional marimbas were created during that period. See more in: Miguel Angel Asturias, El Señor Presidente. 2000, Editorial Universidad de Costa Rica.

73 War at an international level. Also the Protestants began an incursion to obtain followers among the Ladino as well as indigenous members of the Guatemalan society. These historic events strongly affected the social life of the Guatemalans and also their activities and cultural traditions.82

In the XX century Guatemala lived through a process similar to the international musical development, with musical nationalism and the academic and popular trends that were spreading. The marimba had an important place during the first decade as the first groups travelled to the United States. On the other hand, the traditional music of the indigenous groups used for their dances and religious ceremonies continued adapting and defining to what is known today, and marked by the events previously mentioned.

The different ethnic groups in this cultural syncretism have different festivals according to the dates of the catholic calendar, and most of them are accompanied by dances and special costumes for these days. Unlike in Mexico, where string instruments had a considerable development, in Guatemala the diatonic marimba was appropriated by the indigenous groups throughout the country. Besides the use of some violins and guitars the diatonic marimba is an important part of these festivals and this makes it very different to the rest of the indigenous groups of Mesoamerica. Previously we mentioned that the marimba in Chiapas is more rooted among the mestizo population but in Guatemala the indigenous groups give the marimba an important use in their traditional music; therefore many researchers in this country have tried to justify this fact by giving the instrument a Maya origin.

This work is based on the focus that improvisation has had in the marimba, mainly in the XX century. Nonetheless, it is important to take into account all the cultural elements that shape it and in the case of Guatemala, we should not leave out the significant place the diatonic marimba has had in the indigenous communities in this country even when the work focuses more on the chromatic marimba.

The religious festivals of the different indigenous groups in Guatemala have given this country a cultural wealth through this instrument and the various styles that define it through its

82 See more in: Jorge Luján Muñóz, Breve historia contemporánea de Guatemala, Guatemala, 2002.

74 history; we could say that the evolution from a single to a double marimba remains alive, contrary to what happens in Chiapas that only on the border region with this country the marimbas of that kind still remain with the repertoire of traditional indigenous sones (Bau- tista/Figueroa 1999:72-73).

In the cultural diversity of the marimba in Guatemala, there is a significant presence in the Department of Chichicastenango, we even dare to say that although the modern marimba developed in Quetzaltenango and in the City of Guatemala, it is in the land of Chichicastenango where the identify elements of the Guatemalan marimba are preserved and manifested in different ways.

There are diatonic marimbas of calabashes, gourds or pumpos resonators, as well as with cedar wood resonators, and there are still arch marimbas with a single leg; marimbas that are carried during the processions and marimbas with legs and inlaid word or ornaments in the cabinets. Among the various indigenous groups where the use of the marimba is very common is in the Maya community of Achi, in Baja Verapaz in the municipalities of Salama, Cubulco and Rabinal among others, during the celebrations of Saint Mathew, Saint James the Apostle, the Virgin of the Immaculate Conception, Saint Paul, All Saints’ Day, etc.83 They are also popular in Chichicastenango among the Maya Quiche descendants, in their municipalities and in similar celebrations.

Fig. 5. Regions where exist diatonic marimbas in Guatemala with bamboo or “tecomates” resonators.

83 See more in: Sergio Navarrete Pellicer, Marimba Achi. Marimba Music in Guatemala, 2005.

75 The music in these towns, besides the diatonic marimba, is played accompanied by a drum, the shawms and the rattles, and sometimes also with reed grass and turtle shells, tuns, trompets, rabels (kind of indigenous violin), guitars and guitarrons (Bautista/Figueroa 1999:73) To be able to talk about the diatonic marimba in Guatemala in all its representations requires specialized work in this topic, since there are different festive dances such as the tori- tos (the bulls), el venado (the Deer), los animalitos (little animals), los gigantes (the giants), etc. (Bautista/Figueroa 1999:74). Below is an example of the traditional rite El Palo Volador (Flying Pole).

The “Flying Pole”84 as presented in the towns of Cubulco, Baja Verapaz and Joyabaj, Quiche, in Guatemala, during their ritual fairs that occur three times a year: in Chichicastenango85, Quiche from January 17 to the 23rd, in Cubulco, Baja Verapaz on July 26th and in Joyabaj, Quiche, on August 15th. The ceremony of the Flying Pole Dance has a pre-Hispanic background and there are many interpretations surrounding its origin86. A tree trunk with approximately 30 meters in height is placed in front of the church and embedded about two meters underground; with a stairway and a revolving wood frame on top. During the ritual one of the flying dancers climbs to the top of the pole and rolls up the ropes, the rest of the group remains at the foot of the pole dancing to the music of a marimba with calabash resonators, accompanied by morro rattles (morro chinchin). The ropes are rolled from the top from where the flying dancers will launch themselves into the air, dressed in monkey and feline costumes (Najera 2008:51-73). This ritual also exists in Mexico but in the Mexica and Totonac cultures, and the best known is the one celebrated by the flyers of Papantla, in Veracruz and the music is executed with drums and reed grass flutes.

84 More information in: http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?pg=00011&RL=00175 (last access May 8th, 2015). 85 http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichicastenango (last access February 20th, 2015). 86 In Mexico there is a similar ceremony known as the “Dance of the Flyers”.

Fig 6. The Palo Volador Ceremony in Chichicastenango, Guatemala.

- “Palo Volador”

The next example is about a piece executed at the beginning of the ceremony of the Flying Pole of Chichicastenango, when the dancers are still preparing to go up the pole. One of the important aspects of this is that it is played on a diatonic marimba and the piece is in melodic minor mode. This example is very interesting because for play this dance in a diatonic marimba means that the marimba is on the diatonic scale (F) and two notes were altered to give the melodic minor scale (Dm). Another possibility is that it is tuned to the (D) diatonic major scale and uses the Doric mode (Dm), however when the marimbist plays the corresponding key to (C), this sounds as (C#), which would mean it is altered with wax. It is also possible that to play this son the marimba is tuned to the (D) melodic minor scale.

Another interesting aspect is the rhythm of the melody. Although there are few works regarding the indigenous Guatemalan marimba, the ones that exist always show the sones de cofradia (brotherhood sones) or traditional sones with transcriptions generally in 6/8, 2/4 and 3/4.87 When analyzing the audio and the melody shown in the example, it is composed of one long note and two short ones, to write in 2/4 or in 6/8 gives us a close idea of the son, but it is not exact, however if the transcription is in 3/8 + 2/8 + 2/8 = 7/8 it gets much closer to the version performed by the marimbist, as shown as follows.

87 See more in: The marimba and the son. (Navarrete 2005:129-299).

M-Fig.19: “Palo volador”, dance accompanied with diatonic marimba, Transcription by Israel Moreno and Amir Moreno

The intention of the example is to show the independence of hands developed by the traditional Quiches marimbists of Guatemala. This work does not intend to go further regarding the sones of the diatonic marimba, because it requires a more in depth study, and that is not the objective of this work, nonetheless, I considered it important to show some of the different facets that the diatonic marimba currently has in Guatemala and the musical context in which it is developed.

78 3. Historical background of the marimba and how it took roots in Guatemala and Mexico

A lot has been written and argued regarding the birth and origin of the marimba in Chiapas, México and Guatemala. Due to the roots and importance that this instrument has in these regions, some authors have focused their efforts in finding a Mayan origin or some other origin within an indigenous culture of America, in fact, most of the documentation makes frequent references to this topic and thus undervalues the importance of the research and documentation of the musical development and repertoire of the marimba, and today there is little testimony or information in this regard.

The history of the marimba in this region, has been mostly documented by chroniclers and not by specialists in this topic, therefore we find many inconsistencies in some of the publications, which is the reason why we decided to address this topic in the present work. Nonethe- less, it is also truth that in these documents there are facts that can offer information from a different perspective than the one presented originally, that allow us to obtain more precise information of other aspects that at the time were minimized.

Fortunately, the documents generated during the 1990’s and at the beginning of this century, have been prepared by specialists on the topic, or professional researchers, giving rise to more faithful and precise records in regards to the marimba. It is important to highlight the existence of serious works prepared by specialists such as Fernando Ortíz, Vida Chenoweth, Linda O’Brien, David Vela, among others, which have been published in specialized collections but have been displaced by publishers and local distributors, who publish the texts of their own chroniclers which have become more accessible and popular and have been taken into account as accurate.

For example, in this diversity of documents about the history of the marimba, we find that researchers, who do not possess the necessary musical knowledge to support arguments that have musical connotations, ignore some details therefore providing wrong information. In other words, these researchers refer to the organological transformation of the instrument, such as the extension of notes or number of bars, they make little mention of the musical tes-

79 situra, and they do not take into account with more certainty the contributions of the construc- tor; or what kind of possible repertoire that could have been performed; and how the different voices of the marimba could have been distributed. It is incredible that after a hundred years of physical and musical transformation of the marimba, documents with poor foundation continue to surface or take as reference many works with weak hypothesis. Fortunately, today those are less. Therefore in this chapter we have addressed historical aspects of the instrument and also a vision focused on the musical aspects.

3.1. Historical references about the origin of the marimba

It has been documented in written and iconographic sources that when the transportation of slaves from Africa to America began, in Africa xylophones already existed (Brenner 2007:27- 44) and the cultural knowledge of their identity travelled with them, and music as a significant part of that knowledge.

Fig. 7. Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi, Procession in Congo, Africa, around 1654 - 1678. No. 4 called “Marimbero”.

80 According to Fernando Ortiz, the term “marimba” or malimba is commonly used in Bantu region in Africa,88 the root “imba” from bantú origin with its many variations means “song”. Many African names have that root, which also refers to instruments such as membranophones, idiophones, balaphones and lamellophones like the mbiras89. Felix Rodriguez in his work “La Marimba en Chiapas, Motivos de una Africania”,90 notes that “marimba” is also a word used by many African ethic groups to refer to the xylophones and its varieties and some arrived to America in an intangible form. The root “imba” appears in the name of a tree in some zones of Africa, used to manufacture drums.

Rodriguez carried out a morphological and ethnomusicological study about the similarities of the African xylophones with those in America. Silimba, ilimba, rimba, mbila, timbilia and zimbila are the names of the traditional African xylophones and he shows a great variety of xylophones better known by the western cultures as balaphones, which in a way, are the predecessors of the marimbas of Latin America.

This is just a sample of the diverse names that xylophones have in different regions of the African continent. Furthermore, Rodriguez brings up the classification of the African xylophones prepared by Kwabena Nketia91 and organizes them in 3 types; box Xylophones, free key Xylophones and independent resonators Xylophones.92 In the following table we can see the different names and their respective variations.

88 Bantu: Bantu is a general term which refers to 400 different ethnic groups of Africa, from Cameroon to South Africa, joined by the same Bantu language and in many cases they have the same customs. Bantu means “people” or “person” in many Bantu languages. 89 Fernando Ortiz, La afroamericana marimba, Guatemala, 1953-54, 9-43. 90 Félix Rodríguez, La Marimba en Chiapas. Motivos de una africanía, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, 2006. 91 See more in: Joseph H. Kwabena Nketia, The Music of Africa, London, 1975. 92 More about this topic (Brenner 2003:82-87).

81 Box Xylophones Free Key Xylophones93 Independent Resonator Xylo- phones94

A series of keys mounted on a The keys are placed over two bana- It consists of keys mounted over a resonance box, such as a well, a na rods kept in place by stakes peg wood frame, under which the box, a manger or a clay pot. to the rods between the keys. pumpkin resonators are placed.

1. Mbila 1.Amadinda 1.Marimba

2.Mbila mutondo 2.Dzil 2.Madimba

3.Rongo 3.Elong 3.Valimba

4.Rimba 4.Ambira 4.Kundu

5.Jebaa 5.Kalanba 5.Kpaninga

6.Jegara 6.Ilimba 6.Kpnombo

7.Jele 7.Baza 7.Dipela

8.Jegele 8.Dimba 8.Mbila

9.Djegele 9.Madimba 9.Bukonjo

10.Jabo 10.Dujimba dwa 10.Silimba

11.Zimbila 11.Jimba dwapakachi 11.Pon

12.Blaholé 12.Dujimba dwamukuma 12.Dyomoro

13.Gbo 13.Doso 13.Timbila

14.Gonoe 14.Serimba 14.Bala(balafón ejecutante del instrumento) 15.Oto 15.Zangora 15.Balangui 16.Rimba

17.Akadinda

Rodriguez considers many of the similarities between the African instruments with those we find in America, and he says: “Within the current morphology of the Chiapanecan marimba, some terms evocative of their original Africanity stand out”95. His work is in fact, a comparative study between the African xylophones and the marimbas in Chiapas.

93 Name taken from Koetting: James T. Koeting mentions simple xylophones built only for free keyboards placed over the legs of the performer (Rodriguez 2006:9). 94 Since Nketia did not assign a name for it, Rodriguez named it for his work (Rodriguez 2006). 95 “Dentro de la morfología actual de la marimba chiapaneca, destacan otros términos evocadores de su africanía originaria” (Rodríguez 2006:15).

“This list indicates variables not only in nomenclature but also timber, dimension, construction forms, materials, groups, number of performers, musical functions, scales, genres, styles, ensembles with other instruments, social functions and many other elements intrinsic to a musical instrument. In this context, it is impossible to determine which ones arrived to America, which ones persisted and were modified to create the current models, since there is a lack of detailed information of the exact origin (ethnic and geographic) of the black slaves that arrived to the Chiapanecan territory.” (Translated by Blanca Na- vas).96

A similar study was carried out several decades back by the marimba player and researcher Vida Chenoweth, in The marimbas of Guatemala97. She compared the marimba Chopi98 known as “timbila” with the arch marimbas in the indigenous areas of Guatemala. She even made an iconographic analysis and a comparative study to indicate the morphological and sound similarities.

We have a Chenoweth comparative scale (Chenoweth 1974:55) and the contributions of Hugh Tracey99, regarding the Chopi scale. (Tracy 1948:126).

Chopi scale provided by Tracey (F G __G#/A A# + C D __ D#+) Timbila scale by Chenoweth (F# G# A# B C# D#) Arch marimba of Guatemala scale (F G A B C D E)

In the same document Chenoweth shows the differences and similarities in the following way, (Chenoweth 1974:56-58).

The keys, the vertical hole held in place by thongs passing over and under each key; wooden piece between every two keys; The resonators of the timbila are fastened with max to a wooden plank rather than suspended freely; The timbila uses metal in fastening the key supports to the wooden plank below the keyboard and in reinforcing the corners of the “arc”. The Guate-

96 “Este listado indica variantes no sólo de nomenclatura sino de timbres, dimensiones, formas de construcción, materiales, agrupaciones, número de ejecutantes, funciones musicales, escalas, géneros, estilos, ensambles con otros instrumentos, funciones sociales y muchos otros elementos intrínsecos a un instrumento musical. En este contexto determinar cuales llegaron a América, cuáles persistieron y se modificaron para generar los actuales modelos es imposible, ya que se carece de información detallada de la procedencia exacta (étnica y geográfica) de los esclavos negros que llegaron al territorio chiapaneco” (Rodríguez 2006:11). 97 Vida Chenoweth, The marimbas of Guatemala, USA, 1974. 98 The Chopi culture is part forma parte de los grupos Bantús. 99 See more in: Hugh Tracey, Chopi Musicians: Their Music, Poetry and Instrument, London-New York, 1948.

83 malans use no metal at all; As well she refer to the vibration aperture is sealed with beeswax part of the neck of one gourd; holes and decorations are burned into the Chopi instrument, including the threading hole in the keys. On the other hand, Guatemala marimba-makers do not heat their tools for any reason, and any embellishment is hand-carved or inlaid; The arc of the Chopi timbila has square corners, but the Guatemalan arc is semicircular and in one piece; The Guatemalan instrument has no legs but sometimes propped up with a forked stick; Chopi mallets have thicker, shorter handles, the end of which pierces through the mallet head and comes to a sharp point, etc. (Chenoweth 1974:56-57)

She also makes a reference to a southern region of the Republic of Congo, in the basin of rivers Sankuru and Kasai, of an arch marimba with a pumpkin resonator and a vibrating membrane called madimba, and she indicates some size variations and number of keys, as well as the names used by different tribes. She also mentions that there are other types of arch marimbas found in the northern region, along the Congo River, (Chenoweth 1974:59-60).

Nowadays we are aware of the fact that African xylophones are the predecessors of the Latin- American marimbas, with certain similar characteristics among them, and that their morphology gives us the necessary elements to classify them or understand them as a family of instruments.100 The xylophone that was successfully developed in Latin America was the one built with a frame, which is placed in a wood cabinet and not the ones with loose keys. Xylo- phones of different types were developed in Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador and from Costa Rica to Mexico (Brenner 2014:20).

Helmut Brenner carried out what is today the most complete work about the different marimbas found in Latin America. His book titled Marimbas in Latinamerika (2007) is a research that was initiated by a UNESCO project,101 which allowed him to document the development of this instrument, its historical as well as its morphological and some musical elements. The first chapter of the book offers background information regarding the African xylophones with important iconographic references, in which the morphology of the instrument is clear and shows the similarities to the Latin American instruments. Brenner deals with the African

100 See more in: Gerhard Kubik, Theory of African Music, 2010. 101 Brenner 2000; UNESCO Mission Report, Obligation Number 397 032.0, Matricula CA 5635

84 context, with information and historical compilation of researchers who have written about the xylophones. For the first time he has a unique focus, and shows with clarity the routes by which the slaves were transported and distributed among the conquered territories of Ameri- ca.

Brenner mentions the oldest reference to the word marimba regarding a xylophone in the American continent, the codex called Manuscritti Araldi, written between 1654 and 1678 by the Italian missionary Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi (Brenner 2007:36). In the same book we find the oldest iconographic references in America regarding the use of the term marimba, in the engraving by Filippo Bonanni, “Brasiliano moro in atto de tocare la Marimba”, in 1722 (Bonanni 1722:154)102. Another interesting image is the one provided in a watercolor by the Brazilian Carlos Juliao; in it we can observe 3 African personalities, or of African descent, playing what would be a marimba hanging from the neck, with a row of keys and calabash resonators or pumpos (Brenner 2007:185).103

Fig. 8. aquarelas Carlos Julião

102 Quoted by Brenner 2007:182-184. 103 Brenner quoted: Fundación de la biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, de la Iconografía, C. I. 2. 8. Faksimiles in: Carlos Julião, Riscos illuminados de figurinhos de brancos e negros dos uzos do Rio de Janeiro e Serro do Frio, aquarelas Carlos Julião.

85 Brenner makes a comparative analysis and documents the different theories of the evolution of the marimba, separating it in 3 work zones: 1) Central America, covering from Mexico to Costa Rica; 2) Ecuador and Colombia in the zone of the Pacific; 3) Brazil. He mentions the existing sources and what other authors have written, taken from oral history references, making it clear how this transformation took place.

The oldest existing written sources date from the end of the XVII century, during the festivities of the consecration of the new cathedral of Santiago de los Caballeros (Cathedral of St. James the Apostle) today Antigua, Guatemala, in the year 1680, reads: “At the front a troop of boxes, atabales, (long drums) bugles, trumpets and marimbas and all the instruments used by the Indians: they were there in large numbers, richly dressed in gala costumes as was customary during their dances” (Translated by Blanca Navas)104.

Subsequently there are more references to the marimba in Central America, mainly in Guate- mala, in the 1700’s and 1800’s, it addressed later. As it regards to Mexico, before the XIX century, particularly in Chiapas, there are no written evidences that can be proven, and the authors that have written about the marimba in Chiapas have based their documentation in the oral tradition.

3.2 Analysis of the American theories of origin

In spite of the elements provided by reliable sources in regards to the fact that the marimbas in America have an African heritage, some authors have tried to find the origins of the marimba in America. They have presented very weak arguments to uphold this theory, even to the point of absurdity. Due to the exaggerated patriotism and love for the instrument shown by some social groups, some have given credence to such arguments and these have been published. Many readers sympathize with their cause, disregarding the rigorous research; they are convinced that the real roots of the marimbas are in America. These texts are not exclu-

104 “Iba por delante una tropa de cajas, atabales, clarines, trompetas, marimbas y todos los instrumentos que usan los indios: estos iban en gran número con ricos vestidos y galas como acostumbran en sus bailes” [sic]. (Juárros 1936:241-243); Also mentioned by the authors: Brenner (2007), Arrivillaga (2010), Vela (1953), Godínez (2012), among others.

86 sive of Guatemala, in Chiapas they have also tried to find a Chiapanecan root in the history of the instrument.105

We can mention three of the best known theories, two from Guatemala and one from Chiapas, Mexico, that try to sustain that the marimba is an original Indo-American instrument.

In Guatemala, the two best known theories about the Mayan origin of the marimba, can be found in the book “Verdadera Evolucion de la MARINBAH MAYA”,106 by Carlos Ramiro Asturias, published in 1994, where he tries to prove the ideas presented by Mariano Lopez Mayorical and by Marcial Armas Lara, who have looked for the origin of the marimba among the original cultures of America, mainly in the Mayan culture. These theories are very weak and poorly founded and have been confronted by researchers in Guatemala. This passion is understandable; especially since the marimba was declared the “National Instrument” in that country in 1979; and that cultural identity coming from the marimba makes some authors look for it from a Mayan origin.

The first of these theories was written by Folklorist Marcial Armas Lara (1964); in which in a way he is the protagonist. He relates that he saw a fragment of a pre-Colombian Mayan codex which clearly depicts a deity or a Mayan character dressed as such, playing with what Armas declares to be an “arm marimba”. According to Armas, in May 1958, he had a contact who took him blindfolded to a remote area; there he had a meeting with indigenous priests who showed him the old image and like that, he copied the codex as faithfully as possible. When he finished the duplicate of the scroll, one of the priests rolled it and placed it inside a bamboo container, sealing it with black wax as he assured him: “it will remain concealed from the world”. Later he was taken back, and again he was blindfolded. Armas Lara reproduced this drawing which he affirms comes from that codex which he assumes to be proof of the existence of the marimba in the Mayan world.

105 See more about the topic in: Brenner 2007, chapter 2. 106 The first author that tried to demonstrate that the marimba is originally from Chiapas and Guatemala was Santiago I. Barbarena. He is the one that searches for the meaning of Mar-in-bah, which was later taken by Asturias.

87 Although the story sounds bizarre, paradoxically Armas Lara supposes to have solved the mystery of the origin of the marimba. Many have assumed his text to be a true fact, and they have repeated his story as a source and as a discovery without considering fundamental aspects such as the fact that the original source has not been presented, in other words it does not exist physically; the codex is supposed to be conclusive proof, but it is hidden in a cave; and what is most strange, a Mayan God playing the marimba? In this regard the researcher Robert Neustad refers to the tale of Armas Lara as follows:

“Armas attempts to prove the veracity of his experience. His proof is a copy, his copy, which he offers as a representation of the marimba’s origin. In his book, in other words, he publishes a copy of the copy that he rendered of a drawing of a Mayan God playing marimba. Or, perhaps the original codex depicts a Mayan holy man, dressed as a God, playing marimba? In this reading, Armas’s proof of the marimba’s origin consists of a published copy of his rendered copy of a codex (in other words, an image/copy) of a costumed 107 man playing marimba--performing in the image of a Mayan God”.

Carlos Ramiro Asturias, also folklorist and writer, heatedly defends the story by Armas, and he considers him a patriot and criticizes those who have criticized Armas, in fact Asturias says: “with my research, I gave validity and credibility to his evidence”, and he personally hired the painter from Sololá, Edgar Ordonez, to make a copy of his copy for his article to demonstrate, in this absurd way, its veracity.108

The second of these theories was added by Mariano López Mayorical in “Momentos Estelares de la Historia de la Marimba en Guatemala”, 1982, published in Guatemala, affirms to finally have proof which confirms that the marimba has a Mayan origin. In his book he analyzes various evidences that according to him support his theory. One of them he addresses in more detail and pages in his work and it is about the Vaso de Ratinlinxul, (Ratinlinxul Vase), also known as Vaso de Chamá.109

Ratinlinxul Vase, is a glass of polychromatic ceramic of the post classic period, discovered in 1923 in Alta Verapaz and is now protected in the Museum of Art and Archaeology of the

107 Robert Neustadt, Reading Indigenous and Mestizo Musical Instruments: The Negotiation of Political and Cultural Identities in Latin America. Music and Politics. http://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/mp/9460447.0001.202?view=text;rgn=main (last access December 11th, 2014). 108 See more in: Carlos Ramiro Asturias Gómez, Verdadera Evolución de la MARINBAH MAYA, Guatemala, 1994. 109 See more in: Mariano López Mayorical, Momentos estelares de la historia de la Marimba en Guatemala, Guatemala, 1982.

88 University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, United States and can be found in their archive, since 1924, as object #11701. The Vase is an iconographic sample dated around 1000-1100 of our era and it depicts a procession where a high ranking priest (others say it is a merchant), is being carried by 2 servants, and next to him walks an animal which appears to be a dog and behind them a character carrying an object behind his back and fastened to his head, and at the end two musicians with their trumpets. Lopez Mayorical affirms that the object being carried by the servant is a Box Marimba, and gives an interpretation of the procession, defending with this image the existence of the marimba (Lopez 1982:55-76).

Carlos Asturias, similarly to Armas’s theory, once again defends this theory and makes it his own, reconstructing the image of the drawing to demonstrate that such object is a marimba, and not only that, Asturias even builds a marimba similar to the object of the image and he carries it in the same way to demonstrate his theory (Asturias 1994:116-118), and he calls it box marinbah.

Just like Armas and Lopez Mayorical, many Guatemalans want to believe that those are true theories and they defend at all cost the possibility that the marimba has a Mayan origin. Fur- thermore, Asturias pretends that there are other sources that demonstrate the Mayan origin of the marimba and maintains that at the arrival of the Spanish they were hidden, to be preserved, and they were only used during their secret ceremonies but this fact has not been proven.

Asturias also fought to have the Ratinlinxul Vase returned to Guatemala, because he considers it a historical heritage of the marimba, but his efforts were fruitless.

Contrary to the Codex that Armas Lara says to have discovered, the Ratinlinxul Vase exists and has been studied by researchers who have been able to discover the period it belongs to; and they have also made a description and interpretation of the images that can be observed in the Vase, and in fact, there is never a mention of a marimba among those articles, contrary to the evidence of musicians and trumpets; and the object they refer as a marimba, they mention as a chair or throne for the priest or merchant.

89 Brenner and Neustad reflect on what was written by Asturias and they mention that these hy- potheses cannot be supported.110 There are also many articles about Mayan instruments, as well as studies of Mayan ceramic Vessels, and none of them make reference to a marimba.111

We mention here as an example, a study about Mayan trumpets made by Roberto Velazquez Cabrera,112 who also makes some reference to some of the interpretations of the Vase of Ratinlinxul, and we notice that there is no way to imagine any marimbas.

“The Mayan vessels are a good example of the availability of trumpet images [..] The best public information system about circular vases is the data base of Doctor Justin Kerr at FAMSI (Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies, Inc.) In a search about “trumpet” 20 pictures of vases were displayed. It provides information and descriptions and some of them also include short comments or documents. For example in glass K594, Number MS 1729 or The Ratinlinxul Vase also includes an article “The last journey”. There are no comments about the trumpets or their sounds, but the Mayan vases show a variety of trumpets. The three trumpets of vase K594 have their own structure; sizes and they 113 have mouthpieces that could be played at the same time”. (Translate by Blanca Navas).

Fig. 9. Ratinlinxul Vase

110 More information in: Brenner 2007:102-103 and Neustad; Online: http://www.music.ucsb.edu/projects/musicandpolitics/archive/2007-2/neustadt.html (last access December 11th, 2014). 111 The most complete collection regarding Mayan glasses completed by researcher Justin Kerr, in 6 books entitled “The Mayan base book”. There are no references to a Mayan marimba in any of them. 112 See more in: Velazquez 2002. 113 “Los vasos Mayas son un buen ejemplo de la disponibilidad de imágenes de trompetas[..] El mejor sistema de información pública sobre vasos circulares es la base de datos del Dr. Justin Kerr de Famsi. En una búsqueda sobre "trumpet" se proporcionaron fotos de 20 vasos. Proporciona información y datos descriptivos y en algunos de ellos se incluyen comentarios breves o documentos. Por ejemplo en el vaso K594, Numero MS 1729 o vaso Ratinlinxul, incluye un artículo “The last Journey”. No hay comentarios sobre las trompetas o sus sonidos, pero los vasos Mayas muestran la variedad de sus trompetas. Las tres trompetas del vaso K594 tienen su propia es- tructura, dimensiones, tienen boquillas y pudieron tocarse al mismo tiempo”. (Velazquez 2002).

90 In this regard the comments provided by Justin Kerr in the article "The last Journey" are:

“A vase in the collection, of the University Museum, The Ratinlinxul Vase has been described in various ways. In the fourth edition of The Ancient Maya, the portrayal is as follows: A third vase from Ratinlinxul in the same region shows a noble, identified as a merchant, borne in what appears to be a basketry palanquin suspended from carrying poles on the shoulders of retainers. A dog stretches himself realistically below the palanquin. Five retainers follow: the first carries a jaguar cushioned throne, the next three carry what appear to be canoe paddles; and the last grasps a fold of cloth in his left hand…(K594)

It has long been my contention that this journey is not that of a merchant and his retainers and paddlers, but rather a depiction of the last earthly trek taken by the individual in the palanquin, accompanied by his retainers and musicians. t is an expedition to the other world; in other words, this is a funerary procession. I believe that the Maya artists had no problem indicating deceased individuals as still alive, in these scenes on vessels.”114

We could continue looking for documentation in this regard, but we consider that the searches for the origins of the marimba, as in the previous examples, are not acceptable.

A third theory about this American origin of the marimba is found in Chiapas and was sustained by Amador Hernandez C., who in his book “El Origen de la Marimba”, 1975, says he can prove that the marimba already existed before the arrival of the Spanish in the XVI Cen- tury, although the problem, as in the theory of Armas Lara, is that his hypothesis is based on a copy of a document; and so far the original is not available to researchers, if in fact it really exists.

In brief, his work mentions a document discovered in his own home, in his father’s library, where it says that in 1914, during the period of the Mexican revolution, Mr. Cristobal Rios, a foreman of the estate of Santa Lucia in Jiquipilas, Chiapas, handed to Amador Hernandez Esquinca, his father, a great dictionary of the Spanish Academy of Language as well as a small yellow notebook with manuscripts. And it was until 1926 when Don Amador senior asked his son, Pomposo Hernandez to transcribe the original to a small notebook, and supposedly this transcription was certified by the municipal authority as a true copy and sent to the state archives.

In was until 1973 that Amador Hernandez C, when he found the copy of the manuscript that he began an investigation and obtains the certified copies of the text that his brother Pomposo

114 See more in: Justin Kerr, Reflections on the Ratinlinxul Vase and others of the same theme, http://www.mayavase.com/jour/journey.html (last access January 13th, 2015); http://www.famsi.org/research/kerr/ (last access March 12th, 2015).

91 prepared, and this text is titled Cristianización de indios de Sta. Lucia 1545, Pedro Gentil de Bustamante. This document refers to a tale where a fragment says:

“…strolling down my mentioned hacienda I found next to the trunk of the kapok tree close to said house the entrusted Indians well supplied with food for the sustenance of their lives, playing an instrument of small value that provided great delight to all, as this musical instrument was sonorous and was called yolotli, which means “heart of heaven” in the Mejica language, and was promising to the church […] said instrument is composed of eight red wood bars, of uneven sizes which are perforated and joined by a cord and it produces a lively echo with wood boards from the macuaguil, found in these lands towards the inundated large lagoon at the banks of the Santa Lucia River, the rows of boards tied to y-shaped tree branches thrusted and stretched under said instrument, a hole on the ground and glued to the boards with resin, rattle snakes that make the musical notes vibrate with strokes of two small sticks with black wax heads one for each hand, […] said instrument is played by brave blue eyed white boy , he sings well in his tongue…” (Translated by Blanca Navas) 115

This book by Hernandez had a great influence in Chiapas and other authors took his document as reference to demonstrate the existence of some kind of xylophone in the XVI century. Ce- sar Pineda del Valle, Chiapanecan chronicler, imitating a little the effort carried out by Astu- rias in Guatemala, also had a replica built according to the text, of the xylophone called Yolotli.

Pineda and other chroniclers circulated this theory among Chiapanecans as a fact that the marimba is an indigenous instrument, even though this theory presents many problems and inconsistencies, for example: the mentioned original document does not exist; the Public Notary certified that they presented to him a document that had a transcription but it does not specify what type of document; even if the mentioned original document existed, the paleography does not correspond to the mentioned century. Similarly, in a text about Fray Bartholomew, Tomas de la Torre talks about Pedro Gentíl, an encomendero,116 but he is mentioned in a different region of Chiapas, Tapilula, a place near Tabasco. In the zone where the Hacienda de la Valdiviana was located, from Jiquipilas, all the way to Cuxtepeques, there were African

115 “…andando por mi dicha encontré junto del tronco del Ceiba cerca de dicha casa los encomendados indios muy bastecidos de comida y sustentación de sus vidas tocaban un instrumento musical del poca valía pero del regocijo de todos por ser sonoro queste instrumento musical lo nombran yolotli, que en lengua mejicana dice corazón de cielo, sería mucho prometimiento la Yglesia;[…]dicho instrumento questá compuesto de ocho tabli- llas de madera roja, desiguales del tamaño questan agujereadas unidas con un cordón y producen eco alegre con tablas del palo del macuaguil questá bastecida las tierras rumbo la anegada laguna larga margen del río Santa Lucía, las hileras de tablas amarradas a orquetas cortas sembradas y estiradas bajo dicho instrumento un hoyo en el suelo y pegados con resina en las tablas cascabeles de serpientes que hacen vibrar las notas musicales con golpes de dos pequeños palillos con cabeza de cera negra uno por cada mano,[…]susodicho instrumento lo toca un muchacho blanco ojos azules, baleroso canta bien en su lengua…”[sic] (Amador Hernández 1975:5). 116 During the Spanisch Mornarchy in Mexico, Encomendero refers to the settler who had indigenous under its service or encomienda.

92 slaves working the sugar plantations.117 The word Yolotli is from the Nahuatl and it means Sky (Rodriguez 2006), and it has no relation to the Zoque or Mije, which belong to a different linguistic branch spoken in that region. There are many writers who know Old Spanish and an expert could have imitated it in a document.

Therefore we are able to recognize that their arguments are very week. Similarly Fernán Pavía, a Chiapanecan doctor and historian, says that there are no documents that prove that Pedro Gentíl stayed at the Hacienda de la Valdiviana, in the municipality of Cintalapa, and he is not mentioned in the text as the narrator. Felix Rodriguez also argues that that the word Yolotl comes from the Nahuatl and not from the Zoque or any other Mayan language that names an instrument supposedly originated in the south of Mexico.

From these theories we can conclude the following: Many researchers who have carried out serious works agree that there are no sources that assure the existence of the marimba before the Conquest; -The murals in Bonampak are an example where the musicians that are depict- ed there show some musical instruments but there is nothing that resembles a xylophone; - And there is no mention of the marimba in The Popol Vuh, a text of Mayan stories; -The Mexican codices known as Dresden, Madrid, Paris, do not show anything similar to a marimba; -More than 10 million slaves arrived in America and they brought with them their religion, music, instruments and way of life; -All the genuine sources that mention or make reference to the marimba were after the conquest.

Many researchers maintain that the lack of marimbas in some regions of America, where there is evidence of the great magnitude of African descendants, makes it doubtful that they are the precursors of the marimba. Some attempt to back up the theory of simultaneous generation, which means that the same facts are generated in different places without any relationship among them. They have not considered some aspects such as the African regions where the slaves came from; the different cultures in each of the regions where they came from; the diversity of customs and instruments; the availability of raw materials, like in the United States

117 Information provided by Fernan Pavia, Chiapanecan doctor and historian, taken from his presentation “Sorprendente hallazgo” (Surprising Discovery), presented during the Convention of Reporters and Historians of Orizaba, Veracruz in 2006, where he makes a very profound analysis of the text by Amador Hernandez. Also taken of personal interviews about the document in November 2009.

93 or the Caribbean Islands, where there are no similar woods to build the marimbas, as happened on the Pacific, in Colombia, where the African population is larger and the marimba has great relevance in the cultural context.

There are reliable works regarding the development of the marimba as an instrument in Cen- tral America, for example the works of Vela (1953); Castañeda Paganini (1951); Chenoweth (1954); Godínez Orantes (2002); among others and the most complete by Brenner (2007). The elements provided in all of them conclude that the marimba arrived in America with the African slave trade.

In that respect, Helmut Brenner says: “The sources that support several authors in order to demonstrate the existence of xylophones before 1680 are only copies, and to this date original documents are unknown and it is impossible to verify the sources in a scientific way and therefore they are doubtful.” (Translated by Blanca Navas)118.

3.3 Background and historical references up to the XIX century

In Guatemala there is a broad bibliography regarding this instrument,119 but at times in some of these documents that focus on the historic process, there are a few authors that show an excessive nationalism and therefore their works has lost their objectivity, and among those mentioned previously are Armas Lara and Carlos Asturias, but fortunately there also exist texts that are very well based and provide a broader historic view of the instrument. These contributions have been better preserved in Guatemala than in Mexico, and specifically in Chiapas. The fact that the Captaincy of Guatemala enjoyed a certain independence from New Spain, was able to keep their records in a more self-regulating way (Gutierrez Cruz 1997:17- 20). In Chiapas many records have been set on fire due to various social conflicts, such as the

118 “Las fuentes, en que se apoyan varios autores para demostrar la existencia de xilófonos anterior a 1680 son solamente copias, no se conoce documento original, por lo que hasta la fecha esas fuentes no son verificables en un sentido científico, y por lo tanto no son indudables” (Brenner 2014:21). 119 The bibliography in the present work contains more than 25 books that discuss the marimba in Guatemala extensively. Among the most famous and most quoted authors the following stand out: David Vela, Paganini, Vida Chenoweth, Godíenez, Arrivillaga, Cajas, among others.

94 ones in San Cristobal in 1863 and 1914,120 where possible sources regarding the marimba in that region were lost (Lazos 2008:58-59).

After their independence from Spain, the Latin American countries lived through several social, political and cultural conflicts to become the nations they are today. These conflicts created the cultural basis that provided a sense of belonging, identity and pride; therefore, early on, in Guatemala historians began the foundation of their history based on documents and reviews that were preserved and are still kept in historic archives and with that the marimba became a fundamental part of the cultural identity of Guatemala and the contributions of several authors that were registered since the XIX century provided a more sound knowledge of its historic process (Arrivillaga 2010:19).

This broad bibliography documents the historical development of the marimba in Guatemala, and it is not the intention of this work to repeat them, nevertheless, it is important to consider the most outstanding aspects to help us find the most complete information to understand the musical development that the marimba has had in Mexico as well as in Guatemala. Therefore we will make a historic outline in a descriptive form and a summary before reaching the XX century.

In the following chronological table contains information and the most detailed historic references.

Year Fact or Source Description or quote

1680 Inauguration of the Cathedral of Saint Domingo Juarros quotes Diego Félix Carranza James of the Knights y Cordoba, priest of Jutiapa. “iba por delante una tropa de cajas, atabales, clarines, trompetas, marimbas y todos los instrumentos que tocan los indios; estos en gran número, con ricos vestidos y galas como acostumbran en sus bailes” (Juarros 1981:399).

“ahead a troop of boxes, kettledrums, bugles, trumpets, marimbas and all the instruments

120 See more in: Dolores Aramoni Calderon (Ed.), El Archivo Histórico Diocesano de San Cristobal de las Casas, 1981. Archivo Histórico Diocesano, Boletín 1. San Cristóbal de las Casas Chiapas, México, 1-3.

95 the Indians play; the latter in great numbers, in rich raiment and garb as is their custom during their dances”. (Translated by Blanca Navas).

1737 Victor Miguel Diaz in Artistic Life of “Por aquel tiempo, en varias poblaciones Guatemala, new about the marimba in the indígenas veíanse algunas marimbas, así co- cantons of Saint Gaspar and Jocotenango, mo en los cantones de San Gaspar y Jocote- in the small village of Las Vacas and in nango (de la Ciudad de Santiago de los Caba- Mixco. lleros de Guatemala). Cada instrumento de estos

lo tocaba un sólo individuo” (Sic). (Díaz, 1928:26)

“In those days, in several indigenous villages you could see some marimbas, as well as in the canton of Saint Gaspar and Jocotenango (of the city of Saint James of the Knights of Guatemala). Each of these instruments was played by a single individual”. (Sic). (Trans- lated by Blanca Navas).

Quoted as well Díaz, with out reference of “Y aquí es de advertir el ruido que metían los specific year, about the Santa Cecilia fes- tocadores de chirimías, pitos, tambores, zam- tivity. bumbias, marimba de tecomates, y otros muchos instrumentos de los indígenas" tocados a un tiempo, produciendo bullas tal, que se oía a grande distancia” (Diaz 1928:27).

“And here we should notice the noise made by the players of shawms, whistles, drums, zambumbias (rustic drums), calabash marimba and many other indigenous instruments” playing at the same time, producing such a ruckus that could be heard at a great distance”. (Sic) (Translated by Blanca Navas).

1747 Paz Salgado refers to an instrument of “...Y ya los acordes instrumentos, que acom- regional use and festive among the indige- pañados del regional, y sonoro de la marimba, nous people. (Vela 1962:105-106). hacía todo un conjunto festivo que poco le faltaba para igualar al regocijo que sonaba en los corazones el afecto para justo tributo de tanta dicha...” (Vela 1962:105-106).

“…And the harmony of the instruments, ac-

96 companied by the regional and sonorous marimba, made a very festive group that almost equaled the delight and affection, the beating of the heart as a just tribute to so much happi- ness…”. (Translated by Blanca Navas).

1763 Jose Saenz Poggio, author of the first trea- Makes mention of a balafon (calabash ma- tise about music. rimba?) during the celebrations at the Cathe- dral, as related by a folk singer named Nunez. (Saenz Poggio 1878:18)

XVIII Century "el único mejoramiento que se nota en la capilla de música de la Catedral, corriendo el siglo 18, es la agregación del instrumento regional, la marimba, desde luego un tanto perfeccionada. Mucho se debería al talento raro de Padilla [se refiere al religioso Juan Padilla]… llegando a poseer las matemáticas y la ciencia del sonido, embelesado en la música, inventa instrumentos, descubre artes de composición".(Sáenz Poggio 1878:19.)121

“…the only noticeable improvement in the music chapel of the Cathedral, during the XVIII century, is the addition of a regional instrument, the marimba, and naturally a bit improved. A lot is owed to the rare talent of Padilla (referring to Juan Padilla, the cler- ic)…who possessed the mathematics and science of sound, captivated by music, invents instruments, discovers the art of composition” (Translated by Blanca Navas).

1820 Text regarding payment to a marimba At the Church of Carmen in a book dated player between 1810 and 1820.

"pago de 3 pesos 1 real, por marimbero y tamborero".122

“a payment of 3 pesos 1 real for marimba player and drummer” (Translated by Blanca Navas),

121 Quoted as well in: (Juarros 1981:182), (García Peláez 1971:227). 122 Archives of El Carmen Church, folio 33-V, 1819-1820.

97 1816 Mentions a case that occurred in Saint “ Por desbaratar un gran molote de em- Peter Jocopilas. briagues que havia en una casa de un yn- dio yamado Gaspar Pix, el qual fue recon- venido por este medio de un recaudo a fin de que se quitase la marimba, tamborcito y pito para que no siguiese el exceso, y escándalo de la embriaguez” (sic). (Arrivillaga 2010:15)123

“To break up a drunken fight at the house of an Indian named Gaspar Pix, he was called by means of safe-keeping, in order to take away the marimba, small drum and whistle, to stop the excesses and disturbances of drunkenness” (Translated by Blanca Navas)

1821 The church acquires a marimba for the 125“20 pesos una marimba de piececitos em- Cathedral of Saint Peter Jocopilas124. butidos muy decentes que se compró para el coro del maestro Godínez”.

“20 pesos for a very decent marimba of small stuffed (crammed) legs purchased for the choir of maestro Godinez” (Translated by Blanca Navas).

Approximately According to Diaz, “…Las marimbas de tecomates eran tocadas 1840 únicamente por tres o cuatro sujetos, y en ese tiempo dichos instrumentos no tenían tubos de madera”. (Díaz, 1934:527).

The calabash marimbas were played only by three or four individuals, and at that time said instruments did not have wooden bars” (Translated by Blanca Navas)..

March 1st, 1859 Note written by the priest of Lanquin, Alta “hubo mucha concurrencia y hasta regocijo a Verapaz, referring to the Holly Week. que aludió la música que pusieron anoche los naturales delante de un aventajado instrumen- to la Marimba y otros instrumentos de los comunes”.126

123 Quotes: AHAGP, tramo 2, caja 83, expediente 201. 124 15 AHAGP, tramo 1, caja 9, folio 5-V. 125 Alfonso Arrivillaga that the judgement of the figure that radiates from “piececitos embutidos” (crammed little feet) could refer to the calabash resonators; the type of “single” marimba that must have been common at the time. 126 AHAGP, tramo 3, caja 63, miscelánea 1842-1911.

“there was a big crowd and even delight al- luded to the music set by the Indians in front of an outstanding instrument the Marimba and other instruments of the natives” (Translated by Blanca Navas).

This shows another kind of participation and a more developed instrument in both ways, organological and musical, as wells as others instruments used by the natives.

1878 Saenz Poggio describes that the marimba “cada uno con un par de baquetas, cuyas lacks half tones and it reaches up to seven extremidades libres están forradas con hule. octaves interpreted by four individuals. Sus teclas son de madera, acero o cristal... los tecomates o los tubos cuadrados de madera sobre que van sentadas esas teclas, vienen hacer las veces del registro o de la caja acústi- ca del piano. Para subir o bajar el tono, emplean los indios unos plomitos redondos, que pegan con cera en la cara inferior de las teclas. Para hacer los sostenidos o bemoles, se valen del medio tocarlas en sus orillas y con el cuerpo solo de las baquetas”. (Sáenz Poggio 1878:79-80).

“each one with a pair of mallets, with the free ends covered with rubber. The keys are made of wood, steel or crystal... the calabashes or square wood tubes over which the keys are placed; they are like the register or acoustic box of the piano. To increase or decrease the tone, the Indians use small lead balls, glued with wax on the lower side of the keys. To make the sharps or flats, they play the bar edges and only with the stick of the mallets” (Translated by Blanca Navas).

The previous table shows the important information provided by researchers, and yet, they are not enough to construct a defined history of its process, with many questions still pending, since documenting the oldest references becomes very complex and the data is sometimes vague. Nevertheless, the authors put in context their contributions, mainly to the festivities of

99 the natives and based on that Lester Godinez suggests that this kind of backgrounds provide a greater certainty to the morphological development that the marimba had in Mesoamerica.127

With the information shown on the table above, in certain ways we can envision the popularity that marimba had among natives. Arrivillaga makes an analysis of the probable process the marimba had to become part of the native communities: “…the use of the marimba started in the XVI century in certain boroughs and periphery of James of the Knights and from there it went over to the villages of the natives to become an instrument of common knowledge…” (Translated by Blanca Navas)128. In this way he assumes that the popularity the marimba acquired among the indigenous peoples is the reason the priests began to take it in consideration to form part of the liturgy in the chapels to aid in their conversion.129

Until the XIX century and similarly in the South of Mexico, the marimbas that formed part of the musical context of the region are diatonic and although the documents that refer to the marimba are few, through them it is possible to have an idea of the transformation of the instrument and its physical appearance (Vela 1953:47-50).

One of the best known facts that can be mentioned as part of the search of the marimbists to increase the sound texture to go beyond the diatonic scale is the use of wax to change the tuning of the keys, allowing the execution of greater or lesser tones. Perhaps this concern expressed by the marimbists led to the use of the chromatic marimba (Rodríguez Torselli 2004:234).

It was also during the XIX century that the Guatemalan marimba finally goes beyond the festive walls of the church, and it was embraced by Ladinos and indigenous people alike, as an instrument of popular use that becomes deeply rooted in their festive music. (Froebel, 1978:9).

127 See more in: Lester Homero Godínez Orantes, La Marimba: Arte, cultura y Fantasía en Madera, Guatemala, 2012. 128 “…la práctica de la marimba a partir del siglo XVI en ciertos barrios y periferias de Santiago de los Caballe- ros y de ahí pasa a los poblados indígenas para convertirse en un instrumento de dominio regional…” (Arrivilla- ga 2010:14). 129 More information in: Francisco de Paula García Peláez, Memorias para la historia del Antiguo Reino de Guatemala, Guatemala, 1971.

100 3.4 Morphological Transformation of the Marimba

The process of the morphological, cultural and musical development of the marimba in Chia- pas and in Guatemala is very similar, because during the period of greatest development of the instrument, Chiapas and Guatemala had a great commercial boom and great economic, social and cultural exchange in the borders, since the communication was more fluid with the Republic of Guatemala than with the Mexican Republic.

According to the oral tradition and by the instruments known today, we can deduce how the marimba transformed from its most primitive to the most complex form known today. This has allowed us to have an idea of the development process regarding the instrument and deduce from their physical aspects their execution. The diatonic marimba is now known as marimba sencilla, after the birth of the chromatic marimba, known as marimba doble. We know that it continued to increase the number of keys and transforming its appearance, from the resonators to the frame, legs and general aesthetics.

Regarding the evolution of the marimba, Cesar Pineda del Valle suggests a list where he refers to the different diatonic marimbas, (Pineda del Valle 1984:7-10) although his sources are not clear, he maintains that it is based in oral tradition, which without a doubt proposes an idea with certain tendencies that have not been scientifically demonstrated. He makes his own classification of the instruments known to this date even though this researcher lacks musical knowledge and does not play the marimba. Even so, many authors have taken his suggestion about the transformation of the marimba in Chiapas as a fact, and we can find them quoted in his books and by other authors.130

The transformation of the marimba is clearer in Guatemala because it has a greater diversity and they continue to have a presence in several regions of the country, similarly, serious researchers have studied and written about its development since the 1950’s, in the XX Centu- ry, among the most recognized we can mention Vela (1953), Chenoweth (1954) and Godínez (2002). Carlos Monsanto, in his article “Guatemala a Través de su Marimba”, 1982, makes a brief historical review about the marimba, its transformation and evolution and he mentions

130 Also quoted by Kaptain 1991:39-40.

101 the morphological changes of the instrument in a more accurate way, and he also comments about the musical transformations that occurred at the same time that the instrument changed (Monsanto 1982:60-72).

In this sense it is important to consider the physical changes of its parts throughout the centuries which generated the obvious transformation that did not occurred in the African cultures. As mentioned previously, in Guatemala and Chiapas the marimbas that developed were the ones with a frame and resonators for each key and their evolution and transformation was reflected in all the aspects of their construction. Let’s take a look at the parts that currently constitute a marimba in Chiapas and in Guatemala.

Frame and “Table”. It is the structure that holds the keys and the resonators. The front part of the marimba in Mexico is decorated with inlaid work from seven different types of wood. Each builder has its own distinctive design. In Guatemala and in parts of Central America the wood of the frame is carved with beautiful decorations and drawings, generally with a Maya motif. The table has the pins that sustain or hold the keyboard. (Moreno/Nandayapa 2002:24).

Legs: Those are the pieces that support the instrument. In general in Mexico the legs are decorated, shaped and dyed with a reddish color wood varnish. (Moreno/Nandayapa 2002:24). We know that before including the legs, the marimba player used to seat on a wooden arch that besides giving support helped to stretch the keyboard. This type of marimba is still used in Nicaragua and in some regions of Guatemala. There is also photographic information of marimbas that are played while standing up, hanging from the neck of the player. In Guate- mala there are still some marimbas that include only one leg for the player, like in the region of Chichicastenango.

The Keyboard: Keyboards and resonators are the most important parts of the marimba. The keys are wood bars of different tuning and sizes; the lower pitch notes are wider and large, ascending to arrive to the higher pitch notes which are narrow and small. The wood used for the keyboard is “Hormiguillo”,131 which can be found in the forests of Chiapas and Guatemala. The quality of the wood depends on the age of the tree, when the tree is older it

131 Platymiscium dimorphandrum.

102 produces a dark wood which is the best wood for keyboards; unfortunately nowadays we can only find young trees. When the tree is of medium age, it produces a reddish wood and the quality is still good for a keyboard, but when the tree is too young, the wood it produces is of a yellowish color and the quality is poor, because it has an unstable tuning and sound (Moreno/Nandayapa 2002:24). Granadillo and Zapaluta132 are also used in Chiapas. Customarily traditional builders tuned the keyboard only in its fundamental note, but now some builders in Chiapas tune two overtones giving more stability and durability to the tuning, that means, the first overtone of the octave and the second overtone of the fifth.133

Hormiguillo is known in Guatemala by the name of “Hormigo and Hormigon”, but it is the same wood. Also in Guatemala and other Central American countries they use “Balsam Wood”, which produces a “sweeter” sound. They also use another wood named Ash, mainly for the marimbas in the highlands of Huehuetenango.134 Rose Wood135 is also used for the keyboards in Central America and it is considered to be one of the best woods for its sound and stability in tuning, in fact, marimba building companies in the United States, Japan and Europe import this wood for the manufacture of keyboards. (Moreno/Nandayapa 2002:25).

Resonators: They are the sound amplifiers. Currently they are built with cedar wood and the size varies but the bigger ones correspond to the low pitch notes and they descend in size to the small ones that correspond to the high pitch notes. Nowadays there are some who call resonators “Pumpos or Tecomates” reminiscent of the old diatonic marimbas of the XIX century, when dry calabashes were used (pumpos or tecomates) as resonators (More- no/Nandayapa 2002:25). The base of the resonator is in the form of a pyramid; in Chiapas they make a small cut in the interior to fold the ends, while in Guatemala they heat the base and then they fold it, and this technique is known as “pumpos domados” or “tamed resonators”.

132 Platymiscium Yucatanum, and Dalbergia granadillo. See more in: Fausto Miranda, La Vegetación de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez,1988. 133 Further information in: Harvard Dictionary of Music; en Acoustic; IV Overtones. (Apel 1974:10-11) 134Taken from interviews to marimba builders from Santa Eulalia, Guatemala, and to others from Huehuetenango City, in January 10th 2010. 135Aspidosperma polyneuron.

103 The resonators of modern marimbas in Guatemala and Chiapas demonstrate the evolution and exchange of knowledge in their construction that is evident in marimbas in both entities, as well as the use of chromatic marimbas and the two marimba ensembles.

One essential part of Mexican and Central American marimbas is that they possess in the lower part of the resonators a small orifice where a small piece of “Jobo wood” called “Cachimba” is located and it is there that a small membrane named mirlitón also known as “Tela” is placed and glued with wax from Campeche, extracted from the honeycomb of wild bee hives. This mirlitón is what produces a peculiar wounding (sad), brilliant and exotic sound in these marimbas.

The film (tela): is a membrane extracted from the intestine of the pork, in Guatemala, sometimes from wild boar. The film produces a peculiar vibration, like the African balaphones, predecessors of the marimba, and in dry gourds a fine membrane of spider’s nest was placed. The vibration produced by the cloth is called “Charleo” and is a buzzing sound. According to the terminology of Hornbostel, the film produces a noise pollution, also resulting in the Afri- can balaphones that feature a blend of idiophone and membranophone.

The Mallets: Baquetas or bolillos are the traditional names in both countries, are built with natural caucho (natural latex) extracted from the Hule tree that rolls around a branch of a tree called Huitzitzil. The bigger and softer mallets are used for the lower registers, and the smaller and harder ones for the higher registers. (Moreno/Nandayapa 2002:26)

104

Fig. 10. Marimba parts.

The Latin American marimbas have different forms; some are more similar to the African ancestors. In Honduras and Costa Rica we find more modern marimbas with Guatemalan influence. It is a very fortunate to have this range of different instruments, because it allows us to have a better idea of the history of the evolution and diffusion of the marimbas in Amer- ica, for example: The marimbas on the Colombian and Ecuadorian Pacific, in spite to their proximity have had a different development in the diffusion of their music and in the changes in their construction. The marimba Chonta136 has been declared Intangible Cultural Heritage by UNESCO137, and in Colombia these marimbas are diatonic, but in Ecuador they are also chromatic, and in both places they have the similar extension and tessitura. The marimbas in Colombia and Ecuador developed particularly in a culture of Afro-American population.138

136 Chonta is a palm tree and its wood is used to build keys for the marimbas in the Colombian Pacific, and bamboo resonators, especially in the region of Buenaventura and La Esmeralda, on the Ecuadorian side. The marimba in that region is known as marimba Chonta. 137 Declared at the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage; Fifth session in Nairobi, Kenya, November 2010. Decision 5.COM 6.8; more information in: http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=es&pg=00011&RL=00436 (last access: May 12th, 2016 ) 138 See more in: Brenner 2007:169-180 and Brenner 2007:217-224.

105 Fig.11. Marimba de Chonta from Colombia.139

M-Fig.20: Tessiture Marimba de Chonta

In Nicaragua we can still find arch marimbas or marimbas de arco, especially in the cities of Masaya and Diriamba, and they have a much-reduced extension in comparison with the marimbas from Mexico and Guatemala.140

Fig. 12. Marimba de arco from Nicaragua:

139 The tessitura and the tuning of the marimba de chonta has many variations, most are based on the key of the traditional singer. However the tessitura displayed in the example is the most common, with 22 bars and varies between keys of C, Bb, F, or G. 140 More information in: Thomas Mitchel Scruggs, The Nicaraguan Baile de la Marimba and the Empowerment of Identity, 1994.

106 M-Fig.21: Tessiture Marimba de arco The most common key is in D Major, and is a diatonic marimba

Unlike in Chiapas, in Guatemala the development process of the marimba is very interesting, since the indigenous peoples, particularly the Kakchiquel, adopted the marimba in a way that it has preserved their primitive elements and it has been transforming in different ways in different regions; this means, we can find in Guatemala a historical outlook of the morphological transformation of the instrument in an strong way, for example: the arch marimbas in Chicicastenango, the diatonic marimbas of Alta Verapaz with bamboo resonators, or the diatonic marimbas in Cuchunmatan, which are similar to the modern marimbas and of greater extension141. In addition, in the Department of Huehuetenango they continue to build many diatonic marimbas with a wide register, and who can forget the different types of chromatic marimbas that developed mainly in Quetzaltenango (previously Xelajú), and in the city of Guatemala (Bautista/Figueroa 1999:163-165).

In Chiapas the story is different; there are many antique marimbas kept in private homes or ranches and they have been documented mainly in photographic archives rather than with the actual instruments. Also the diatonic marimbas are played very little and they can only be found in the border with Guatemala. Many groups buy their marimbas precisely in Huehuetenango, because Chiapas has very few builders of such instruments.142

As previously mentioned, the registers of the Chiapanecan marimba are based on weak sources of information before the chromatic marimba appeared. Later sources offer more information about the transformation undergone by these instruments at the end of the XIX cen-

141 See more in: Sergio Navarrete Pellicer, Marimba Achi. Marimba Music in Guatemala, Philadelphia, 2005. 142 More information in: Hemtul Brenner/José Isarel Moreno Vázquez/Juan Alberto Bermúdez Molina, Voces de la Sierra. Marimbas Sencillas en Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez-Graz, 2014.

107 tury and their development during the XX century. There is no certainty on how the registers of the marimba extended and from which periods; the dates that make reference to them are only approximate.

At the end of the XIX century these instruments had a register of approximately four octaves, then they extended their low pitch register and through the years already in the XX century, the large marimbas were reduced, decreasing their extension in the low part but increasing it in the high part. Later, when the ensembles of two marimbas became popular, the register of the Grande and Tenor marimbas became standardized and to this date it has changed very little.

M-Fig.22: Most usual range or tessitura now days

While the marimba has maintained a similar physical structure for nearly 100 years, there is still a strong social nucleus that has maintained a more conservative attitude, the marimba music has continued to transform and its development has been shaped by the new generations with state wide, national and international competitions. Also, the inclusion of the instrument at the University level as a profession has fostered its continuous transformation. At present they are producing marimbas with tuning of three overtones, such as classical marimbas produced in factories and used in conservatories and universities in all over the world.

108 There is no doubt that the transformation of the marimbas also aided in the transformation of the musical repertoire, in fact, it was the music and the need to play the new forms and musical genres which inspired marimbists to create new changes in the marimba, particularly in the mestizo regions.

109 4. Musical Evolution of the Marimba in Guatemala

The historic process of the marimba in Guatemala has been more widely documented, and there are written references dating since the XIX century, unlike in Mexico and particularly in Chiapas, the published documents regarding this topic date only since the XX century. Since 1978, in Guatemala, the marimba is the National Instrument and recently, on February 12th, 2015,143 it has been awarded recognition by the OAS144 as a Cultural Heritage of the Ameri- cas. This instrument has great importance throughout the country and places it in a great position as a cultural symbol with great projection.

The attendance of some Guatemalan marimba groups to some fairs and exhibitions celebrated in the United States and some European countries at the end of the XIX century and beginning of the XX century, helped to provide a projection of the marimba abroad and Guatemala to place itself as the standard for the instrument. Other foreign authors carried out important contributions with their research to the writings documenting the Guatemalan marimba (Vela 1962:137). Nevertheless, most of the research and written works are focused on documenting the historic process of the origin of the marimba and its organological transformations, devot- ing less time to the musical process and evolution that the marimba had of its repertoire and thus undermining the importance of its musical development of the last 50 years.

4.1 The arrival of the chromatic marimba and its development, at the beginning of the XX century

Towards the end of the XIX century in Latin America, during the 400th anniversary of the discovery of America, independent countries were trying to define their own cultural identity, different from their neighboring countries, while at the same time they were trying to imitate or replicate the European social context. Mexico and Guatemala were no different and therefore had a cultural life inspired by the musical principles that were taking place in the old con-

143 More information in: http://www.oas.org/es/centro_noticias/comunicado_prensa.asp?sCodigo=C-040/15 (last access May 30th, 2015). 144 See more in: OAS (Organitazion of american States), OEA in spanish (Organización de Estados Americanos). Online: http://www.oas.org (last access May 30th, 2015).

110 tinent. Philharmonic Societies were formed in Guatemala, music schools flourished and military bands became popular in those days and the same was happening in Mexico. (Rodríguez Torselli/Nájera 2004:231-232).

Special importance was given to the promotion of national symbols that encouraged a new cultural movement, especially with the liberal movement that initiated in 1871: “For the first time there is awareness about the importance of having epic deeds regarding our foundation, to stablish a myth of constitution for a nation in the making; a search to find national symbols, icons that can synthesize a projected unity, and among them is the marimba” (Translated by Blanca Navas)145. The government promotes the strengthening of arts and science but with a Euro- centrist vision (Rodríguez Torselli/Nájera 2004:232). Some Guatemalans are sent to Europe to carry out studies in their fields and some foreigners come to direct the bands and institutions of musical training. (Arrivillaga 2010:21).

The same happened with the first instruments brought by the conquistadors, those that were a fundamental part and a means of Christianization of natives in America, the new musical forms and new European instruments continued evolving and arrived to the countries independent from Spain such as Guatemala. Ballroom music, zarzuela, musical social gatherings, the operas continued at their peak also in Guatemalan land, from classical music and marches, new styles were being added to the taste of the city people mainly in the cities and towns of greater development and with population that was mostly “mestiza” or “Ladina”. The kind of wind bands became more and more popular. Authors like Arrivillaga, Godinez and Vela146 agree in highlighting that the need of the musicians to integrate the new repertoires to their marimba groups, contributed to the transformation of the diatonic marimba to the chromatic one.

Although the arrival of the chromatic marimba in Chiapas and Guatemala happened at around the same time, it is possible that it was spontaneous and independent in both countries, although some authors have mentioned that some traveler, after seeing the chromatic marimba in

145 “Por primera vez se toma conciencia de la importancia de contar con una gesta fundadora, de establecer un mito constitutivo para la nación en ciernes; se busca fundar símbolos nacionales, iconos que puedan sintetizar una unidad proyectada, y entre éstos estará la marimba” (Arrivillaga 2010:20). 146 Arrivillaga (2010), Godínez (2014), Rodríguez Torselli/Nájera (2004), Vela (1953).

111 Guatemala, brought the idea to Chiapas, there is no evidence behind this theory (Kaptain 1991:41).

In the first information about the chromatic marimba in Guatemala, Diaz is referring to a transformation of the instrument in 1875, when Luis Antonio Perea and Saual Loalcazar play the first model, he also mentions that in the same year, in Jocotenango, Manuel Lopez and Jose Chaequín performed on a marimba that had the same characteristics, in the temple of the Virgin of the Conception, for the celebration of the Corpus (Díaz 1934:527). 147

However, Diaz’s quote does not have concrete information regarding sources that can prove this theory; therefore other researchers have leaned towards the account that it was Sebastian Hurtado who built the first chromatic marimba in Guatemala,148 based on data from a letter written by Julián Paniagua Martínez (Godínez 2012:79) 149

“...In 1888 President General Manuel Lisandro Barillas appointed me to organize the military music in Quetzaltenango. [..] During the 51 years I was in Quetzaltenango I had the opportunity to hear the marimba players and with tears in my eyes saw what they had to go through using black beeswax to increase a note by half a tone. This obviously caused some delay to change tones, so I made the marimba player, Sebastian Hurtado, realize that the execution of the pieces would never be perfect until they installed a second keyboard. Everytime I met with Hurtado and his supporting players I insisted on the advantages that a complete and perfect instrument represented, but they always objected. After five or six years later, during the anniversary celebration of the 15th of September, I finally had the opportunity to listen to the Hurtado brothers perform on a chromatic marimba; when I approached to see the instrument, it was pleasant to see that my advice had been considered.” (Translate by Blanca Navas)150.

147 Quoted as well by: (Vela 1962:127). 148 Among the authors who lean towards the version of Sebastian Hurtado we have: (Vela 1953), (Arrivillaga 2010), (Monsanto 1982), (Kaptain 1991), (Chenoweth 1975), (Godínez 2002), (Rodríguez Torselli/Nájera 2004) among others. 149 Also quoted by: (Pineda 1990:124) (Rodríguez Torselli/Nájera 2004:234), among others. Godinez refers to the original document. 150 “...En 1888 fui nombrado por el Sr. Presidente Gral. Manuel Lisandro Baritlas. para organizar la música militar de Quezaltenango.[..] Durante los 51 años que permanecí en Quetzaltenango, tuve ocasión de oír a los marimbistas; vi con lágrimas los trabajos que pasaban, valiéndose de un poco de cera negra, cuando les convenía subirle medio grado a la tecla. Naturalmente que esta operación les ocasionaba algún retraso para mudar tonali- dades, entonces le hice ver al marimbista Sr. Sebastián Hurtado, que las piezas nunca las podrían ejecutar perfec- tas mientras no le pusieran el segundo teclado al instrumento. Tanto Hurtado como sus compañeros me ponían inconvenientes, pero yo cada vez que me reunía con dichos marimbistas, volvía a indicárselos. explicándoles las ventajas que tiene un instrumento perfecto y completo. Por fin, como a los cinco o seis años, en la celebración y aniversario del 15 de septiembre de 1901, tuve ocasión de escuchar una marimba cromática ejecutada por los Hurtado; entonces me acerqué a ver el instrumento y vi con agrado que mis consejos e instrucciones habían tenido feliz término” (Sic) (Godinez 2012:79).

112 This letter is the reason why several authors tend to believe that Sebastian Hurtado was the first one to play a chromatic marimba, even though Paniagua’s document assumes it was in 1902, there are some versions that affirm that it was in 1898 when the same members of the Hurtado family introduced it. On November 21, 1899, on the birthday of President Estrada Cabrera, the marimba Hurtado Brothers played in Guatemala City, and included in their repertoire the famous anonymous waltz “Xelajú” and a paso doble with the name of the president (Castaneda Paganini 1951:29).

The chromatic marimba appears on the musical scene in Mexico and Guatemala, although in Chiapas, Mexico, it appears in 1896. Surprisingly, Authors who write about the creation of the chromatic marimba in both countries, mention that the idea to build and transform the instrument came from a third person and not from the marimbists themselves who were also marimba builders. On the part of Chiapas, it was Ruperto Mariano Moreno, clergy and uncle of Corazon de Jesus Borraz Moreno who advised him to manufacture said instrument and on the part of Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, it was Julian Paniagua, the band instructor. (Kaptain 1991:41-43).

In this process of transformation, there is an element that characterizes and differentiates one from the other; that is, differences between the marimbas on each side of the border; perhaps because there were two alternative processes rendered independently during the manufacturing of the chromatic marimba, with a common result. One is the position of the Chiapanecan or Mexican keyboard, which is similar to the piano, and is common in marimbas, xylophones and vibraphones; and in Guatemala, the keys of the sharp notes or flats are aligned to the natural notes, forming a different morphology for a common tradition and repertoire.

The Guatemalan marimba players include the musical genres possible to their repertoire, and they continue with the traditional music, that is, the regional son, as well as with their musical improvement by including European repertoires like waltzes, chotis, polkas and mazurkas, so highly valued at the time by the string groups and piano. (Godínez 2012:140)

113 The popularity of the marimba, among other factors, was perhaps the reason why Manuel Estrada Cabrera151, President of Guatemala between 1898-1920 made it an important part in public events, as well as part of his cultural policy, as mentioned by David Vela when he refers that: “…as soon as he assumed power and during the celebrations of independence, they held a concert at the main square, of marimbas sencillas of Santa Lucia Cotzumalguapa, An- tigua Guatemala and Escuintla. The next day the four marimbas of the Chavez Brothers (with 16 teachers) alternated with the Conservatory Orchestra and the Martial Band…” (Translated by Blanca Navas)152, and just like that, Government institutions began a tradition of using marimba groups in official acts, either civic, educational or military and this continued during Cabrera’s term in office until 1920, setting a precedent that continues to this day.

At the beginning of the XX century, the families of the Toribio brothers and Sebastian Hurta- do are a fundamental part of the expansion of the Guatemalan marimba abroad. Both families are contemporaries of the then President Manuel Estrada Cabrera, since they attended the same school and therefore performed as his favorite musicians. They attended events and festivities, as well as celebrations of the Anniversary of Independence; furthermore, they become some sort of cultural ambassadors for Guatemala abroad. (Arrivillaga 2010:31)

The first documented dates about the Central American marimbists travelling outside their country are precisely the ones referring to the Hurtado Brothers, sent by president Estrada Cabrera in 1898 to the Paris Exposition (Alvarado 1994:103). In 1901, again, they were sent to the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York; to the Second Presidential Inaugura- tion of President McKinley, who was murdered on the grounds of the expo and the group of the Hurtado Brothers never made their presentation (Vela 1962:137). It should be mentioned that this is the same expo, in Buffalo, where the Marimba of the Olivar Brothers from Chia- pas, was present, as will be observed further down, and they were travelling with a diatonic marimba of six octaves (Pavia 2011:77). According to the information provided by Vela and

151 Manuel Estrada Cabrera (Quetzaltenango 1857, Guatemala 1924) was President during 22 years and in Gua- temala he is remembered as a dictator but during his term, he gave a great push to the marimba, and the institutional marimbas were created during that period. See more in: Gerald Martin (2000). 152 “…apenas tomando el cargo de gobierno, y en las celebraciones de independencia, ofrecen en el parque central un concierto las marimbas sencillas de Santa Lucía Cotzumalguapa, Antigua Guatemala y Escuintla, al día siguiente, las cuatro marimbas de los hermanos Chávez (con 16 profesores) que alternan con la Orquesta del Conservatorio y la Banda Marcial…” (Vela 1962:135).

114 Chenoweth, the group of the Hurtado Brothers that travelled to Buffalo also took a diatonic marimba although it is not specified of how many octaves. (Chenoweth 1995:51)

The chromatic marimba was widespread, in the same way, in Guatemala as in Mexico, and perhaps also by the influence generated by commerce between Comitan, Chiapas, Mexico and Huehuetenango and Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, through the route of the Old Camino Real (Royal road) that connected the most important communities of Chiapas with the Capital of the old Captaincy.

Later on, with the innovation of the chromatic keyboard came the contribution that transformed the marimba groups; the inclusion of the marimba requinta. The name of requinta was also given in Chiapas, perhaps taken from the string groups that use that name for the small and high pitch guitars with functions of relief and ornament for the melodies (Ar- rivillaga 2010:28). This fact, unlike the discussion between Mexico and Guatemala about who conceived the first chromatic marimba, is simple, for the Guatemalans it were Vicente Hurta- do and Sebastian Hurtado, who included this marimba (Cajas 1988:7), for the Chiapanecans there is no doubt that the first one to promote it was Francisco Santiago Borraz, who finished it in 1916 in Comitan de las Flores (Kaptain 1991:45). Regardless, Vela mentions that the use of the marimba requinta in Guatemala started at the end of the XIX century, but they still been diatonic scale, just as shows the next picture.

Fig. 13: Hurtado’s Family in a party in their house, at end of XIX century.

115 With the marimba requinta arrived a new set-up of the ensemble, having three performers at this instrument playing the melodic back up and four at the marimba grande,153 although in Mexico, the distribution of voices among the seven players was different than in Guatemala, that is, in both countries the musicians that played the bass and harmony coincide at the marimba grande, but in Mexico, for the first and second voices it is common to have at the marimba grande a first and second voice, at the requinta there is another first and second voice that plays a higher pitch octave than those at the marimba grande, and the tenor, who generally plays with four mallets; while in Guatemala at the marimba grande generally play the first two voices and at the requinta the second two voices and the tenor who plays the low pitch, with first and second voice, and it is more common to see them playing with two or three mallets and less frequently with four.

With the inclusion of the marimba requinta, the marimba groups opened a world of musical possibilities leading the marimba to the road of the marimba orchestras.

4.2 The dispersion of the instrument, the families of marimbists and the contributions of the Guatemalan marimbists in the United States

According to David Vela, Castaneda Paganini affirms that the marimba is a completely Gua- temalan influence and that Mexico as well as Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua, have the marimba because it was promoted by Guatemalans and by families that moved to those countries when the Captaincy General of Guatemala still existed (Vela 1953:60). In Costa Rica, there are references that the chromatic marimba was introduced by Guatemalan groups; unlike the diatonic marimba which dates back to the time of the conquest (Brenner 2007:161-165).

There is no evidence of a possible route of expansion of the instrument from Guatemala to the rest of Central America, although in the middle of the XX century, its influence through the media such as radio and through the recordings in that area that we venture to say its musical influence was prominent. It is definitively a fact that the contributions of the Guatemalan marimbists assisted in the development of the marimba in the United States, and set a precedent

153 Chiapas Suplemento Cultural, July 1st 1951:1. Interview with Francisco Santiago Borraz; article mentions the format of three performers (in the marimba requinta) and four (in the marimba grande).

116 for the beginning of the classical contemporary marimba, which led to the industrial construction of the marimbas and to its development in the XX century.

In 1910 Vicente Narciso, father of Victoriano Narciso Chavarria, accompanied the Marimba Estrella Altense, taking the first chromatic marimba to Peten and Belice.154 In the same year, a chromatic marimba in sold in Punta Arenas, Costa Rica, according to Ferrero Acosta, and indicates that Orotina must have been the first town to hire a Guatemalan marimba taken there for their festivities (Ferrero Acosta 1968:14). With the dispersion of the first chromatic marimbas, the instrument becomes popular in Central America.

The crucial part of the development of the marimba in the XX century started with the tours of the Guatemalan groups to the United States, main the one originally from Quetzaltenango and formed by family groups, like the Hurtado Family, the Betancourt Family and the Ovalle Family, contributing also to the musical transformation of the marimba repertoire in Guate- mala. We agree with authors like Vela, Godinez and Arrivillaga that this exchange fostered during a trip to North America, allowed the transformation of the repertoire and the development of the marimba that emerged in Guatemala as well as in the United States. Various aspects converged, for example the music of the Chautauqua shows,155 where xylophones were used and opened the door to great performers and the ragtime and the Charleston became popular (Kite 2007:143-163). Marimbists from Chiapas and Guatemala found a place to work in these shows, as was the case of José Betancourt, who moved to Chicago and was the teacher of Clair Omar Musser, who developed the style of American marimba and vibraphone and is considered the father of the American marimba (Kaptain 1991:129).

One of the most important groups was the Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band of Guate- mala, who since their tour in 1908, under the name of Conjunto Sebastian Hurtado e Hijos, open the door to many possibilities and cultural exchanges that paved the way for two marimba cultures, one with more than a hundred years of tradition like the central American marim-

154 Vincente Narciso, also have research works on culture Poqomchi, leaving a diary of his expeditions with important data in 1913. The Copy of this diary is property of Arrivillaga Cortés, in Guatemala. 155 The Chautauqua Movement, named after the town in New York where it was initiated, lasted fifty years, from 1875 to 1925. It reached its highest point at the beginning of 1920, where close to ten thousand assemblies and a total yearly audience of forty million people. The Chautauqua performances were often the only chance to listen to live music for people who lived outside urban areas. The professional bands, frequently with xylophone soloists were important elements in the programs. See more in: (Kite 2007:145).

117 ba and the new generation that started with the American marimba and which later led to classical marimba. In both cases the contributions and exchanges made by both were essential.

The brothers Toribio and Sebastian Hurtado were some of the most important families in the development of the marimba: Toribio Hurtado and sons Jesus, Daniel, Toribio and Gabriel; Sebastian Hurtado and sons Vicente, Arnulfo, Celso, Mariano and Sebastian.156 The Hurtado family lead by Sebastian Hurtado, traveled to the United States in 1908 and remained in that country for more than two years, where they held concert presentations in New Orleans, Pittsburgh, Philadelphia, New York and other cities (Godinez 2012:116).

Later on, in 1915, they travelled to the World Fair in San Francisco, remaining in the United States for a season and it was there, in April 1916, that they recorded with the RCA Victor label.157 These recordings were some of the first ones made by marimba groups ever documented and in them you can hear the variety of genres interpreted by them, such as Marches, Pasos Doble, Rags, Waltzes, etc., and most of the pieces were composed by the members of the group. The Hurtado Brothers also excelled as composers, besides transcending as marimba virtuosi. Jesus, Sebastian and Celso Hurtado are some of the first marimbists to immigrate to the United States after a successful season between 1915 and 1916 (Eyler 1993:48-53).

One of the most important contributions made by the Guatemalan musicians to the marimba was the collaboration of Sebastian and Celso Hurtado with John Calhoun Deagan. In 1880 Deagan founded a factory of metal xylophones like the glockenspiel and tubular bells since 1880.158 After observing the marimba of Sebastian Hurtado, Deagan began to carry out attempts to build his own version, similar to the instrument brought by the Hurtado Brothers. Based on this idea, in 1910 Deagan created a marimba that he named the Nadimba model,

156 The ancestry of the Hurtado family is not clear. Some texts remark that Jesus is the son of Sebastian Hurtado. Arrivillaga says that in reality Jesus was the son of Toribio Hurtado, the oldest brother and leader of the first dynasty with his sons Jesus, Daniel (1882-1944), Toribio and Gabriel (1887) and his brother Sebastian, known as the Marimba Hurtado or Hurtado Brothers. There is another version, that the group formed by Toribio and his sons were the “old Hurtados” and the one by Sebastian and his sons were the “Young Hurtado”. (Godínez 2012:116-125), (Arrivillaga 2010:31-34). 157 The recordings of “Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala” are available in the Library of Congress of United States of America, and can be reviewed online at: http://www.loc.gov/jukebox/artists/detail/id/4 (last access April 10th, 2015); Further information in Discography in Appendix. 158 More information in: The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Volume 43, pp. 391-392

118 which is a version of the Guatemalan marimba that included an animal membrane (Mirliton, film) and only 50 units of that model were built.159 Later Deagan mass produced a new model of marimbas (Eyler 1996:66), beginning what in Guatemala is known as the industrial marimba, referring to its building process while the Guatemalan marimba was called handcraft- ed.

Celso Hurtado was the most outstanding of the brothers, developing a successful career as teacher and concert player who settled in San Francisco, California and became the first Gua- temalan marimbist to play as a soloist, helping to spread the marimba throughout the country. He had great technical knowledge of the marimba, always exploring new possibilities unknown at the time, like using two as well as four mallets, he developed independent melody and accompaniment between hands, and his employment of one-handed rolls was probably the first use of that technique by any marimbist. In 1935 he performed at Carnegie Hall and in Town Hall in New York City; during a season when the most important exponents of the marimba of that time were performing.160 He continued his successful career performing in ven- ues like the Chicago Auditorium, the Opera House in San Francisco, the Wilshire Ebell Thea- tre in Hollywood, etc. On April 7th 1946, he again performed at Carnegie Hall and this time he was accompanied by the piano of Narciso Figueroa, performing transcriptions of Paganini, Brahms, Saint-Saens, Sarasate, Lecuona, Chopin and Liszt. He also performs as a soloist on a live radio broadcast with the San Francisco Symphony Orchestra on June 17th 1945 (Eyler 1993:54). Celso remained in the United States with an active life as a session musician and as a soloist and remained close to Deagan for many years.

The sons of Sebastian Hurtado remained in the United States, but the children of Toribio remained in Guatemala with a new generation of marimbists also known as Marimba Hurtado Hermanos. They were a constant presence in the musical scene of their country which we will discuss further on.

159 David R. Eyler, affirms that the first marimba built in the United States was the nadimba, a model inspired in the marimba of Central America, produced by The J. C. Deagan Company, around 1910. 160Since that date, the International Marimba Symphony Orchestra, composed by the most prominent performers of the instrument that studied under Laurence and Mildred Lacour, for many years performed a series of concerts. The best knowns were Yoichi Hiraoka, Ruth Stuber and Doris Stockton (Kite, 2005: 50-54).

119 Another renowned Guatemalan family essential in the development of the marimba is the Bethancourt Family, also from Quetzaltenango. They come from a musical lineage, and are an example of musical families that somehow have certain similarities. The oldest reference to this family goes back to the brothers Mariano and Luis Francisco Bethancourt, born in the city of Quetzaltenango, between the third and fourth decade of the 19th century (Sánchez 2001:135).

Porfirio Bethancourt is son of Mariano Bethancourt and Eulogia Hurtado, and he founded with his sons Mariano, Ruben and Fabian (Bethancourt Diaz) and his sons Jose Rafael and Miguel Bethancourt Castellanos, La Nacional, a marimba group that was later called La Princesita which continues to exist today. Like many groups in those days, they are regarded as performers of typical or traditional sones called son típico at the end of the XIX century. Jose Bethancourt Castellanos, one of the sons of Don Porfirio, is the one who most developed into a performer. In 1915 he becomes part of the marimba Centroamericana and travels to the United States where he settles permanently.

Benjamin Bethancourt, on the other hand, the son of Luis Francisco Bethancourt, and father of Delfino and Angel, this last one also went to the United States at the beginning of the XX century and was highly acclaimed for his concertante “Ave Lira”, one of the most important works for marimba ever played by a Guatemalan marimba with a concert repertoire. Another son of Luis Francisco is Francisco Roman, also father of the musicians Mauricio, Rodolfo, Roman Domingo and Mariano Agustin and with them he formed the group Dos de Octubre in 1900. Roman Domingo is perhaps the most famous of this branch of the family, as a performer as well as a composer. Among his most famous pieces is “Ferrocarril de los Altos”, a model among the repertoire of traditional marimba not only in Guatemala but also in Mexico (Ar- rivillaga 2010:35-37).

From this great lineage is descended Jose Bethancourt who at the end of his tour with the Ma- rimba Centroamericana decides to settle in the United States. It is said that he reduces his marimba grande to the size of a requinta and with it he has several contracts with the Metro- politan Opera House of New York and with the Hollywood Land and Water Company (Vela 1962:142). Later on he joined as a Xylophonist the orchestra Xavier Cugat (1900-1990),

120 which became an important promoter of Latin music in the United States. Betancourt settles in Chicago and becomes a staff musician for the NBC (National Broadcasting Company) with headquarters in Chicago. He was also a founding professor of marimba at the State Universi- ty. 161 His presence had an influence in the ensembles, there was one marimbists for each marimba, and this format was encouraged by Clair Omar Musser. Bethancourt was also a marimba teacher of distinguished marimba performers and marimba teachers in the United States like the famous Musser, Gordon Peters, Peter Gordon and Michael Peters among others (Da- vid Eyler 1996:68).

He inspired many North American marimbists through his teachings and artistic presentations as a distinguished soloist. Betancourt’s repertoire was centered on violin, piano and orchestral music transcriptions. He also made mallets for marimbas, which were commercially distributed by J.C. Deagan Company, who worked closely with him to improve marimbas and vibraphones. Years later he would also assist Musser when he founded his company (Godínez 2012:131).

Gordon Peters mentions that Jose Betancourt and Celso Hurtado were critical to the development of the marimba in the United States, to be reevaluated and included in concert halls. In his opinion, they were also guiding forces behind Musser and Deagan and instrumental for the improvement of different marimba and vibraphone prototypes (Kaptain 1991:130).

The consolidation of these contributions that Latin American musicians made to the marimba in the United States was captured with Clair Omar Musser, who is considered the father of the marimba in North America. Kaptain mentions that Musser became interested in the performance of the instrument after listening to a group from Honduras at the World Fair in San Francisco in 1915, which he attended after his father recommended him to go. (Kaptain 1991:129). In this regard Arrivillaga says that is more probable that he actually listened to the Marimba Ideal of Bartolome Ramirez, who performed at the Honduran pavilion and received a great ovation (Arrivillaga 2010:51). Until then the most recognizable instrument was the

161 Married Hazel M. Johnson in 1926 and moves permanently to Kendalville. The most important journal in the city made a posthumous homage (Vela 1962:142), quoting the “Diario de Centroamerica” Guatemala, May 28th 1953.

121 xylophone due to the popularity it had gained with George Hamilton Green. Musser who had initiated playing that instrument purchased a xylophone-marimba, today known as Xylorima “model 4726” from the factory of J.C. Deagan and with it he began performing a series of concerts. Some authors affirm that Musser also took lessons from Jose Bethancourt. It was Gordon Peters who finally consolidated the movement started by Musser joining several marimbas in an ensemble to form a group called The Marimba Masters, which incorporated a string bass in the style of Central American groups (Kaptain 1991:130).162

Several Guatemalan musicians finally decided to settle in the United States but definitively Celso Hurtado and Jose Bethancourt left more solid evidence of their contributions towards the development of the marimba.

Different marimba groups also travelled at the beginning of the XX century and made some recordings in the United States; among them is the group Marimba Azul y Blanco which during their tour was called Marimba Blue & White, in reference to the colors of the Guatemalan flag. This group was formed by the Quiroz Brothers and made some recording between 1915 and 1916 for the Victor Talking Machine Company,163 with pieces like “Marimba March” (Code number -17928) and the waltz “Colombia”, “El Ultimo Amor” by Mariano Valverde and “Si tu me Amas” of Luis Rodriguez (67730); “Adios Muchachas” from the operetta “Chin-Chin” of Ivan Caryll (67732); “Mi Querido Capitan” of Jose Alfonso Palacios (C4106).164 These recordings besides providing a reference of sound, as to how the marimba ensemble worked in those days, something every important is the use of two marimbas in the ensemble. This circumstance also occurs in Chiapas, according to Francisco Santiago until 1916.165 The Marimba Azul y Blanco also travelled to Europe in 1924 under the direction of Ricardo Quiroz and they spent two years touring London, Paris and Berlin.

162 Enrolled in Eastman School of Music, since its foundation in 1954, they helped to revitalize the marimba concept in the United States. See more in: David P, Eyler, “The 'Century of Progress' MarimbaOrchestra,” Per- cussive Notes 29, no, 3

163 See more in: Discography Appendix. 164 The numbers refers to identification code of the recordings. 165 Chiapas Suplemento Cultural, July 1st 1951,1.

122 Another group is the Conjunto Ideal (homonym of the Bethancourt Group), formed by Fran- cisco Bartolome Ramirez and Ramirez (1877-1951), with his sons Luis Emilio, Gabriel En- rique and Juan Francisco. In 1911 they toured through the United States and after several vis- its, he decided to settle permanently in that country with his son Luis Emilio (Arrivillaga 2010:52).

The brothers Jacinto and Carlos Estrada, originally from the city of Guatemala, with their Marimba Centroamericana, also known as De los Chinitos, made a tour of the United States in 1916 and made some recordings for the Victor Talking Machine. Carlos Estrada had a successful career at a young age and was acknowledge as a virtuoso. In this tour the Marimba Centroamericana, under the direction of Manuel Leal Vela and during their stay in New York it was directed by Roberto Nanne (Vela 1962:140). It was with this group that Jose Bethan- court travelled to the United States.

Other groups like The Ovalle Brothers and La Marimba Princesita also had a significant presence in that country. As time went by, the musicians that remained in the United States had an outstanding career with their instrument, playing on the radio and with the orchestras previously mentioned. Besides working in the United States, they also made tours to other countries and eventually, some of them returned to Latin America to perform in concerts.

The presence of Guatemalan musicians was important to the development of the marimba in the United States, and the influence of these musicians was equally important for Guatemala, for what they brought back to their country, creating a clear transformation of their repertoire and the innovation of their instrumental supply.

4.3 XX century, the Transformation of the repertoire of the marimba and the development of the Marimba Orchestra

In the XX century, with the chromatic marimba the Guatemalan musicians started a new period of unprecedented musical development, mainly the adaptation of a great diversity of musical genres to their repertoire which until then had only consisted of the typical or traditional

123 son, or as mentioned by Lester Godinez, “add to their repertoire popular music that perhaps was already being performed with the limitations of the diatonic keyboard”,166 nevertheless, this new keyboard open new possibilities to perform “Waltzes, mazurcas, schotish or shotis, polkas and other genres of great popularity at the end of the last century” (Godinez 2012:140).

This development started with outstanding performers belonging to the families that created a rich heritage of Guatemalan marimbists. Families like Hurtado, Bethancourt, Ovalle, Leon and Estrada, among others. This combined with the trips abroad promoted with the encouragement of the then President of Guatemala, Manuel Estrada Cabrera and allowing the marimba to be part of his official acts, the new repertoire and the diffusion that the new chromatic marimba had throughout Guatemala, the tours to the United States and in addition, the invention of shellac records, resulted in an overwhelming transformation of the marimba music (Arrivillaga 2010:29).

It is important to talk about the marimba families that inspired this transformation, to highlight the interest that these musicians had to grow and improve the execution of their instrument and to explore new sounds, and why not, to show ambition to succeed. A movement began at the time that granted musicians social recognition not only in Guatemala but also in other countries. The fact that the marimba was considered an autochthonous instrument and less worthy next to orchestral instruments of European origin, and also in competition with the repertoire of the military bands that enjoyed greater social prestige. Over the years, marimbists would change this perception elevating the quality of their performance and expanding their repertoire.

It is important to highlight that the first recording of a Guatemalan marimba was made in Au- gust 1915, by the marimba of the Hurtado Brothers. The Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band and thus began a process of several recordings by Guatemalan marimbas in the United States. During these sessions, with a process that lasted approximately two years, the Hurta- do Brothers recorded the Franz Von Suppé “Pique Dame” and “Poet and Peasant” overtures, opening the way for the transcription of classical music; besides distributing thirty three rec-

166 “…agregar a su repertorio música popular que quizá ya se interpretaba con las limitantes que les disponía el teclado diatónico”.

124 ords with the Victor, Columbia and Brunswick Labels. Their “bestseller” was the overture of the opera “Pique Dame”, a Columbia recording, with sales of half a million copies during the first week.

Breaking with these paradigms, musicians like the Hurtado Brothers and the Bethancourt Brothers, who at their return to Guatemala shared the experiences acquired during their tours, brought winds of change to the international repertoire, achieving musical adaptations of superior quality and stimulated musical competition among other groups which promoted growth not only in the adaptation of the repertoire but also with an increase in musical compositions by the same marimbists, creating the foundation for a new generation of academic musicians and the technical development of the instrument, with an influence taken mainly from the contributions of the constant musical exchange with the United States.

During the 1920’s new popular rhythms began to arrive, this time from the United States, such as: The ragtime and the famous “12th Street Rag” that still remains; 167 the Fox-trot, the Charleston and the new trends from the south of the United States like Jazz, and Blues. The last one had an extraordinary influence among Guatemalan marimbists, in the context of that period. Wotzbeli Aguilar began to form a new musical genre, known as the guarimba, which is a piece in the style of blues but in 6/8 rhythm. The first recording of the Marimba Cen- troamericana, the Marimba Azul y Blanco, the Marimba Imperial and the Marimba Royal of the Hurtado Brothers, were very important to increase the diffusion of Guatemalan marimbas in the United States. These recordings were made with different companies like Columbia, Brunswick and Victor Talking Machine, with special contracts offered to Guatemalan groups at the beginning of the XX century, particularly to the Marimba Royal of the Hurtado Broth- ers (Godinez 2012:151-154).

Arrivillaga calls this period “La Belle Époque of the marimba” referring to the introduction of the marimba to “the most diverse stages, wonderful tours, acknowledgments, awards, their successful introduction to the North American and European markets and their commercial

167 Lester Godinez explained in an interview with the author that the 12th street rag, composed by Euday Louis Bowman, was recorded by The Marimba imperial in 1921 under the label Edison Diamond Disc. This piece in its marimba version became so popular in Guatemala, and was recognized as a Guatemalan melody because as a coincidence there is a main street in Guatemala City called calle 12.

125 production of vinyl records.” (Arrivillaga 2010:29). Other factor added to these important developments was the arrival of the cinema, where these marimbists also had an important presence to musicalize films. Marimbists elevated their achievements and contributed to the new repertoire. It is important to admit that unlike Mexico and other countries with a marimba tradition, the Guatemalan marimbists produced many pieces that they recorded and made popular, as part of the core marimba repertoire of both countries, although very few musicians in Mexico contributed to a new repertoire.168 In this context of exalting the cultural and regional Guatemalan values, the groups wore uniforms of regional costumes and added iconographic landscapes on the record covers or on their scores, in an effort to showcase the cultures of the tropic; primarily by using this type of images during their performances in Euro- pean countries or in the United States (Arrivillaga 2010:29-30).

The first recordings made by Guatemalan marimbas for North American companies became a model for marimbas established in Guatemala which began a new period of production and musical transformation, adapting to their repertoire the new rhythms and styles imported from the United States, such as ragtime, double-step and later on the fox-trot and swing. Marim- bists belonging to families with a musical tradition started to consolidate with other musicians who became bastions of music in Guatemala, like Mariano Valverde (1884-1956), originally from Quetzaltenango; prominent composer and great marimba performer. He accompanied the Hurtado Brothers in several tours and recorded several of his compositions with them, which in time became part of the standard repertoire of the marimba in Guatemala. He was a marimba instructor and one of the first ones to teach music theory. He was also director and founder of the marimba Maderas de mi tierra, which was an institution in Guatemala.169

Although the sons of Sebastian Hurtado that remained in the United States are better known in the music world as classical percussion players; the descendants of Toribio Hurtado are also a fundamental part of the musical history of the marimba and their group Hurtado Her- manos became one of the most representative of Guatemalan music. In 1921 the new genera-

168 In this sense, we can say that the Dominguez Borraz Brothers although they have a great production of compositions, most of them were assigned to the most popular singers at the time in Mexico and were not thought for marimba. These pieces were later taken by the marimbists and added to their repertoire, as another adaptation similar to the ones made with the rest of the Mexican music. 169 See more in: (Arrivillaga 2003); this work is the most extensive document about this legendary Guatemalan group.

126 tion of Hurtados, led by Rocael Hurtado, participated in the celebrations of the First Cen- tenary of Independence, in a quote Alvarado Pinto says: “a masterful presentation at the Mu- nicipal Theater, in the city of Quetzaltenango”. Arrivillaga mentions that Alvarado Pinto re- covered, through a photograph, the names of the members of the group at that time which included Daniel, Toribio, Jesus, Rocael, Alfonso Hurtado and also Eduardo Mazariegos. He adds regarding the events: “The Municipal Theater was standing room only, and in that performance, with the audience standing and warmly applauding the virtuosi […] they were granted the Centenary Award” (Translated by Blanca Navas)170.

Between the years 1922 and 1923 when the marimba groups had a greater presence in public performances, they shared the stage with Marcial bands. Cajas mentions a concert in the Abril Theater named “the evolution of the marimba”: “…this shows that the marimba started to become relevant in the artistic and cultural community and was already considered an instrument of national character and recognized for its historic significance”. (Translated by Blanca Navas)171.

At the beginning of the XX century the marimba families continued to be important for the integration of groups, like the Ovalle Family, which was also one of the favorite groups of the then President Estrada Cabrera who heard them play in the Capital of Guatemala in 1915. The group of the Ovalles was founded by Jose Cornelio Ovalle Jerez, in Quetzaltenango, and formed by his three sons: Benedicto (1894-1995), Jose Eustorgio (1902-1983) and Primo Higinio (1905-1981), children from his marriage with Juana Betancourt Mazariegos, and blood relative of Luis Francisco Betancourt (Arrivillaga 2010:37).

The group Ovalle Hermanos began in 1919, also called Maripiano Ovalle. The group was broadly known in the Guatemalan high plateau, performing during the patron saints celebrations (Sanchez 2001:15). Back then the group of Cornelio Ovalle was composed of two chromatic marimbas (the small with two octaves and the large with four), a double bass, the

170 “…el Teatro Municipal estaba a reventar y en ese acto, con el público de pie y ovacionando cálidamente a los virtuosos [..] se les impuso la condecoración Centenario” (Alvarado Pinto 1994:43). Quoted as well by (Arrivillaga 2010:33). 171 “…con ello se puede apreciar que la marimba empieza a tomar importancia en la comunidad artística y cultural, es ya tomada como un instrumento de carácter nacional y su importancia para el reconocimiento histórico” (Cajas 1998:6-7).

127 drums and a saxophone, and it was one of the first groups to break with the traditional ensemble used until then of Pure Marimba; that is, two marimbas, grande and requinta without additional instruments.

Years later Benedicto, known as “Baby Ovalle” became the director of the group and changed its name to Estrella Altense. In 1937 they migrated to the Guatemala City, and they were rap- idly accepted. In 1939 the Estrella Altense travelled to San Francisco, United States and they took part in the “San Francisco Golden Gate Exhibition”. They performed wearing heavy costumes inspired in native dresses, with tzutes172 on their head, knitted shirts and fringes of typical materials on the instruments (Arrivillaga 2010:37). Although Higinio Ovalle was already a member of Maderas de mi Tierra, he temporarily left the group he directed to accompany his brothers. On his return to Guatemala, he began to participate regularly in Radio Morse173, in Guatemala City.

Later on Benedicto devoted his time playing the cello and formed the group Orquesta de la Policia Nacional in 1941. Higinio was the youngest of the 3 brothers and he was an outstanding marimba player and was part of many important groups at the time, like Miguel Espino- za’s and Mariano Valverde’s and also a founding member of the group Maderas de mi Tierra, which he lead for two seasons. After that, Jose Eustorgio “Tocho” who played the harmonic center in the marimba Grande lead the Estrella Altense. Jose Eustorgio “Tocho” who played the harmonic center in the marimba Grande lead the Estrella Altense. Raúl Ovalle, son of Jose, was born in Quetzaltenango in 1937, at the age of 10 he joined his father’s group and continued standing out as marimbist and composer; he represented Guatemala in European concerts and in the United States up until the 1990’s, playing with various groups.174

The three Ovalle brothers were composers and they have several pieces that are part of the marimba repertoire of Guatemala. For example, Benedicto has known works like the concert for marimba “Clarineros”, “Flores Quetzaltecas”, “Sinfonia Indigena No. 1” and “San Agustin”. Higinio Ovalle is the author of sones “Cristo Negro”, “Volcan Santa Maria”, and

172 The tzute is a multipurpose woven cloth. Can be seen using these functional heavy-duty textiles for carrying babies, covering baskets of food, heads coverings for church, or to avoid the bright sun, or as a simple shawl for when the weather is cooler. 173 In 1937 TG1/TG2 Radio Morse appeared, assigned to the General Administration of the Telegraph 174 For further information in: Julio César Sánchez Castillo, Producción marimbística de Guatemala, 2001.

128 also the fox-trot “San Francisco”, the guarimba “Turismo Guatemalteco” and the danzón “Is- abel” among many others (Godínez 2012:136).

Another outstanding member of the Estrella Altense was De Leon Cifuentes, who had previously belonged to several groups in San Felipe and Retalhuleu, and in 1929 he played with the group of Mariano Bethancourt, migrated to Guatemala City where he also worked for different groups. De Leon is author of the son “El Grito”, which would become a classic and encouraged the group to stage the choreography175. The first of its kind. He is also author of: “A orillas de Panajachel” and “Xocomil” (Arrivillaga 2010:39).

In the previous section we made reference to the oldest musicians. We have mentioned the Bethancourt Brothers, Mariano and Luis Francisco as well as their descendants who were also important and greatly contributed to the musical transformation of the marimba. Mariano and his descendants formed the marimba La Nacional which would later change names to Marim- ba Princesita. We have also mentioned Jose Bethancourt, son of Porfirio and grandson of Mariano.

From a different family branch are the descendants of Luis Francisco, also a renowned marimbist, among them Roman Domingo Bethancourt stands out. The Marimba 2 de Octubre which was later named Marimba Ideal was theirs. Roman Domingo was barely 8 years old when he played before President Manuel Estrada Cabrera (Sánchez 2001:166), who was amazed by the child. Since then, Domingo began a successful career in music and in 1927, at the age of 21, he released “El Ferrocarril de los Altos”, a piece that even today is a standard of the marimba repertoire in Guatemala and Mexico (Sánchez 2001:139). In 1928 he recommended his father to change the name of the group from Marimba 2 de Octubre to Marimba Ideal and became the director; he consolidated the group and were well recognized as concert musicians both nationally and internationally. The Marimba Ideal became the exclusive group of Radio Morse (today TGQ) of Guatemala for many years (Alvarado 1994:113).

Other members of the Bethancourt family were also exceptional marimbists and composers, for example: Domingo’s cousins, Mariano Bethancourt and his best known compositions, the

175 He participated in the movie “Cristo Negro”, where Higinio Ovalle also played a small role.

129 sones “La Cruz”, “San Pablo” and “Cajola”, also the guarimba “Lejos de ti”; by Ruben Betancourt: “Paxtoca”, “El Maiz” and “Nahuala; of Fabian Betancourt we have “Quirigua”, “Tecun” and “Oracion K’iche”. Many of these were recorded indistinctly with the marimbas Hurtado Hermanos and Marimba Princesita. It is important to mention that the music of Mariano, Ruben and Fabian created an important moment in the development of son típico, that although it maintains the essential form of the themes with a autochthonous-traditional tendency, they are generally written at the measure of ¾, including tiple solos of difficult execution, combined with parts of the whole group and some include also two saxophones, according with tradition and use in the west of the country.176

After being abroad for 28 years, Celso Hurtado performed in Guatemala City in 1944; he brought with him a prototype of a xylophone of his own creation (Vela 1962:138), designed and manufactured in San Francisco under his direction, as he had done with Musser or with Deagan (Cajas 1988:10). Subsequently, in 1957, he returned and offered a concert in his native land, Quetzaltenango, then he followed with a series of concerts in Mexico and Guatema- la, accompanied by the Mexican pianist Javier Gonzalez Pichardo, with whom he toured His- pano America. The program highlights, by Celso Hurtado, “Los Viejitos” (miniature waltzes), “Rapsodia Guatemalteca”, “El Quetzal”, “Son el Recuerdo” and others by different composers. Celso Hurtado died in San Francisco on February 3rd, 1968, after a long and successful career. His work, legacy and life are still unknown in Guatemala (Arrivillaga 2010:52).

During the 1930’s and 1940’s the fox-trot is also the trend in Guatemala, and the music of the Big Bands of jazz playing swing had also arrived. During this period it becomes common to incorporate the double bass and the drums to the marimba creating what will be known as La Marimba Orquesta (The Marimba Orchestra). The repertoire of the Big Bands was easily assimilated by marimbists. There is an oral version referring that the Tanchez Brothers from Huehuetenango were the ones to form the first Marimba Orquesta, taking advantage of the fact that one of the members was the director of the municipal band in the city, they decided to assemble the family marimba with the instruments of the wind band, to imitate the repertoire of Glenn Miller and Benny Goodman, among others, therefore they assembled trumpets,

176 See more in: (Godínez 1987).

130 saxophones and trombones with the marimba, which was quickly imitated in other parts of the country (Godínez 2012:142).

Under this new instrumental format, other groups appeared and became very famous and prestigious, such as the marimba orquestas: Gallito, Ideal Club, Palma de Oro, Alba, Gran Continental, Maderas que Cantan, Alma Tuneca, India Maya, Ecos Manzaneros, among the most famous.

Simultaneously to the variations to the musical repertoire, the instrument also started to un- dergo some changes in its construction, mainly the aesthetic form. More artistic and elaborate wood carvings were added to the fringes; the legs were thicker and firmer. The technical changes of the instrument were the broken resonator or square resonator, which gave way to the bent or round resonator. These changes perhaps were an effort to strengthen the sonorous part of the instrument, which now had to coexist with the new instrumental resources that still exist in many groups to this day.177

During the 1950’s Guatemala was strongly influenced by popular Mexican culture. At the time Mexico had a better political stability than Central America, where military regimes had been imposed and Guatemala was one of them. This influence coming from Mexico was transmitted through the radio and from a flourishing film industry. Godinez mentions that the marimba groups took a little bit of ranchero music, and also took advantage of tropical and Afro- Cuban dancing music which used the same scheme than the Big Bands (four trumpets, three trombones, five saxophones in addition to the drums and double bass), also the afro- Cuban section of percussion instruments such as the congas, bongos, maracas, bells, timbales, etc., which were also incorporated to the marimba orquestra. The influence of the music by Perez Prado, Mariano Mercero, Pablo Beltran Ruiz, Beny More and many others brought rhythms like mambo, danzón, bolero and the cha-cha cha, which were perfectly adapted by the Chapinas178 marimba orchestras. (Godinez 2012:145)

177 Taken from the interview with Lester Godínez in November 28th 2013, Guatemala. 178 Chapin or Chapina, is used as gentilic forms referring to people from Guatemala.

131 Unlike in Mexico where marimba orchestras were practically the most common type of instrumental formation, Guatemala continued the movement of marimbists that maintained the marimba ensemble scheme without other instruments which was later, called marimba pura. Among these groups that came from generations dating back to the beginning of the century and others that initiated in the middle of the XX century were the Ovalle Brothers, who later formed a group and directed the marimba Maderas de mi Tierra, of the National Police and then the Presidential Chief of Staff; and finally the Ministry of Administrative Affairs and Safety of the Presidency and they turned it into a legend (Arrivillaga 2003), as it was recognized and called by the Guatemalans “The Best Marimba in the World”.179 Other groups that stood out for maintaining the format of marimba pura were Chapinlandia, Hurtado Her- manos, Ideal, Alba, Princesita, Los Chatos, Hermanos Ovando and Chiquilaja, among others.

The radio announcer and journalist Waldemar Reyes and the advertiser Fernando Behar Alca- he, from Quetzaltenango, of the Guatemalan cultural circle, were the ones to coin the term marimba pura during the 1970’s, as an “antithesis” movement to the marimba orchestra and they joined associations of Amigos de la Marimba in an attempt to claim the marimba sound without extra instruments because they argued that it “lacked authenticity” (Godinez 2012:147). Years later, it was the marimbists of the pioneer families who preserved the identity achieved in the first half of the XX century, together Domingo, Alfredo and Rodolfo Bethancourt of the Marimba Ideal, with their cousins, Higinio, Eustorgio and Benedicto Ovalle Bethancourt, and in close relationship with their cousins David, Manuel, Alfonso, and Wotzbeli Hurtado Mazariegos, worked with the Marimba Princesita and maintained the Hur- tado Brothers Marimba in the last stage of their trajectory.

Towards the 1950’s and 1960’s, some state institutions began to hire marimbists and formed groups to enliven their activities, which established an indirect subsidy for the marimbas. Groups were created like Reina del Ejercito (Queen of the Army), Alma del Regimiento (Soul of the Regiment), Guardia de Honor (Honor Guard), Alas Chapinas (Chapina Wings), La Voz de los Altos (The voice of the highlands), belonging to military institutions, also Estrella Caminera (Highway Star), of the Highway Authority Administration; Kaibil Balam of the

179 In Guatemala, if one asks any citizen about the marimba groups, most of them will use that adjective for Maderas de mi Tierra.

132 Internal Revenue Guard; Teclas de Oro (Gold Keyboard), of the Ministry of Finance; among others which continued their presence until the following years of the XX century.

4.4 The Guatemalan Repertoire, genres and contributions

By the 1960’s many marimbists had their compositions and the Guatemalan composers were able to accumulate an extensive repertoire of original music, both traditional and for concert. Outstanding works that are now standards of the marimba repertoire: “Luna de Xelaju” (Xela- ju Moon) by Paco Perez; “Ferrocarril de los Altos” (The Highlands Railroad), “Coban” and “El tiempo todo lo borra” (Time Erases Everything) by Domingo Betancourt, “Añoranza” (Longing) by Eliseo Castillo; “Noche de luna entre ruinas” (Moonlight among ruins) by Mariano Valverde; “El valle de la Esmeralda” (The Emerald Valley) by Nathanael Monzon, the son “El Grito de Everardo” (The Cry of Everardo) by Leon; “Turismo Guatemalteco” (Guatemalan Tourism) by Higinio Ovalle; “Llegaras a quererme”(You will get to love me) by Salomon Argueta; “Tecpan Guatemala” by Mardoqueo Giron; “Rio Polochic” (Polochic Riv- er) by Rodolfo Narciso Chavarria and “Lagrimas de Thelma” (Thelma’s tears) by Gumersindo Palacios. Also works of high level of execution and virtuosity and great com- plexity of composition like: “Ave Lira” (Lyrebird) by Luis Delfino Betancourt, “Clarineros” (Buglers) by Benedicto Ovalle and “Fiesta de Pajaros” (Bird Party) by Jesus Castillo. Among these pieces “Concierto No. 1 para marimba y orquesta” (Concert Number 1 for Marimba and Orchestra) also stands out, composed in 1957 by Jorge Sarmiento, a watershed moment in percussion music worldwide. This work was performed by the best marimba musicians in the world at the time, like Zeferino Nandayapa and Keiko Abe.

The son is perhaps the musical genre more frequently interpreted by the Guatemalan marimba and it is also considered fundamental for their indigenous music. The definition of son has been discussed and described by authors from different countries since a certain genre with its own characteristics is also called son in Cuba, or in Mexico, as has been previously mentioned, therefore the son has different definitions and variations. In Guatemala Lester Godinez offers a precise definition according to what the son represents in that country and describes it as follows:

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“Son is a generic term used to describe different forms of musical and choreographic expression of the indigenous groups of Guatemala, which were fixed during the colonial period as a result of the fusion of elements and melodic indigenous germs – probably pre-Hispanic -, with the own structures of the Tem- pered Musical System of Hispano-European origin” (Translated by Blanca Navas) 180.

Like this, the son constitutes one of the forms representative of the Guatemalan music in general and indigenous in particular, and it is directly associated with the marimba, although it is not exclusive to it, since it is also found in other instrumental schemes which include the harp, the violin, the small guitar, the whistle, the shawms and the big drums, etc.

The mestizo population or “ladino” has been influenced and has also appropriated the son as part of their repertoire for more than three centuries. Many indigenous peoples have their own representative sons, mainly during the patron saints or religious celebrations. In this sense Godínez makes a classification of the Guatemalan son,181 very interesting and are representing it in the following way:

1- Son tradicional They are traditional, interpreted in tecomate marimbas, diatonic marimbas and other instrumental groups. 2- Son de Cofradía (Brotherhood Son) eminently indigenous, a variant of the traditional son. 3- Son típico Product of the influence of the Ladino ethnic group. 4- Son Barreño (Neighborhood Son) Elliptically of the regions of the boscosta. 5- Son de Pascua (Easter son), resulting from the use of elements of indigenous music with western structures, especially in Easter carols. 6- Son Chapín With a merry and festive character, in contrast to the melancholy and sad character of the son tradicional and son típico. 7- Son of folkloric projection Which uses themes that might be authentic, or deliberately made by the composer.

180 “Son es un término genérico por el que se designa a diversas formas de expresión musical y coreográfica de los grupos indígenas de Guatemala y que se concretaron en la época de la colonia como resultado de la fusión de elementos y gérmenes melódicos indígenas —probablemente prehispánicos—, con estructuras propias del Sis- tema Musical Temperado de origen hispano europeo” (Godínez, 2002:199). 181 See more in: (Godínez 2002:206-211).

134 Something that is relevant in the repertoire of the Guatemalan music for marimba is the way North American influence took root and became part of the identity of marimba music; imported rhythms like the fox-trot and blues are now Guatemalan (Rodríguez Torselli/Nájera 2004:236). The dance rhythm of fox-trot has a binary measure or 2/2; widespread in America in the XX century, mainly in the United States, the Guatemalan marimbists assimilated this rhythm perfectly well and it became their own, or as the famous Guatemalan marimbist and researcher Lester Godinez would say, “it became almost national”, this produced in Guatema- la an extensive repertoire of original works, even if with “Guatemalan” features. (Godinez 2012:150).

Among the better known fox-trots are “Rio Polochk” by Rodolfo Narciso Chavarria, “Chuchitos Calientes” (Hot Dogs) by Alberto Velasquez, “Mis Tristezas” (My sorrows) by Eliseo Castillo, “Coban” and “El tiempo lo borra todo” by Domingo Betancourt, among others that form part of the national repertoire for marimba.

Another genre that took root in the marimbist tradition of Guatemala was the blues. However, is not the original blues American with its well-known structure of twelve bars with their known harmonic structure and its variations. In Guatemala the so called blues is nothing more than a modified fox-trot or a slow fox-trot, more similar to slow swing written in measure of 4/4 with phrases of 8 bars. Also the jazz standards playing on marimba are called blues. Among the better known pieces of Guatemalan blues are: “Anoranza” by Eliseo Castillo, “Lagrimas de Thelma” and “Migdalia Azucena” by Gumersindo Palacios; “Clavel en boton” (Carnation bud) by Domingo Betancourt; “Una casita en el cielo” (A little house in heaven) by Adalberto Hurtado; “Patzun de mis recuerdos” (Patzun on my mind) by Reginaldo Melgar; “Porque” (Why) by Juan Lossi and many more. 182

The Guarimba is a rhythm that stems from the piano to the marimba. It was originally conceived as a fox-trot in 6/8, and Victor Wotzbeli Aguilar (1897-1940) is considered its creator. The piano was the main instrument of Wotzbeli, but his guarimbas perhaps were not as successful for piano as they were for marimba and Guatemalans completely identify with them.

182 Taken from the interview with Lester Godínez in November 28th 2013, Guatemala.

135 The Guarimba in 6/8 was established as a new musical genre, similar to a characteristic Marcha, probably for its division in two beats of three octaves each; in reference to this Godinez assumes that this shows that Wotzbeli was not aware that he was creating a new rhythm, and he only called it 6/8 (six by eight). It was as a result of a contest announced to come up with a name for the 6 x 8, that the name guarimba was created, formed by two words “gua” for Guatemala and “rimba” for marimba. The 6/8 in itself was not considered an innovation, but the phrasing of the rhythmic patterns and the harmonic progressions were. There are many known guarimbas that are part of the fundamental marimba repertoire both in Mex- ico and in Guatemala (Godínez 2012:214).

The guarimbas by Wotzbeli that stand out are: “Tristezas Quetzaltecas”, “Los Trece”, “Actu- alidad”, “Aromas de mi tierra”, “Occidente”, “Marimbistas Quetzaltecos”, “La patrona de mi Pueblo”. Other musicians that composed guarimbas were Quetzaltecan that contributed to make it a new musical style. Among the best known are: “La fiesta de mi pueblo” by Cuperti- no Soberanis, “Boca con Boca” by Rocael Hurtado; “Tecpan Guatemala” by Mardoqueo Gi- ron, “Turismo Guatemalteco” by Higinio Ovalle; “Alegrias de San Juan”, “Esmeralda” by Mario Tactic; “San Francisco Zapotitlan” by Domingo Betancourt and “Lejos de ti” by Mariano Bethancourt.

In Guatemala the marimba has great importance and is where the musical evolution of this instrument began and from there to the rest of the world. It is not necessary for Guatemala to prove that the origin of the marimba is Maya, because the Guatemalan marimbists have already contributed to human history the elements to develop this instrument, from its most elemental morphologic and musical aspects, to founding the basis of the modern marimba now extended all over the world. The promotion of this instrument in this country led to the search for a producer and for a standard profile; the universe of companies like Musser and Deagan developed as a result of the Guatemalan model.

136 4.5. The Guatemalan Marimba Towards the 21st century

During the second half of the XX century, when the film industry had consolidated, radio is part of the daily life of citizens and musical shows become more frequent in society; the above mentioned marimbas play a dynamic role in Guatemalan society. It is common to see and hear marimba orchestras playing in ballroom dances organized by civil associations and government institutions, but also in private parties, where people wanted to keep the memory of famous marimbas entertaining at their dances.

Although marimba orchestras were the common denominator at Department Heads, urban zones and large villages, also the indigenous peoples continue to value the diatonic marimba as a fundamental part of their identity and it continues to prevail in their ceremonies and patron saints celebrations. The common repertoire at this time is dictated by the trends imposed through radio recordings, and this is how the marimbas included the common rhythms of this period to their repertoire, even rock and roll.

It is in the second half of the XX century when the first Guatemalan researchers initiate the task of keeping more detailed records of the history of the marimba, which is the famous case of David Vela. The marimba is already a national bastion that includes both cities with mestizo population and villages where most of the population is indigenous. In this musical diversity an important event occurred in the 1950’s, Victor Salvador de Leon Toledo created a program called La Historia de la Marimba (The history of the marimba); a type of concert with a historic script showing the development and evolution of the marimba, and something significant in this program was the inclusion of the tun of Mayan origin as a precedent supporting the theory of the Central American roots of the marimba.

During the 1960’s, Carlos Enrique Alvarez, then an administrator at the Universidad Popular, created a theater script also called La Historia de la Marimba, with the participation of marimba groups of the city of Guatemala (Godinez 2012:30).

Another important musical affair for the Guatemalan marimba which gradually became an event waited in anticipation was known as “Marimba Ensembles”. The precedent of this event

137 started during the 1930’s when the radio station TGQ “The Voice of Quetzaltenango”, invited the most representative marimbas to alternate: The Hurtado Brothers, Marimba Ideal and Marimba Princesita, and at the end of their presentation the three groups played at the same time, the waltz “Luna de Xelaju” and “Ferrocarril de los Altos”; the sonority of the ensemble formed by the three groups was well received by the public. This arrangement to unite several marimbas was repeated in few occasions until the 1950’s and through the years it became an awaited event.

Starting in the 1980’s, the Guatemalan Department Government, through the Committee for the Celebrations of Independence, organized a marimba ensemble every year with the participation of approximately ten of the most outstanding marimba groups, which performed at the National Theater and the Cultural Center Miguel Angel Asturias. Also in that same decade, La Organizacion Pais (The Nation Organization), as part of their cultural activities organized a Marimba Festival in the month of September of each year that included in the program a Great Marimba Concert, which culminated with an ensemble of at least ten marimbas. The same Organizacion Pais, decided to carry out a great marimba ensemble in the year 2000 to be documented in the Guinness World Records, with the simultaneous performance of 25 Guatemalan marimba groups, celebrated at the Ermita de la Santa Cruz, La Antigua Guatema- la.

In 1999, the radio station Fabuestereo, organized an event called Great National Ensemble of Fabumarimbas, which included the participation of the best Guatemalan marimbas. Lester Godinez commented that this event required the appointment of a Director and a pilot marimba, and the other marimbas answer to it in perfect coordination since it was an ensemble of at least ten marimbas, and about 90 marimbists play simultaneously obtaining as a result gran- deur of sound and spectacular coordination (Godinez 2012:33).

Although marimba orchestras dominated marimba music, several groups continued to maintain exclusively the marimba as their instrumental resource, that is, without breathe instruments or drums. It should also be noted that many recordings in the 1950’s and 1960’s recorded traditional music, especially the record company Tikal, which carried out as a display of identity different versions of the “Ave Lira”, “ Fiesta de Pajaros” and other concert themes

138 for marimba. However, towards the 1960’s, the marimba orchestra is what dominated the record market, with groups like Alma India, Alma Tuneca, and Ecos Manzaneros, among others.

A determining factor in Guatemala that contributes to extolling the marimba in the festive scenario is the military regime imposed in Guatemala, especially during the second half of the XX century, after some liberal governments tried to free Guatemala from the United Fruit Company. The United States tried to halt the advance of communism and socialism in Latin America, especially after the Cuban Revolution; and this fact affected in every sense the life of Guatemalans and their culture. And it was through the marimba that a large social stratum found solace in the mist of the social turmoil that affected them. Government institutions took advantage of the momentum by praising local values as a means of social control.183

In the last three decades of the century Mexico plays a determining role in musical influences, completely influencing films, television and commercial music, not only in Guatemala but also in all Spanish speaking countries in Latin America. Marimba orchestras include in their repertoires the trendy tropical music of Mexico, ranchero music and other musical genres and so on and so forth. Also indigenous peoples were affected in certain measure by the guerrillas and the growth of protestant religions that strengthen during the last decades, particularly with President Rios Mont.184

However, amidst this context of political life in Guatemala, the marimba consolidates even beyond a festive representation and cultural life, and in 1978 the marimba was decreed a Na- tional Instrument. At the end of the 1970’s same as in Mexico the marimba experiences a time of crisis that affects the way of life of marimbists. The arrival of electronic keyboards and disco music displaced the marimba and people hired these commercial recordings, with lights and sounds, to perform in their events that “transferred a disco to their homes”. This was a novelty in those years, and combined with pop music that arrived from the United States and Mexico, versatile groups without marimbas take a place in the market and marimbists are relegated to a second place missing work opportunities; it was even expected to be the road to the disappearance of the marimba culture.

183 See more in: Augusto Cazali Avila, Historia Política de Guatemala, Siglo XX, Guatemala, 2002. 184 See more in: Héctor Gaitan, Los Presidentes de Guatemala. Historia y Anecdotas, Guatemala, 2008.

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In those years the figure of Lester Godinez appears; marimbist and researcher who makes a watershed in the marimba culture of Guatemala. Faced with the crisis afflicting marimbists and the marimba itself in Guatemala, Godinez is decisive in the search for the promotion of the instrument beyond the context of social events and greatly elevating it to concert halls, establishing clear lines for his objectives and goals. At the same time that the previously mentioned movement Amigos de la Marimba tried to campaigned for what is called marimba pura. Lester Godinez takes this concept as the basis and revolutionizes it with the adaptation of a concert repertoire with arrangements of representative music of Guatemala, classic music transcriptions and the new music for marimba, taking as reference the traditional music called Son of Folkloric Projection and begins a movement called “Dignificación de la Marimba”.

Godinez joined composers like Joaquin Orellana, who are essential for the consolidation of the future of the marimba, and in 1979 he was the creator and founding director of the Ma- rimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes, introducing a new outline and musical concept for the marimba ensemble and later forms several groups with the same arrangement such as: The Concert Marimba for the Ministry of Culture and Sports (1989), the Folkloric Concert Ma- rimba of the Guatemalan Institute of Tourism (INGUAT – 1991), the Concert Marimba of the Presidency of the Republic (since 1998), and currently the Concert Marimba of the National Palace of Culture (2005), all derived from the NATIONAL CONCERT MARIMBA, the first “concert marimba” founded by Lester Godinez in 1975.185

Lester is also a professor and his research is fundamental and the most specialized of the existing literature about marimba in Guatemala. Besides, he is the founder of the Marimba Insti- tute of Guatemala; gives conferences all over the world; is also an important promoter of the Guatemalan culture; has held different honorary and institutional positions and is the Director of the Jazz Big Band of Guatemala.

In the current century the survival of the marimba in Guatemala is apparent, both in indigenous regions with diatonic marimbas like in Chichicastenango and Alta Verapaz, as well as in cities. Nowadays there are marimba orchestras financed by the municipalities, in other words,

185 See more in: Biographical Chapter, Godínez Lester.

140 marimbists received a steady salary for belonging to these groups, and there are many others that belong to government institutions and a few more that belong to private institutions.

Curiously enough, currently in Guatemala City and Quetzaltenango the traditional marimba music is greatly promoted and after a century, groups like La Marimba Princesita of the Bethancourt Brothers continue to exist. However, the marimba orchestras now are more representative in villages and Departments far away from the capital. Some of those that had their peak during the 1970’s, unfortunately, and in order to survive, provide less room to the marimba within their ensembles, putting it in second place, contrary to the movement of concert marimbas. As far as formal education in conservatories and universities, the marimba has been gaining ground but it still needs to strengthen its potential as has happened in Chiapas where education is more solid.

The marimba in Guatemala has important projects for the XXI century; it also counts with great researches like Arrivillaga Cortes, Torselli and Godinez among others. Guatemala also has great marimbists that are a remarkable influence for the new generations that can provide a certain future for the culture of the marimba.

141 5. The musical evolution of the marimba in Mexico

“Walking about two hundred meters, to the southeast of this great rock, we arrived to a plain covered by very thick woods. One day following a bird, from the corner of my eye, to the left, I distinguished something strange, I focused my attention and a chill ran down my spine: on the ground there was a window to another world! It was a big hole, maybe two meters in di- ameter and the exit was probably in the middle of the cliff. It was like looking through a tele- scope or at least through a tube and it was so tilted that it pointed directly to the bottom of the canyon, with the river and the surrounding forest appearing in miniature, because of its great depth…” Así era Chiapas. Miguel Álvarez del Toro, Mexican Naturalist.186

As previously mentioned, there is little written information about the development and transformation of the music for marimba. Most of the texts regarding the marimba focus their priority on the aspect of its origin and the historical development of the instrument in Guatema- la, as well as in Chiapas, Mexico. There are no works that relate the process of how the marimba affected society and how it became so popular; and the sources refer to it as an instrument already positioned in Chiapas and Guatemala.

Consequently, there has not been a conscientious study about the repertoire. We know what music was played in the XX century thanks to the discography and because many marimbists of born during the 1930’s and still alive, were able to provide information that helped us to know parts of how the process of how the different musical genres were incorporated to the repertoire and how the groups of marimbas started to integrate. In the case of music previous to the XIX century we can only make assumptions based on the oral traditions. In order to visualize the importance of the musical development that marimba music has had, the important question here is: Why is the repertoire not only integrated by traditional sones of Chiapas and Guatemala?

For a long time marimba groups have formed their repertoire with all genres at their reach and according to the music in vogue in the general public, which facilitates the hiring of groups, this way they have created other genres to the point of adopting them as part of their identity.

186 (Alvarez del Toro 1990:204), Translated by Blanca Navas

142 Such is the case of Fox-trot in Guatemala, in fact, what is not so common in the marimba repertoire nowadays are the sones and zapateados. The lack of reliable information on how the music was executed by the marimba before the XIX century leaves many empty gaps. The sones and zapateados that have been transmitted from generation to generation according to the oral tradition, and which are of common knowledge could be the key to provide us with some ideas.

During the XX century all kinds of popular repertoires were broadcasted through the radio in cities and many rural towns, and these repertoires were adapted to the marimba throughout the century, thus the most widespread musical genres became part of the standard repertoire of marimba as music such cumbia, bolero, ranchero, corrido, tropical, to mention a few. The groups that work in cultural centers played, in addition, some regional sones, traditional Mex- ican music, boleros, waltzes and classical music from European and Latin-American composers.

In this sense, what makes marimba very interesting is that for a long time it stopped playing only regional sones and it became an instrument for all genres, although Guatemalans and Chiapanecans continue to associate it exclusively with a local identity, as if it were the same as any other folkloric genre. It is also important to mention that this instrument belongs to many social groups, not only mestizos but also indigenous peoples that have taken the instrument as something common in their daily life, especially for their religious ceremonies, as it can still be observed in some villages in the mountains of Chiapas, where their repertoire is traditional sones for a specific function, and can only be heard in that sphere of influence and on specific dates.

There are no studies regarding the development process of the performance of the marimbists; or their appropriation of new techniques or the need to take on a more complex repertoire. In my opinion, those studies that deal only with the physical transformation of the marimba if they do not include the development of the musicians as far as their performance and repertoire, are deemed incomplete; and lack the support to give them certainty.

143 When we understand the socio-historic context we can have a better perfective when we visualize the musical development of the repertoire executed with the marimba in the Southeast of Mexico and Guatemala. Said context helps us discern the processes and the historic, social and cultural changes that motivated and inspired that development, as well as the transformation of the repertoire and the instrument, especially because it is about an instrument that is so popular in that region.

5.1 The Marimba in Chiapas. Evolution, Repertoire, Musicians and their Contributions

Chiapas is the model for the marimba in Mexico. It was developed in Chiapas and from there marimbists migrated to the States of Oaxaca, Veracruz, Tabasco, Mexico City and other towns in the country. Nowadays, if we travel to the most visited municipalities in Chiapas, such as the capital Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapa de Corzo, Comitan, Tapachula and San Cristo- bal187, we can frequently run into one or several marimba groups playing in the squares or plazas, parties, cultural events and restaurants. These groups are formed by 2 or even 7 marimbists and sometimes like in the “Parque de la Marimba”188 in Tuxtla Gutierrez, orchestras with 13 or 15 members. Although that was not always the case, through time these groups have been transforming to become the diversity of ensembles that they are today.

The need to take on a more complex repertoire encourage the transformation of the groups, and that in turn advanced the performance techniques, the distribution of the musicians in the ensemble and the incorporation of other instruments as accompaniment for the marimba, always under the direction of a conductor, who eventually acted as a “soloist” and is able to improvise as necessary. This forced the marimba groups to look for musicians who were soloists with greater technical resources and great improvisation fluency. Another important aspect to consider is the fact that most of the towns where the development process of the marimba initiated, and where it was most accepted, had mestizo population.

187 See map of Chiapas in Apendix. 188 More information in: Secretaría de Turismo de Chiapas, Online: http://www.turismochiapas.gob.mx/sectur/parque-de-la-marimba (last access February 15th, 2015).

144 Until XX century, the marimba consisted of the diatonic keyboard (major mode) dealing mainly with sones and zapateados (Selvas 1952:79). There is no certainty which ones have remained through oral teaching; there are some that have been played for at least eighty years.189 The main characteristic of Sones and Zapateados is the 6/8 measure, with a melodic and harmonic structure based in the diatonic scale, using only I and V deegres, that is a and tonic and dominant; sometimes the IV degree or subdominant is used. This characteristic maintained by sones and zapateados in reality could have been the same they had a little before the XX century, that even with the dynamic transformation of the repertoire during the century were able to be preserved. The XIX century was even more static where music is concerned.

The inclusion of new repertoire by marimbists, taken mainly from military bands, made over time, required changes in the marimba, like the incorporation of minor tonalities when it was necessary to vary the sonority of some bars. When marimbists wanted to change to a different tonality, either major or minor, a piece of black wax was fitted (wax from Campeche) under the edge of the bar and that reduced the tuning by half a tone. (Kaptain 1991:38). This way of changing the tonality required great skill, since the marimbists had to place that piece of wax while playing, and then remove it as needed, with quick movements and without losing the rhythmic and melodic continuity.

The son and zapateado are the “most common” non-commercial and permanent genres played on marimba in Chiapas and in contrast with the rest of Mexico they are instrumental. In Chia- pas, indigenous groups also have their own sones executed with their instruments and the marimba is not among them. They have rather different characteristics that include a social function with a sacred and non-festive meaning.

The sones in marimba are pieces in 6/8 and ¾ in slow tempo, that is generally with an approximate equivalence of ( = 65-85), while el zapateado is more festive and dynamic, and the tempo is generally of ( = 120) (Gordillo 2006:45-48). The use of the sesquialtera is also frequent, as with other Mexican music.

189 From interviews with marimbists Jorge Montero, Jorge Acuña, Rodrigo Villafuerte, Rufo Tovilla, among others. They provided a list of sones and zapateados that still remain in the repertoire today.

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We can deduce that the music of the diatonic marimba of the XIX century that was played the most was son and zapateado; although we do not know if sones were exclusive to the marimba or if they were adapted from the traditional music of drums and reeds of the indigenous groups and the mestizos, music which continues playing in our days. It is feasible that marimbists also played some traditional songs of other styles and genres, as has been done since records show evidence of the adaptation of songs and their incorporation to the marimba repertoire, regardless this can only be considered a hypothesis. Currently we know of some diatonic marimbas built in the XIX century, which are not functional, but they are physical evidence of how they used to be.

An important piece of information that reveals how the marimba music could had been in Chiapas in the 1860’s, as well as the number of musicians that played on them, is the picture by Desire de Charnay, taken in the ranch Santa Lucia, in Jiquipilas, Chiapas, which is the oldest iconographic reference that we have of the marimba in Chiapas.190 Said photograph shows a marimba played by two musicians, both hold a mallet in each hand; the marimba has no legs, which makes us suppose it is an arch marimba, as the nodes pertaining to this type of marimba can be observed; the musicians are sitting over the arch structure; the resonators are made of calabash and 22 keys can be clearly seen, equal to three octaves plus one note.

This photograph is found in the archives of the “Digital Library” of the “American Philosoph- ical Society”, titled Joueurs de Marimba – Tenorique, Tabasco, dated in 1882.191 Fortunately, however, the books by Claude Joseph Desire Charnay have the narratives that express more precisely the information provided by the photograph. Charnay made three trips to Mexico between 1857 and 1885, and took the first photographs of the ruins of ancient cultures, live cultures and “exotic” landscapes of Mexico and he captures his experiences and discoveries in two books; the first one titled Cites et Ruines Americaines (Paris 1863), where he narrates his journey mainly through the south of Mexico, including the states of Veracruz, Tabasco, Cam- peche, Yucatan, Chiapas and Oaxaca (Fabregas Roca 1956:146-148). During this first trip,

190 Desiré Charnay narrates in his book the journey that took place in 1857 and 1858, but he does not specify the year in the passage relating to Santa Lucia. According to the number of weeks narrated on his trip, it would seem he was there in 1858. 191 Désireé Charnay 1828-1915; Joueurs de Marimba – Tenorique Tabasco, in American Philosophical Society (APS); ID number: APSimg5271, Date Issued. 1882.

146 when he arrives to Chiapas, he mentions an experience regarding the marimba in the ranch of Santa Lucia, half way between Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, and Tehuantepec, Oaxaca. He narrates:

“The field of lava that surrounds the last village, once you cross it, you return to the great fields full of rivers, where one after another, forests and prairies appear, and suddenly in front of you is Santa Lucia, the most beautiful hacienda in the region. The main house is surrounded by Indian cottages, like the lady of the house and her vassals. It is big and well-constructed; with a huge wrap around porch and to one side, numerous employees working in the farm, next to it is the mill for sugar cane, then the area for wheat and corn storage. Everywhere plenty of good hunting, birds, game and wild beasts that can be hunted with dogs, the whole prairie is admirably displayed. The forests are big and magnificent, villages with red and blue macaws, and the river, with several bends, casting over this privileged land a mantle of eternal greenery.

At night, after prayer, the servants arrive to enjoy a nice evening, while they receive their orders from the lady of the house for the following day, the Indians, gathered in a large corridor, take a break from their labors with some strange chants; the beat is abrupt, compelling, faltering, like a messenger at full speed gallop chasing the pray into the forest, with yells and screams. The singer is accompanied by a marimba, a kind of piano constructed of sonorous wooden keys of different sizes; and tubes of the same wood respond to the keys to give a sound full of force; some are four octaves.

Two Indians, equipped with mallets provided with balls of gutta, ripping primitive harmonies from this instrument; with not too many tones, they resemble the chants of birds that are always the same but nonetheless varied and enchanting, just like birds. The sounds of the marimba are soft when one listens up close but at a considerable distance, they are more harmonious and sweeter and more poetic. (Trans- late by Blanca Navas) 192.

192 Le champ de lave qui entoure ce dernier village une fois franchi, l'on retombe dans les grandes plaines cou- pées de rivières, où bois et prairies se succèdent tour à tour. Voilà Santa Lucia, la plus belle hacienda de la con- trée. L habitation, entourée de cabanes indiennes comme un maître de ses vassaux, est grande et bien bâtie; une immense galerie en borde le contour; la travaillent les nombreux employés de la ferme; auprès, se trouvent le moulin pour la canne, l’aire pour les blés et le magasin du maïs. Les alentours regorgent de gibier, oiseaux, daims et bêtes fauves qu’on peut chasser à courre, tant la plaine est admirablement disposée. Les bois sont grands et magnifiques, peuples d’aras rouges el bleus, et la rivière, dans ses nombreux détours, jette sur cette terre privilégiée le manteau d’une éternelle verdure. Le soir, après l’oración, et lorsque les serviteurs sont venus, en lui souhaitant une nuit heureuse, prendre pour le lendemain les ordres du maître, les Indiens, réunis dans la vaste cour, se reposent de leurs travaux par des chants bizarres; la mesure saccadée, pressée, haletante, rappelle le galop du coursier à la poursuite du bétail dans les bois, les éclats de voix et les mugissements. Le chanteur s'accompagne sur la marimba, espèce de piano composé de touches de bois sonore de différentes grandeurs; des tuyaux du même bois répondent aux touches pour donner aux sons plus de force; quelques-uns possèdent quatre octaves. Deux Indiens, munis de petites baguettes armées de boules de gutta, arrachent de cet instrument de primitives harmonies ; leurs airs, peu nombreux, ressemblent aux chants des oiseaux qui sont toujours les mêmes et qui n’en sont pas moins variés et charmants; comme eux aussi, les sons de la marimba, faibles quand on les écoute de près, s’entendent a des distances considérables, plus harmonieux, plus doux et plus poétiques. (Charnay 1863:495-497)

147 This narrative is found in chapter XVI-Tehuantepec, in the section referred as Don Julio Lick- ens, and this is important since Charnay later published his second book, under the name of Les Ancinnes Villes du Nouveau Monde (Paris 1885, Librairie Hachette), where besides the south of Mexico he also includes other regions of the country and about his other two trips.

Charnay only went to Chiapas during his first trip from 1957 to 1958, and according to the times it took to travel in those years and after reading the texts, it is estimated that it was in 1858 when he was in Chiapas. In the second book the revised text of the author changes in some parts when he again refers the experience in the Ranch of Santa Lucia, where he empha- sizes the context, also referring to the similarity of the marimba with the African xylophones, and in regards to the octaves of extension of the instrument, he rectifies, surely after reviewing the photographs and he describes it with three octaves which is the real extension and not four as in the previous version.

“…The singer is accompanied by a marimba; the dances and the games are organized and we are present at the scenes of patriarchal life. The marimba is a piano that has sonorous keys and that are the joy of the Indian population. The instrument is three octaves; underneath each key, to give it a better sound, a cone of hollow wood is found. The instrument requires two players, for one is the accompaniment; both strike the keys with sticks covered with balls of gutta, and they run with so much speed that the fingers of the most agile pianist would not be able to follow. The son of the marimba is broad, accurate and of an extraordinary range; from afar, it is sweeter and more harmonious; the Indian tunes are composed of two patterns that are repeated incessantly and very lovely and very original.

This instrument is found in Africa, where it was born and therefore has the same name; it was probably transported to America by the black slaves brought in great numbers to the gulf coast at the beginning of the conquest…” (Translate by Blanca Navas)193.

It is important to highlight that in the second edition the text is written in chapter twenty four, under the title Tumbala-San Cristobal-Mitla, with the subtitle of the places of reference of the beginning at the end of this chapter, where the beginning is marked as Retour a Tenosique,

193 Le chanteur s'accompagne sur la marimba; des danses et des jeux s'organisent, et nous assistons à des scènes de la vie patriarcale. La marimba est un piano a touches de bois sonore el qui fait les délices des populations indiennes. L'instrument a trois octaves; au-dessous de chaque touche, pour lui donner plus de sonorité, se trouve un cône de bois creux. L’instrument exige deux exécutants, dont l'un pour l'accompagnement; tous deux frappent les touches avec des bâtonnets armés de boules de gutta, et ils courent avec une telle rapidité que le doigté du plus agile pianiste ne pourrait les suivre. Le son de la marimba est ample, juste et d'une portée extraordinaire; de loin, il est plus doux et plus harmonieux; les airs indiens composés de deux motifs qui se répètent sans cesse sont très jolis el d’ une grande originalité. Cet instrument se trouve en Afrique, à Natal par exemple et portant le même nom; il fut probablement transporte en Amérique par des esclaves nègres amenés en grand nombre à la cote du golfe aux premiers temps de la conquête. (Charnay 1885:438-439)

148 the part that in the first edition was titled Don Julio Lickens, is now titled Santa Lucia et la marimba.

Fig. 14. Desiré Charnay in Santa Lucia, Chiapas.

The APS photograph has a handwritten heading which shows as “Tenorique”, but is clear that it refers to Tenosique in the Mexican state of Tabasco, and in neither of the two books he makes reference to any marimba when talking about this region, where there are no sources or evidence of the marimba in this zone of Tabasco; but only later, in the XX century. The photograph and the drawing placed by Charnay in his second book in the part which refers to Santa Lucia, and the fact that he names that section with the word marimba, provides important information to the history of the marimba in Chiapas, and we can conclude that the pictures belongs to the first trip, that is, in the year 1957 or 1958. What we are unable to understand is the mark on the photograph, or if the fact that it had the name of Tenosique on it refers to the classification of the photographs for the mentioned chapter, which iniciated in that place and ended in Mitla, Oaxaca.

149 Another well-known fact almost always mentioned in books regarding the marimba in Chia- pas, and mentioned as the oldest reference is a marimbists, Manuel Bolan Cruz, musician from Tonalá, who is given credit as author of many sones and zapateados, who is also described as a great performer. The history about Bolan is very well known in Chiapas, and it offers many details but without any evidence; it almost seems more of a legend. They refer to him as the grandfather of the marimba and he is credited with the construction of the first marimba with a keyboard for three performers, in the middle of the XIX century, approximately in 1850, that is, he increased the number of keys to allow it to be played by three musicians, which made him famous. He is also credited with the modification of the arch marimba and with the construction of the straight marimba (marimba recta), made of wood, with four straight legs to allow musicians to play standing up; with a frame and wooden box instead of calabashes. The texts refer that he was born in 1810 and appear in the Valley of Cintalapa around 1840;194 that he lived in the Valleys of Jiquipilas and Ocozocuautla, in the central zone of Chiapas, same place as the picture of Charnay taken in 1858, showing a traditional arch marimba with calabashes, without legs and played by two musicians. Another thing attributed to Bolan is the diffusion of the marimba in the central zone of Chiapas and as the author of traditional sones as “El Cadejo”, “El Perdido”, “El Chichicashte”, “El Enamorado”, “El Atarantado”, “El Resbalon”, “Se Te Cayo El Calzon”, “La Brujeria”, “El Kirio”, “El Fan- dango”, “El Atravesado”. The last three sones transcribed by Eduardo J. Selvas (Selvas 1952:80-81) in his article about La Musica de la Valdiviana Many marimbist who know these sones, have learned them in oral form and were taught to refer to them as sones of Bolan.195

The history of Bolan is fascinating, but as mentioned above, there are no sources that support everything attributed to him, but he is still a legend of the marimba in Chiapas. This legend is known and repeated by all traditional marimba players. In addition to Selvas’ article in 1952, Rodas and Hernandez who are the most quoted by other authors who mention Bolan. Her- nandez added that Bolán played with his trio formed with Abraham Cruz and Crispin Roque. Bolan was also a great teacher and he taught how to play and how to build marimbas. He was a mentor of Jose Martinez and Juan Zarate, of the Hacienda Llano Grande, from the Munici-

194 See more in: (Rodas 1971:26); (Hernández 1975:48); (Kaptain 1991:39,102); (Pineda del Valle 1990:26); (Selvas 1952: 81); (Roman de Becerril 1995:125). 195 The marimbists in the central area of Chiapas, interviewed for this work, agree that the old mentioned sones were taught to them as sones and zapateados composed by Bolan.

150 pality of Cintalapa; Francisco Roque, Benjamin Roque and Francisco Martinez, of the Haci- enda Buenavista, from the Municipality of Jiquipilas.

Eduardo J. Selvas, in the magazine Ateneo (Selvas 1952:80-81), in his article La Música de la Valdiviana, publishes a transcription of three sones: “El Fandango”, “El Kirio” and el “Si- lencio” or el “Atravesado”; referring to those as the music of the Valdiviana, same region of Santa Lucia. Selvas, in his article writes a narrative that refers to one of the many renown composers and marimbists and that his sones responded to his observation of the singing of the birds, since he used to spend a lot of time in the forests.

There is no real information about Bolan’s birth. In those years the Church kept birth and registration records through certificates of baptism, but nothing has been found in the churches of Tonala and surrounding areas close to Valdiviana. In the XIX century it was a common for parents not to register their children who never had an official document, actually in some rural areas in Chiapas this phenomenon still happens.

The most recent article about Bolán is by the chronicler Sofia Mireles Gavito, with information collected from different authors, and it is the most complete story about this personality of the marimba.196 Unfortunately, there is no evidence to back up these assertions and Ma- nuel Bolán continues to be a mystery.

At the end of the XIX century there were still marimbas in which musicians played sitting down, and gradually the calabashes were substituted for resonance boxes (resonators) made of wood, allowing the instrument to have a greater sonorous stability. We could say that the diatonic marimba was on its way to a physical transformation to what we currently know. As it can be observed on the image of the diatonic marimba found at the Marimba Museum of Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, and according to the museum information, it belonged to the Esponda family, when they lived in the ranch belonging to the Valdiviana Estate, in Cintala- pa, which according to the story was built at the end of the XIX century and it shows that it already had wooden resonators.

196 See more in: http://goo.gl/YkwZp2 (last access June 15th, 2014).

151

Fig. 15. Diatonic Marimba of Eduardo Esponda

M-Fig.23: Marimba Tessitura of Esponda at the Museum of the Marimba.

The most important change in the development of the marimba is the one attributed to Cora- zon de Jesus Borraz Moreno, who built the first chromatic marimba. In Chiapas the story about this circumstance is very well known and has been circulated by the same people from the town of Venustiano Carranza, previously San Bartolome de los Llanos. It is said that the Maestro Mariano Ruperto Moreno197, Choirmaster and uncle of the marimba builder Corazon de Jesus, drew on the wall of his father’s shop a chromatic keyboard recalling the image of a harmonium that he had seen at a church198. There are some discrepancies among authors regarding the completion date of that first chromatic marimba. Most authors mention it to be in 1896 (Kaptain 1991:40-41), but others between 1892 and 1897. The author Jaime Rodas (1971) points the date when the instrument was completed in February 1896: “The first ones

197 Composer of “el Alcarabán”, one of the most knowing zapateados in Chiapas. 198 In those days diatonic marimbas were built.

152 to play this marimba were Manuel Trinidad Santiago, Corazon de Jesus Borraz Moreno, Jose and Angel Domingo. The last three were brothers…” (Rodas 1971:36). However, there is also another account regarding a letter addressed to Miss Mercedes Camacho, written on a type- writer, answering questions sent to Corazon de Jesus, where he replies that he began building the marimba in 1896 and finished it in February 1897, appearing for the first time on February 9th, 1897; it also mentions that it played in La Concordia, 199 and the following year in the city of Las Casas, referring to San Cristobal de las Casas and that in 1900 he went back to both places. This letter was dated April 18th, 1949, in Huixtla, Chiapas. 200

There is no certainty about the size of the marimba that was built but authors agree that the instrument was played sitting down. There are pictures that show Don Corazon de Jesus with his marimba, and in fact, the musicians were sitting down. Some authors relate that the instrument had an extension of three to three octaves and a half, but this fact would not have been practical in the sense that three marimbists could not play comfortably this instrument at the same time. The pictures that we have of Corazon de Jesus with his musicians are from the XX century, and the instrument is of five octaves. Jorge Eduardo Coello Avendaño, chronicler of the city of Venustiano Carranza explains that according to his sources, the marimba that appears in the pictures is the one built by Corazon de Jesus at the end of the XIX century.

199 Concordia is a municipality in the central part of the state, and they are coffee producers and of other con- sumable goods. The old town was left under the waters of the dam “La Angostura” and it was transferred next to the dam to what is now known as “Nueva Concordia”. See more in: http://www.conagua.gob.mex/atlas/usosdelagua33.htl (last access January 6th, 2015). 200 The letter is safeguarded in the “Museo de la Marimba” Marimba Museum, in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas. There is no record of the date when Mercedes Camacho handed it to the museum for its collection.

153

Fig. 16. Corazón de Jesús Borráz Moreno and his marimba group.201

M-Fig.24: Tessiture of the marimba made by Corazon de Jesus Borráz

We do not know how much time went by before the chromatic marimba became popular. There is a picture dated in 1904 in which David Gomez, a marimbists and builder from the city of Tuxtla Gutierrez, where he appears with a chromatic marimba and it also shows the musicians playing sitting down and the extension is of 5 octaves, like in the previous one. Said picture is quoted in several books and the dates do not agree, some say 1904, other 1908 and 1913, and even disagree with the names of the players.

What is obvious is that at the beginning of the XX century, both types of marimbas coexisted, the diatonic marimbas, already with large extensions, as well as the chromatic marimbas, with

201 Photo lend by the personal archive of Dr. Fernán Pavía, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas.

154 reduced extensions. The diatonic marimba was known as marimba sencilla because it had a single row of keys in a frame and the chromatic marimba called marimba doble or marimba cuacha (cuachi is an adjective used in Chiapas to refer to twins); this referring to the construction of the chromatic marimbas based on 2 different cabinets with a frame each to support the keyboards. One cabinet is for the naturals, and another one for the keyboard of the sharps or flats.

There is a reference dating from the beginning of the XX century that Miguel Pavia captures in his article titled: La marimba de los Hermanos Olivar, una fotografía de 1901 y su contexto (a photograph of 1901 and it context) (Pavía 2011:77); that refers to this photograph perhaps the first record of the first marimba that travelled to the United States. The picture appears on the web of The Pan-American Exposition, of Buffalo and Niagara Falls, Chicago and New York: Rand McNally & Co., from May 1st to November 2nd, 1901.202 The exposition caused great impact in the host city and in the whole country and music was a fundamental compo- nent. As an example a special building was for The Temple of Music to serve as a concert hall and ceremonial stage. Exactly there is where that picture shows the marimba of the Olivar Brothers, who were part of the Mexican Delegation in the category of ethnic music203.

The picture shows the Olivar Brothers with a marimba in sections, the marimba is diatonic, its extension is of almost six octaves and is sectioned in three parts, it does not have a fringe or any other ornament or inlays on the support frame of the keyboard; the keyboard sticks out of the frame, in a way that is called today “teclado volado” (free keyboard).204 This keyboard construction quit being built to make a keyboard inside the frame that is “hidden” to allow more space for ornaments in the frontal part. Pavia also mentions that at that time, according to historians, in the city of San Bartolomé de los llanos, the marimba had been modified by Corazon Borraz in 1896, making it chromatic, and he attributes that it had not been well known by then because it was a diatonic marimba the one that went to the Expo.

202 See more in: http://library.buffalo.edu/pan-am/exposition/music/ethno.html (last access June 15th, 2015). 203 There are some pictures of the same group in which appears as the marimbon quartet. One of them can be seen in (Brenner 2007:118). 204 Refers to keyboards for marimbas and xylophones as seen nowadays in music schools and symphonic orchestras.

155

Fig. 17: The brothers Enrique, Julio, Carlos y Adolfo Olivar. 1901.205

What is interesting about this picture is that it shows with clarity some of the elements that transformed the instrument. Such as, the extension of the marimba towards the lower pitch notes; then we can observe the marimba divided in three sections, we suppose that it was built like that to make transportation easier and for long trips. Taking into account that the medium height of people in this region was approximately 1.60 meters, the marimba had an approximate height of 95 centimeters and the resonator with also 95 centimeters, lets us deduce that the lower notes were between G or A.206

The picture shows that the extension of the marimba is of 41 to 43 keys, equivalent to six octaves, and is bigger in size than the chromatic marimbas which appear in the pictures of that period and which were played sitting down.

205 Source: Mexican marimba players in McGarvie's Streets of Mexico in the Midway. The Rand-McNally Hand- Book to the Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo and Niagara Falls. Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally & Co., 1901. Courtesy of Kerry S. Grant. See more in: http://library.buffalo.edu/pan- am/exposition/music/ethno.html (last access June 15th, 2015). 206 As the next example shows, the lowest note is posible to be G or A*.

156

M-Fig.25: Tessiture of the marimba in fig. 17. (Olivar Brothers)

Although the chromatic marimba was built at the end of the XIX century, it took several years for it to become popular among marimbists in Chiapas. This new marimba allowed musicians to take on a new repertoire in a radical way, broadening the possibilities for a better performance.

It is important to consider that during the XIX century and at the beginning of the XX century, The Porfiriate was characterized for offering Mexico to foreign investment, and in the artistic circle the European models were copied. It is well known that Porfirio Diaz loved everything French, which was then the prototype of fashion and art; although on the other hand, it is ironic that the French musical advances did not take root in Mexico, as it occurred with the Italian School, followed by many musicians of the Conservatory (Andrade 1983:184).

Porfirio Diaz allotted part of the budget to culture, obviously with a western vision; he promoted the constructions of kiosks and gave support to wind bands and as part of this program of leisure or use of free time, he built gardens and public parks, with benches, trees, fountains and music. It was at the end of the XIX century when most of the state bands were formed and the number of wind music groups, both military and civil increased (Ruiz Torres 2002:184).

During the Porfiriato, the taste in music by the high society and some of the middle classes can be demonstrated, among other things, because at home they had a large room dedicated to playing music, and of course, to listening; in such places the piano and stool were always pre-

157 sent,207 Jose T. Cuellar, a XIX century historian and novelist also talks about this and clearly describes the spaces in high society homes of those days, and he mentions that in general, they had an old piano at the entrance and one of a better quality in the living room. (Cuellar 1982:17). Youths of high society classes in cities and towns of the interior of Mexico, had the opportunity to travel to Mexico City to study some of the prestigious careers available at the time, like medicine or law; they even traveled to Europe, and returned to their places of origin with piano knowledge that gave families a social status. Many of these families knew some music theory and could read music, and it was common to order by mail or through traveling relatives, scores from Mexico City and some of them also brought from the United States or Europe. The young aficionados became excellent performers; Mayer-Serra explains the talent of the aficionados and remarks that among them, there were a series of instrumentalists and even skilled composers, with musical proficiency comparable to professionals, and this considering that before 1877, there was no official school to study music (Mayer-Serra 1941:16).

With the boom of military bands in cities and villages, many musicians learn to read music scores. The most commonly played repertoire were marches, polkas and waltzes. Marimbas incorporated these genres broadening their repertoire, which probably was the result of a natural process that promoted the pursuit for transformation from the diatonic marimba to chromatic. Although wind band musicians read music, that was not the case with marimba players in Chiapas, and this is even true in our days. The way marimbists learned a new repertoire was through oral tradition. There is an anecdote that mentions that they borrowed the scores and asked one of the band musicians to help them set up the repertoire and this was how wind instruments musicians taught them the pieces even though they were not members of the groups.208

Towards the end of the XIX century, Mexico had a period of political stability and was invited to several international events, among them world industrial fairs in the United States and in Europe, and for Diaz it was important to show a country with important commercial links to the United States, promoted by his government. Some military bands travelled to these

207 See more in: Edelmira Ramirez Leyva, “Afición y Música Durante el Siglo XIX en México”, in: Revista electrónica AZCUAM, 2013. Online: http://www.azc.uam.mx/publicaciones/tye/tye13/art_hist_04.html (last access January 15th, 2016). 208 Compiled from interviews with: Jorge Montero, Margot Vargas de Nandayapa, Jorge Acuña, Vargas, en Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas.

158 fairs and agricultural and livestock expos, which is the case of the Banda del 8º Regimiento de Caballeria, (Band of the 8th Cavalry Regiment), which was one of the most emblematic bands during the Porfiriato; it was the one that performed in official acts for the President in Mexico and in the United States (Ruiz Torres 2002:200). Other groups began to be taken in consideration for these activities in the United States, as evidenced by the participation of the Olivar Brothers Marimba in Buffalo, but they were not the only group or the only marimba players to travel to that country, the same was happening at that time with the Guatemalan marimbists. We do not know exactly which performance companies hired the marimbists, but in those first decades of the XX century there was a great influence of the music of the United States disseminated in Chiapas and in Guatemala as well as new musical forms like jazz and classical music also popular in Europe. It is important to mention this fact because the musical development that the marimba had after this cultural exchange was very significant not only in Guatemala and Mexico but also in the United States, and later on influenced gave rise to the development of concert marimba and its expansion around the world.

This “artistic-commercial” relationship led many Chiapanecan and Guatemalan musicians to travel to the United States, and when they returned to their native lands created a musical movement that encouraged its development.

One of the most interesting facts about the repertoire of the chromatic marimba was mentioned in the newspaper “EL ECO” of Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, on July 20th, 1908. This was a criticism to the then State Director of the Wind Band, Carlos Cuartero209, when they referred to a concert performed at the old State Theater by the marimba group Cuarteto de los Her- manos Solís (Solis Brothers Quartet), who tackled a repertoire with classical music transcriptions (Cuartero 1908:2). This document is the oldest proof of the inclusion of this genre in the marimbas from Chiapas and Guatemala.210

The concert was held on July 19th, and the news report mentions that the Solis Brothers had arrived in Tuxtla on July 15th, after returning from an artistic tour through several states of Mexico and the United States.211 It is interesting to read several aspects about the references

209 Quoted also by (Castañón Gamboa 1947:66-69). 210 The complete transcription of the article is in appendix. 211 Carlos Cuartero, El Eco, July 18th 1908:2.

159 he makes regarding the musicians and the instrument, in fact, he seems surprised by what he heard.

“Las Sunday the Solis Brothers made their debut in front of a very small audience; their well- deserved fame precedes them and they received much applause for their artistic performance. The quartet executed in marimba the brilliant fantasy opera Rigoletto, the Semiramis Over- ture, the intermezzo of the Cavalleria Rusticana and the Poet and Peasant”. In the article, Car- los Cuartero recurrently refers to the repertoire, and he seems amazed and excited by the classical music adaptations made by the marimba quartet, describing it thus:

“…We are unable to properly show our admiration for this group; whether for the precise execution of the pieces or for the sweetness and dynamics that they delivered with each musical passage as required by the play. – The four performers complement each other in such a way that it is difficult to distin- guish who is playing what. They are all equally dexterous and they truly feel the music and there are no discordant notes in their execution”. (Translate by Blanca Navas)212

Fig.18. Cuarteto Solís.213

Cuartero’s text gives us many references regarding how the marimba was perceived as a limited instrument, rough, incomplete, rudimentary and defective.

212 “…No sabemos que admirar en este grupo, si la ejecución precisa de las piezas o la dulzura y matices que saben dar a cada pasaje musical según lo requiere la obra. -Los cuatro ejecutantes se complementan de tal modo que no se puede apreciar cuando ejecuta uno u otro. Todos igualmente diestros y sienten verdaderamente sin que en el acto de ejecutar haya una nota discordante”. (El Eco, July 18th 1908:2) 213 Carlos Cuartero El Eco, July 18th 1908:3.

160 “… They have been able to find in that rough instrument what artists know to make the music softer [..] I feared they might not be successful due to the difficulties of such a reduced and still deficient instrument as is the marimba [..] It seems incredible that from such a rudimentary instrument and lacking the elements abundant in a piano, they can draw all those beautiful effects that we heard from the Solis Brothers [..] The defects of the instrument are set aside…” (Translate by Blanca Navas)214.

This note dated in 1908 confirms that Corazon de Jesus Borraz was recognized as the first builder of a chromatic marimba. “… It is up to our marimba builders to find a way to make the imperfections disappear, and if one has the good fortune to achieve that, I advise him now to register the patent of those improvements and to avoid the mistakes made, in detriment of his work, by Corazon Borraz, the inventor of a double keyboard for marimbas, son of San Bartolome…” (Translated by Blanca Navas)215.

The text of Cuartero is the oldest source where reference is made to classical music played on marimba in a theatre in Chiapas. Perhaps this concert influenced other quartets and groups who then began to include this music in their repertoire. The note also provides references that the marimbists had abundant musical knowledge to deal with works of high level.

This critique coming from a musician and specifically a director of the state band, with musical knowledge in music ensembles, gives us the necessary musical references to know that the marimba musicians also had a good command of a quartet in ensemble already around those years. He also refers that not all marimbists had the same quality and he mentions David Gomez as an already renowned artist. Perhaps most important in this note is the program they interpreted, including works that require professional training and that present a challenge even in the XXI century. It should also be noted that works like “The Choir of the Repatri- ates” had been composed ten years earlier, and the “zarzuela the Chin Chun Chan” had been premiered in 1904, that is, four years earlier. This says that the Solis Brothers were musicians inside the music scene and knew according to the form of musical diffusion of those days the most recent works or the ones played at the time, although the military bands were part of that musical diffusion.

214 “…Ellos han sabido encontrar en el rudo instrumento lo que los artistas saben para hacer mas suave [..] Yo me temía no salieran airosos por las dificultades de un instrumento tan reducido y aún tan deficiente como es la marimba. [..]Parece increíble que de un instrumento tan rudimentario y escaso de los elementos que abundan en un piano, puedan sacarle todos los hermosos efectos que nos hicieron escuchar los hermanos Solís; [..]Se hacen a un lado los defectos del instrumento…” (Cuartero, El Eco, July 18th 1908:2). 215 “…Toca a nuestros constructores de marimbas, estudiar la manera de hacer desaparecer esos defectos y si alguno tuviera la fortuna de llegar a lograrlo, desde ahora le aconsejo que patentice el perfeccionamiento y no malogre su trabajo como Corazón Borraz, el inventor del doble teclado en las marimbas, hijo de San Bartolo- mé…”(Cuartero, El Eco, July 18th 1908:2).

161

The program refered include works as: “Fantasia on motives from the opera Rigoletto” by Giuseppe Verdi; “Semiramis Overture” by Gioachino Rossini; “Intermezzo of the Cavalleria Rusticana” by Pietro Mascagni; “Poet and Peasant” by Franz Von Suppe; “Choir of the Re- patriates from the Zarzuela, Giants and Big Heads” by Miguel Echegaray y Eizaguirre; “Wil- liam Tell Overture” by Gioachino Rossini; “Waltz Peaceful Nights” by Abundio Martinez; “The Barber of Seville” by Gioachino Rossini; “Chin Chun Chan Dance” by Luis Gonzaga Jorda.

This account also poses some questions, since in order to play this repertoire it is necessary to have a marimba with extensive register. Cuartero gives us details about the interpretation of the works but nothing about the marimba used and the picture that appears in the newspaper does not seem to be the one played in the theater but a picture used for the poster, in that studio picture the musicians use a marimba with five octaves and it is played sitting down and the register of that marimba is similar to the one that belong to Maestro David Gomez, and Corazon Borraz, previously mentioned; therefore in my opinion that is not the marimba used by the Solis Brothers for such performances.

However, there are also some pictures of the Solis Brother dated between 1909 and 1911, in which they appear with a six octaves and a half marimba, which is excellent to interpret the program of the above mentioned concert. Therefore, this forces us to ask: When were the marimbas with 6 octaves extensions built? Most of the pictures in those days show marimbas that are five or five and a half octaves, although the picture of the Olivar Brothers shows a diatonic marimba of six octaves. Oral tradition in Chiapas, attribute the construction of the marimba grande to David Gomez, although there is a letter from Margarito Solis which says “…makes the woods that are used for the sounds as invented by you since 1904…”216 without giving more details. Is it possible that the marimba grande is the one that appears in the pictures? In the picture we can read in English in front of the cabinet fringe, “Made by Mauro H. Solis, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico”. Could this be the first six octaves chromatic marimba built in Chiapas? Unfortunately we are unable to confirm this fact and this is something

216 “…hace para sus sonidos las maderas que son empleadas a lo imbentado por ti desde el año 1904..”[sic] Tak- en from the personal files of Fernando Pavia, chronicler of Tuxtla Gutierrez. On the back of the picture there is a mark with the year 1909.

162 that authors who have written about the marimba have missed. They have put so much emphasis to the “invention of the requinta”, that without the context of the marimba grande the invention of the small marimba is irrelevant.

Fig. 19. Solís Brothers Marimba Quartet.217

There is little information regarding the Solis Brothers, although is knowing they were from the city of Comitan and that they moved and resided in the United States; and there are no records of children born to them in Mexico218. Some postcards and pictures give evidence of their career as musicians and of the dimensions of the marimba and it must be noted that for the first time a woman forms part of a marimba group, their sister, Margarita Solís, who in fact, settled in Comitan (Trujillo 2010:54).

As a result we can confirm that marimbists tried to go even farther and perform not only the popular and traditional repertoire, but they were also interested in including other genre to the instrument’s repertoire and besides the chromatic marimba also open the door to other possibilities of performances, and this led musicians to look for virtuosity as a group, that is, to work as a team in a single instrument making a unique style of execution of a traditional instrument that is so peculiar and different. At least, since the time of the Solis Brothers in 1908, we are certain that the transcriptions of classical music works to the marimba initiated, and these continued consolidating with groups such as the Cuarteto de los Hermanos Gómez

217 Photograph from the archive of Fernán Pavía, chronicler of the city of Tuxtla Gutierrez. 218 The North American musicologist Theodor Solis, is a descendant of one of the Solis Brothers, also appears in the bibliography of this work. According to the journalist from Tuxtla, Raul Mendoza Vera, he tried to find relatives descending directly from the Solis in Chiapas but was unable to find anything in this regard.

163 (Gomez Brothers Quartet) and the Marimba Nandayapa. This concept of classical music played on the marimba had great acceptance in the XX century and was captured in a diverse discography that to this day has been used as reference by various groups.

Among these groups the marimba of the Gomez Brothers stands out, since it was the first group to achieve great prestige in their community; both in musical circles as in society, thanks to their artistic excellence. It was then that marimbists in Chiapas become dignified and acquired a respectable professional status.219

David Gomez Solana (1867-1945) native of Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, was a performer as well as a composer and marimba builder, who founded a group with his sons David and Artu- ro Gomez Gutierrez. It is said that David carried out musical studies at the Conservatorio de Musica (Music Conservatory) in Mexico City, which was very unusual at the time, especially among marimbists. He composed the “Waltz Tuxtla”, originally written for Piano which later became an icon of the marimba repertoire and also a musical symbol of the city. David was a builder and during several years got credited with the construction of the first chromatic marimba; many authors affirm that he was the one to promote this new marimba in Tuxtla Gutierrez and other cities of Chiapas (Martinez 1951:172-174).

A brief note on the newspaper El Heraldo de Chiapas, in Tuxtla Gutierrez, on October 30th, 1906, mention that David Gomez Solana is hired by the local government to offer permanent performances. This is important because it means that the marimba is being positioned so- cially and just as the bands were financed by the State, finally a marimba group enters this category. The performances were called evening serenades and they were carried out at the central park of the city. “At the Santo Domingo Park, the Saturday serenades have begun in high spirits, and the Hon- orable City Hall has accorded a subsidy in favor of the marimba that plays there. David Gomez draws applause for his select repertoire. It was about time this park got used, that if truth be told, is very pretty.” (Translate by Blanca Navas)220.

219 In Chiapas, in among the community of elders, when making mention of David Gomez, the reaction is admiration and respect for the marimbist, which supposes he had social status as an artist. 220 “En el parque de Santo Domingo, muy animadas han principiado las serenatas sabatinas, para las que el H. Ayuntamiento acordó un subsidio a favor de la marimba que allí toca. David Gómez se hace aplaudir por su selecto repertorio. Ya era tiempo que se utilizara este paseo, que en obsequio de la verdad, es muy bonito.”. In: Heraldo de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, October 30th 1906:3.

164 The marimba group lead by David was very well known in Tuxtla Gutierrez; there are articles in newspapers and references in books about the city of Tuxtla, where they refer to him as a great marimbist. One of them dated in 1913, mentions that he already performed classical music as part of his repertoire.

From 1917 it was called Cuarteto de los Hermanos Gómez (Gomez Brothers Quartet), and David Gomez Gutierrez, son of David Gomez Solana, takes the leadership of the group where he and his brother Arturo played, joined by Jesus Jimenez and Alvaro Lopez. In 1918 they travelled to Mexico City and to other states. This group consolidated as one of the best ones of its kind and participated in important events of the political class in Mexico, which included tours and performances for Presidents of the country. They travelled to the United States, Cuba and other countries of the Antilles. The Gomez Brothers marimba returned to Tuxtla for good in 1940 and continued being an excellent group; they usually played in gala presentations for the government in turn and were acclaimed by the society and the political class. Something noteworthy about this group is that even during the time of marimba orchestras and ballrooms, they continued faithful and refused to include other instruments in the group, they only played with one marimba grande. Later on it included young men that in the future would also become renowned marimbists, such as Daniel Garcia Blanco and Guillermo Gomez. Today we can still see the six octaves and a half marimba, built by David Gomez Senior, at the Museo de la Marimba Zeferino Nandayapa, in the city of Tuxtla Gutierrez. The quartet split up at the death of David Gomez Gutierrez, in 1962 (Martinez 1951:172-174).

There is little information about marimba groups from 1910 to 1915, during the years when Mexico suffered the political instability of the Revolution, although it should be mentioned that in Chiapas the Revolution was not very critical and there was a counter revolutionary movement to continue preserving the interests of the great estates.221 Many groups and entertainment companies took refuge in the United States, and it was after 1917 when again, the information about the groups becomes more reliable.

In Mexico during the first decade of the XX century, among families with higher economic status the piano was commonly played; mainly polkas, marches, habaneras and waltzes, as

221 This counter revolutionary movement known as “mapachistas”. See more in: (Garcia de León:1991)

165 well as “light classical music”, since they were highly popular during the times of Maximilian and the Porfiriato. In the meantime, the rest of the population in towns and cities had access to this repertoire through the wind bands as we mentioned previously; and it was also very common to listen to corridos which became very popular during the period of the Mexican Revolution (1910-1927). Besides the local folkloric music of each city the caravans of artists that tour the country and Central America also took with them musicians from other places and this is how they learned how to play other instruments and acquired different styles.

This important social contextualization helped us to measure the cultural relationship created in the population and how in some way travelers also played an important role in this musical transformation, for example: “In 1885 the band of the Eighth Cavalry Regiment of Mexico, performed in New Orleans, during the Sugar and Cotton Exposition. The band remained one year in that city and while there, they interpreted Latin American melodies such as Cuban dances. One of their members, Florenzo Ramos, decided to remain in the Crescent City and it was then when he introduced the saxophone, which was unusual in Louisiana and which would become one of the emblematic instruments of Jazz” (Leymarie 2005:21).

Also the marimbists that returned from the United States were a watershed for the musical transformation in Chiapas as well as in Guatemala. The musical exchange resulted from the immigration of some families to the United States, made the fox-trot222 style common in Gua- temala and this style at the same time blended with the marches, creating a very unusual style which today is part of the musical identity of the marimba in Guatemala and also part of the traditional repertoire of Chiapas.

As well as great performers of the marimba from Guatemala found opportunities to work in the United States, it was similar for some marimbist from Chiapas, they decided to settle for seasons in that country, as did Carlos Tejada, from Tonalá, who settled for 8 years in New York, and he returned to Chiapas taking the influence of the Bigbands to late 30's.223

222 The Fox-trot arrive to Mexico in the 1920’s, and started to be popular (Moreno 1989:19) and (Moreno 1989:125-126). 223 Information compiled from interviews with Carlos Tejadas’ sons, Angel and Roberto Tejada Calzada, made by Hilario Cigarroa Vázquez in 2009; as well as others by Sofía Mireles Gavito, chronicler from Tonalá. Add- tional information can be found in the biography chapter. See more in: (Cigarroa 2011:11-15).

166 Another important achievement in the marimba history in Chiapas is Santiago Borraz contribution to the marimbas, which transformed them even as we know them today. Marimbists and marimba builder Francisco Santiago Borraz, originally from San Bartolome de los Lla- nos, (today Venustiano Carranza), started his musical career beside his father Manuel Trini- dad Santiago, also a marimbist and member of the group that played the first chromatic marimba. He arrived with his brothers Jose, Hector and Segundo to Comitan to work. This city is located 120 km in a straight line to Tuxtla Gutierrez, very close to the Guatemalan border, where the greatest commercial and cultural influx was very active with that country.

Until then the marimba groups played in a quartet formation in a marimba of five or six octaves and it was in 1916 when Francisco Santiago completes the group with a small marimba of four and a half octaves, which would later be known as the requinta224, the voices were better distributed this way in both instruments; He formed the first group with seven marimbists, four on the marimba grande and three on the marimba requinta, besides adding the double bass (also known as violon or tololoche), increasing the group to 8 members.225

Many authors226 mentioned Francisco Santiago Borraz as the inventor of the marimba requinta, but this does not make sense musically, since previously the marimba were played by sitting down they have almost the same extension and tessitura, in fact, they had more high pitch notes than the requinta, as it can be appreciated in the previous pictures, besides, 90 percent of them mentioned that the requinta is an octave higher pitch than the marimba grande, which is false, because both marimbas have almost the same tessiture in the high pitch, the difference are only two or three keys, but what is a fact is that the melodic line played in the requinta is one octave higher pitch than the one played in the marimba grande. These versions in reference to the invention of a physical instrument are a clear example of the distorted information regarding the marimba by those without musical knowledge.

224 Alsonfo Arrivillaga mentioned that this variation was possibly named tiple or requinto, inspired in the tradition of the string groups that have smaller guitars (with higher notes) with the same names, using relief and ornament functions for the melodies. (Arrivillaga 2010:28). 225 Chiapas Suplemento Cultural, July 1st 1951:1. 226 (Pineda del Valle 1990), (Montiel 1985), (Hernández 1975), (Trujillo 2010), (Kaptain 1991) among others.

167

M-Fig.26: Marimba tessiture of El Aguila de México

Nevertheless, the contributions made by Francisco Santiago are very important in the evolution of the marimba, since he is the one that gave new form to the modern marimba groups that have been performing for almost 100 years. The groups of eight elements created by Francisco Santiago, open a new historic stage for the instrument and for the music of marimba; this new distribution of voices enhances the sound of the groups and provides them with a new image, but perhaps the most important contribution is that it initiated the development of the tenor or “soloist” 227, giving performers a new phase to achieve “virtuosity” and the use of more than two mallets. The tenor is the marimbist that plays the marimba requinta with the lower pitch melodies, incorporating improvisation, the use of 4 mallets and greater harmonic possibilities known as “voicings”, giving the style and sound of the marimbas of Mexico and Guatemala their own identity.

Francisco Santiago organized the group El Aguila de Mexico, formed also by his brothers Hector, Segundo and his half-brother Jose Cordova, collaborating with the group of Domingo Gomez Garcia. This group had great importance, because besides being the first one that counted with two marimbas, it added other instruments to their ensemble, like the violin, the accordion, the banjo, the trumpet and the drums (Trujillo 2010:76).

227 It is the adjective used for marimbists that play with four mallets on the marimba requinta; they usually have the lead of the group and execute the improvisations.

168

Fig. 20: El Águila de México.

The marimba Aguila de Mexico carried out a tour throughout Europe during the 20’s. Their main sojourn was Germany, and in this tour Francisco Santiago was absent and Domingo Gomez went as Director. In the programs we can see the diversity of genres and styles of music that they performed; this proved that the Chiapanecan marimba no longer belonged to a particular region and its repertoire had become international.

Fig. 21: Part of the repertoire list of El Aguila de Mexico.

169 Unfortunately we have been unable to find any recordings where we could listen to the way this group tackled its repertoire, but through photographs and the handed list of the program’s repertoire we can get an idea of the possible sounding facets of the group. In the book Maderas de mi Tierra, by Gustavo Trujillo (Trujillo 2010:79) who also makes a review about these groups, mentions that apparently the group recorded in 1930 in Berlin, but unfortunately he was unable to trace the recording. In the pictures where El Aguila de Mexico appears we can see some of the instruments the ensemble used such as: the drums, the accordion, the trumpet, the violin, the xylophone and curiously the banjos. The inclusion of other instruments to the marimba ensembles was probably the result of the need to diversify the sound to perform such a broad repertoire. It should also be noted that the Charro outfit was the common clothing of Mexican groups abroad, which was the typical outfit for the Caporal (foremen)228 in the ranches in Jalisco, in the western zone of the country, and which later, in the music world, was left exclusively for the use of the mariachis.

The copies that exist of the events handouts and the pictures of these tours provide the necessary elements to explain the size of the musical repertoire that the musicians of that time took on. They counted with at least 200 pieces according to the list of the mentioned program,229 which shows the musical versatility of El Aguila de Mexico. In fact, the marimba groups normally have a repertoire of no less than 500 pieces230, mainly among the oldest groups.

The group El Aguila de Mexico did not last a long time, the group disintegrated after their return to Mexico, probably because the maestro Domingo Gomez died in Germany, (Trujillo 2010:79). Many of these musicians formed new groups and began a new period of the Chiapanecan marimba in Mexico City, where the maestro Ciro Juarez lived up to his death, and always used that same name for all his groups.

While El Aguila de Mexico travelled throughout Europe, in Mexico City the maestro Francis- co Santiago continue to collaborate with groups such as La Orquesta Tipica de Mexico. He

228 Foremen; Caporal: It is what chiefs of ranches and farms are called. Definition by the dictionary of the RAE: 1. (From Italian Caporale). 2. m. Man who heads some people and is the boss. 3. m. Man in charge of cattle and works in farming; 5.m. Am. Foreman at a cattle station. 229 Program handed out, from the private files of Fernan Pavia, which shows a list of musical pieces, up to number 217, as well as the genres performed. 230 Information obtained from my personal experiences as a marimbist as well as from conversations with other musicians.

170 returned to his home town in the 30’s, and there with his group, he continued to enjoy great prestige as a musician and as a marimba manufacturer. Many local musicians were part of his group, as was his brother Hector, who perfected the use of the four mallets, and other young musicians who would later become great marimbists and Manuel Vleeshower Borraz stands out among them.

Interestingly, very little is known about two very important groups in the musical evolution of the marimba, we lack information and nothing has been said about the Quartet of the Solis Brothers or about the marimba El Aguila de Mexico, and they are both linked to Comitan, but there are no records of their history.

Also in the 1920s, with the spread of the radio which started in 1921,231 other very important marimbists appeared on the music scene. The Dominguez Brothers from the State of Chiapas initiated a process that was also important for the improvement of music in Chiapas and marked a personal style in their development. Out of ten brothers, seven were musicians, Francisco, Abel, Ernesto, Alberto, Gustavo, Armando and Ramiro who received their musical education from their father, Abel Dominguez Ramirez, a pianist in San Cristobal. In 1921 the family moved to Mexico City and for a few years while living there Abel, Alberto and Ar- mando studied in the National Conservatory of Music and the three of them are the most recognized (Robledo 2004:68).

The Dominguez Brothers lived through the beginning of the radio in Mexico and they had a very prolific life and all of them were also composers of pieces that continue to be played to this day. Abel composed many academic works and music for some movies, but his greatest productions are the boleros, the zapateados and the marches. Armando was also a composer; a great jazz pianist and he worked several years in some cities of the United States like New York, Las Vegas and Los Angeles. The most famous among them was Alberto, who was the Director of great bands, a pianist and a composer. His best known composition are “Perfidia” and “Frenesi”, that have become standards and have been interpreted by many great jazz musicians and different orchestras with excellent arrangements and recorded by many singers in

231 See more in: Francisco de Anda y Ramos, La Radio. El despertar del Gigante, México, 1997; Cuauhtémoc Anda Gutiérrez, Importancia de la radiodifusión en México, México, 2004.

171 different languages. Alberto was also an author of zapateados, marches, polkas and other Latin rhythms.

The Dominguez Brothers lived through an ideal historic moment that enabled them to develop and show the marimba to the rest of Mexico. They were hired from 1939 until 1958 by the XEW Radio (Robledo 2004: 68), the largest radio network in Latin America which had cov- erage that reached the whole American Continent and that allowed them to make their music known. They had regular presentations and even though they played various instruments, the marimba was constant in their performances. They came up with the name La Lira de San Cristobal and prepared the first marimba recording in a paste record. They also appeared in some films in the forties. Their recordings display their compositions, as well as wonderful interpretations of classical music in marimba and many other musical genres.

In their recordings is possible to recognize how they included in their ensemble the double bass, the trumpet, the drums, the accordion and also the vibraphone and the American marim- ba232. They created a huge repertoire that became marimba standards which were also recorded by the greatest artists of the time and also played in films. The Dominguez Brothers are recognized and admired as artistic symbols of Chiapas and the main theater in San Cristobal de las Casas was named after them.

5.2 The Marimba Orchestras

Towards the second decade of the XX century, a musical movement around the marimba began in Chiapas even as some musicians continued travelling to the United States, perhaps mainly motivated by the instability still prevailing in Mexico which was just coming out of a social revolution. At the same time however, other musicians from Chiapas were returning and they continued to provide new elements to the musical development of the marimba.233

232 The marimbas known internationally in conservatories and music schools initiated with companies from the United States. Its common name is marimba, however, in Chiapas and Guatemala with a broad tradition with the marimba, these are known as classic marimbas or American marimbas. 233 See more in: Raúl Mendoza Vera, Memorias de marimbistas: Marimbas tuxtlecas 1900-1980, Tuxtla Gutiér- rez, Chiapas, México, 2015.

172 In this musical context, one of the returning musicians was Jose Ovando de la Cruz (1891- 1944), better known by his nickname “Fax Ovando” who was a marimbist that changed the playing style of the marimba, for he is attributed, at least in Tuxtla, as being the first one to play with four mallets. He received that nickname because he was a great performer of “fox- trot”, which he made popular in Tuxtla and in other places in Chiapas.234 We have little information about this musician but we found some references in a book titled Historia del Teatro Emilio Rabasa Castañon Gamboa235(Castañon 1947) and a book by Gustavo Montiel titled Tuxtla de mis Recuerdos236(Montiel 1980), which mention him as a renown marimbist and he is also mentioned in some artistic and social presentations of the city. The journalist Raul Mendoza Vera was able to gather information for his research about the marimbists of Tuxtla Gutierrez.237 In that regard Mendoza comments that Ovando lived in the United States close to ten years, toured the country and had the opportunity to travel to Europe and Japan performing as marimbist. Regarding the interviews with the descendants of Ovando, they explained that he returned to Chiapas at the beginning of the 1920’s, and he was the one to pop- ularize Fox-trot in Chiapas, which earned him his nickname. Oscar C. Mota Castillejos, at the time a journalist and reporter for VIMOS magazine, became friends with Ovando while he attended music lessons. He describes him as a very kind person, a good marimba teacher and he also mentions that Ovando played the piano and other instruments like the hand vibraphone, but the most important piece of information is his comment that he also composed music for silent films played at the Rabasa Theater.238

This information is very relevant because it is an example of the positioning of the marimba in Chiapas. While in Mexico silent films became popular, everywhere else these films were musicalized live with a piano during the performances, but in Chiapas, this was done with marimba. Ovando and Oscar Ventura, like so many other marimbists of this time, offered their professional services for film musicalization.239

234 The Ovandos’s nick name comes because hi introduce the Fox-trot at the marimba. For Chiapanecans the English pronunciation was funny (fax-trot). 235 See more in: Fernando Castañon Gamboa, Historia del Teatro Emilio Rabasa, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, 1947. 236 See more in: Gustavo Montiel, Tuxtla Gutiérrez de mis recuerdos, Chiapas, 1980. 237 Information provided by journalist Raul Mendoza Vera, who has been gathering information and has documented the marimba in Chiapas. See more in: (Mendoza Vera 2015). 238 Oscar C. Mota Castillejos, Gentes de mi pueblo, Jose (Fax) Ovándo de la Cruz, O.J.:23-25. Revista Vimos. 239 See more in: (Montiel 1980); (Castañón 1947).

173 Jose Ovando also composed some sones and zapateados, among them El Pañuelo Rojo is the best known in Chiapas. He was also recognized as a musician that wrote his music scores and made arrangements for other groups very quickly (Mendoza Vera 2015:32).

The coast of Chiapas was also involved in the boom of the marimbist movement. In Tonala, a village dedicated to fishing and cattle and was the commercial road between the border with Guatemala and the state of Oaxaca; it was also the cradle of many generations of excellent marimbists and the place where important contributions to the marimba were made. One of the first groups to get established was Los Hermanos Marin. Lucano and Eusebio Marin Pi- ñon, were natives of the neighboring state of Oaxaca, from the town of Tehuantepec and they both played the piano and the organ. Lucano settled in Tonala and with his sons Jesus, Pablo, Hermilio, Delfino and Jose Belen, formed the marimba orchestra Los Hermanos Marin. They worked as musicians on the coast towns, from Arriaga to Tapachula. Later on, in 1921 and during the visit of President Alvaro Obregon, Los Hermanos Marin played at the railroad station and it was then that the President invited them to perform concerts at the World Fair in Dallas, Texas, and later they continued their presentations in various places of the United States. Los Hermanos Marin stayed in Mexico City and formed part of the Orquesta Tipica de Mexico, and in time Pablo became the Director. All the Marin brothers continued their musical career in Mexico City and remained there until they died.240

Another member of the group of Los Hermanos Marin was Carlos Tejada Henestrosa (1897- 1995), originally from Tonala, who was very important to the transformation process of the marimba orchestras. Carlos Tejada was credited for introducing “American” music to Chia- pas,241 that is the music of the Big Bands and for incorporating several wind instruments to the marimba groups, and as a result included the instrumental amount that since then and to this day is known as Marimba Orchestra. He joined the group Los Hermanos Marin in 1916 and travelled with them to the United States in 1920 and in 1921 to Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro and Montevideo, and on his returned he had a short stay in Panama. Once separated from the Marin, between 1922 and 1927 he often worked between Mexico and the United

240 Sofía Mireles Gavíto, “Semblanza de los hermanos Marín, marimbistas de la Orquesta Típica”, in: El Heraldo de Chiapas, October 27th, 2012. 241 American Music or “Musica Americana” is how the chiapanecan people refer to the jazz music, specially from the Big Bands.

174 States and in 1927 he returned to the United States and made presentations in Chicago, De- troit, Florida, Washington, Saint Louis Missouri and other cities. He stayed in Chicago four months and in 1928 he left for New York and remained there until 1936, when he returned to Chiapas. Since then he organized his marimba orchestra which became very well known on the coast towns, and in 1954 he named his group La Lira de Oro, and he became very popular with that group, playing mainly jazz music in the style of the Big-bands. He started with one trumpet and two saxophones and later on with an orchestra of two trumpets and four saxophones, drums, congas, double bass and two marimbas with seven marimbists. With the marimba La Lira de Oro, Carlos Tejada recorded five long plays with the RCA Victor brand242. The marimbists on the coast of Chiapas accepted the influence he had on the quantity of instruments used and this influence expanded all over Chiapas, Mexico City and also Guatema- la.

In the XX century, during the decades of the thirties and forties music became popular quickly and radio played an impressive role broadcasting it. The first recordings began to spread all over Mexico. Mexican movies had an unprecedented rise and that is how the music was transmitted to every state in the country. In the larger cities in Chiapas dancing became popular in casinos or “ballrooms” and the musicians found places to work and to continue improv- ing. Many marimbists also moved temporarily to other towns and cities to play with the casino groups, or in some cases they travelled with their own groups, which encourage the exchange of ideas and the diffusion of styles and strengthen the links among musicians from different regions in Chiapas. Tropical music became stronger and the marimba incorporated it as its own, therefore the danzón, the mambo, the cha-cha and bolero were added to the repertoire and incorporating at the same time the music that came from the United States like the charleston and the swing.

This way and with the influence of groups like La Lira de San Cristobal that were transmitted on the radio, the marimba groups broaden their instrumental variety and that helped them become more competitive as musicians. In many of these groups some musicians played several instruments, as we can observe in the pictures of El Aguila de Mexico, and that was and still is a constant with the marimba groups.

242 See more information in the Discography Appendix.

175 Among the first groups some or several marimbists also played a wind instrument to broaden their musical versatility, usually a saxophone or trumpet. For example, many young musicians are not aware that the great marimbists at one time or another also played a wind instrument, like Zeferino Nandayapa and Danilo Gutierrez who played the saxophone. Later on the marimbas included exclusively wind instrument players.

The diffusion that the bands had had in the whole country and the commercial growth on the Coast of Chiapas and Oaxaca forced many Juchiteco243 musicians to move to Chiapas and they would later form the wind section of many marimba orchestras, including the State Band, that has always included many musicians from Oaxaca as members, and in some cases, many wind musicians in Chiapas had some musician from Oaxaca as teacher. In fact, in the thirties, in the city of Tuxtla Gutierrez, in the Cristobal Colon neighborhood, there were a large number of people from the Isthmus of Oaxaca, most of them musicians that worked in bands and all of them were able to read music and they helped and mentored some musicians from Chiapas.244 Some players remember the Marimba de los Hermanos Cartagena as the first marimba in Tuxtla that included a saxophone, but we lack real information (Mendoza Vera 2015:52).

During the 1940’s, when the marimba already had an important place in all of Chiapas, in many towns there were several groups, some small between five to seven musicians and some large with two marimbas and several wind instruments. Nonetheless, not all families had devices to listen to the radio and not all musicians had immediate access to the new songs that were required to be included in their repertoire in order to be hired at parties. Competition was obvious and the groups in cities and towns competed to be the first one hired. Some marimbists interviewed told us “what they had to do” to learn the new music from the radio when they did not have one at home. Some of them knew the schedule when they transmitted the modern songs and they would sit outside the house of some relative that owned a radio and each member of the group concentrated and prepared to listen and memorize in a single time the part he had to perform, that is, the one that played the harmony of the marimba concentrated on the chords, the players of tiples that means first and second voices on the marim-

243 Juchiteco is a gentilic noun of people from Juchitan, Oaxaca. They are known for a great tradition of wind bands. Oaxaca is the state of Mexico that has more wind bands. 244 Interview with Joel Espinoza, a trumpet player, May 12th 2011.

176 ba concentrated on the melodies and if there was anyone that played wind instruments, in the possible variations or ornaments, and as soon as the song stopped transmitting, they would run to their place of rehearsal, commonly the house of the musical director and they began to recall what they had heard and an hour after listening the piece on the radio, the group had a new song in their repertoire.

Another way a little bit more risky was for example when Zeferino, Rene and Alejandrino Nandayapa would sit to listen to the music bands rehearse, or any other group that had a radio, or even a record player or turn table, and in the same way, from the street, they would learn the melodies, the rhythm and harmony of the songs, after just listening for a moment. It was not pleasant for some of the musicians to see them prowling near the rehearsals because they knew that they were capable of learning the new repertoire even before they implemented it.245

In Chiapas, during the 1940’s, some groups were formed and they are known to this day, like the Marimba of the Municipal Police of Tuxtla Gutierrez, known as La Poli de Tuxtla. The brewing companies’ marimbas like Corona and Carta Blanca; family marimbas, like Los Hermanos Aquino, Los Hermanos Paniagua, and groups from the Pacific coast like Los Her- manos Peña Rios, Carlos Tejada, Edminio de Aquino among others.

In those days the groups travelled to play in the state fairs around Chiapas. When in some place they organized a night dance, they would hire 2 marimba orchestras; and they placed each other at the end of the dance hall. They played alternating rounds of one hour each and that initiated what was called a “mano a mano”, and at a determined moment they had a music showdown when each marimba would play one piece of their best repertoire, generally classical music or a paso doble or a waltz with virtuoso arrangements for the marimbists. The audience then would applaud to decide which marimba was the winner of the night, and in addition they would take the prestige of having defeated their opponent and an extra financial bonus for the winners. 246

245 Jorge Montero, Mario Zúñiga, Tito Palomeque, Joel Benítez, Zeferino Nandayapa among others. 246 Interviews with musicians: Jorge Montero and Mario Zuñiga, Humberto Moreno.

177

Fig. 22: Marimba Orchestra Hermanos Aquino. Chiapa de Corzo, April 1943.

The “mano a mano” continued to be used until the end of the XX century, although they were performed as a competition, but the dances were organized with two marimba orchestras and it was announced in that way.

At the end of the 1940’s and 1950’s, the marimbists were constantly very busy, and that situation continued for more than three decades because the marimba had such popularity and was so rooted in society that is was part of every celebration in Chiapas, they were present in fairs and during the festivities of the patron saints of the different towns. The groups were booked every week and for long sessions. Many of these groups played in family parties such as weddings, that lasted 10 to 15 hours and they would continue playing the next day on these celebrations and this went on every week. Although there were well known groups of marimba in many towns in Chiapas, during the second half of the XX century the groups that would become icons in town and cities of Chiapas and even Mexico were born. It was precisely during the 1950’s when the most representative marimbists of the century initiated their careers in the marimba orchestras and some of them relocated to Mexico City in search of better opportunities and that gave origin to what we could define as the Golden Age of the marimba covering the 1950’s, 1960’s and 1970’s.

La Marimba de la Policia, better known as La Poli de Tuxtla, was the first one to make a record in the State of Chiapas, started in 1937 for the request of the Governor of the State, Efrain

178 Gutierrez and Captain Jose Zepeda Vargas, sponsored what would later be called La Marimba de la Policia del Estado, that originally started as a marimba octet accompanied by a string bass and drum. The trumpet and the sax would be added shortly after. (Mendoza Vera 2015:55)

Miguel Lerdo de Tejada, a Mexican musician and composer who after the Revolution became very close to the political power and founded many typical orchestras in Mexico. He also promoted the army and police bands in different parts of the country. The revolutionary nationalism tried to elevate the national and regional values and one of his cultural policies was to institutionalize some traditional groups like the mariachis, groups of Jarocho sones among others, and in that spirit, the marimba of the municipal police was formed in Chiapas La Poli de Tuxtla247.

At the beginning the musicians had to wear the police uniform but later on the group sepa- rates from the police department but keeps the name, which continues in effect to this day under the sponsorship of the State Government, assigned to the Ministry of Culture. In Chia- pas, in the year 1956 a musician from Chiapas, Rafael de Paz, was very well recognized in the musical scene in Mexico, especially as an arranger for popular artist like Benny More, and as musical director in the movies, as he acted as assistant director of the record company RCA Victor of Mexico. Rafael de Paz arrived in Tuxtla that year to record La Poli de Tuxtla, and that was the first recording of a marimba group in the State of Chiapas. The recording was carried out at the auditorium Francisco I. Madero, previously named Teatro del Estado and it was made with many limitations. The musicians that took part in the recording remember that it was made with a single microphone. This first recording was captured in reel tape and many 78 revolutions records were made from it. It was a limited issue and the recorded themes were edited in separate discs; one of them was a medley of boleros by composer Agustin Lara, with an arrangement by Jesus Megchung, who was a tenor player from 1950 to 1952 and this medley became a standard piece of the marimba groups in Chiapas and every group played it (Mendoza Vera 2015:56). That first record, although with a low distribution, was registered as the first recording made in Chiapas and it was the beginning of a new era for the marimba

247 The “Marimba Orquesta de la Policia”, appears in different recording with various names, in some as Ma- rimba de la Policia, or Orquesta de la Policia, or Marimba Orquesta de Tuxtla Gutierrez Chiapas and in some with the nickname of La Poli de Tuxtla, as they are best known to this date.

179 music. Later on, hundreds of records were produced by the different marimbas in Chiapas. At first the groups travelled to Mexico City to record, or sometimes the companies would come to Chiapas for a season, to record previously selected groups of marimba orchestras. During the 1980’s the company Sonosur was formed and it had a recording studio in Tuxtla Gutierrez and it practically recorded all the popular and famous marimba orchestras from Chiapas. For- tunately during the 1990’s there were several recording studios in Chiapas and many groups continued producing their records.

During the 1950’s La Poli de Tuxtla was directed by maestro Ricardo Sanchez Solis and it was part of the ensemble his brother and 2 young marimbists: Danilo Gutierrez Garcia, from Villaflores and Manuel Vleeshower Borraz, from Venustiano Carranza, they would later become soloists and they would dictate the music trends and the improvisation styles of the marimba groups in Chiapas. About this first recording Danilo reported “…It was only Felix’s trumpet and the two saxophones that we had in La Poli, one that belong to Lisandro, which he played so well and mine, which played the second voice …”. This reference confirms to us that in Tuxtla it was not common to use several wind instruments. Finally in 1957 the group was able to make a formal studio recording and it was recorded with the Columbia brand in Mexico City, and among the themes recorded was a Guatemalan Waltz “La Flor del Café”, “El Cisne” by Agustin Lara, “The Club Verde Waltz”, “Begin the Beguine” by Cole Porter and the recently arrived Afro-Antillean rhythms like the “Subi Gallego”. The record was a complete success and it gave La Poli a prestige never before achieved by any marimbists from Tuxtla that allowed them to tour the whole country. Afterwards La Poli recorded another three discs: “Zapateados”, “Chiapas” in 1962, with regional and traditional sones and zapateados, and “Agustin Lara” in 1964.

In this recording you can hear the great musical versatility that the marimba achieved from the very first recordings; the same versatility found in the Dominguez Brothers, alternating between tradition and novelty and not only with Mexican music but also tropical music and American music.

180 5.3. The marimba and its dispersion in Mexico

5.3.1 The marimba in the South of Mexico

At the end of the 1940’s and 1950’s a migration of marimba musicians of great magnitude occurred, particularly towards Mexico City, and the main motivation was to find better opportunities to build a better life. Musicians started leaving Chiapas, some by railroad and they went directly to the State of Veracruz, others by bus and a few more were travelling from town to town and working to save up enough money to be able to reach their final destination. The old commercial routes already established in previous years went through towns that had the capability to receive these musicians and to provide them with jobs in restaurants, cantinas and dancing halls. The old commercial route established from San Cristobal to Tuxtla, then towards Tabasco, through Tecpatan and finally to the city of Villahermosa; or through the coast from Coatzalcoalcos to the City of Orizaba, in Veracruz. These routes had been used since pre-Hispanic times and they were marked by the old towns established in this region and at the beginning of the XX century they were still well travelled. This is how musicians stayed in these towns temporarily and some remained indefinitely and settled with their families, and that was the case of marimbist Santiago Borges, originally from Venustiano Carran- za and who remained in Tecpatan; and some members of the Palomeque family stayed in Vil- lahermosa; and some families from Chiapas also settled in cities like Coatzacoalcos, Vera- cruz, Xalapa and Puebla among others.248

Another route followed by this permanent migration was the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, in the state of Oaxaca, and this route of the Pacific was taken by the marimbists from Chiapas who travelled to the towns of Juchitan, Tehuantepec and from there to Oaxaca, or to Matias Romero bound for Veracruz. If we take in consideration that many musicians from the towns of Oaxaca had been members of the musical groups in Chiapas, so it happened that while the musicians from Oaxaca made the wind instruments popular in Chiapas, the musicians from Chiapas made the marimba popular in Oaxaca. It that State, in the capital city of Oaxaca La Marimba del Estado de Oaxaca was founded in 1946, when the then governor of Chiapas,

248 Interviews with musicians: (Mario Zuñiga, Zaferino Nandayapa, Humberto Moreno, Jorge Aquino, Oscar Moreno, Joel Espinoza, and others.

181 Juan M. Esponda, gave a marimba as a gift to the governor of Oaxaca, Edmundo Sanchez Cano249. Later on, Eduardo Vasconcelos, interim governor, and in collaboration with maestro Guillermo Rosas Solaegui, director of the Fine Arts School of the Universidad Benito Juarez of Oaxaca, requested the District Judge of Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, the necessary musicians to form the state marimba because in Oaxaca there were no performers, therefore in 1948 the first marimbists arrived, represented and directed by the maestro Jose Espinosa Lopez and four of his brothers: Ruben on bass, Rafael on harmony, Artemio on tiple of requinta and Os- car first and second voices.

At the beginning they prepared and interpreted music from Oaxaca and in 1950 La Marimba del Estado is promoted to the rank of government institution and maestro Ruben Lopez Agui- lar took over as Director and he restructured the group musically, incorporating some instruments like the drums and the vibraphone, increasing the total to nine members. From 1989 Elpidio Ibanez Carrillo acted as Director and bass player of the marimba, and he displayed a musical talent that lasted more than 54 years while in that institution. Under his direction new instruments were incorporated, like the tenor saxophone, the alto saxophone and the vibraphone. They completed 14 recordings and it was during that period that they recorded the most. On December 4th, 2013 the Maestro Elpidio Ibanez died and was replaced by the maestro Diego Palacios Gonzalez, a young man from Oaxaca who is part of the marimba tradition for that state. La Marimba del Estado de Oaxaca completed 21 recordings, most of them with regional music from Oaxaca and they also incorporated the national popular music and the works of university composers. The Oaxacan people as well as visitors can listen to the night concerts performed by the marimba during the serenades on the main square, in the city of Oaxaca.250

Since then the marimba in Oaxaca achieved great popularity and today it is part of the traditional music of the state. In 2013 the Center for the Performing Arts in a ceremony made a public recognition to the musical career and artistic contributions of the maestro Elpidio Al- berto Ibañez Carrillo for more than 54 years to the guarding of the national musical heritage

249 http://www.lastfm.es/music/Marimba+del+Estado+de+Oaxaca ; https://goo.gl/pmYvKr (last access March 15th, 2015). 250 Information provided by the current director of the Marimba from the State of Oaxaca, Diego Palacios Gon- zales. December 2014.

182 of Oaxaca, on that time Director of La Marimba del Estado. In that ceremony in the House of Culture of Oaxaca, a representative of the Minister of Culture and Arts in Oaxaca (Seculta), Emilio de Leo Blanco, handed the award in the name of the Government of the State. He made reference to one of the contributions of the honored guest, who was able to assemble a formal marimba worthy of performing during the main events of Oaxaca state.251

“This is just an expression of gratitude to the friend that through his work was able to recreate the live sounds of Oaxaca and to maintain current one of our oldest musical institutions [..]The square of the capital of the state vibrates every week with the musical accompaniment of one of the most solid and most prestigious institutions, one which livens up the permanent programs of Seculta: ‘Oaxaca, its His- tory and Music, ‘Danzon on Wednesdays’ and ‘Serenades with La Marimba del Estado”. (Translate by Blanca Navas)252

Oaxaca has continued diffusing the marimba and making it part of its traditional music. Much of the repertoire, mainly mestizo is performed by the marimba, and some of the actions that stand out are the programs such as El Rincon de la Marimba (Marimba’s Corner) developed in 2005 by the Secretary of Culture in Oaxaca with the municipal, state and federal support through the National Council for Culture and the Arts (Conaculta), under the musical instruction of maestros Javier Nandayapa and Sotero Ruiz.

Starting in 2006 they implemented shops to teach how to play and repair the instrument and emphasizing the work with children. With this program 12 groups of children have been formed in different municipalities of the state, in zones where the instrument has great impact, such as the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the region of the Papaloapan, in Oaxaca253. One reference that suggests the kind of diffusion the marimba has had in Oaxaca during the last years is the shop to build marimbas of the Nandayapa Brothers, in Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, where in the last 15 years they have sold approximately 200 marimbas in that State.

251 Press releases, Oaxaca State Government, March 31th 2013. Online: http://www.oaxaca.gob.mx/entrega-gobierno-de-cue-reconocimiento-al-director-de-la-marimba-del-estado- elpidio-ibanez/ (last access February 15th, 2015). 252 El zócalo de la capital del estado, vibra cada semana con el acompañamiento musical de una de las institucio- nes más sólidas y de mayor prestigio que alegra los programas permanentes de la Seculta: “Oaxaca su Historia y su música”, “Miércoles de Danzón” y “Serenata con la Marimba del Estado”. In Press releases, Oaxaca State Government, March 31th 2013. 253 Taken of the interview with Javier Nandayapa and Sotero Ruíz, whose are in charge of the coach of the students in the project. See more in: http://goo.gl/tVRCSQ (last access April 2nd, 2015).

183 Another state where the marimba has great popularity is Tabasco, which borders with Chia- pas, Veracruz, Campeche and Guatemala. The people from Tabasco attribute the beginning of the development of the marimba in Tabasco happened in the town of Dos Rios (Two Rivers) in the municipality of Balancan in the Usumacinta River254. According to the legend, when some African slaves were running away from the Spanish, they took shelter in this region, in the village of Mactun. The Maya and the slaves built the first marimbas in Tabasco (Carreon 2004:53). It is also said that this instrument arrived in Tabasco through the municipality of Tenosique (in fact it borders with Balancan), when a family originally from Guatemala settled there and built the first marimba. According to the text of the journalist from Tabasco, Guadalupe Felipe Luna, in the anthology of the marimba in Tabasco, he relates about a man named Crescencio Velazquez referring to him as one of the first marimbists that liven up the dances accompanied by two guitar players, as harmonic section of the piece they were performing. This character was known by all the residents of Tenosique as Don Tocho y su marimba, this in the old downtown area of the municipality of Tenosique, named Usumacinta. Don Tocho encouraged other musicians to take an interest and practice the marimba. Felipe Luna says that the marimba used by Don Tocho can still be admired at his home, where he lived for a long time, and that he handed down this instrument to his daughter, Concepcion Velazquez Montiel, a teacher, who still keeps it with zeal in memory of her father.255

Another marimbist that emerged at the same time as Don Tocho is Jose Maria Bolon, father of a great family of musicians of lineage and who played a marimba of two octaves and a half as the one played by Don Tocho. Jose Maria Bolon, taught his sons Onocifero, Leandro, Pedro, Querubin and Jose Maria Bolon Jimenez, how to play the marimba and years later they formed the group “Marimba de los Hermanos Bolon”. They played on a marimba of six and a half octaves.

Felipe Luna does not give us any indication regarding the time period when Don Tocho formed his group. Nevertheless, the marimba in Tabasco just like in Oaxaca had its formal development in the XX century. They also have well known groups and gifted marimbists and

254 See more in official web of the Mexico government of hydrologic information on site: http://www.agua.org.mx/el-agua/agua-en-mexico/riosdemexico (last access May 4th, 2015). 255 Interview with journalist Guadalupe Felipe Luna Pérez. See more in: “Antología de la marimba de Tabasco (I parte)”, in: Diario de la tarde, November 25th 2010.

184 this is another one of the states in Mexico that has marimba groups that belong to government institutions, as is the case of La Marimba del Estado de Tabasco.

Felipe Luna,256 in his written report regarding the International Marimba Festival celebrated in Tabasco in the year 2007 narrates the story of the Marimba in the State of Tabasco, and says that in the year 1959, Carlos Alberto Madrazo was the constitutional governor. The marimba group Lira Tabasqueña from Macuspana, was the first one to play and it represented with pride the musical excellence of the members of the ‘State Government Marimbas’ and they suddenly emerged impetuously with an extended repertoire of brilliant, melodious and harmonic sounds that rhythmically accompanied the famous ‘social gatherings’ and the fashionable and trendy parties. In 1959 they were hired by the government to officially represent the State permanently. La Marimba del Estado de Tabasco “The State Government Marim- ba”, with their extensive repertoire, mainly regional, captivated locals as well as tourists, for their dexterity and virtuoso quality and for their interpretations.

Just like it happened in Oaxaca, in 1960 the then Governor of Chiapas, Samuel Leon Brindis (1958-1964) gave as a gift a pair of marimbas to the government of the State of Tabasco, which were used for their official group. At the beginning of the 1970’s, during the government of Mario Trujillo Garcia, he purchased marimbas also from Chiapas for La Marimba del Estado. In Tabasco since the 1950’s, they celebrated musical contests and many groups participated, looking for prestige in the community. The winners obtained a good place in the musical field and that provided them better job opportunities.

Another prominent marimbist from Tabasco was Jose Maria Bolon Suchite, grandson of Jose Maria Bolon, who could be identified like the patriarch of this family of musicians from Ta- basco, originally from Balancan. Bolon Suchite learned music from his father and to read music scores from his uncles and he formed several marimba groups in Tabasco. In 1954 the marimba Joyas del Usumacinta of the Baños Brothers was formed and in the year 1960 Bolon Suchite directed La Lira Tabasqueña of the Martinez Luna Brothers, from 1961 to 1965 he directed the marimba Voz de la Sierra, of the Palomeque Brothers. Bolon returned to his

256 The father of journalist Felipe Luna is a founding member of the Marimba del Estado de Tabasco, and he descends from a family of musicians - mostly marimbists.

185 hometown to direct the marimba La Perla del Usumacinta of the Pozo Brothers and in 1967 he moves to Mexico City with Pedro Garcia, Alejandro de la Cruz Muñoz and Gutberto Perez (well known musicians in the music circle in Tabasco), and they performed for the first time in the Teatro de Bellas Artes (Fine Arts Theater) with the Ballet Folklorico de Mexico of Amalia Hernandez257 playing the marimba during the regional dances of the south of Mexico, which included music from Chiapas. It should be noted that the most representative dance company in the country had marimbists from Tabasco and not from Chiapas. The maestro Bolon Suchite travelled with this company during many years throughout Europe, the Ameri- can Continent, North Africa, and the Middle East, West of Asia as well as almost all of the Mexican Republic.

Another one of the best known marimba groups is La Marimba Joyas del Usumacinta of Nes- tor and Fausto Baños Brothers. This marimba was founded since the 1940’s and it was also a school to many other musicians from Tabasco and Nestor Baños was also well known as a marimba builder. During the 1950’s the group lived in Mexico City and they would go back to Tabasco only to make presentations or like some musicians say “to win contests”. Joyas del Usumacinta recorded from 25 to 30 long play records with classical, folkloric and popular music. Today the group lives in the city of Cancun, in Quintana Roo, where they performed in one of the most prestigious hotels of that international tourist center, and the group is formed by Nestor M. Baños, Jose Baños Otero, Manuel Reyes Baños Otero, Fausto del Rosario Ba- ños Otero, Heberto Enrique Baños Otero, Luis Gustavo Baños Abreu and Carmelo Baños Abreu.258

As we have seen, in Tabasco the marimba has also become part of their cultural identity and it has produced great musicians, among them great marimbists and composers, for example we will mention some of the oldest marimba groups: Los Politecnicos, in Macuspana, Joyas del Usumacinta, in Balancan, Voz de la Sierra en Teapa; Orquesta Olimpica, in Nacajuca; La Orquesta de Mario Vazquez, in Comalcalco; Lira Azul, in Paraiso; and in the Center there were several like Tabasco, Los Gatos, Los Rubi, Siboney. Some of the best marimba builders

257 The Ballet of Amalia Hernandez is the most representative dance company of Mexico and it has travelled all over the world making its presentations. More information in: http://www.balletfolkloricodemexico.com.mx (last access May 13th, 2015) 258 Interview with Nestor Baños in January 2012.

186 of the State were: Domingo Avendaño, from Mactun Balancan; Landero Brothers from Emi- liano Zapata; Angel Vidal, Francisco de la Cruz and Manuel Acosta, and from the Center among the old builders already deceased are: Jeronimo Sosa, Jesus Pinzon, Manuel Pinzon and Pedro Leon. Currently in the Capital of the State there are several groups that use some marimba among their musical instruments: Alma Tropical, Santa Cecilia, Venus, Rayito de Alba, Alegria y Sabor, Maya, Reina del Tropico, Diosa del Tepetitan, Primavera, Hermanos Flores, Hermanos Escalante, Lira del Sur, Perlas del Sureste, Maderas que Cantan, Hermanos Acosta, Hermanos Cruz, La Nereida, Onda del Usumacinta, Esmeralda, Linda Muñequita, Hermanos Candileja, Blancas Mariposas, Lina Villahermosa, Santa Clara, Brisa del Sureste and Hermanos Cadena among others.259

Carlos Nandayapa, marimba Builder from Chiapa de Corzo, has sold to the State of Tabasco approximately 200 marimbas in the last five years; marimbas grandes and requintas, which would amount to approximately 100 sets of marimba Orchestras. The purchases have been made by the State Government for programs to empower the marimba in that State, where they distribute them to different villages.260

As we continue with the dispersion that the marimba had, Veracruz is another important State where it became part of its cultural identity. Unlike in Chiapas, Oaxaca and Tabasco, in Vera- cruz there is no marimba representative of the State, but there is a group Tlen Huicani Maderas, of the Barranco Brothers, that is part of the University of Veracruz and in a way it is an institutional group.

In the State of Veracruz the marimba was established mainly in the mestizo towns, and it had its boom in the decades of the 1930’s and 1940’s of the XX century. The first marimbas arrived to the plantations of the basin of the Coatzacoalcos River and to the industrial zone of Orizaba at the end of the XIX century. Initially the instruments were purchased in the State of Chiapas and in the middle of the XX century they also began to build them in Veracruz with local woods, like the cocuite and the otate (Delgado 2010:213). Marimbas are more common in the center and south of Veracruz which borders with Chiapas and Oaxaca, and in the port

259 Information provided by the musicians Tino Escalante, y Rosario (Chano) Cadena, in the interview with the journalist Felipe Luna, for Antología de la marimba, Diario de la tarde, Tabasco. 260 Data provided by Carlos Nandayapa.

187 of Veracruz, where tourism was constant and in high volume during the XX century and there, the marimbas are very common and they play different musical genres. Currently, in Ciudad Mendoza there is a marimba encounter and they have been able to establish themselves as one of the most important places of expression for the marimbists of the state, and they invite musicias from other regions like Chiapas, Oaxaca, Tabasco and Mexico City.

The Port of Veracruz, the most important city in the state and the main maritime port in Mex- ico is where the marimba has had greater diffusion. The Plaza de Armas (Arms Square), for many years it was one of the main squares, it shelters musical groups that entertain patrons itinerantly and among these groups are marimbas, danzoneras and jarocho sones groups that were the most common for more than 40 years, but currently they are not as popular since they have been displaced by the invasion of “northern music” and many groups of norteño music have replaced other musical genres. This is why many Mexican tourists and well as foreigners perceived the marimba as an instrument from Veracruz, because for a long time it was so common there that it remain as part of the identity of the port, and some national famous composers from Veracruz wrote songs making reference to the marimba which strengthen even more that idea.

Xalapa is the capital city from Veracruz State, and there is common to find marimba groups on the street, and they play anywhere in exchange for some coins. At the Music School of the Universidad Veracruzana, they have a traditional Mexican marimba ensemble, and also at the Office of Cultural Diffusion. In this city Fernando Morales Matus lived for many years. He was from Belize, a prominent marimbist who also lived in Guatemala. He founded several groups and he premiered in Mexico the concert for marimba and orchestra from the Guatema- lan composer Jorge Sarmientos. Morales Matus had many pupils and a marimba group exclusively for concerts. Additionally, he was a renowned builder of traditional marimbas and classical marimbas for conservatories.

In several municipalities of Veracruz and for many years there are well renowned groups like: La Marimba Voz del Angel, of the Ramirez Brothers, from Rio Blanco; La Marimba Capri and La Marimba Prieta Linda, from Nogales, La Marimba of Bonifaz Molina and La Marim- ba de los Hermanos Godoy, in Orizaba; the marimbas Santa Rosa, La voz de Chiapas, Las

188 Brisas del Papaloapan and La Marimba Juvenil de la Casa de la Cultura, in Ciudad Mendo- za; in Coatzacoalcos La Marimba Flor de Azucena, Marimba Alba, of the Leal Brothers and Marimba Amairani. New groups continue to form, with the natural rotation and inclusion of new musicians.

5.3.2 The Marimba in Mexico City

It was in Mexico City where marimbists found a place to project their musical careers. With the success of the Hermanos Dominguez, many of them went looking for the same opportunities to improve their financial situation; and many of them, with or without their families, in constant migration arrived to the capital city and settled there for approximately 60 years; that is from the 1950’s until the beginning of the XXI century, but the most significant migration occurred during the 1950’s and 1960’s. This relocation started to slow down since life conditions in the great metropolis became more complicated during the 1980’s and 1990’s when the jobs for the marimba groups became scarce and by the end of the century the conditions in Chiapas started to improve and became more favorable for the development of the marimbists.261

Many marimbists and complete group ensembles realized their musical dreams to grow and have a better life. They had the opportunity to complete a great number of recordings and they had a presence on radio and television. Many years earlier several Chiapanecan musicians had already settled in Mexico City, like the Dominguez brothers and Daniel Garcia Blanco, who also founded the School of Popular Music of Mexico. The Marin brothers, who played with the traditional orchestra; Ciro Juarez who stayed in Mexico City after his return from Europe and played with the marimba El Aguila de Mexico; the Gomez brothers stayed one season with the orchestra of Juan Arozamena; Rafael de Paz, composer and arranger of one of the most famous orchestras of all times. Gabriel Solis renowned marimbist founder of many marimba groups, La Marimba Cuquita of the Narvaez brothers, also from San Cristobal de las Casas. In the 1950’s other marimbas began to have an important presence in the capital city,

261 This information was collected from interviews with musicians Humberto Moreno, Oscar Moreno, Jorge Aquino, Isaías Fernández, Zeferino Nandayapa, Oscar Nandayapa, Javier Nandayapa, Omar Domínguez, among other. More information about the groups mentioned can be found in the biographical chapter.

189 like La Marimba de los Hermano Paniagua, from San Cristobal; Los Hermanos Aquino, from Chiapa de Corzo; Humberto Moreno also arrived and created his group Brisas del Grijalva, which had great success and was also one of the marimbists that hired a large number of musicians, and he would help the newly arrived marimbists that were searching for opportunities. It was at this time that one of the greatest figures of the marimba in Mexico arrived, Zeferino Nandayapa and with him other great musicians like Rene Ruiz Nandayapa, Roque Estrada, among others.

Zeferino Nandayapa with his enormous versatility as an interpreter not only of the marimba but also vibraphone, accordion, piano, alto saxophone and trumpet. He worked as a session musician in several recordings with the best known artists and record companies in the nation. He was musical director of the Ballet Company of Zania Zarina (Libano), between 1958 and 1969 and he directed the jewish-yidish music orchestra which was the most important in the Mexico City from 1960 to 1990. In films, he had a presence in many sonorous bands, including some small parts on some scenes, besides the great reputation he achieved with La Ma- rimba Nandayapa. He also studied in the National Conservatory and was the first Mexican marimbist to play as a soloist with a symphonic orchestra. In the next chapter we will further discuss the maestro Zeferino Nandayapa, it is important to acknowledge his musical career and the influence he had on the musicians from Chiapas that arrived in the country‘s capital.

Many musicians and their marimbas had a notable development and they had a position as musicians of the most popular artists of the time, for example Reynolds Peña, one of the most solicited marimbist and pianist who accompanied many singers on radio and television. Dur- ing the 1960’s the Moreno brothers arrived from Arriaga, with their marimba Los Mecateros; and the Pineda brothers, among others from the Coast of Chiapas. During the 1970’s the Fer- nandez brothers, from Venustiano Carranza, with their group Generacion 2000 and Marimba Universitaria, the Hernandez brothers, from Pijijiapan; in the 1980’s some of the Garcia brothers, from San Pedro Buena Vista, a famous family related to a Marimba Orchestra in Chiapas, la Reyna Fraylescana, as well as other great number of musicians, either alone or with their groups.

190 The musical movement gave place to the positioning of the marimba, since the record companies had their recording studios in Mexico City the market was distributed and planned from there; consequently the marimbas from the state of Chiapas had the opportunity to travel and make their recordings and during those trips many of their members chose to stay for a season and work; as a result many of the groups returned to Chiapas incomplete and they had to incorporate new members to their groups and therefore had to continue training marimbists.

Among the marimbas from Chiapas that travelled to Mexico City to record were: La Perla de Chiapas, later Perla del Soconusco, La Corona de Tapachula, Las Aguilas de Chiapas, Alma de Huixtla, Marimba Virreinal de Hugo Reyes, Lira de Oro of Carlos Tejada, La Poli of Tuxtla, La Palma de Oro, Marimba de los Hermanos Palomeque, Marimba Espiga de Oro, Marimba Orquidea and Diosa del Sureste.

The record companies dictated what the market required, so at the time the marimbas were forced to record what the musical director of the company ordered, and they were unable to develop their own projects. In those days the tracks could not exceed three and a half minutes in order to record 10 to 12 music tracks in one LP record and on very rare occasions they would accept some that lasted longer, this affected what marimbists would commonly do with their arrangements, for example, improvisation or a solo could not be long and generally in records they lasted 12 to 20 seconds, so that many would not allow the improvisation part of the marimba. A curious fact is that the covers of the records, especially during the 1970’s, instead of showing a picture of the group, would use the picture of a model in bikini, towards a commercial end and not the diffusion of the instrument or the performers. Later, during the 1980’s the cover would have a natural landscape from the state of Chiapas which represented to the companies an “exotic” image. The covers of the records did not include any information regarding the music group, the musicians, recording place, date or copyrights of the compositions or arrangements.

In Mexico City there were many ballrooms and cabarets, in them the marimbists found a place to work and the recently arrived contacted an acquaintance or relative also from Chiapas to help them connect with someone who could possibly hire them. Most of the marimbists did not have a formal education, did not attend a musical school; they were empiric musicians and

191 very few of them had planned to study music; their priority was to work and support their families and possibly become famous. Many of them were at the mercy of the smarter ones or the best educated, either musically or with better organizing ideas. The average level of education of a musician that travelled from Chiapas to Mexico City was elementary school, and very few completed middle school.

Due to the lack of education marimbists were at the mercy of record companies, in fact, most of the recordings made in those years continue to be exploited today and the groups do not receive any royalties. Later on some musicians understood how the music business worked, like Humberto Moreno, Jorge Aquino and Zeferino Nandayapa, although they did not profit from the rights of their first records.

The profits for the sale of the records of the marimba groups in Mexico do not compare with the sales that in those years generated the mariachi groups, the danzoneras or artists and singers of popular boleros. The recording markets were interested in the marimbas from Chiapas mainly for their versatility and because the groups were so large that they were able to play any type of repertoire, including the most modern, from rock and roll to tropical music, ranchero music and boleros. The expansion of the marimba in Mexico City notably affected what was happening in Chiapas, in spite of the distance and the lack of communication, the comings and goings of musicians also influenced the new styles of performance in Chiapas that compare to those in Mexico City. The marimbas of Chiapas adopted all the popular music from all over Mexico, but there was no reciprocity from the popular music to the marimba, that although it position itself better in the capital city, it never became significant part of the commercial artists on television, as happened with the mariachis and the ranchero music262. Nevertheless, most of the marimbists that settled in Mexico City were able to achieve a better quality of life.

A personality that was known in the music world and recorded many groups was Jose Pinto Meneses ATTY, who acted as Director of the Representation of Chiapas in Mexico City for several years. In the 1950’s and 1960’s he organized on the 14th of September, the annual

262 See more in: Theodore Solís, “Muñecas de chiapaneco: The Economic Importance of Self-Image in the world of Mexican Marimba”, in: Latín American Music Review 1/1 (1980), 34-45.

192 dance of the Chiapanecans who lived in the capital city, to commemorate the annexation of Chiapas to the country of Mexico. This became a tradition for Chiapanecans and their descendants in that city. He was able to take advantage of the talent of the marimbists and hired many marimba groups that were in the city, mainly for official events with the local government or parties for congressmen and senators that represented Chiapas. He took many marimba orchestras and marimbists to the recording studios who were very excited to record, in hopes of having new opportunities that would open doors for them, but later they came to realize that Pinto Meneses had registered in his name many of the marimba groups of those days, and had kept the copy rights for himself as he appeared in many of those recordings not only as a producer but also as the director of the groups. Music agents like him was a constant problem marimbists encountered mainly during the 1970’s, when the LP production was at its highest. That is how many groups used different names to record, either with one producer or company that kept their rights. For example, La Marimba Nandayapa, of Zeferino Nandaya- pa, appears in other recordings as Marimba Hermanos Nandayapa, Marimba Tepito, or Noe Nandayapa y su Marimba; The Aquino brothers appeared as Lira de Plata; the marimba of Humberto Moreno was called Ecos del Grijalva, later Brisas de Chiapas, Marimba Villaflo- res and finally it was named Brisas del Grijalva; and one of the most important marimbas of Chiapas, La Perla de Chiapas appeared first as La Perla del Soconusco but also changed its name due to copy right problems.

In spite of those difficulties, the marimba orchestras prospered and some of the marimbists were able to consolidate their status and became producers and recorded other marimbas; that is the case of Humberto Moreno Penagos who later had his own record brand, HMP, and recorded his orchestras and several of the best marimbas of Chiapas, like La Perla del Soco- nusco, La Corona de Tapachula, La Diosa del Sureste, La Palma de Oro, and La Reyna de la Fraylesca, among others.

Besides, the Maestro Humberto Moreno was one of the marimbists who had a good position in the Sindicato Unico de Trabajadores de la Musica, STUM263 (Labor Union of Music Workers), opening doors for him to play in the best dance ballrooms, on radio and television, which at the time was completely controlled by the union. He provided jobs for generations of

263 More information in: http://www.sutm.mx/#!historia/c1if0 (last access January 15th, 2015).

193 marimbists and there were times, on weekends, when he had to entertain at up to 15 parties, so he had to form several groups to cover various contracts per day, and outside his office you could see all his musical instruments and up to 40 or 50 musicians waiting for their turn to work. Later on the Humberto Moreno took control of the Chiapanecan Dance, in Mexico City, celebrated every 14th of September, and he would take the most prestigious marimba orchestras from Chiapas to the dances where more than 3 thousand people attended. 264

Fig 23: Marimba Brisas del Grijalva in the National TV.

On the other hand, Zeferino Nandayapa was the marimbists who placed the instrument in academic music. He played popular and commercial music; he also played many transcriptions of classical and popular music in other countries. Nandayapa also had great influence with the SUTM and they respected him, also, he was the marimbist that had the most presentations on national television, which gave him unparalleled projection and was the marimbists that represented Mexico abroad, for almost the second half of the XX century.

Among the marimba orchestras that achieved more diffusion and consolidation in Mexico City were La Marimba Nandayapa, Los Mecateros de los Hermanos Moreno, La Marimba de los Hermanos Aquino, Los Hermanos Fernandez, Los Hermanos Paniagua, La Marimba Cuquita of the Narvaez brothers, La Marimba Brisas del Grijalva, La Marimba Surianita, Gabriel Solís, Ciro Juarez, Flamarion Gómez, La Marimba de los Hermanos Pineda, among others.

264 Interview with Humberto Moreno, August 1st 2011. As well as Family and musicians that worked with him.

194

The Chiapanecan marimba expanded in such way that today, many of the musicians that play it are not from Chiapas and we can find groups in different tourist places like Xochimilco265 or in the markets and on the streets. These groups have different sets of instruments; many are marimba requinta with two or three members accompanied by a percussionist or some other instrument, most with bass, drums and saxophone. There are also the large groups with two marimbas with generally several wind instruments, plus several additional ones.

Downtown, on Francisco Boca Negra Street (the street was named in honor of the composer of the verses of the Mexican National Anthem), was the meeting place for several marimba groups, in fact, anyone could go and choose a marimba group from any establishment; there were more than 40 groups on the street and they were at their peak during the 1970’s and 1980’s, but as it happened in other places, the marimba groups were displaced by the groups of northern music.

Many of the marimbists that were part of that generation, the ones that migrated to Mexico City during the 1950’s have died, but some of their relatives, their children or grandchildren, continue playing the marimba, even when the amount of work to survive by just playing the marimba has declined tremendously and is nothing in comparison with the 1960’s and 1970’s. Towards the decade of the 1980’s and 1990’s with the arrival of electronic music and the synthesizers, the jobs for many groups was reduced considerably, to the point that many of them disappeared. Some musicians returned and lived their last years in Chiapas and some others looked for other trades. Few groups made it to the XXI century.

On the other hand, the effort of other Chiapanecan marimbists positioned the marimba in great stages and it has a greater presence in artistic festivals. For example, one of the important forums was during the inauguration of the Pan-American Games where more than 10

265 Xochimilco: Is one of the five lakes that form the lake basin of the Valley of Mexico. Since the middle of the XIX century Xochimilco became a very popular outing for the residents of the Valley of Mexico who travelled in trajineras, boats where live music can be heard and it’s a place to eat. Xochimilco was recognized by the UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1987. Online: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/412 (last access March 20th, 2015).

195 marimba groups participated together for this event; another one was the Festival of the His- toric Center of Mexico City for which the maestro Daniel Garcia Blanco gathered 10 groups from Chiapas and Mexico City for a great concert in 1993 and 1994, similar to the Guatema- lan Ensamble de marimbas, Marimba Ensembles. Other marimbists like the sons of the maestro Zeferino Nandayapa were able to have a formal career in music and became professors at the National Conservatory of Music and other schools of that kind, and in the current century the sons of the Zeferino continue with their groups and projects. In fact, Javier Nandayapa is probably the only marimbist in Latin America who lives exclusively performing concerts as a marimbist. Some other families like the Moreno, of Los Mecateros, and the members of the family Hermanos Aquino, continue to be present in the music world, but they are very few in comparison to previous years.

As stated before and with the proliferation of so many marimba groups, we are able to recognize that the development of the marimba was supported within the family, as a result most of the groups had as part of their name the patronymic “de los Hermanos” followed by the last name since they all belong to the same family, either brothers, cousins, uncles, grandparents, parents or sons, etc. This has been the fundamental school for the development of the marimba in Chiapas. At the beginning of the XXI century, in Chiapas the marimba positioned itself in academics and therefore their expectations were higher than the marimba in Mexico City.

5.4 Consolidation of the Marimba in Chiapas Towards the XXI Century

In the 1960’s, in Chiapas, the record market initiated its best period and the record companies would take the marimbists to Mexico City to produce their recordings, and the local radio stations constantly programmed them and broadcasted them in towns and cities, so that in all of Chiapas the most recent record productions were known of the marimbas from Chiapas and Mexico City. They would hire these marimbas for festival and fairs of the Patron Saints and they listened to them daily at home, and in this way the marimba orchestras started to consolidate as an important part of the preferred music of the people, and created pride in the local identify of the Chiapanecans, moreover, they would name their favorites and defend their orchestra as the best in Chiapas. As before was mentioned, in the 1980's, record companies

196 moved for short seasons to Chiapas to record the best marimbas orchestras and finish the production in Mexico City.

That is how the marimbists that would become icons of their own towns and of Chiapas started to appear, and with them the execution styles of each marimba orchestra was defined. A great number of marimba groups of four to five members, to the large marimba orchestras like La Corona de Tapachula or La Lira de Oro which had 15 to 20 musicians.

The small groups were composed of a marimba requinta played by two musicians, the bass and the drums, eventually some wind instrument. The marimba orchestras were composed of a marimba grande, a marimba requinta with seven musicians, bass, drums and percussions (mainly congas or tumbadoras), and a section of brass, from five to seven saxophones (alto and tenor) and trumpets; in rare occasions the groups included a vibraphone, accordion, organ and the guitar and by the 1980’s many of them also included a singer.

Fig. 24: Marimba group with piano, vibraphone, accordion and bass in XEW radio in Mexico City.

During the 1970’s the marimba quartets (without additional instruments) had practically disappeared, regardless, there were still some groups that wanted to continue the quartet tradition and their repertoire consisted mainly of waltzes, boleros and classical music.

197

Fig. 25: Marimba del ICACH, the formed by the Sisters Gutierrez Niño.

The career of soloist of a marimba group was very competitive as a result of the discographic production, and the promotion on the radio helped them to be hired at private parties, during popular outdoor dances in fairs or during political events. The brewing companies created their marimba groups to promote their brands; although they did not pay the musicians they provided them with the musical instruments they used which carried the distinctive brand of the company on the front of the drum. The musicians charged freely for their contracts and the companies benefited with the promotion of their brands.

In the 1950’s the marimba of the Carta Blanca Brewing Company, Marimba Carta Blanca was one of the first ones to take this approach, and in this group were included Zeferino Nan- dayapa directing the group at merely 20 years old; Danilo Gutierrez, who later would be the director of one of the most famous marimbas of Mexico, La Perla del Soconusco; and Tito Vidal (nicknamed El Chato) who also founded the legendary marimba Corona de Tapachula later directed by Victor Betanzos. These great musicians contributed important elements to the improvisation of marimba music with four mallets as well as the styles to play different genres, creating their own sound for each groups. Zeferino Nandayapa, as we mentioned previously, migrated to the Capital of Mexico and developed a brilliant musical career. For his part, Danilo Gutierrez, with his marimbas Perla de Chiapas and Perla del Soconusco, went even farther than Chiapas, and for all the Chiapanecans it was the favorite marimba at dances. It also had a great influence among the other marimbists for its unique style of improvisation. Victor Betanzos, with La Corona de Tapachula, was perhaps the marimba from Chiapas that

198 recorded more records and even today it is possible to get some of their recording in any music store in the country, even though the group separated more than 10 years ago. These two marimbas were the most influential in the popular music of Chiapas. The marimba Perla de Chiapas is still playing, and the maestro Danilo, more than 80 years old, still plays on few occasions.

In the 1970’s while in the capital of Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutierrez, the marimbas like La Poli de Tuxtla, La Marimba de la Seguridad Publica del Estado, Maderas de mi Tierra, and others, gained great recognition, also on the coast of Chiapas, the marimbas Alma de Huixtla, of the maestro Emigdio de Aquino and La Lira de Oro of Carlos Tejada. To this gamut of wonderful orchestras others were added, like Marimba Virreinal of Hugo Reyes, Marimba Hermanos Palomeque, the marimba Hermanos Pena Rios, Los Mecateros, of the Moreno brothers and La Diosa del Sureste. In Comitan appeared Las Aguilas de Chiapas, of Limbano Vidal Mazariegos, another great performer who stamped his own recognizable style for those marimba music lovers and who became a renowned musician from Comitan and in Villaflores appeared La Reina Frailescana, still active in our days.

The town of Venustiano Carranza is the one that provided the most important aspects in the musical development of the marimba. Many marimbists were originally from this town and many more still continue to appear. During the 1950’s and 1960’s the Santiago brothers were very well known and respected; they went on to play for the marimba El Aguila de Mexico and they continue playing in the region; and Hector Santiago was one of the pioneers to play with four mallets. Venustiano Carranza was the cradle of several of the most renowned marimba builders; and one of the most respected and worshiped marimbists of Chiapas, Manuel Vleeshower Borraz was a native. His grandfather was from Belgium and settled in that town at the end of the XIX century and is also one of the descendants of the family of Corazon Borraz. Manuel Vleeshower played in several groups of Chiapas, in Tuxtla Gutierrez, San Cristobal and Comitan and for a short time in Mexico City, and he was so distinguished in playing with four mallets that he transformed the voicings and developed his own style and since that time and to our days he has influenced all marimba soloists. He was also the first one to play with five and six mallets. The “Guero” Vleeshower, as he was known, played

199 mainly with the marimbas Orquidea and Espiga de Oro, both from Venustiano Carranza, but he also participated in the recordings with the marimba la Poli de Tuxtla.

During the 1980’s the electronic music and the use of instruments like synthesizers became very popular, besides, the financial crisis facing Mexico at the time affected musicians and groups considerably. Many groups transformed and eliminated the marimba as part of their instruments. Audiences wanted to hear the new music sounds, with rhythm boxes or electronic drums and the marimba started to be replaced. This affected the musicians in Chiapas and also all the traditional groups in the country. Disco music, lights and sound, took the jobs of many musicians and only the most consolidated marimbas were able to continue forward.

In spite of these events, the Government of the State of Chiapas had the good sense to retake a project with an improved strategy, the State Marimba Contest. This competition was able to strengthen and redesigned the general outlook of the marimbas in Chiapas at the time when it was going through its worst crisis. Hundreds of young people and professional musicians that year after year gave a purpose to the contest and it turned into one of the most expected events for marimbists. In this contest many youth marimbas were discovered and some of them were able to advance. For example, in one of the first contests, the marimba Aguilas de Chiapas was positioned as one of the best ones, alternating its triumph with the marimba San Cristobal of Mario Penagos, who gave a breath of fresh air to the style of musical arrangements for a marimba ensemble without additional instruments. Many groups were created throughout the state and the musical development was strengthening in cultural centers, promoting the marimba among children and young people. A very important goal of the State Marimba Contest was to increase the worth of the marimba ensembles without extra instruments, exclusively with a marimba grande and a marimba requinta.

In Chiapas there are records which indicate that during the 1940’s they had some marimba contests, but the facts are not reliable enough to provide accurate information. For example, it is mentioned that Francisco Santiago won a contest in 1933 by playing his composition “La Maruchita”,266 and that Manuel Vleeshower also played, while still a child (Albores 2000:28).

266 Chiapas Suplemento cultural, July 1st, 1951, No. 4. Interview to Francisco Santiago.

200 More reliable information was obtained during interviews to the participants, like the maestro Humberto Gordillo, who reported that in 1978, some contests were organized by Fonapas, Chiapas, with three categories: classical music, popular music and traditional music. Later, during the administration of Miguel Anza, in the same institution, other competitions were organized where both, professional and youth marimbas participated.

Nevertheless, it was in 1984 when the State Marimba Contest was formalized, and it had 23 continuous celebrations until 2007. The 24th celebration was held three years later. Since then, the officials in charge of the State Council for Culture and the Arts (CONECULTA) have not been interested in organizing the event.

Although the marimba continues to be an instrument supported through family training, during the 1980’s new possibilities open up with the creation of the School of Music of the UNI- CACH (University of Science and Arts of Chiapas), with formal education in music, which today has one of the most important areas of study of the marimba in the world, in the traditional, classical and contemporary forms.

The 1980’s did not generate great marimba orchestra soloists, and the lack of jobs forced marimbists who were used to training their children, to induce them to opt for other professions. The marimba was part of children’s extracurricular activities to become familiar with music. In the 1990’s there were two kinds of marimbists, the marimbists of the past, who although they had less jobs continue playing and entertaining during parties for the public, with a very broad repertoire and with a large diversity of musical genres; and those that trained with the groups that competed every year, that came from cultural centers or schools, who performed a musical repertoire for the contest, such as classical music, many sones and zapateados, until they reached a point when there was no connection between both generations.

In those years, a Cuban marimbist settled in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Jesus Morales, who came from a family of musicians and was one of the first ones to teach the marimba as a soloist instrument or Marimba Solo267. Since then, the Music School of the UNICACH reinforced the aca-

267Before Jesus Morales, they only taught marimba in groups, and marimba solo refers to the execution of the marimba by a single musician, and it is common in international circles of professional music schools.

201 demic part of the international current of Marimba Solo, as well as the traditional marimba with all its standards. Fortunately towards the new century the marimba currents have met, and many grandchildren of the marimbists of the golden era started their professional education in music, and as a result there has been an unprecedented growth in the execution, mainly in ensembles, making it possible for both currents to acknowledge each other.

At the end of the XX century, in several municipalities many marimba groups were formed, like in Jiquipilas, Cintalapa, Trinitaria, Tonala, Tapachula, San Cristobal, Comitan and in Tuxtla. Many groups are subsidized by their municipality and they play alternating at the Marimba Square, founded in 1993. There are also other institutional and university marimbas, like the marimba Cuarteto Clasico de la UNICACH, The Marimba of the SECH (Secretary of Public Education of Chiapas), Marimba de la SEP Chiapas (federal Secretary of Public Edu- cation), the marimba of the UNICACH, and the use of the marimbas in elementary, middle and high schools is encouraged.

With the arrival of the new century, the state government under the sponsorship of CONE- CULTA, following the suggestions of Israel Moreno, Miguel Pavia and Javier Nandayapa, created the International Festival of the Marimbist, and this event gives impetus to the State Marimba Contest and also a National Marimba Solo Contest is created. This festival and the contest continue to this day and guest artists from all over the world have participated, playing a diversity of genres possible on mallet percussion instruments, such as classical music, contemporary music, jazz music, traditional music from Latin America, Africa, Asia and Eu- rope, having as guests the best marimba exponents in the world like Keiko Abe, Emmanuel Sejourne, Nebojsa Zivkovic, Ney Rosauro, Ali Keita, David Friedman among many others.268

This is how in Mexico the marimba has found a place within the popular and the academic Music, but this is not enough for the dynamic that we live today, and it is still not valued as other genres or styles. Perhaps one of the reasons is that the music is not sung it the music producers are not interested in it. A clear example is what happened in the first decade of the XXI century, when the Record Company Discos Corazon recorded most of the sones of Mex-

268Fifteen celebrations of the International Festival of Marimbas have been organized to this date, seven of the National Marimba Contest, and three of the Latin-American Marimba contest.

202 ico, but he failed to include marimba sones. When Javier Nandayapa proposed to include the marimba sones to this collection, the argument was that they would not record them because the sones were not sung. Todays there are marimba groups in many cities in Mexico, mainly in tourist centers many groups learn to play the instrument by ear and continue to support their training at home with the family. Some groups include marimba in their ensembles, but they are few.

The marimba in Chiapas has taken a place among the new generations, but not in the same way as it did 50 years ago, regardless it is common to see many children and young people in different cities and towns in the State, go to the cultural centers or cultural workshops to learn how to play the marimba. The International Festival of Marimbists has helped many to understand the importance of the marimba, and it has allowed to have a glimpse at the international perspective that the performers can reach and although the government has not designed or established an specific policy for the development, preservation and diffusion of the marimba as an identity instrument of Chiapas.

Today there are groups that experiment with the new fusions and many of them have achieved extraordinary results, as is the case of the group Na’rimbo, who has taken the fusion of the contemporary sound of the marimba from Chiapas to many countries in the world. Some marimbists that grew up with the marimba contest and in festivals, today play more advanced levels than the previous generations and we can say that the musical evolution of the marimba in Chiapas is evident and thriving.

203 6. Improvisations with Marimba in Mexico and Guatemala

6.1 The first mention of improvisations or solos and their background

Marimbists in Chiapas, Mexico, and in Guatemala, refer to improvisation as “solo” and the act of improvising is called “solear”. It is rarely called improvisation and we can find some variables of this word in other zones of Mexico, for example: in Veracruz they call it mix- ing269. There are no documented references about how the improvisation started, whether in text or audio. The first recordings in which we can listen marimba solos, already sounds with skill and maturity,270 as in first three recordings of the marimba La Poli of Tuxtla, for Colum- bia Records from 1956 to 1964.271 The origins of improvisation become more reserved in the sense that the field recordings carried out by researchers and ethnomusicologists like Thomas Stanford and Henrietta Yurchenko, made in the first half of the XX century, there are no sections of improvisation in the sones and zapateados performed by the musicians.

The researcher Henrietta Yurchenko made field recordings in 1945.272 In recordings made of groups that played marimba in indigenous zones of Guatemala like Solola and Nejab, there is no evidence of improvisation. On the other hand, Thomas Stanford travelled to Chiapas from December 1957 to March 1958, collecting sources of audio in magnetophonic tapes or reels and in these recordings made of groups that played the marimba, in both indigenous and mestizo zones, there are no clearly defined improvisation sections. We reviewed 63 audio collections and we found that in some recordings of the marimba orchestra Corona Extra, playing the musical composition “Marta” by the renowned marimbist in Chiapas, Limbano Vidal Mazariegos,273 there are brief sections of musical ornaments, played by groups recorded in

269 References taken from interviews made to marimbist from Veracruz, XXX and the Barranco family, carried out on March 15th and 17th, 2015. Mixing is a common term used in marimba circles in Veracruz. 270 We can listen to samples of improvisations in the recording that we mention in the discography, mainly of Chiapanecan groups of recordings made from 1957 to 1964, which are the oldest and in which they improvise with four mallets. 271 See record information in discography appendix. 272 These recordings belong to the archive of the Record Library of the National Library of Anthropology and History, in Mexico City. With classification: MNA-977, MNA-978, MNA-979, MNA-1066, MNA-1067, MNA- 1068, MNA-1069. 273 Audio file MNA-2293 and MNA2296. Found in the record library of the National Library of Anthropology and History in Mexico.

204 Venustiano Carranza; a place that is famous for its excellent marimbists and good improvis- ers274 such as Cliserio Molina Argueta.275

Nonetheless, through some of the interviews made to some musicians that belonged to the oldest musical groups of different regions in the State of Chiapas and Guatemala, especially among the most senior; and after listening to the first recordings that we were able to find, it is possible to assume that improvisation was already being performed with the diatonic marimba when interpreting sones and zapateados. Rufo Tovilla (1931) 276 told us that his grandfather played the marimba around the zone of Copainala, Chiapas, in the 1940’s and said: “…during the sones and zapateados my grandfather used to play solos, and I am talking about 1940!, And where did he learn? He improvised! My grandfather was a great marimbist! […] and people criticized him because it took him so long to play, and in their ignorance they didn’t realize that he was ornamenting the piece with his solos…”

Although we are not sure when improvisation got started, we can take some elements that show us how it was evolving and how the different variables or other types of improvisations were developing in Mexico and Guatemala.

To understand the development of improvisation, it is necessary to mention the musical development of the marimba, since the historic processes mentioned in the previous chapters provide us the opportunity to clarify the main questions that arises when listening to the marimbists improvisations. Do marimbists began to improvise out of necessity? Was it to seek notoriety in the performance? Was it just for fun? Was the incorporation of different genres to their repertoire what determined the development of improvisation? Were the influences from other genres what help the development of new types of improvisation? How was the use of four mallets introduced, to finally develop solos with the dexterity that marimbists have in the control of the voicings?277

274 In an Interview with Rodrigo Santiago and José Santiago, marimba Players from Venustiano Carranza, They said that the musical track “Marta” is not by Limbano Vidal, but is by Cliserio Molina Argueta who sings in the recording, that information was confirmed as well by Flavio and Cliserio Molina Argueta, in December of 2015. 275 Recordings of Thomas Stanford that were reviewed are available in the record library of the National Library of Anthropology and History, in Mexico City. Number of files can be found in the discography appendix. 276 Interview with Rufo Tovilla in the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez Chiapas 11th May 2011 277 Voicings: Harmonic movements made with 4 mallets while playing the melodic lines creating the movement of voices in each mallet.

205

Eduardo Selvas in his work about the Music of the Valdiviana, mentions that the duration of these performances in the traditional festivals were two or three days long, during which the marimbas played all kinds of sones and Zapateados for hours on end (Selvas 1952:80), which forced the marimbists to extend the musical pieces recreating several variations. We assume this is a point of reference for the beginning of improvisation, and in this context it covered a need and as a consequence their improvisation skills improved. Such as Desiré Charnay mentions in his book:

“…The instrument requires two players, for one is the accompaniment; both strike the keys with sticks covered with balls of gutta, and they run with so much speed that the fingers of the most agile pianist would not be able to follow. The son of the marimba is broad, accurate and of an extraordinary range; from afar, it is sweeter and more harmonious; the Indian tunes are composed of two patterns that are repeated incessantly and very lovely and very original.” (Translate by Blanca Navas).278

The inclusion of new genres to the marimba repertoire required new adaptations to the instrument. These adaptations were an essential part of this evolution of styles, that provided elements to define them in the accompaniment sections, instrumentation, and melodic distribution in the ensemble, incorporating them to the traditional forms of repertoire that the marimbists already knew, which led to the creation of the part called solo.

As mentioned in previous chapters, it was towards the end of the XIX century, and mainly through the adaptation of the wind bands repertoire that led to the creation of the chromatic marimba, and so began the experimentation to include as many genres as possible. Arrivillaga clearly defines the elements that inspired the transformation of the repertoire and how these genres were being included to the music of marimba (Arrivillaga 2010:20-21).

The repertoire performed by other types of orchestras when being adapted to the marimba encouraged marimbists to look for, and find, the necessary elements in the adaptation of these musical pieces as close as possible to the orchestra version. This is what probably cause the inclusion of a second marimba, and they moved from the known quartets to include six ma-

278 L’instrument exige deux exécutants, dont l'un pour l'accompagnement; tous deux frappent les touches avec des bâtonnets armés de boules de gutta, et ils courent avec une telle rapidité que le doigté du plus agile pianiste ne pourrait les suivre. Le son de la marimba est ample, juste et d'une portée extraordinaire; de loin, il est plus doux et plus harmonieux; les airs indiens composés de deux motifs qui se répètent sans cesse sont très jolis el d’ une grande originalité (Charnay 1886:439).

206 rimbists in the case of Guatemala and seven in the case of Mexico (Kaptain 1981:45). This transition surely came naturally, although in Chiapas, the inclusion of the marimba requinta to the ensemble in 1916 was a “historic event” maybe created by an excess of sensationalism that was repeated out of habit. In Guatemala it came as a natural event in the evolution of the marimba ensembles.

Although in the books about the history of the marimba in Guatemala279 there are no detailed references about the appearance of the marimba requinta, as was the case in Mexico, sources show that it was in Guatemala where they began to play with an ensemble of two marimbas. There are recording of the Marimba de los Hermanos Hurtado280 from 1916, made in the United States introducing them as Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala in which we can hear two marimbas performing the pieces. Also, we can hear two marimbas with the Group White and Blue Marimba Band,281 in a recording of a tour to the United States in 1916. Therefore, we have come to this conclusion when we listened to the recordings of the octave melodies; besides the counterpoint that other marimbist played while another played the theme, which is something common in marimba ensembles.

Fig. 26. Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band in 1915.

279 Most of the literature about the marimba in Guatemala does not make any precise references regarding the process of inclusion of the marimba requinta in the ensemble. Lester Godinez affirms that ensembles with more than one marimba existed in Guatemala since the last decades of the 19th century. This was taken from an interview with Godinez. 280 The recordings of “Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala” are available in the Library of Congress, in the United States and can be consulted on internet: http://www.loc.gov/jukebox/artists/detail/id/4 (last access April 15th, 2015). 281 VICTOR TALKING MACHINE CO. Camden, N. J. 17928-B: 1915, Marimba March. Blue and White Marimba Band, [LP] USA [USA].

207 The old recordings do not have improvisations as such; we can hear that the musical arrangements of marches, polkas, and two steps or paso dobles, have a section where the tiple of the marimba begins ornamenting the theme as a kind of counterpoint. These ornaments are similar to the ones performed sometimes with high clarinets, flutes or piccolos in the wind bands, as for example the piccolo in “Stars and stripes forever”282.

The use of brief passages where the musical piece is ornamented with a written melody that goes counterpoint to the main theme is the closest audible precedent to improvisation that we have, and we agree that the improvisations in the first recordings are precisely of this type of music and in similar sections.

The following score is a fragment of the theme In the United States283 composed by Gabriel Hurtado, where while the main melody remains in the lower pitch notes of the marimba, certainly played with the marimba requinta, the tiples ornament the melody in counterpoint.

282 American patriotic march broadly known and considered the magnum opus or masterpiece of composer John Philip Sousa as declared by law, by the United States Congress. 283 “En los Estados Unidos”, Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala, composed by Gabriel Hur- tado, Matrix number (B-17485/3) recorded in April 19th 1916, in Cadmen New Yersey. Victor Company, In Format of 25 c/m), number codes to Latin-America catalog (18094).

208

“En los Estados Unidos”

M-Fig.27: Transcription by Israel Moreno and Alexander Cruz

In the previous example, in the second system we can appreciate how the lower pitch register of the marimba requinta, the tenor maintains the melodic line of the piece and the high pitch part of the marimba, the piccolo and contra piccolo, or treble melody, play ornaments based on the arpeggios of the chords of the harmony. Although it is not an improvisation, it shows us how it was possible to enrich the pieces by changing the colors of timbre which later led marimbists to improvise in a similar way in some marches, paso dobles and foxtrots.

209 The example in the second system shows the principal melodic line, and the first system shows the way the ornaments are used, played by the high register of the marimba, the tiple, or in this case in the Guatemalan way (piccolo and tiple register).

We have another example by the marimba group Blue and White with the march titled “Ma- rimba March”,284 recorded in 1915 in the United States. As with the previous example, also the high pitch part of the marimba performs ornaments while the tenor maintains the melodic line. This time we can appreciate that the ornaments are in up-beat with parts of the diatonic scale on F and subjected to the harmony.

M-Fig.28: Marimba March. Transcription by Israel Moreno and Alexander Cruz

284 Marimba March, Blue and White Marimba Band, Victor 17928-B, U.S.A., 1915, pressing: Circa.

210 The aforesaid confirms that the ornament sections in the marches were imitated in the same fashion used by wind bands; usually with a high pitch instrument, and in the sections after the bridge where there was a harmonic modulation. In the marimba this ornaments are played by the tiple, the highest section in the marimba.

Finally in the 1940’s we can find improvisations in the recordings of the marimbas of Mexi- co, for example, the marimba Lira de San Cristobal of the Hermanos Dominguez, in the theme “El Jarrito” composed in 1936 by Abel Dominguez (Robledo 2004:312) has an improvisation in the high pitch part of the marimba known as tiple, unfortunately the recordings were edited in LP as an anthology and they do not show the exact dates when they were recorded, nevertheless the best known recordings are in the RCA Victor Label. The Hermanos Dominguez worked at the XEW Radio in Mexico City where their works were transmitted since 1939 (Robledo 2004:68). Considering the constant musical production necessary to cover the radio programs, we can estimate that the recordings must have been made in the years they were composed. The best known recordings by the Lira de San Cristobal were made by RCA Víctor and Peerles.285

285 RCA VICTOR MEXICANA, S.A. DE C.V., MONAURAL MKL-1128: 1965 [LP] México D.F. [México]; RCA VICTOR MEXICANA, S.A. DE C.V., MKL-1263: [LP] México D.F. [México]; Orfeón Videovox, S.A., ORFEON LP-12-202: 1967 [LP] México D.F. [México]

211

M-Fig.29: EL Jarrito. Transcription by Israel Moreno and Luis Rojas

This marimba solo is a counterpoint to the main melody as a theme variation and as it can be observed in the score, it occurs in a similar way as in the phrases generally played by the wind bands by the high pitch instruments, and also in the recordings of the Blue & White Marimba Band and Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala, while in those recordings that type of musical resource is written in score. In the recording of La Lira de San Cristobal the counterpoint is improvised. This allows us to infer that it was in this way that the first forms of improvisation started to develop with the marimba.

This form of improvisation, which started with two mallets, through the years it began to wind down in Mexico where it is more common to hear solos with four mallets, while in Gua- temala it is still common to use two mallets, and the arrangements continue the same way as performed by the Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band.

By including classical music in their repertoire, the marimba also used elements to enrich the performance of the marimbists. For example the Cadenzas, which we can observe in the writ-

212 ten works for marimba, like in “Ave Lira”, a composition by Luis Bethancourt, in which the performer plays in a virtuoso manner the solos written in cadenza form. Later on they were transforming in improvisations as a manner of bridge to link different themes, either a medley or to end some musical works.

M.Fig.30: Fragment of second Cadenza in Ave lira by Luis Bethancourt

The type of improvisation or soleo was transforming to be expressed in different forms depending on the music genre, and many new different elements were attaching to it defining several types of improvisation. After listening more than 300 records with approximately 2500 pieces to analyze the development of the marimba soloists in the last 80 years, we concluded that we could classify the improvisation on the marimba in five types:

1) Simultaneous Improvisation over the melodic line. 2) Cadenza 3) Improvisation over the form (or chorus) 4) Bridge of Improvisation 5) Open improvisation

Later on we shall address these forms specifically.

213 6.2 The Introduction of four mallets and the development of voicings

6.2.1 The advent of the four mallets and their precursors

It is very common in Mexico to observe the marimbists as they handle with great dexterity their four mallets; the melodic resources and harmony used to accompany them and define their own style which becomes recognizable to the marimba connoisseurs. Unlike other cultural traditions around the marimba in countries of America and Africa, in Mexico, and particularly in Chiapas, it is evident the high degree of technical development achieved by the marimbists, since the melodic management with two mallets, to the harmonic-melodic management with four. But how did the marimbist approach the four mallets?

It is possible to observe in pictures of old marimba groups from the beginning of the XX century the evidence of how marimbists began incorporating more mallets, and that they were already using the chromatic marimba. In these pictures we can observe that the groups were generally formed by three or four performers and that all of them are holding two mallets, including the ones playing the harmonic accompaniment, known as harmony or third (tercera), who regularly play with three mallets.

In the photograph of the Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band in 1916, the marimbists executing the harmony already had three mallets. The group El Aguila de Mexico has a picture that was taken in the city of Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1927, in the group of nine musicians; four of them are holding three mallets, one in the right hand and two in the left hand. In another picture taken during their trip to Germany in 1929 we can see two marimbists with three mallets, both musicians can be observed with the traditional grip for holding two mallets per hand. Later on the same group has a picture playing live and we can observe one of the musicians with three mallets who is the one playing the accompaniment part or harmony on the Marimba Grande.

214

Fig. 27: Marimba El Águila de México.

There is no certainty of who was the first one to used the four mallets, in this regard musicians from Comitan and Venustiano Carranza interviewed for this work agree in pointing out that it was Hector Santiago Borraz, and referred to him as a great marimbist who started playing with four mallets in the 1920’s,286 in a picture of Aguila de Mexico he is one holding three mallets an playing the tenor part, in the marimba requinta.

In the biographic book about Manuel Vleeshower Borraz (1923-2000), the author describes an anecdote related by Vleeshower, that in 1935, when he was approximately 12 years old, he was standing on the corner, by the “Modelo Cinema”, located then on Venustiano Carranza and which was the main avenue of that city, when he heard the marimba playing a sere- nade287, and he was surprised to hear it playing in a different way as was customary, so he said that he got closer to the serenade, and noticed that Hector Santiago Borraz, the brother of Francisco Santiago Borraz was playing, but what he admired the most was that Hector was playing with four mallets: “…that was peculiar in those days…”, said Manuel Vleeshower and that motivated him to practice more to be able to play and master the four mallets as did Hector Santiago, (Albores Constantio 2000:28). Vleeshower would become one of the top

286 This is taken from interviews with: Jorge Coello, Francisco Peña, Rodrigo Santiago, José Santiago and Norberto Nájera. 287 Serenade in Mexico is when a young man romancing a lady brings music to her balcony, and usually in the middle of the night.

215 players of the Mexican marimba and precisely for his special handling of the voicings with his four or five mallets; as a matter of fact he even played with six mallets.

As was mentioned in previous chapter, the journalist Raul Mendoza Vera in his research and as a fan of the marimba, has interviewed many musicians throughout Chiapas, specially lead- ers of the marimba orchestras and according to an interview made to Gildardo Ovando, younger son of the musician known in the capital of Chiapas as Fax-Ovando (MendozaVera 2015:26), relates that when his father Jose Ovando (“the Fax”) returned to Tuxtla in 1924 after living in the United States for nearly 10 years, he brought back with him, among his musical repertoire the new rhythm of Fox-Trot, which earned him the nickname of “Fax”, Gil- dardo Ovando also mentioned that he is sure his father was one of the first ones to play the marimba with four mallets and to initiate in the position of soloist.288 “My old man played with four mallets, and he was the only one doing that at the time, there were no soloists; and he was so clever that he played the melody and accompanied himself with the bass, that made many other marimbists jealous, for they only played with two mallets”.289

Mario Zuñiga affirms that his brother, Jorge Zuniga, used to play with four mallets as a young child, and this happened in the 1930’s, in the municipality of Teopisca. Jorge Zuñiga is recognized in musical circles in Chiapas as a very distinguishes marimbist.290 Although marimbists from different places differ in their opinions regarding who were the first ones to play with four mallets, everything points that in Chiapas, Mexico, this happened from 1920 to 1930.

The constant participation of the Quetzalteco marimbists from Guatemala and Chiapanecans from Mexico in the United States generated a musical exchange that in a way contributed to the development of the marimba, not only in the United States but also in Mexico and Guate- mala. The same happened with the Fox-trot music that became popular in Chiapas, Mexico and in Guatemala, where in addition influenced the creation of the Guarimba (Godinez 2012:154). Many marimbists from Guatemala also travelled during these first two decades of the century, experimenting with their groups new forms of instrumental organization, for ex-

288 In this regard, there are only oral sources from some musicians and relatives of Jose Ovando. 289 Interview to Gildardo Ovando, September 13th 2013. 290 This was taken from an interview with Mario Zúñiga

216 ample, the Hurtado Brothers included a piano in their recordings of 1916 and among their compositions they included several Rag-times and One-step.291

It is clear that the Guatemalan marimbists were pivotal in the development of the North American marimba, influencing their maximum representative Clair Omar Musser. He was first a Xylophone players and he would become a great marimba master with his own brand of instruments (Kaptain 1991:129). Sebastian Hurtado and Jose Betancourt contributed to the improvement of the Musser and Deagan marimbas, both are involved in the industrial production of percussion instruments, mainly the xylophones and vibraphones (Arrivillaga 2010:51).

In those years other companies began the production of marimbas like Leedy Manufacturing Co, which was established in Indianapolis, Indiana and much later in 1929, moved to Elkhart, also in Indiana.292

In United States, some xylophone players started playing the instrument with four mallets, although we don’t have any information as to whether the Guatemalan popularized their use or the Chiapanecans, or if it were the xylophonists who in this atmosphere of exchanges of musical concepts, the ones that influenced others to play with this technique. In some photographic sources we can observe a precedent about the use of four mallets. For example, Lou Friscoe appears on a picture dated in 1919, with a Leedy marimba and holding four mallets.293

291 Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala, Recorded on April 19th, 1916, in Camden New Jersey, at the Victor Company. Audio format disk of 25 c/m. See more in the music collection found at the Library of Congress United States. 292 http://rhythmdiscoverycenter.org/onlinecollection/leedy-solo-tone-marimba/ (last access April 16th, 2015). 293 This hhotography is from the collection of percussionist David Harbey, who lives in Boston, United States. This photograph is when Lou performed “Belle nuit or nuit d’amour” by Offenbach. He appears with a Leedy marimba with metal resonators, the keyboard is flat and similar to the vibraphone.

217

Fig. 28: Lou Friscoe

There is also a photograph dated in 1925 where Sammy Herman appears with four mallets at the xylophone. Herman was a great virtuoso and an excellent improviser, as can be heard in his recordings294. On a poster dated in 1929 of the Colonial Club Orchestra of New York, Harry Breuer appears as a guest and he is shown playing with four mallets.295 At that time this way to play was already known by xylophonists, and one example is the score for the musical theme “That’s my weakness now” by Barris Beaslee and Borell, published in RHYTHM in 1928 in the magazine Julian Vedey’s,296 in which the score is written to be played with four mallets. Moreover, it also shows the style of parallel movements, which is similar to the styles in Mexico and Guatemala, which in the context of classical marimba had a different development and more independent movements are now used there.

Fig. 29: Xylophone solo with four mallets

294 Photography from the colletion of David Harbey. Sammy Herman, is member of the Hall Fame of the Percus- sion Arts Society in United States. See more in: http://www.pas.org/About/the- society/halloffame/HermanSammy.aspx (last access May 7th, 2015). 295 Photography from the colletion of Musician Paul Hansen, Who worked at The 5th Avenue Theatre. 296 Rhythm, Vol. 2 Oct. 1928 JulianVedeys Magazine.

218 According to the conversations with many of the marimbists interviewed such as Danilo Gutierrez, Mario Zuniga and Guillermo Gomez among others, it is very likely that one of the first ones to initiate this technique in Chiapas was Jose (Fax) Ovando, who could have been influenced by the new forms and styles of execution being created at the time, while he was in the United States, as is evident in the fact that he made Fox-trot popular in Chiapas.

Another possibility is that the use of four mallets happened gradually. According to the oral tradition, since the time of the diatonic marimbas they were played with four marimbists and it already included the distribution of voices between two players, in other words, one executed the first voice or melodic line and the other complemented it with the second voice; this was not uncommon since they were imitating popular songs which used to be sung in two voices.297 The use of complementary voices to the melody had to be something basic and log- ic, when making adaptations to the music for bands and ballrooms.

In 1920’s when marimbists began playing some other instruments in the same group, as shown on figure 29 of the musicians of the Aguila de Mexico, we can observe one of them with three mallets and placed in the high part, this shows that he played what two musicians could do, that is, one mallet for the first voice with the right hand and two mallets for the left hand playing the second voice, that was used with the notes that completed the triad of the chord, or probably some extension as used in the dominant 7th chord, and obviously the initial reason was to cover another musician at the moment he was changing instruments.

Probably the process that led them to develop the technique of playing with four mallets was not something sudden, but it was adapted through the years when marimbists were trying to complement the harmonic voicings in the marimba. What we can be sure of, is the fact that the appearance of the second marimba in the ensemble was decisive for a fast development, in the sense that it promoted the appearance of a third melodic line in the lower part of the requinta known as tenor, who would become the soloist of the group, consolidating the tech-

297 In the popular Mexican song, a second melodic line is placed under the first voice at an interval distance of a third or sixth, respecting the harmonic form of the song, which is generally built in its harmonic structure over I and V degrees and sometimes over IV degree.

219 nique of four mallets, and giving rise to an era of competition to achieve prestige in the musical circles as marimbists and improvisers298.

Another possible route regarding the use of four mallets was fashionable music and its great orchestral formats as in the Big-Bands that were heard all over the world, where Mexico and Guatemala were not the exception. The music transmitted on the radio and the boleros, danzones and jazz music records, motivated marimba soloist to start searching harmonic colors and imitate the sounds that pianists or orchestra bands of swing were achieving and that is how the use of harmonic extensions began, that is, the seventh, ninth and thirteenth, to turn them into the common sound of the marimbists in Chiapas.299 The adaptation of those musical pieces to the marimba during the 30’s, when the septet of the marimba had already incorporated the string bass and the drums, adding metals to obtain a new sound and forcing a different distribution of voices in the group. This increased the technical exploration of the marimbists performing with four mallets in the search of voicings with the harmonic tensions heard in jazz.

Finally, trough the interviews with marimbists from Mexico, their relatives as well as photographic sources, we could say that the first players to become established as performers using four mallets were Jose “el Fax” Ovando and Hector Santiago Borraz. From Guatemala there is a greater consensus that Celso Hurtado and Jose Bethancourt were the ones that from the United States influenced other Guatemalan marimbists in the use of four mallets.

6.2.2 Voicings with four mallets, the first documented evidence in audio and the most influential exponents and their improvisations

The introduction of four mallets defined the styles on both sides of the border. While in Mex- ico it became essential, in Guatemala, even today, in most of the groups the tenor continues to play with two or three mallets and very few use four mallets and they seldom have a section of improvisations.

298 Reflection taken from interviews with older musicians. 299 Taken from interviews to Rodrigo Santiago, Humberto Moreno, Hugo Reyes, Danilo Gutiérrez,

220 The use of four mallets helped to strengthen the melodic line adding another melody to the low pitch voice, complementing harmonically the four voices to provide an intensity of sound to the ensemble, considering that in that tessiture of the marimba it has a greater resonance because the bars and resonators are bigger in size and the film has a more efficient buzzing sound.

The marimba groups integrated by seven members, had two first voices, two second voices and the tenor with four mallets playing the double melodic line with his own voicing, that in the case of Mexico. The distribution of the voices in the marimbas, has a difference between Guatemala and Mexico, as the next figure and table shows:

Fig. 30: Distribution of the players on marimbas.

Guatemala Mexico

1 Picolo (First Voice high) Tiple (first voice high)

2 Tiple (First voice) 2da Tiple (Second voice high)

3 Contra-picolo (Second voice high) Primera (first voice)

4 Contratiple (Second voice) Segunda (second voice)

5 Tenor (Plays melody usaually with Tenor (Plays melody with four mal- two mallets) lets always)

6 Tercera (Harmony) Tercera (Harmony)

7 Bajo (Bass) Bajo (Bass)

221 With the distribution as shown in the example, the Mexican theme “Cielito Lindo”, where it can be observed how the voices are distributed between the first and second voices in combination with the tenor.

CIELITO LINDO

M-Fig.31: Cielito lindo: voice distribution on the marimba ensemble

Playing in this way and depending on the genres and styles, the tenors experimented with different harmonic combinations, whether using closed voices in the chord o exchanging the notes of the chords obtaining more positions and a diversity of harmonic colors. When we refer to positions, we say that a closed position is when the distance between mallets (1 and 4) does not exceed one octave, and the open position is when the distance is open more than one octave, and on this one is applied the exchange of notes that in jazz is called drop, and the most common is the one that moves the second note of the high notes part downward, known as drop 2.

222

M-Fig.32: Drop 2

Fig. 31: Drop 2.

The figure shows how the second voice from the top drop to down, been now the lowest note, and is very usual to play harmony and leading voicing’s in the vibraphone in jazz music. On that way next example shows two different ways to play a tenor line melody with four mallets, first one in close position and second one in open position.

M-Fig.33: Four Mallets, close position.

223

M-Fig.34: Four Mallets, open position.

It took marimba players many years to set up the basis to define a sonorous style for the marimba in Chiapas, but especially the sound of the “melodists”, as tenorists are also known. This playing style with four mallets started to transform and created variations that enriched their performance technique and harmonic colors. Many of these variations were as a result of the abundant work that musicians had during those years that allowed them to experiment with different resources, mainly in an effort to imitate and duplicate the chords and sounds offered by the music of the big bands and pianists of that epoch, so they created very well defined harmonic patterns and the solution was the addition of the four mallets which helped implement different positions and find this gamut of harmonic colors that became basic elements for improvisation. The following are examples of the different elements characteristic of the performance technique with four mallets, for the implementation of the voicings.

Among these harmonic models provided by the positions of the mallets is the use of seventh chords, which is used commonly by practically all tenors. This is done with continuous triads or closed triads, as they are known. The examples of several transcriptions help us understand.

Examples with four mallets in close position.

M-Fig.35: Extract from “Perfidia” played by Tito Palomeque

224

M-Fig.36: Extract “Hay que saber perder” played by Tito Palomeque

M-Fig.37: Extract “Mi cielo éres tú” by M. Vleeshower

Later on, with the influence of bolero trios the interval of sixth were used in intervals between the mallets opening the position, as shown in the next example:300

M-Fig.38: Extract “Hay que saber perder” played by Tito Palomeque

300 All trancripcion of this section were made by Israel Moreno and Roberto Palomeque

225 During the 80’s and 90’s the habit of duplicating to octaves the melodies with two first and second voices also gathered strength, and became very common to play ranchero music and boleros. This position is less recurring in improvisation, except with some marimbists that use sonorous diversity.

M-Fig.39

Drop 2 was used very little among Mexican and Guatemalan marimbists, unlike vibraphonists of jazz in the United States, where this is the principal element used with four mallets, however, some marimbists used it for brief passages, as in the following example of Tito Palo- meque.

M-Fig.40: Extract “Perfidia” played by Tito Palomeque

The use of common notes was popular to give continuity to the phrases, and the central mallets or inner mallets were generally the ones that maintained those notes, and the outside mallets carried the melodic line. This is also very common element in improvisation.

226

M-Fig.41: using common notes.

Another element added through the years was playing melodic lines in 3 octaves although its use is less common.

M-Fig.42: Melodic line in three octaves

Also the use of octaves in the right hand and second voices in the left enhances the performance and adds sonorous variety. This element was more common during the 90’s and in the current century.

M-Fig.43: Extract “Indito de Comitan”. Open voicings variations

Finally, it was the combination of these elements that helped marimbists to define their own style, and this can be appreciated from the first recordings made during the 50’s. They provide an opportunity to visualize the development of the variations that marimbists kept im- plementing through the years to consolidate their own style that identified them over other

227 marimbists. Following are some examples of renowned marimbists for their unique style and special contributions:

In the field recordings of Thomas Stanford found at the National Music Library of the Museo Nacional de Antropologia e Historia in Mexico City (National Museum of Anthropology), a theme titled “Marta” stands out titled and according to the recording information was composed by Limbano Vidal Mazariegos and played by the Marimba Orquesta de la Corona Ex- tra, from Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas. In this recording made in 1957-1958,301 there is a brief improvisation of the tenor in charge by Cliserio Molina, who held that position in that group besides being the director at the time. His style of improvisation is very unique and easily recognizable, as can be appreciated in his recordings, as well as his singing style.

These recording gives us a reference of the ornaments used at the time, although the part played by the tenor is not really a very developed improvisation, it shows the melodic and harmonic motions used by the performer to enrich his own style in the piece, keeping the presence of the melodic theme.

In these Stanford recordings there are two versions of the same piece; one of them with a singer, where the marimbists is more discreet during the ornaments, trying to not disturb the principal melody by the singer, and ornamenting in the spaces doing like a short answers or complementing the harmonic colors. The other piece is instrumental, and the tenorist has more freedom ornamenting the tune, almost during the entire piece and not only during the solo section.

In the next example is very clear how the tenorist, keeping always the octaves between the outside mallets, and fill-in the chord with the two inner mallets, answers each phrase of the singer. Mostly using a close position.

301 Marta, Limbano Vidal Mazariegos, Marimba Orquesta Corona Extra, from Venustiano Carranza, [Tape], 1957-58. Audio file: MNA-2293 y MNA2296

228

M-Fig.44: “Marta”, Voice and tenorist Cliserio Molina. Transcription by Betsabé Reyes and Israel Moreno

As we have previously mentioned, one of the most important musicians in Mexico was Ma- nuel Vleeshower Borraz, for his contributions to the development of voicings. During interviews made to marimbists from Venustiano Carranza,302 they mentioned that Vleeshower loved Big Band music, and he would find the newest records and lock himself at home to study them. He loved the sound of the harmonic lines used by saxophones and trumpets and he would apply them to the marimba.303 With him, the four-mallet technique had a great advancement, especially for the use of harmonic extensions. He also created a performance style for each genre that the other marimbists tried to imitate. Vleeshower was fundamental in the

302 Taken from interviews to Rodrigo Santiago, Jose Santiago, Norberto Nájera, among others, in Venustiano Carranza; Chiapas. 303 Manuel Vleeshower is a symbol of the city of Venustiano Carranza where there is a full body statue of Vleeshower holding 6 mallets. He received the Premio Chiapas (Chiapas Award) in 1996, maximum honor granted by the state of Chiapas. More information in the biographic index.

229 history of marimba music in Chiapas, because he had a great influence in basically all musicians and although most of them were unable to match his style and dexterity, he became a model to follow, playing and developing different variations of the positions of the mallets.

In the records of the Marimba Orquesta de La Policia de Tuxtla,304 in 1957, in which Manuel Vleeshower plays with four mallets his first recording as a soloist,305 it is possible to hear a section intended for the tenor to play a solo accompanied by the rhythmic and harmonic section. In several of the themes like boleros and the jazz standards, Vleeshower improvises with great technical dexterity and maturity of performance. At the moment of that recording, we can make a precise analysis of the development of improvisation, as well as the technical evolution of four mallets.

In the transcription of the fragment of the theme “Cisne” by Mexican composer Agustin Lara, played with four mallets by Vleeshower, his good musical sense in the phrasing and the use of harmonic devices can be appreciated in this improvisation of variations of the theme.

304 The Marimba Orquesta de la Policia, appears in different recordings with different names, in some as La Marimba de la Policia, Orquesta de la Policia, Marimba Orquesta de Tuxtla Gutierrez Chiapas and some with the nickname of La Poli de Tuxtla, as is best known to this date. 305 The series of these recordings is in Columbia, and are in 78 rpm format. A musical piece on each side of the record. Around 30 number of pieces were recorded and they appeared separately in several records

230

M-Fig.45: Part of the solo in “El Cisne” played by Vleeshower in 1957

Through the years, Vleeshower gradually transformed his way of handling voicings, adding five mallets and sometimes even six mallets. Following is an example of five mallets where the melodic lines are conducting by the outside mallets, using three with the right hand and two with the left had, fill-in the chord all the time. Is notorious as well the use of ninths and thirteen’s in the voicing, but especially in left hand.

231

M-Fig.46: Extract “Perfidia” played by Manuel Vleeshower with five mallets

Later on we can appreciate the mastery and maturity he achieved in the handling of voicings as well as his improvisations, in the theme of his own composition titled “Mi Cielo eres tu” (You are my Heaven).

This example is very important because shows how the marimbist start to remove the root of the chords, in this case the chord of (D Maj7) have not the root note and looks like a F#m7, this is very common in jazz music, and less common in the Mexican marimba players.

M-Fig.47: Extract “Mi cielo eres tú” close voicing without root in the chord

The example shows very clear how the root is not in the chord and is played by the bass, Vleeshower use that element many times during his performance in this tune.

Other elements he started to use for change colors of the chords, and influenced many marimba players are:

Interchanging position (left hand to right hand), The example shows how the intervals are open and close between the mallets, in second bar the left hand has a third and right hand a fourth, next bar the intervals change, going the open interval (this case fifth) to the left and the

232 close interval to the right, and happen again in next bar. That kind of voicing enriched the harmony sonority, and was very peculiar in the Vlesshower’s style.

M-Fig.48: Extract “Mi cielo eres tú” Interchanging open-close positions.

Also the last example shows in the first bar, how the player sometimes use a full chord in the main beats, in this case the first and third beat, and keep the melody in octaves.

Other contribution by Vleeshower is a voicing line, imitating two marimba players, playing the first and second voice with two mallets in right hand and duplicating one octave lower in the same way, as the next example.

M-Fig.49: Extract “Mi cielo eres tú” Double melodic line by octaves and thirds

Another peculiarity is the use of interval of seconds with the left hand, especially in the boleros. Vleeshower used to play the ninth and thirteen of the chord in the lower voice.

M-Fig.50: Extract “Mi cielo eres tú” intervals of seconds in the left hand using harmonic extensions

233 When the marimbist is playing with four mallets in close position, is very usual to play common notes with the inner mallets, that happened because has to keep the right harmony and play the melodic line with the outside mallets.

M-Fig.51: Extract “Mi cielo eres tú” using common notes

Manuel Vleeshower never had a group of his own, during almost his entire life he played with many different groups, but it was with the groups Espiga de Oro and Orquidea and that he remained the longest and with them he recorded the greater part of his discography.306

The careers of Manuel Vleeshower and Danilo Gutierrez took off at the same time, while both played for “La Poli de Tuxtla”. Danilo directed his style to tropical dance music and he made it one of a kind. He also developed his own style in the handling of voicings and improvisation, contributing elements that many marimbists in that genre imitated.307 As we will discover further on, these two musicians created two different styles. Vleeshower became the new master of bolero and Danilo of tropical music, and both influenced many generations.308 After analyzing recordings of marimba orchestras from the 1980’s, the influence of both marimbists is very obvious, particularly in recordings made at the end of the XX century and those that continue to this day.

306 See full score of “Mi cielo eres tú” in Appendix. 307Many of the marimba players from Chiapas interviewed for this work, mention Manuel Vleeshower and the great influence he had on them. 308 In recordings made after the 1960’s it is possible to detect this influence that they were marking on the other marimba orchestras. Transcription of the example: Israel Moreno and Xicotencatl Corzo

234

Fig. 32: Marimba Orquesta Poli de Tuxtla in 1957. In the picture: Danilo Gutiérrez and Manuel Vleeshower

Danilo Gutierrez focused his energy incorporating wind instruments to the marimba orchestra achieving a sound representative of the Pacific Coast of Chiapas, where he lives, in the city of Tapachula, on the border with Guatemala. He established one of the most famous marimba orchestras of Chiapas, La Perla del Soconusco in 1960 which in 1964 changed its name to La Perla de Chiapas.

Next example is the musical theme “Danzon Villaflores”, which shows Danilo’s peculiar style with four mallets, where is possible observe the different ways to fill the chords. Although Danilo has good technique for comping his melodies with four mallets, he is more recognized for the variants that he used in improvisations.

235 Danzón Villaflores by Danilo Gutiérrez:

M-Fig.52: Extract “Danzón Villaflores” Danilo’s voicing

236

M-Fig.53: Extract “Danzón Villaflores” Mambo section

Limbano Vidal founded with his sons the marimba Aguilas de Chiapas, in the city of Comi- tan, and he made more than 20 recordings. His group also became a model of marimbas in Chiapas with a very distinctive style. Even to this day they continue using the contrabass in the ensemble. Limbano Vidal was recognized for his work with the marimba;309 he was also the winner of several marimba state contests carried out in Chiapas during the 1980’s. The following example shows his handling of mallets in the bolero “Perfume de Gardenias” by the composer Rafael Hernandez, playing the accompaniment by himself.

309 Further information can be found in the biographic chapter.

237

M-Fig.54: Extract “Perfume de gardenias” part A. Voincing’s by Limbano Vidal

M-Fig.55: Extract “Perfume de gardenias” part B. Voincing’s by Limbano Vidal

Roberto (Tito) Palomeque is also a marimbists with a particular hallmark in his performance style. He is originally from the Pacific Coast, from the town of Pijijiapan, Chiapas. He is the director of the group Palomeque Brothers. He is known as Tito, and he commonly improvises with two mallets, but his command with four mallets is also acknowledged. He used to play with less parallel movements which gave him more independence with the mallets, allowing

238 him to create a sound different from the marimbists previously mentioned. He has also influenced other musicians from the Coast of Chiapas.

As an example we show a fragment from the theme “Perfidia”, by composer Alberto Dominguez; where different variations in open and closed positions can be observed.

M-Fig.56: Extract “Perfidia” Voincing’s by Tito Palomeque

The following example, the theme “Hay que saber perder” by composer Abel Dominguez, also reflects a maturity in the harmonic handling of Tito Palomeque, moreover, there are parts which are handled independently with the left hand, in open and closed positions as well as his handling of harmonic tensions.

239

M-Fig.57: Extract “Hay que saber perder” Voincing’s by Tito Palomeque

Mario Zuñiga started playing with his brother Jorge Zuniga, who was a famous composer and marimbist on the border of Chiapas and Guatemala. In his way of handling the four mallets he has a more urban style, and he enjoyed imitating other marimbists, therefore he is a musician who recognizes different styles from different regions, he mixes them and recreates his own style.

The following example of Mario Zuñiga, is a fragment of a paso doble titled “Silverio Pérez”, composed by Agustin Lara. The selected example shows a simple harmonic management, left hand support more the second voice rather than support the melody line as other marimbist use to do it.310

310 Transcription made by Israel Moreno and Amir Moreno

240

M-Fig.58: Extract “Silverio Pérez” Voincing’s played by Mario Zuñiga.

Rodrigo Santiago Villafuerte, from Venustiano Carranza, is the soloist of the marimba Espiga de Oro. For many years he played next to Manuel Vleeshower in in the same group and with the Marimba Orquidea, which he lead. Although his style is very similar to Manuel Vleeshower’s, nowadays he is one of the best marimba soloists or tenor in Chiapas, as can be demonstrated in the following example of the theme “Nocturnal” by the composer Jose Sabre Marroquín.

241

M-Fig.59: Extract “Nocturnal” Voincing’s played by Rodrigo Santiago. Transcription by Israel Moreno

In the previous chapter we referred to Zeferino Nandayapa as the most recognized marimbists of traditional marimba, not only in Mexico but also in Central America. Although his repertoire covered many genres, he was better known for his styles and transcriptions of classical music and his musical arrangements were very different to the rest of the groups. Zeferino almost always played second voices doubled with his four mallets, because the distribution of voices in his group generally required that, but he also mastered various styles. His improvisations were commonly performed with two mallets; however, he was one of the first ones to have a full command of six mallets.

The following is an example of a fragment of his composition “Nandacacue”.

242

M-Fig.60 Extract “Nandacacue” by Zeferino Nandayapa; six mallets marimba solo piece

M-Fig.61 Extract 2 “Nandacacue”

In Guatemala the development of four mallets was more subtle and there have been only a few marimbists focused on that. The same occurred with improvisation, even that two of the first ones to play with four mallets and more recognized marimba players were from Guate- mala, Celso Hurtado and José Bethancourt, maybe the reason is because the stayed in the United States and they did not generated more influence on that sense.

243 The tenorist in Guatemala, as already mentioned, play usually with two mallets, however there are many marimba players with good technique handle the four, but the distribution of the voicings are more simple and have not many variations, we deduce that marimbist from Guatemala were influenced and developing the style as a reaction of the marimbist from Chiapas, specially the ones who lives in the border city Tapachula.

Among the marimbists who play with four mallets in Guatemala we have the following example by Alfonso Bautista with the traditional theme “Danza de las Guacamayas”. Where is possible to observe the voicings is mostly played with parallel movements and vertical strockes.

M-Fig.62: Extract “Danza de las Guacamayas” by Alfonso Bautista

These examples show the most common varieties that can be found of different forms of playing with four mallets and they demonstrate the mastery of the marimbists. Even though they were traditional musicians, they were able to provide the harmonic patterns now common in marimbas in Mexico. The development achieved with the use of voicings has in certain way contributed to the enhancement of improvisation throughout the years, such as the use of

244 harmonic substitutions for enrichment, even in those that are mostly formed by the use of I and V degrees in their harmonic structure, opening new sound possibilities and establishing a great difference in styles of improvisation of the marimba groups with the rest of the groups of traditional Mexican music, which are based in the metric movement of (2 vs 3) or (3 vs 4) and the use of arpeggios and diatonic melodies.

6.3 Types of Improvisation and Principal Exponents

The main problem in documenting the development of improvisation in marimba both in its form and style is that the parts of improvisation edited in records are very brief and most of them only last a few seconds. The record companies limited the duration of the recorded themes to the length of one side of the record, that is, in the 78 rpm records the length lasted approximately 3 minutes on each side, just enough for a musical theme, which is the reason why marimbists rarely executed any type of improvisation in their recordings.311

It seems that for long play records (LP), of 33 rpm, the companies adopted a format in which they recorded at least 10 themes, this resulted in each piece lasting between three and four minutes, similar to the one side of the 78 rpm record. The marimbists and group directors at that time commented that the musical production of the company dictated the minutes they had to last for each musical theme and preferably without improvisations or any kind of development. The marimba groups established in Mexico City like La Marimba de los Her- manos Paniagua and La marimba Cuquita of the Narvaez Brothers, who recorded during the 1950’s do not have improvisations, except on rare occasions. Nevertheless, the status of the marimba soloist was growing and acquiring importance and therefore demanded to participate including the improvisations. We find that from the first recording made in Chiapas in 1957 with the Marimba de la Policia of Tuxtla Gutierrez recorded by Columbia, the improvisation of the tenor becomes something common and widespread during the 1960’s and then in the 1970’s it becomes fundamental.312

311 In interviews with marimbists Humberto Moreno, Danilo Gutierrez, Mario Zuniga and Hugo Reyes, they mentioned that the musical producers asked them not to play the improvisation sections in the musical themes, arguing mainly the time limit for each track. 312 See more in: Discography. As Marimba Poli de Tuxtla, or Marimba de la Policia de Tuxtla

245

In the marimbas in Chiapas the forms of improvisation varied according to the arrangements and the genres, influenced by the musical trends of the moment, in other words, when playing marches the soloists took the influence of the wind bands, when playing boleros, the influence of the pianists and the guitar players of the trios that were very popular in the 1950’s, from tropical music of the mambo orchestras, etc. This way and according to the repertoire they started to diversify the models and types of improvising that we have identified and classified by their differences and their own characteristics, determining where they came from and how they evolved.

6.3.1 Simultaneous Improvisation over the Melodic line

Definition: Improvisation of the dynamic form in the treble part of the marimba, while the rest of the group executes the melody. It is more frequently used in Marches and Polkas.

The main characteristic of this type of improvisation is when the marimbist plays on the higher pitch notes of the marimba known as tiple, performing a series of ornaments with speedy metric figures, generally within a range of an octave and a half to two octaves, while the rest of the group, the tenor or some lower instrument continues playing the melodic theme. This series of ornaments form in themselves a kind of melodic counterpoint that is always related to the harmony and forms small ascending and descending melodic lines, in many cases with tremolos and trills executed with two mallets, since at the time that this type of improvisation initiated it was not common to use three or four mallets. It is also important to highlight that this form was used in Chiapas and in Guatemala, normally in pieces with 2/4 beats like Mar- chas and Polkas, in fact the oldest recordings that we found with some kind of improvisation are of those genres, which were very popular.

This type of improvisation is the oldest that we have recorded in audio archives, not as ornaments, but as real improvisations. The first recording is with the marimba Lira de San Cristo- bal de los Hermanos Dominguez, in the piece “El Jarrito”, composed in 1936 by Abel

246 Dominguez Borraz, we can clearly hear that the soloist is performing a flourished melodic line, while the tenor and accordion play the main melody.313

Later we find a recording made in 1964 by the Paniagua Brothers with the piece titled “Para- chicos”, where the soloist makes an improvisation similar to the one in “El Jarrito”. This type of improvisation was also developed in Guatemala, although were most usual to play a melodic line trained as an improvisation or counterpoint line and not a real improvisation. It can be heard in marches recorded by the marimbas Ideal, Alma del Regimiento, Chapinladia etc.

But how was this type of improvisation generated? And why can we consider that it is one of the first styles of improvisation of the marimbas of Mexico and Guatemala?

Wind bands in Mexico and Guatemala, during the second half of the XIX century proliferated with the arrival of new instruments brought from Europe. They were organized, as official bands in both countries and they were considered important in all the towns, in this way, in the state of Chiapas, Mexico, there were more music bands at the beginning of the XX century than the ones we have today. These groups and the concerts they offered to the people, generated a strong influence in popular music, furthermore it contributed to the mobilization of musicians to different regions of each country.314

Musicians from other states arrived in Chiapas to form music bands, like in the city of Tuxtla Gutierrez and Chiapa de Corzo were local musicians learned to read music and they became band directors in their own towns, like Manuel Cruz Nandayapa, who was a clarinet player of the band of Chiapa de Corzo at the beginning of the XX century and later his sons Ataulfo and Norberto Nandayapa, last one was the director during the 1920’s. Norberto also directed and formed other music bands in Copainala and Tecpatan, Chiapas.315 Currently the bands of the towns mentioned ceased to exist, as did the ones in San Cristobal de las Casas, Tapachula and Comitan.

313 See the full score in appendix 314 More information in: Arrivillaga 2010:21-22. 315 Interview with Margot Vargas de Nandayapa, February 10th 2010, and Zeferino Nandayapa, December 2009. She also commented that the concuctor of the Wind band was the General Lara Vasallo, when Norberto Nan- dayapa was young

247 In Guatemala the influence of the bands happened in a similar fashion, “At that time, the instrument [the marimba] approaches the urban periphery and there coexisted with the new tendencies of bands and their repertoires and began pushing the idea to adopt them to the new musical requirements…“(Arrivillaga 2010:21). It is understandable then that in 1916, the recordings of the Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala include in their repertoire Marches, Polkas, Paso Dobles and Waltzes, genres that formed the repertoire of the bands. Another example is what Arrivillaga says about the Diario de Centroamerica (Central American Journal) regarding a program performed by the Banda del Segundo Batallon (Band of the Second Battalion), executing a paso doble “El Guerrero”, the polka “Concha”, and the waltz “Las Rosas” among others (Arrivillaga 2010:20-21).316

The influence of the bands in the repertoire executed by the marimbists during the first years of the XX century, gave rise to this type of improvisation, and not only that, but also generated the mobility of the musicians from different regions which affected the future of the marimba in Central America and the United States.

Following is a selection of a couple of transcriptions taken from the recordings that show that type of improvisation and it can be appreciated how they appear clearly and spontaneously.

“El Jarrito” by Abel Dominguez.317

The following example shows improvisations performed by the tiple of the marimba. The last pentagram shows the melodic line of the accordion. The first pentagram shows the first improvisation of the soprano, the second system shows the second improvisation, that makes it easy to visualize and compare the elements used in each one of the participations of the marimbist and since these are aligned with the harmonic movement of the piece, we can observe the space left by the main melodic line to allow the tiple to play phrases in a high pitch note register rhythmically contrasting with the theme.

316 Arrivillaga quoted as well: Anónimo, in: Diario de Centroamérica, Guatemala, May 6th,1882. 317 RCA Victor Mexicana, S.A. de C.V., MKL-1263: Marimba Lira de San Cristobal de los Hnos. Domínguez, Vol.2 [LP] México D.F. [México] A-Track 4.

248 In this example the use of arpeggios is evident as the base for the improvisations and scales by thirds of the diatonic scale.

M-Fig.63: Extract “El Jarrito” Recorded by La lira de San Cristobal

249 Parachicos (1954), by Marimba Hermanos Paniagua. 318

The example shows three brief improvisations that appear on this theme; while the melodic line is maintained by the group, the performer of the tiple briefly improvises with 8 beats. The fourth system is the melodic line; the first system shows the first improvisation, the second, the second and the same with the third system showing the third improvisation performed by the tiplista. It should be noted that it is mainly based on arpeggios, scales in thirds and always subjected to the harmonic rhythm.

318 Discos Peerless, S.A. ld-746, 1964 “Vibracion de Maderas”. Marimba Orquesta de los Hermanos Paniagua, [LP] Side-A-Track 6. [México].

250

M-Fig.64: Extract “Parachicos” Recorded by Hermanos Paniagua

Currently this type of improvisation is not very common, it is only heard when groups play themes that were recorded many years ago.

251 6.3.2 Improvisation of Cadenza319

The improvisation known as Cadence is a speedy solo performance, with virtuoso attributes use to open a musical piece or to link two different sections (in an arrangement, medley or as a bridge) and to close a play before the last chord. Cadence or cadenza is generally performed with two mallets almost in all the extension of the marimba and it is a free form in which scales and arpeggios are performed, mainly over the dominant chord (V7) of the main key or as modulation towards another key.

The term Cadencia has two meanings in Spanish, the first one when refers to a harmonic progression that leads to the end of a phrase or to the end of a piece; and the second refers to the Cadenza in Italian, the part of the Concerto in which the soloist performs with mastery a passage without the accompaniment of the orchestra, and this kind of cadenza in the Classic Pe- riod was conceived as a free improvisation of the soloist. However today Cadenzas are not played in the same way and are generally performed as a part that has been previously written by someone else, therefore the few references about improvisation of classical music have been lost. Currently composers prefer to write their own Cadenzas.

In the classic period the Cadenza was a part of the concerto in which the performer had the opportunity to show off his virtuosity, and it was played at the end of the piece and generally ended with a dominant chord. The cadence meant proof of the creativity and aptitude of the soloist. Up to the XIX century it was customary at that point to give total freedom to the performer (Scholes 1964:647-648).

In marimba, this type of improvisation that we call Cadence has a great similarity with the Cadenza in classical music, which undoubtedly influenced marimbists in the adaptation and transcription of classical works, mainly transcriptions for piano music. At the end of the XX century it was very common in Europe and in Mexico for composers of piano works to use this resource as an introduction or as a kind of bridge, but at any rate, it was with the intention to demonstrate the virtuosity of the pianist. The elements used for these musical passages are the same that the marimbists took to develop and create their cadences. For example, one of

319 For more information see: Cadenza in Glossary.

252 the most popular works was “Vals Bluette” by Mexican composer Ricardo Castro for piano solo, in which the introduction was clearly constructed in this way.

M-Fig.65: Extract “Vals Bluette”, the second system has a cadenza.

Chiapas and Guatemala have a representative work that produced a taste for cadences among marimbists and set the basis for their development. In Guatemala it was the fantasy “Ave Li- ra” composed around 1910 by Luis Delfino Bethancourt (1895-w/i), in Chiapas it was “Rap- sodia Chiapaneca el Grijalva”, by composer Rene Ruiz Nandayapa (1927-1968) composed during the 1940’s. In both we can observe that these elements are similar to the ones expressed in pieces for piano.

These two works were conceived specifically for marimba groups and as concert pieces. Both works required a high level of execution and show the dexterity of the marimbists, individual- ly and as a group, and today they very frequently continue playing these pieces. These works promoted a movement in which the musicians applied the elements in these types of cadences to their own arrangements of traditional and popular music.320

320 All Transcription in this sub-chapter made by Israel Moreno

253 In the 1950’s in Guatemala, in the first long play record [LP] with purely national music, the marimba Maderas que cantan, recorded a medley titled “Viejos recuerdos”, arranged by Ma- nuel Gonzalez, composer and director of this group, where two linking cadences can be clearly appreciated; the first one to modulate to another tone and the second one to change genres, from a traditional son to a blues. 321 Following we can see the two mentioned cadences.

M-Fig.66: First cadenza in “Viejos recuerdos”

321 Tikal T-1, Maderas que cantan, Guatemala.

254

M-Fig.67: Second cadenza in “Viejos recuerdos”

At the end of the 1950’s in Mexico and in the first recording made during the 1960’s when the marimba orchestras were at their peak, cadences were commonly used as links between themes of medleys, or as introduction or coda.

In their first three recordings, the marimba La Poli de Tuxtla practically covered all the genres that involve the traditional marimba music of Chiapas. In the second record in a medley titled “Sones Chiapanecos”, a cadence appears after the introduction as a bridge linking to the first theme. This arrangement was made by Ricardo Sanchez Solis, director of that marimba for many years and in it he includes zapateados, sones and some Chiapanecan Waltzes.

M-Fig.68: First cadenza in “Sones chiapanecos”

255

This is an essential piece of the musical repertoire in Chiapas, and we can affirm that one hundred per cent of the Chiapanecan groups have it in their repertoire and it has been recorded by many groups.322 It should be noted that each one of them plays a cadence as an improvised introduction but using the same elements as in the first recording. Some groups also include a cadence at the end of the piece.

In Chiapas one of the musical pieces that allowed the development of cadences for marimba was “La Rapsodia Chiapaneca el Grijalva”.323 This work has five cadences in its structure, Zeferino Nandayapa, the main performer of this piece, wrote one version with five cadences that are generally executed by groups graduated from the school of music. In traditional groups, cadences are improvised, although the first one of them is very close to the version written by Zeferino.

Others are freely improvised in the dominant chord that precedes the new key of the following fragment. Next are examples of some of the cadences for “El Grijalva”

The first written cadence joins the introducition with the first dance in A Major:

322 Recorded for marimbas such as: Brisas del Grijalva, Perla del Soconusco, Corona de Tapachula, Silvestre Revueltas, Marimba Nandayapa, Marimba Copainala among others. 323 Refers to the name of the river Grijalva, which starts in Guatemala and flows into the Gulf of Mexico. This is one of the largest rivers in Central America.

256

M-Fig.69: First cadenza “El Grijalva”

Other example of the candeza in “El Grijalva is the second one, where is possible to appreciate a different way to group the arpeggios, in this case each group with four notes, marking always the note of the Dominant chord G7.

M-Fig.70: Extract “El Grijalva”. Second system shows the place where the cadenza has to be played

257

M-Fig.71: second cadenza to change key

The Third cadenza is also for change key after a short bridge coming from Ab major. The cadenza carries the change of the key to E Major.

M-Fig.72: “El Grijalva”. Third cadenza in B7

258

M-Fig.73: “El Grijalva”. Fourth cadenza in F#

The influence of this musical work was remarkable for the development of the marimba in Chiapas, not only regarding cadences but also in the form of making arrangements and new compositions later on. It evolved through the marimba state competitions in Chiapas and it continued evolving and transforming to become part of the attributes that the musicians tried to demonstrate during said musical contests.

This work was recorded for the first time by Zeferino Nandayapa and his marimba group in the years of 1960’s and from then on it was a fundamental work in the repertoire of the Ma- rimba Nandayapa. Towards the 1970’s more marimba groups began including it in their repertoire. 324

Zeferino Nandayapa was the most recognized marimbist in Mexico, he was a virtuoso, and he liked to show off his improvisations and virtuosity during the cadences, and he received standing ovations by audiences all over, and as a result he became influential among young musicians who tried to imitate him and procure these spectacular moments in their performances.

This work was mandatory during the “XX Marimba State Competition in Chiapas”, in 1999 and 2002, which contributed to an important development for new generations of marimbists.

324 Interview with Zeferino Nandayapa, April 12th 2010, in Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas.

259 In the same way the Marimba Hermanos Velazquez Vazquez from the town of Venustiano Carranza, with the most popular theme in Chiapas “Las Chiapanecas”325 make an arrangement in which they play amazing cadences. Next example shows how they use practically the all range of the marimba grande.

M-Fig.74: Cadenza in “Las Chiapanecas” by Marimba Hermanos Velazquez

In Guatemala, with the “Ave Lira” by Luis Betancourt, something similar to what happened in Chiapas occurred. This work has cadences already written, nevertheless through the years some marimbists tried to make their own versions. In Guatemala the marimbists are more conservative and in many of the recorded versions they adhered to the score, but it is possible to find some versions with some variations. In the 1960’s and 1970’s the marimbas from Gua- temala were very successful in Chiapas and groups like Chapinlandia or Alma India filled up the auditoriums during their performances and they always played “Ave Lira”, which some

325 Las Chiapanecas, C.R. by Rafael de Paz. The composition of this piece was attributed to composer Rafael Arozamena, however there is another tendency that attributes this theme to Bulmaro Lopez, Chiapanecan pianist. This version is an arrangement by Jose Velazquez Vazquez from Venustiano Carranza, played in the XV Con- surso Estatal de Marimba in Chiapas, in1999. Source Archives in Coneculta Chiapas.

260 Chiapanecan groups included in their repertoire, making cadences in a free style, but respecting the tonality they were written.326

M-Fig.75: “Ave lira”. First Cadenza

In Chiapas cadences became an essential part of the arrangements of marimba groups in the XXI century, however they did not have the same success in other cities in Mexico or in Gua- temala, and they are very seldom played.

6.3.3 Improvisation over the Form, or Chorus

A type of improvisation developed throughout the form and harmonic structure of a theme. This type of improvisation has been developed in jazz music. The improvisation over the musical form is particular to jazz and it has infiltrated many genres, and this has allowed different developments achieving fusions with traditional, popular and classical music. In the Unit- ed States, the cradle of Jazz, they have coined the terms for “standards” of the themes that

326 From interviews with Israel Moreno Padilla, Humberto Moreno and Rufo Tovilla.

261 have become fundamental references of this genre and greater presence in the XX century. Therefore this type of improvisation is found in fact in everything called Jazz Standards.

For example, if a theme has a form A-A-B-A, the improvisation is developed respecting this organization, the structures can vary depending on the style or genre, in other words, if it is a blues, it is improvised over the form of 12 bars, respecting the harmonic structure.

The marimba has also adopted this type of improvisation, since the time when marimbists adapted the music of the big bands to their marimba orchestras. In recordings made during the 1940’s, La Marimba Cuquita has pieces with this type of improvisation in charge of the saxophone and the trumpet, but not the marimbists, it was not until the 50’s in the blues theme “la Diablesa del Rock” by Rodolfo Gomez A., one of the marimbists at the metalophone is the one improvising. 327

M-Fig.76: “La diablesa del Rock”. Improvisation with Metalophone

327 ECO-Peerless, ECO 25096 LD:1974, Marimba Cuquita de los Hermanos Narvaez, [LP] México. Track list A2

262 This is the first improvisation over the form found in a recording, although not precisely the marimba, but it is related, because it is precisely done with a mallet keyboard instrument and played by one of the marimbists of the orchestra. The improvisation in this case is very discreet and with simple elements, like chromatic scale, notes from the arpeggios, but anyway, the feeling of the groove is in the rock and roll style, specially because the 13th of the dominant chord is played in each harmony secuence.

Again in 1957, “La Poli de Tuxtla” records the themes “El Cisne” by Agustin Lara, “Blue Moon” by Richard Rodgers and “Noche y Dia” (Night and Day) by Cole Porter, and the improvisations are developed over the form.

In this first recording by the marimba “La Poli de Tuxtla” the themes “Noche y Dia” and “Luna Azul” (Blue Moon) became very popular and they were incorporated to the repertoire of many marimba orchestras, which recorded them during the following 20 years.

In Chiapas this type of improvisation has as his supreme exponent Manuel Vleeshower, who improvised in a recording of the previously mentioned “La Poli de Tuxtla”. In this recording he reveals a great dexterity as a soloist, as well as a full command and knowledge in his execution with four mallets. This indicates that the development of improvisation with this technique began earlier.

Next example is probably the best solo recorded in that way by marimba groups in Chiapas, and is played by Manuel Vleeshower in his tune “Mi cielo eres tu”, with the Marimba Or- quidea. In the 1990’s, and is very clear observe his musical maturity at that moment.328 The piece is composed in swing or a jazz standard way, the reason is because Vleeshower loves the big band’s music, and he composed as in Guatemala and Chiapas called a Blues. The score is writed in a way of Real Book, when the octaves figures sounds like in jazz feeling between triplets and octaves.

328 Transacription by Israel Moreno. from: V&M, CDVM-001: 2005, Marimba Orquídea Con el Maestro Manuel Vleeschower, [CD] México D.F. [México]. This edition appears 5 years after Vleeshowers’ dead. Original recording was made in 1991 by Sonosur company and edited in cassette. Full score in Appendix.

263

M-Fig.77: Beginning of the solo of “Mi cielo eres tu”. Played by Vleeshower with swing feeling

The piece is in A Major, but for the solo, the piece modulates to C Major, and is played in the complete structure, in this case without Intro, and is (A-A-B-A). The example shows how start playing a variation of the Theme, the use of cadenzas to connect two phrases and the changing of mallet position for voicings in the upbeat for take bar six.

Something very peculiar is how Vleeshower play a kind of dialogue with some questions and responses by him self, using different elements giving more interesting harmonic and melody colors, for example in the next figure the phrase in bars 15 and 16, are very complex techni- cally to play. As well the short cadenzas played just in 3 tempo beats confirms his virtuosity.

264

M-Fig.78: Solo of “Mi cielo eres tu”. Played by Vleeshower

In the second part of the improvisation the dialogue is very obvious, simulating two instrumental sections or tow different instruments, like in the big bands, demonstrating how with short elements or small elements is posible to enrich a lot his improvisation.

M-Fig.79: Second part Solo of “Mi cielo eres tu”. Played by Vleeshower

265 Since the 1980’s this form of improvisation began weakening as they stop playing this repertoire, however some themes are still current and became what we can call standards of the marimba repertoire and they are still played, especially those improvisation with two mallets, like the theme of “La Calle Doce” or “Twelfth Street Rag” by Euday L. Bowman, which was composed in 1914 and was made popular in Chiapas by Manuel Vleeshower with the marimba orquesta Espiga de Oro from Venustiano Carranza, and is an adaptation of a version recorded in 1939 by the vibraphonist Lionel Hampton.

Palillos Chinos (Chop sticks) by composer Billy Vaughn, was recorded for the first time by “La Perla de Chiapas”, and it has the same type of improvisation.

Next example is “Palillos Chinos” (Chop sticks) played by Alexander Cruz, in a live recording for this work, and is possible to appreciate the more commons and important elements used for the solo, like pedal notes, arpeggios and scales. The solo is written in the middle register of the marimba, but the real sound is one octave higher.329

M-Fig.80: part of Solo “Palillos Chinos”. Played by Alexander Cruz

329 Recorded in May 27th 2010, in Author house. Transcription made by Israel Moreno. The full score of the solo see in appendix

266

M-Fig.81: part of Solo “Palillos Chinos”. Played by Alexander Cruz

M-Fig.82: part of Solo “Palillos Chinos”. Played by Alexander Cruz

M-Fig.83: part of Solo “Palillos Chinos”. Played by Alexander Cruz

The next and last example about this type of improvisation is a blues played by the Marimba Chapinlandia from Guatemala, in a live concert for the 60 years of anniversary in 2013 in Guatemala. The piece is “Pague Cabal”, and is a solo in a form of 14 bars, where is very recognizable the Guatemalan blues style.

267

M-Fig.84: Solo of “Pague Cabal”, Marimba Chapinlandia

6.3.4 Bridge of Improvisation

It is a performance of one section of the musical theme, with variations and ornaments, always keeping the melodic line that identifies it. It is common in boleros and ranchero ballads.

This form of improvisation is one of the two most common that exist today; its background before adopting it came mainly from the boleros that were very popular in Mexico during the 1930’s and 1940’s. The classic form of a bolero consists of 32 beats divided in two, the first 16 in a minor key with its parts (A-B) and the other 16 in a major key and also with its parts (A-B).330 It became popular during the period of Agustin Lara,331 the piano would retake part A of the major key for a second time, ornamenting the main melody with an instrument so the singer could continue with part B. Later on during the 1940’s, the trios appeared on the musi-

330 More information in: Jaime Rico Salazar, Cien Años De Boleros, México, 2000. 331 Agustin Lara was the maximum exponent of bolero in Latin America. He defined the bolero in Mexico and he was very influential with the following generations, even today contemporary composers continue recording his boleros.

268 cal stage starting with “El Trio Los Panchos”, in an instrumental format with one guitar, one requinto (smaller guitar with a higher tune) and the maracas, the three singing in three voices (Salazar 2000:133). This music became very popular in Hispanic America332 and among its characteristics is that also the requinto player improvises brief melodic fragments between pauses made by the singers, performing short bridges to link sections A and B, as did piano players with the bolero, by retaking part A instrumentally. The requinto plays an improvisation over the theme where the main melody is perceived.333

This form of improvisation was also imitated by marimbists and currently it is very common. The improvisation is made in the same section as it is done with the trios and as pianists used to do a long time ago. The tenor on the marimba plays part (A) or part (B) with four mallets, performing variations and ornaments while keeping the theme with clarity, changing some rhythm figures, variotions on metric patterns or melodic line, and during the whole piece tenorist plays brief ornaments in each rest of the melody phrases.

In 1957 we have again a recording made by “La Poli de Tuxtla” with a medley of boleros by Agustin Lara, and it shows the bridges played with clarity as the example M-Fig.45. As well in the field recordings made by Thomas Stanford in Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas in 1958, is possible find some pieces with this type of improvisation.

As an example for the Stanford recordings, the theme “Marta”, with a fragment of a bridge played by Cliserio Molina. The first system shows the original melodic line of the phrase, and the second system is the way as the tenorist make the variations of the theme or original melodic line, then is clerary to understand all the musical elements that the marimbist use to improvise.

332 Hispano America refers to Spanish speaking countries; countries in Latin America including Spain. 333 See more in: Moreno 1989:132-133.

269

M-Fig.85: part of Solo “Marta”. Played by Cliserio Molina

The example shows one of the different ways to play this type of improvisation, where the variations are very close to the original melodic line. The arrows mark the notes of the melody that are using as a recognizable connection with the melody, we can say that last variation is in a way more discreet or easy recognizable

In that way the next example shows an improvisation with elements like variations in rhythm or metric patterns, anticipating notes, retard notes, plus ornaments with voicings, chromatic notes, etc. The piece is “Morenita mía”, by the composer Armando Villareal Lozano, played by Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas and the soloist its director Limbano Vidal Mazariegos.

270

M-Fig.86: part of Solo “Morenita mía”. Played by Limbano Vidal Transcription by Israel Moreno

Most of the marimbists were influenced by the styles of Vleeshower and the recordings after the 1970’s to this day sound very similar, but some marimba players could find their own way to play it. Next example shows a more complex improvisation, where are more elements involved to enrich the variations to the melodic line. Although the score looks different to the original melodic line, the sound still recognizable to our ears as a variation of the piece, the marimba player is Carlos Cuevas Vidal and was knowing as “El Caliche”, and the recording was made in 1975 by Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijalva of Humberto Moreno, the piece “Estoy pensando en tí” by the composer Agustín Lara and was popularized by the Trio los Panchos.334

334 Discos Popular, LDP-58: 1975, RITMO. Marimba Orquesta BRISAS DEL GRIJALVA, [LP], México. Track list 4A.

271

M-Fig.87: part of Solo “Estoy pensando en tí”. Played by Caliche Transcription by Luis Rojas e Israel Moreno

Currently young musicians are being influenced by popular contemporary music and the technique of playing the marimba with four mallets continues developing in Chiapas. Another young marimbist today, Alexander Cruz, sums up in his performances the evolution that the marimba has had to our days. The following example is his bridge of improvisation with the theme “Un Poco Mas” by composer Alvaro Carrillo.

272

M-Fig.88: Solo “Un poco mas” played by Alexander Cruz Transcription by Israel Moreno

Presently this form of improvisation has been included also in ballads of 4/4 and in the ranchero ballads of 3/4 of the Mexican music.

273 6.3.5 Open improvisation and its elements

This is a form of improvisation where the marimbist takes a brief harmonic pattern, generally in two chords degrees (I– V7) and plays the improvisation as long as marimbist thinks necessary or as long as he wants, in other words, without a rigorous time limit.

In this type of improvisation, the musical arrangements include a part called (mambito) which is a section that calls for a solo or to allow an opportunity for the participation of the soloist; who begins with a phrase named the arranque (kickoff) and although it is very similar among marimbists, some of them apply a particular style that makes them recognizable. At the end of the solo they play a brief phrase of one measure, as a melodic sign or cue for the orchestra or group to go back to the mambito and continue with the musical piece.

As previously mentioned, it is very likely that marimbists in the XIX century already performed short free improvisations in zapateados, and they were done with the intention to pro- long the musical pieces and show the dexterity of the musician. In the 1950’s orchestras played in private parties for long hours, and it was during this period that this form of solear became popular and it expanded among marimbists. One piece can last three or four minutes, but with the improvisations it can last five to six minutes or even longer.335

The form of open improvisation is generally present in tropical music which includes chachas, danzones, mambos, cumbias, merengues, Cuban sones, and salsa among others. It is important to mention that the main development in this type of improvisation happened in Chiapas and from there it transferred to other regions in Mexico. However, In Guatemala this form of improvisation was not successful and it was not a common part of the marimba performances.

Latin America in the XX century and during several decades lived under serious political instability, and for many years several countries were under the oppression of military dictatorships, including Spain, while Mexico had a more stable political situation than the rest of Lat-

335 In an interview with Jorge Acuña, Jorge Montero, Mario Zuniga, as well as others, they mentioned that since they were kids, improvisations were already being done openly in zapateados like “el rascapetate”. As marimba orchestras replicated the mambo phrases provided an opportunity for improvisation.

274 in America it became the supplier of films and music for all these countries, as a result many musicians looked for shelter in Mexico and its music captured all these influences, that were heard abroad and at the same time influenced other regions, and that is how most of the music created and recorded in Mexico is well known throughout Hispano-America.336

This brief reference is pointed out because Guatemala and Costa Rica in a way replicated some influences of the marimbas that recorded in Mexico, especially regarding tropical music, in reciprocity to the Guatemalan Marimba which in its beginning influenced the marimba development in these countries; and in the second half of the XX century it is Mexico that proposes new forms of interpretation of tropical music, contributing elements for its advancement. Although it is uncommon to hear improvisations in Guatemala, they include sections known as mambos or mambitos in tropical themes recorded by the Guatemalan marimba orchestras.

The type of open improvisation, we can define as follows, the sections that give it its characteristics:

The mambo or mambito, are similarly influences taken from the mambos by Perez Prado and from salsa music. It is a section played after the main themes, generally themes A-B and a few of them also include a part C, between sections in form of interludes organized in two parts, both with eight measures each one.

This interlude is different from the rest of the piece, and the “mambitos” have more similarities among themselves with other pieces due to their format and structure, than with the musical pieces where they are found. Their first section is more syncopated and generally with some short breaks. In marimba orchestras it is generally saxophones that make this first section playing in stacatto, usually with six measures in melodic form and the last two as an exit with percussion breaks.

336 See more in: Gabriel Gaspar Tapia (ed.), La militarización del estado Latinoamericano, 1983.

275

M-Fig.89: Mambo of “La botellita”. Lira de Oro of Carlos Tejada337 First part of mambo section with saxophones. Transcription by Israel Moreno

The second section has also eight measures, and it is usually played in the marimba orchestras with trumpets and marimbas. In many cases the saxophones keep playing the same as in the first section and the trumpets and marimbas are the ones that over the melodic line play the second part, and it is more lineal and less syncopated. It is also common for the second section to be played only by trumpets or marimbas.

337 RCA, S.A. de C.V., CAMDEN CAMS-653: 1973, Exitos con Marimba. Lira de Oro de Carlos Tejada, [LP] México D.F. [México], Track list 2A

276

M-Fig.90: Mambo of “La botellita”. Lira de Oro of Carlos Tejada Second part, add marimba and trumpets. Transcription by Israel Moreno

Next examples are three different “mambo section” or mambitos, where is possible to appreciate how the saxophones play the first section. In the second part the saxophones keep the same line or pattern and then the marimbas and trumpets add to the mambo pattern playing a double melodic line over the saxophones. Mostly on the examples, at the end of each section is marked with a percussion break. The examples are in 6/8 and 4/4 bars to see the differences between the rhythms.

277 Next one is the mambo section in “El Barco Camaronero” composed by Moy Villalobos, is a 6/8 rhythm called merequetengue, and played by Marimba Orquesta la Perla de Chiapas, from Tapachula. Original recording in 1970’s, re edited and released in February 2011.338

M-Fig.91: Mambo of “Barco Camaronero”. Played by Perla de Chiapas Second part, add marimba and trumpets. Transcription by Israel Moreno

Next example is also a 6/8 rhythm but is a zapateado from Chiapas “La Escoba” composed by Oscar Castillejos and Luis Barragan, played by Marimba Orquesta Lira de Oro de Carlos Tejada, from Tonalá Chiapas.339

338 Musart-Balboa B067217NR6, 2011. Para el Balilazo, Marimba Orquesta Perla de Chiapas de Danilo Gutié- rrez, México, [CD] Track list 5. 339 RCA, S.A. de C.V., CAMDEN CAMS-653: 1973, [LP] Track list 3B.

278

M-Fig.92: Mambo of “La Escoba”. Played by Lira de Oro Transcription by Israel Moreno

The last example is taken as well from Marimba Orquesta Lira de Oro de Carlos Tejada, and the same recording. The pice selected is “Chilito piquín”, a merequetengue340 composed by Armando Avila. The difference here is that the mambo is a little different in its structure, because is not two bars in Dominant and two bars in Tonic, in this case the phrase start with two bars in Tonic, after four bars in Dominant and two more bars in Tonic, and with the repetitions the result is four bars in each (I-V7), but the phrasing is displaced.

340 The merequetengue in Mexico is similar to the cumbia rhythm, but in 6/8 bar.

279

M-Fig.93: Mambo of “Chilito Piquin”. Played by Lira de Oro Transcription by Israel Moreno

One of the factors that influenced some differences in the way of playing these sections is that sometimes people lack the money to hire marimba orchestras for their parties or events, which are usually formed by 13 or 16 elements. Although in this work we have often mentioned groups with two marimbas and seven marimbists, it is more common to hear formats of small groups with a single marimba, with two or three players, bass, drums and an additional melodic instrument, like saxophone or trumpet. These groups always have a tenor (except in rare occasions) and he plays the “mambo” section to begin his improvisation, although there are some variations as shown in the following table:

280 Mambo players in groups with marimba requinta:

Without wind instruments Tenor (Part 1 mambo)

Or additional instruments Tiple (marimba) (Part 2 of mambo)

With marimba requinta and Saxophone (Part 1 mambo) saxophone Tenor (Part 2 of mambo)

Marimba requinta and trum- Tenor (Part 1 mambo) pet Trumpet (Part 2 of mambo)

Following the “mambo” which serves to cue for an improvisation, the tenor begins a solo or what is called by many the “arranque” or opening cue, in which a brief phrase is played in a bar that goes from I degree to V7, which signals the beginning of the solo. This cue is more marked in records made during the 1960’s, when the players had more similarities among themselves. As time went by it was forgotten and today very few have a common cue used as opening.

The example shows the opening cue made in two bars, from the Tonic to the Dominant.

M-Fig.94: “arranque” or opening cue to the solo

281 Next example shows the opening cue and in one bar from the Tonic to the Dominant.

M-Fig.95: “arranque” or opening cue to the solo

After the improvisation or solo come the exit cue, which is also very brief, and it goes from V7 to I degree or Tonic. Unlike the opening cue, the exit cue is very similar among all marimbists and is still used to this day. Following are examples of the most common in order of popularity. As the examples shows, there is a use to start in the fifth of the key or V degree.

M-Fig.96: “cue de salida” or exit cue to the solo

M-Fig.97: “cue de salida” or exit cue to the solo, example 2.

In the structure of open improvisation we can say that this one is the most commonly used by marimbists and is the one that has allowed tenors to shine throughout the years. Some have been more influential than others. The recordings are the source of influence among marimbas.

282 In general the first groups that records a musical theme adds the mambito, the other groups will use it as reference and said mambito destined to that musical theme will be imitated by many groups, becoming a standard part of the piece. However, there are groups that in order to stand out, create their own mambitos. This style strengthened in Chiapas and it expanded to the rest of Mexico, and in the same way to Guatemala. It was more common to hear this type of improvisations of tropical genres during the 1970’s than it is today.

One of the maximum exponents of this style of improvisation is Danilo Gutierrez. Danilo had a remarkable influence and was also the creator of phrases and patterns imitated by other marimbists that became standards of patterns. Since his first recording with the marimba “Perla de Tapachula” Danilo demonstrates his outstanding phrasing with his solos and his handling of four mallets.

The first example has a very interesting story, Danilo said that when he saw the film “El Rey del Barrio”341 with the very famous actor Tin-Tan, there is a scene where he dances a mambo “Cumana” with the actress known as La Vitola, in that scene there is a piano improvisation or piano solo over the Dominant, and it liked so much and Danilo tried to memorize it and copy the style of improvisation. Of course in those years was not possible to re-play or press the button to repeat same scene as many times he would like for learn the musical extract the most faithful possible. The only way was go to the cinema to watch the movie three or four times and try to memorize as much as possible the solo style.

So, since his first solo or improvisation recorded in 1957 with La Poli de Tuxtla, in musical theme the “Suby no.1”,342 Danilo plays a similar solo to the piano of “El Rey del Barrio”.

Next example is one of the first solos recorded by Danilo in 1966, with la Marimba Perla de Chiapas, he said also inspired in that piano solo of “El Rey del Barrio”. The theme is “La Cumbia del Sol” played originally by the Colombian group Sexteto Miramar in 1964 and introduced in Mexico by Carmen Rivero y su Conjunto in 1965.

341 “El Rey del Barrio”341 “King of the neighborhood”, 1949, Director: Gilberto Martínez solares. Musical director: Luis Hérnandez Bretón. Piano solo: Juan Bruno. See the scene in the next link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fBFP7PgONjc 342 Discos Columbia de México 2602-C. 1957. “El Primer Suby” Marimba Orquesta de la Policia (“La Poli de Tuxtla”) Dir. Ricardo Sanchez Solis, [LP] México D.F. [México].

283

M-Fig.98: Solo of marimba in “La Cumbia del Sol” Transcription by Enrique Palomeque

Danilo’s improvisations always has a feeling of swing, even if he is playing a cumbia or mambo or zapateado or any style, as can be observed in the following example:

284

M-Fig.99: Extract for the Solo of marimba in “La canalla” Transcription by Israel Moreno

The example shows how the tenorist use the melodic lines played by octaves and play full chords for rest dynamic to the phrase. Is also clear the use of substitutions chords and harmonic tensions, although the harmony of the improvisation is based in (I - V7).

M-Fig.100: 2nd Extract for the Solo of marimba in “La canalla”

285

M-Fig.101: 3rd Extract for the Solo of marimba in “La canalla”

One of the influences created by Danilo was the use of double melodic figures in two and three octaves, in form of montuno piano patterns, as are played in some Cuban sones or guaracha Cubana, as he says: “taken from mambo orchestras during the 1950’s trying to imitate the piano”. With them his left hand is the one that plays the second voice to his inside mallet, in the same hand, giving it a very peculiar timbre.

M-Fig.102: Extract for the Solo of marimba in “Cumbia en Sax” Transcription by Israel Moreno

286 The example shows how the melodic lines are made in three octaves in unison, and also the use of harmonic tensions in the melody.

Also a very important contribution by Danilo is a “vamp” where he keep a pattern played by octaves in right hand and complete the chord with the left, the octaves with the right plays the common notes (5th, 6th, 13th,) and the left the fill the chord with (3rd and 7th). This vamp is used when the chord progression in the harmony is two bars in Tonic and two bars in Domi- nant, he recorded that vamp for first time in his piece Danzon Villaflores in 1966, then made it popular and became to be a standard vamp for all the marimba tenorist in Mexico.

M-Fig.103: 2nd Extract for the Solo of marimba in “Cumbia en Sax”

The uses of montunos similar to the piano salsa are also part of the improvisation elements.

287

M-Fig.104: 3rd Extract for the Solo of marimba in “Cumbia en Sax”

Next example is an improvisation by Carlos Cuevas, el caliche, playing as a guest tenorist with the Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijalva in 1975, the musical theme “Ritmo cubano”, the solo is played in octaves at very fast tempo exposing a good knowledge and good taste of the tenorist creating nice melodic lines.343

M-Fig.105: Extract for the Solo of marimba in “Ritmo cubano” played by Caliche Transcription by Israel Moreno

343 Discos Popular, LDP-58: 1975, RITMO. Marimba Orquesta BRISAS DEL GRIJALVA, [LP], México. Track list 3A

288

M-Fig.106: 2nd Extract for the Solo of marimba in “Ritmo cubano” played by Caliche

Last example regarding to Chiapas, is played by Roberto (Tito) Palomeque, and is and improvisation with two mallets, in a fast cumbia “El Triki traka”, here is possible to observe how he has a dynamic sense for the solo using 9th or 13th notes on the down beats as well the common notes to give a vamps and a floating sensations. The solo is very peculiar in his style.

289

M-Fig.107: Solo of marimba in “Triki-Traka” played by Tito Palomeque Transcription by Roberto Palomeque Cruz

Regarding Guatemala, open improvisation is used although in a lesser degree than in Mexico. It is played usually in cumbias or tropical music performed by marimbists and is found either in the first voice or following the second voice of the marimba grande3 and is played with two mallets. The marimba orchestras that use open improvisation are generally from regions outside the capital cities, with the exception of La Marimba Chapinlandia, which often play improvisations in their live presentations, but it is not common to find them in their recordings.

Next example shows an improvisation with two mallets by the tiple player of La Marimba Chapinlandia. The piece is the cumbia “Colonia Roosevelt” by the composer Froilan Rodas Ssantizo, and the characteristic is that the player use the “color” notes of the chords in the down beats or strong beats of the bars with a salsa feeling, giving to this solo a peculiar sound.

290

M-Fig.108: Extract for the Solo of marimba in “Colonia Roosevelt” Transcription by Leonardo García

Through the years the melodic and harmonic patterns for marimbas became standardized for the substitution of chords, which gives a peculiar color to the improvisation, acquiring a recognizable sound evident in marimbas for these types of improvisations that expanded throughout Mexico and Guatemala. This use of patterns and harmonic substitutions can be demonstrated in the examples provided in this chapter which are still current and in fact continue transforming with the use of more complex chords and more dynamic harmonic progressions.

Open improvisation allows many possibilities for exploration by the performer, perhaps we could say that it is only limited by the skill and ability of the marimbist, therefore, and as time went by it began to diversify and some marimbists looked for different patterns and consequently many marimbists were recognized as great improvisers who created very well-defined styles, some with great virtuosity, others with simpler styles but with characteristic elements

291 that are recognizable and is possible to identify the player. In Mexico and particularly in Chiapas, there were, and still are, great improvisers.

In Mexico this type of improvisation is very common and generally played with tropical music. The development that this form of solear has had continues transforming, in fact, in the last decade it has had a new revitalization and takes patterns from tropical music of the new century, as with the new currents of salsa, the Cuban timba and the jazz Latino fusion.

6.4 Current state of improvisation and the perspective of soloist players

At the beginning of the XXI Century the marimba and its context experiences a dynamic activity, although different from the golden period in Mexico, during the 1950’s and 1960’s, and the Belle Epoque referred to by Arrivillaga regarding Guatemala, during the 1920’s and 1940’s. The new century experiences marimba music in a very different context than the one conceived in the XX Century, when the marimba was an essential part of the social life of indigenous peoples as well as mestizos in Guatemala and it also had an important boom and expansion in Mexico, as it can be seen in previous chapters.

Today the marimba has primarily a sense of preservation and dissemination, in other words, as safeguard of a cultural heritage that although still current fears that in the context of globalization, where many traditions are constantly at risk of disappearing or become an isolated cultural factor no longer integrated to society, as part of their daily life. Unfortunately, the marimba constantly struggles to continue integrating to the cultural life in these regions.

How is marimba improvisation practiced nowadays? This question has many different answers in both countries covered in this work. We will refer to Guatemala first, where improvisation did not have an overwhelming success, even though the Guatemalan marimba had a remarkable influence in the rest of the marimba cultures of Central America, including Mexi- co, and was an essential part of the development of the contemporary marimba. However, when it comes to improvisation, in Guatemala it was more subtle, in fact, nowadays most of tropical music recordings do not have improvisations. Perhaps one of the factors that contrib-

292 uted to their demise was that during the 1980’s marimba orchestras started a new mode of playing at dances and parties, with arrangements of long potpourris that lasted up to an hour, with the intention of making the dances more dynamic. That became a common format used even today by marimba groups; therefore it is very rare to hear improvisations during these long potpourris.

In their most recent recordings, marimba groups of dancing music such as Ecos Manzaneros, Conejos, Alma Tuneca, Fidel Funes and his marimba orchestra, among others, in musical themes that include a mambo section, when they finish them they immediately return to the main theme, or use it to finish the musical themes, that is, without improvisations. We can rarely find marches, fox-trots, blues or cumbias with brief improvisations in the treble of the marimba grande or requinta.

Also the use of four mallets was not as determining in Guatemala. Improvisation was sporadic and there are few improvisers that experiment with new patters or generate any style transformations. Most pieces are played with two mallets and their elements are the same as they were many years ago, but there are just a few that add new elements with a glimpse of revitalization of improvisation. However there are some young musicians that have joined this process and try to improvise some themes, but it is still a much reduced movement.

In Mexico marimba improvisation is noteworthy and with singular importance up to this day. Unlike in Guatemala, in Chiapas it is rare to listen to a musical theme without improvisation. There are a great number of young marimbists that improvise with great technique and they are always in constant competition to be recognized as good marimba soloists. It is mainly the Chiapanecan marimbists that have had recognition in marimba circles for their quality as soloists and improvisers. Some of them are: La Sardina, El Caliche, Victor Betanzos, Danilo Gutierrez, Hugo Reyes, Ramiro Garcia, Ramiro Fernandez, Omar Dominguez, Mario Zuniga, Cliserio Molina, Flavio Molina, Rene Ruiz and many more. Today we have many young musicians ages 18 to 35 who enjoy recognition for their dexterity and quality in this field, such as: Alexander Cruz and Juan Popomeya, among others.

293 Unfortunately the improvisation movement and the development of playing with four mallets in popular marimba music have been reduced in places like Mexico City, Tabasco, Veracruz and Oaxaca. The marimba has stopped expanding although we should mention that there are groups almost all over the country but they are few in comparison with the XX century in contrast with other traditional and popular genres in Mexico.

In Chiapas marimba orchestras have also started to disappear. Most of the great marimba maestros who were directors and soloists in the XX century are now deceased or can no longer play. Very few families of marimba orchestras remain and today most of them are organized by government agencies from some Municipality in Chiapas. Nowadays it is more common to find smaller groups with a marimba requinta played by three marimbists; the ten- or continues to be an essential part of the group and improvisation continues developing.

To conclude, if we do a balance on the discography existing of the music of marimba in Mex- ico and Guatemala, and do a comparative process between their recordings and their improvisations in the content, can say that: taking a sample of 50 records in each country that contain many musical genres, and since the 1950’s until nowadays the approximate percentage is:

Guatemala Mexico

Music with improvisation in No more than 10% Around 60%

all genres.

Dance music (Cumbias, Mam- 15% 90% bos, Danzones, Chachas, etc)

Live presentations by the Ma- Less than 8% 70% rimbas Orchestras

However, if we are referring just to Chiapas, the improvisation number is more than 90% and if we focus to the legendary marimbas from Guatemala like Chapinlandia, Alma Tuneca, Maderas de mi Tierra, Marimba Gallito, among others, then is possible talk that they reached 45% of the pieces with short improvisations. That means in Guatemala are very identified the

294 groups that perform improvisation in its musical presentations, a difference to Chiapas where virtually all the marimba groups have improvisation section and only stops doing when the musical genre does not need it, like in waltzes, musica ranchera, polkas, etc.

We could say that in Mexico, Chiapas is the place where improvisation is still current. States like Oaxaca, Tabasco and Chiapas spread primarily, through groups of young marimbists the musical values of the marimba.

295 7. Biographic Encyclopedia of Marimbists and Marimbas Groups

The marimba’s musical development has had great major figures who have given their talent and have been part of the most important events of its evolution, not only in the morphology of the instrument but also in the musical aspect. Among them, there are important marimba players of the 20th century that we had and still have the opportunity to meet since many years ago, and some others that, thanks to this project, we could get closer and have the chance to interview them.

The experiences shared by the 65 interviewed musicians were very important, among them there were marimba players, chroniclers, builders, and instrumentalist who have being part of marimba groups, as well as relatives of some marimba players that are no longer among us but that has inherited us a big legacy. Very kindly, their families shared information about their musical life, photographs, and anecdotes.

The present chapter is a biographic summary, in an encyclopedia format, about the marimbists, and marimba groups from Mexico and Guatemala that have been important for the marimba, some of them were personally interviewed, some others who lived in the first period of the 20th century the information was taken from the family members, memories from other marimba players, magazines and archives. The biographies of these musicians give us elements to understand the context in which the musical life of the marimbists developed and is still developing in their different towns.

296 7.1 Marimba Players

Acuña Alfaro, Jorge. *April 24th 1935, Villa de Acala, Chiapas, Mexico.

He was taken for his mother to Chiapas de Corzo when he was two months of birth. He started playing marimba since he was six years old, had as first teachers the twins Cosme Aquino and Damian Aquino, and after Jorge Aquino, members of the Marimba de los Hermanos Aquino. He started working as a marimbist at age of eight with his friends Carlos Caritino Nandayapa, Cutberto Aquino Cuesta and Miramon Rios, playing in religious parties and around the street markets, his repertoire was exclusively formed by zapateados and sones. At the age of twelve he started to play with René Ruiz Nandayapa, a prominent marimbist, and they premiered the iconic work for marimba quartet "El Grijalva" composed by René Ruiz over the years 1940's.

At the age of 15 he is invited to work with the Marimba de los Hermanos Aquino, remained there around five years. At the beginning of 1950’s he bought his first marimba and could organize and lead his first marimba group playing already the tenor position with four mallets. At the same time he was part of other marimba groups like the Marimba of Flavio Gomez, and the group of Heriberto Vidal Ralda. In 1969 and beginning of 1970 he moved to Comitan invited by Flavio Molina Argueta, playing with him for some months and he joined to the Marimba las Aguilas de Chiapas of Limbano Vidal.

In 1972 he returned to Chiapa de Corzo and formed with Tito Vidal the well-known marimba group Marimba Socton Nandalumi, remained in the group around 30 years and participating in the record of three albums. Meanwhile in 1980 he formed with his sons Jorge, Octavio and Jorge Luis their own marimba orchestra Ecos del Grijalva, becoming also and important group around the area. He continued playing in the Marimba Socton Nandalumí until the tenorist Tito Vidal pas away in 1999.

Jorge Acuña stopped to play as an active marimbist in 2012, because health problems don’t let him play for long periods. His repertoire includes more than thousand music pieces.

297

Source: Interview with Jorge Acuña, Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, July 13th 2013.

Aquino [Gómez], Jorge [Luis] *February 19th, 1957, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas; Mexico.

Coming from a family of musicians, his father Jorge Aquino Díaz and family moved to Mexi- co City in 1960 when he was 3 years old. He started playing the marimba at the age of 8. His first instructors were his father and his uncle Cosme Aquino Díaz. As most of the marimbists in the popular field, he learned in the empirical way. It is in 1977 when he started his academic training and entered to National School of Music of the UNAM, in the percussion area, being his instructors Eleazar Corral, Julio Vigueras, Gustavo Martin Barrera. In addition, he studied in the composition workshop of Filiberto Ramírez, and as complementary instrument, he took transversal flute lessons with Professor Rubén Islas.

Afterwards, his pleasure for jazz took him to study in Escuela Superior de Música of the Na- tional Institute of Fine Arts (Instituto Nacional de Bellas Artes INBA), under the tutelage of Mr. Francisco Téllez, becoming the first Chiapanecan marimbist that formally had jazz studies. The musical work he has made in the jazz field has been focused to the musical collective in the traditional ensemble of the marimba, and not the soloist figure of the marimbist or vibraphonist. His influences of jazz were taken to the musical group of his father, who adopted with pleasure the standars of jazz and Mexican music arranges with the jazz influence of Jorge Aquino.

Member of Marimba Hermanos Aquino, with whom he started his musical career, playing in popular parties, he recorded many albums, taking the leadership of the aggrupation after his father’s passing in 2006. He has given workshops and marimba clinics in Escuela Superior de Música in Mexico City and participating in Festival Internacional de Marimbistas in Chiapas several times. Currently, he is the principal of Escuela de la Música Popular Mexicana of Mexico City.

Source: Interview with Jorge Aquino Gómez, Mexico City, August 4th 2011.

298 Betanzos Castellanos, Víctor *June 15th 1937, Arriaga, Chiapas, Mexico.

He starts playing the marimba at the age of 10 years old. He moved to work as a marimbist to the city of Tapachula, where circa 1950 founded the marimba aggrupation “Corona de Tapa- chula”, the group leaded him to perform in several shows of national TV and visit many states of the country. Moreover, he recorded 52 albums with many record companies; this helped him to win several acknowledgements, such as the Golden Record given to him by Musart records. He composed and made arrangements in an empirical way, later he learned music theory. Some time later he decided to move to Mexico City and be part of the Folkloric Ballet (Ballet Folklorico Nacional de México) leaded by Amalia Hernnandez in the Palace of Fine Arts. In 2010, Víctor Betanzos received the acknowledgement of “Hijo Predilecto de Tapa- chula”.

The Marimba Corona de Tapachula is, without a doubt, one of the most popular marimba groups in Chiapas and it is still possible to find their records in the stores all around Mexico when looking for marimba music.

Compositions; the most noticeable ones are “Tapachula”, “Trinitaria”, “Huehuetán”, “Danzón Pepe”, “Acape- tahua”, “Ciudad Hidalgo”, “El Triunfo”. Sources: Interview with Victor Betanzos, Mexico City, August 7th 2011. Also from personal video archive of the journalist Raúl Mendoza Vera

Bethancourt Castellanos, Jose Porfirio. *Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. + Chicago, USA.

Jose Bethancourt immigrated to the United States as a member of his family’s marimba ensemble, led by Luis Bethancourt. Jose eventually settled in Chicago, left the family marimba orchestra, and branched into a solo marimba career as a leader. His marimba style was generally Latin music presented in a popular format with various accompanying instruments such as a rhythm section and flute. Around 1940, Jose Bethancourt had a radio show and also recorded commercially. In addition to his own headlining, also performed with the Chicago Symphony and the NBC Orchestra of Chicago, as well as teaching marimba privately.

299 Bethancourt brought the marimba featured on this recording to America from Guatemala. The four and a half octave instrument boasted 50 year-old rosewood bars and 100 year-old cedar used to form the resonators. Bethancourt brought the instrument to the Deagan factory for modifications. Perhaps he had the keyboard changed to American spacing of the accidental bars? Such as the photo shows Jose Bethancourt recording on a Deagan Imperial marimba, he certainly was adept on the American marimba. Perhaps he had the Deagan Company remount the rails of his Guatemalan marimba to offset the accidentals in the American fashion in order to have all his marimba keyboards be consistent in their design.

Bethancourt's playing is quite proficient, displaying four mallet technique as well as cadenza- like rapid runs, always with a full sound and clear articulation. He inspired many American marimba players through his teaching and artistic performances. Bethancout’s repertoire centered on transcriptios of violin, piano and orchestral music. As evidenced by his recorded performances as well as Jose Bethancourt's devotion to marimba music, really seemed to enjoy playing marimba with exuberance.

Sources: (Eyler 1996:68); (Godinez 2012), (Arrivillaga 2010).

Bolón Suchite, José María *July 30, 1928, Balancán, Tabasco; Mexico.

Since he was very young, inherited by his ancestors, he empirically started playing the marimba. After playing with his father, he entered to the marimba group of Asterio Galvez, which was one of the best in Balancan during those days, he was there for two years. After for years of not playing, he entered to Marimba Aguila, of César Sensores Lezama, where he enriched his knowledge. At the age of 17 he moved to the Port of Frontera, in the municipality of Centla, Tabasco; there he lived whit his uncles Onosifero and Leandro Bolón Jiménez, who taught him how to read music and play instruments, such as trombone, guitar, and double bass.

300 When he arrived to Villahermosa, the capital city of Tabasco, at the age of 23 he entered for a short period of time to marimba orchestra “Venus”, leaded by Jesus Lopez Denis; later, he was a member of Ignacio Lopez Hernández orchestra, in Las Choapas, Veracruz. After his father’s death, Mr Pedro Bolón Jiménez, in 1952, he returned to Balancan to be part of Chucho Lopez’ marimba orchestra; the group played in the dances of the most important social centers of the town. In 1954, he entered to the marimba Joyas del Usumacinta. In 1960, he leaded the marimba Lira Tabasqueña of the Martínez Luna brothers. From 1961 to 1965 he leaded the marimba “Voz de la Sierra”, of the Palomeque brothers, with whom he win the first places in varied music in the fairs of the region.

Bolón returns to his hometown to lead the marimba “Perla del Usumacinta de los Hermanos del Pozo”. In 1967 he moves to Mexico City along with Pedro Garcia, Alejandro de la Cruz Muñoz, and Gutberto Pérez, who performed for the first time in Teatro de Bellas Artes with the Ballet Folclorico de México of Amalia Hernández, later he teaches marimba in elementary and secondary school. In the mid 1969 he goes on a tour through Europe, together with Ballet Folclorico de México, performing in Rome, Italy; Lugano, Lausanne, Zurich, and Ginevra, in Switzerland; Madrid, Barcelona, Toledo, and Granada, in Spain; Lyon, in France; Montecarlo, in Monaco. Then, he returned to Italy to perform in Nervi, Venice, Torino, Vero- na and Trieste, from where they left to Paris and then London, finally they performed in Ma- drid and came back to Mexico City.

When he started a second tour with the dance company of Ballet Folclórico de México, he went to United States of America, where he performed in places like Washington, New York, Philadelphia, Chicago, Detroit, San Luis Missouri, Los Angeles, Hollywood, Sacramento, San Francisco, San Antonio, San Diego, Tucson, Calgary, Houston, Brownsville, Wichita, and Monterrey.

Sources: Interview and personal archive of the journalist Felipe Luna, Villahermosa, Tabasco. June 6th 2014.

301 Borges Santiago, Daniel *October 15th, 1936, Tecpatan, Chiapas; Mexico.

Marimba maker and player. He learned how to play the marimba with his uncle Francisco Santiago Borráz and Manuel Vleeshower. At the age of 5, he moved to San Fernando, where he continued playing and studying. He started his work as a marimbist at the age of six, with a better control of the marimba. At the age of ten, he already played with four marimba mallets and at the age of 15, with five marimba mallets (in his own words). He also started to learn about the marimba making at the age of 12.

In the 1950’s, he went back to Tecpatan, where he met Norberto Nanadayapa, well-known marimba maker, who accomplished to lead the music band. Borges continued with him his learning process in the marimba making, so he could work in such profession. For the year of 1959, having his own group, Lira Tuxtleca, he got married and moved to Tux- tla Gutiérrez, city where he joined the group La Corona de Tuxtla, under the lead of Manuel Ruiz.

In 1970, he received the invitation to join the marimba group Perla del Soconusco, leaded by “El Chato Vidal”, group in which he remained for a very short time. The same year, he moved to Tijuana, Baja California, where he lived for over ten years, forming his own group with his sons, called Lira Tuxtleca. At the end of the 80’s he moved back to Tecpatán, Chia- pas, where he continued his work as a marimba maker. Daniel Borges had a special pleasure to play “American” music, especially jazz standards, and he accomplished a great control of the marimba.

In the beginnings of the 20th century, Daniel Borges stopped playing the marimba, and became the healer of the town.

Source: Interview with Daniel Borges, Tecpatan Chiapas, June 2nd 2011.

302 Cruz Gonzalez, Alexander *August 26th 1983, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, México.

He started his musical learning at the age of six under his father Jose Alberto Cruz Gomez, in Teran area, part of Tuxtla Gutierrez and known as a district of musicians. He noticed that he was skillful for it, so he learned very quickly how to play all the voices (first and second voice, harmony and bass) and with eleven years old he already plays with four mallets in many gigs. Together with his older brothers Jose Alfredo, Juan Carlos and his sister Socorro, had their own marimba group and when his father died in 2001, he started to be the leader of the group. At his 15 years old he plays in many bars in Tuxtla for survive and had a lot of contracts because his talent. In 2001 he was invited to be part of the marimba group Na’rimbo of Israel Moreno, since then playing in all touring and concerts all around Mexico in important Festivals, and around the world in countries like South Africa, Taiwan, Korea, China, Spain, United States, Mali, Holland, among others, as well as in three music records. He entered to the marimba group Silvestre Revueltas, which had a tour in Mexico and France.

In 2014 he graduated as a vibraphone player getting his bachelor degree in Jazz and popular Music by the University of science and arts of Chiapas. Currently he plays with many music projects not just as a marimba player, also as a vibraphonist and pianist.

Alexander Cruz is known in the marimba circle as the best player for this generation not just in Mexico, even around the world.

Source: Interview with Alexander Cruz, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, February 6th 2014.

Espinosa Lara, Joel *July 13th, 1933, Villaflores, Chiapas; Mexico.

Trumpet and marimba player. He started his musical learning at the age of eight, being the marimba his first instrument. When he started learning how to play the marimba, he noticed that he was skillful for it, so he learned very quickly how to play all the voices (first and se-

303 cond voice, harmony and bass). Then, when he was 18 years old, he was looking for more job opportunities, so he learned how to play the trumpet in an autodidactic way. He started searching every note by himself until he learned the scales and mastered the instrument.

He got married when he was 17, and then he had two sons: Abel and Obed. In 1949, when he was 16, he entered to the musical group “Hermanos García” where he played the marimba. Some time later he moved to the aggrupation of the Hermanos Moreno, from Villaflores, there he starts playing as a marimbist and then as a consolidated trumpeter. During those years, the group used to play popular music for dancing. Paso doble was one of the popular genres of the time, as well as American music, songs like American Patroll, Pensilvania 6- 500, Blue Moon.

The repertoire of the Hermanos Moreno group also included Cha cha cha and Mambo, this last one was considered something new for the time. The zapateado music was also part of his musical development, they played songs like “Aunque me lleve el diablo”, “El borrachito”, “El machete tunco”, “El jabalí”, “El alcaraván”, among others.

Near 1952, after almost four years of being part of Marimba Hermanos Moreno, Joel is requested in Tapachula, Chiapas, to be part of the marimba orchestra Corona de Tapachula, founded in 1951 and leaded by Alfonso Vidal Grajales, alias “El Chato Vidal”, who played saxophone and marimba. In this aggrupation, maestro Joel played as a firs trumpeter, also he traveled to Mexico City, Tecate and Ciudad Juárez. He was a member of Corona de Tapachu- la for ten years. During that time he recorded three albums. After those years, Joel Espinosa moved to Conjunto Molina, leaded by Gonzalo Molina Lara, he was there for three years approximately.

The group disappears when Molina died, so Joel Espinosa returns to Tuxtla. In 1972, approximately, he moves to Puerto Vallarta, place where he dedicates completely to the music. He created the group Lira de Chiapas, whose name then changed to Internacional Marimba de Chiapas.

304 During his musical career he met and share with important musicians like: Zeferino Nandaya- pa, Ángel Nuricumbo, Danilo Gutiérrez, Víctor Betanzos, Amed Gutiérrez, Lisandro Madri- gal (saxophonist), Noé Nandayapa Nuricumbo (trumpeter), Ricardo Sánchez, Carlos Tejada, Herminio Aquino, among many others.

Source: Interview with Joel Espinoza, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, May 12th 2011.

Godínez Orantes, Lester Homero *March 29th, 1953, Taxisco, Santa Rosa, Guatemala

He comes from a family of musicians; his maternal grandfather was a member of the Orantes aggrupation in which he played the guitar, the marimba and the violin. It was with him that at the age of ten he started playing the marimba and, when he was 16 he could play with four mallets. He remembers that it was on May 10th of 1970 when he had his first public presentation playing the instrument.

He has focus his work to the study, promotion, enhancement and re-appreciation of the marimba music. In 1970, he created the concept of “marimba de concierto” (concert marimba), that fact gave him the title of “Marimba´s Dignity Rescuer”. He was creator and founder conductor of the Marimba Concierto de Bellas Artes (in 1979), the Marimba de Concierto del Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes (1989), the Marimba Folkórica y de Concierto del Instituto Guatemalteco de Turismo, INGUAT, (1991), the Marimba de Concierto de la Presidencia de la República (since 1998), and nowadays the Marimba Concierto del Palacio Nacional de la Cultura (2005), all of them come from the Marimba Nacional de Concierto, the first “marimba de concierto” (concert marimba) founded by Maestro Lester Godínez, in 1975.

He finished his MBA studies in Public Administration, in the Instituto de Administración Pú- blica INAP, he studied two majors: a BA in Music by the Universidad del Valle de Guatema- la (2007), and another BA in Music by the Universidad de San Carlos de Guatemala (2008). Moreover, he has a diploma as a Music Professor of Middle School by the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. He has performed in different areas of the culture and music, including

305 research, composing, interpretation, teaching, production, arrangements, and musical conducting. He has more than 30 years of experience in the dignity and artistic national and international promotion of the Guatemaltecan marimba.

He has published many studies and papers about the musical value of the music of Guatema- la, his latest work is the publish of the book “La Marimba Guatemalteca, antecedents, desarrollo y expectativas” by one of the most prestigious publisher houses of Spanish America, like the Fondo de Cultura Económica. A work considered by the specialized critic as one of the most complete and objective studies about the Marimba. Since 1995, some other papers have been published by the Anuario Musical of the Universidad Rafael Landívar, in the magazine Galería de la Fundación G & T and the Centro de Estudios Folklóricos of the Universidad de San Carlos. His most noticeable papers are theoretical essays about native music from Gua- temala with a specialization in the music of the indigenous towns, and studies about the pre- hispanic sound expressions in Mesoamerica. In teaching, he is a professor at Universidad del Valle de Guatemala (since 1993).

Since 2003, he has been professor of different courses, from Middle School to the Major in Music of the Universidad del Valle de Guatemala. In 2000, he worked at Universidad Fran- cisco Marroquín. Among the diversity of his professional activity, he participated in ad hon- orem modality in the percussions registry of the National Symphonic Orchestra, from 1975 to 1982, and lately as guest conductor. Also, since 1980 he has worked with jazz by creating his own groups, among them there were “The Jazz Train”, big band formed by the 25 best musicians of Guatemala, and also the group “Marimba Jazz Band”. He has produced music for documentaries and jingles for advertisements, as well as music for theater, movies, television, and choreographic plays.

The marimba has taken him to countries like Germany, Austria, Spain, France, England, Italy, Portugal, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and Serbia. Also he has traveled to Brazil, Chile, Cuba, Ecuador, United States, Canada, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Venezuela, Belize, Central America, Israel, Japan, and Taiwan, place where he has given concerts and lectures.

306 As a composer he has approximately 30 songs, most of them are sones, such as “El Sembra- dor”, “La Pedrera”, “Nim K’ij”, and etcetera. He is the creator of Son de Proyección Folkló- rica.

One of his biggest accomplishments is the proposal and promulgation of an article specifically dedicated for the culture in the current Constitution of the Republic (1985), section 2: culture, articles from 57 to 65, nonexistent in the previous Constitutions. Such negotiations settled the foundations to create the Ministerio de Cultura y Deporte (Ministry of Culture and Sports) and promote a bigger development of the area. Nowadays, he has the head position in the Centro Cultural Universitario (University Cultural Center) of the Universidad de San Carlos, where he helped to create the International Art Festival (FIA-USAC as a Spanish acronym); the festival has been celebrated two years consecutively. He has also worked as Gen- eral Director of Arts at the Ministry of Culture and Sports of Guatemala (2012).

Lester Godínez is one of the most important marimbists and promoters of the musical culture of Guatemala. Talking about the marimba, he can be considered the most important person in the marimba development in Guatemala, not only with musical contributions but also with historical documents. Since late 20th century until now he has settle a trend in his country.

Sources: Interviews with Lester Godinez, Comitan, Chiapas, February 8th 2012 and via skype to Guatemala.

Gordillo Pérez, Humberto. *April 3rd, 1965, Comitán, Chiapas (Mexico).

He started his musical studies at the age of ten. A year later, he formed the quartet “Her- manos Coutiño Ayala” along with his cousins. He was taught by Mr. Rafael Calvo López during two years, afterwards, they were directed by Mr. Ricardo Sánchez Solís, a very well- known marimba player and director of “La Marimba Poli de Tuxtla”. As a quartet, they began their musical studies in a formal way at a children’s level in the Escuela de Musica de la Secretaría de Educación Pública del Estado (Music School of the Secretariat of Public Edu- cation of the State). With the quartet “Hermanos Coutiño Ayala” he recorded two albums

307 and they had several presentations all around the country, in representation of the state of Chiapas. Some of the presentations that stand out took place in Teatro Degollado, in Guadala- jara, Jalisco; in Centro de Convenciones de Acapulco, in Guerrero, and in the Teather of Fine Arts, in Mexico City.

In 1984, he started his career as a music teacher in the federal secondary school, and afterwards, in 1989, he started his labor as a professor of children and youthful aggrupations in the Music School of the Institute of Science and Arts of Chiapas (ICACH), currently known as UNICACH (University of Science and Arts of Chiapas), where he took part of many marimba aggrupations in the children and youthful categories. He participated in different emissions of Concurso Estatales de Marimba with the aggrupations previously mentioned, getting many first, second, and third places. And, he was part of the jury in the last emissions from 2002 to 2010.

In the year of 2005, he graduated from the B.A. Musical Education from UNICACH where he wrote his thesis “El Son y El Zapateado en Chiapas”. He has collaborated with many marimba groups, carrying out concerts in Mexico and abroad, such as the magisterial ballet of the Secretariat of Public Education taking part in Greece in 1998; in Australia, Hungary, Ruma- nia, and the Czech Republic in 2001; in Brazil in 2002. He traveled with the group Na’rimbo to France in 1999, to Washington D.C. in 2006, and to Colombia in 2009. He also participated in two of his recordings. He has taken part of the Festival Internacional de Marimbistas (In- ternational Marimba Players Festival) with the aggrupations from UNICACH in different emissions, and in the U.S. And he has participated in many different academic exchanges as well, offering two traditional marimba courses to ethnomusicology students from the Univer- sity of Music and Performing Arts Graz, Australia (Universität für Musik und darstellende Kunst Graz or Kunstuniversität, KUG). Currently, he continues his activities as a teacher and he has a radio show called “Mis raíces, la marimba”, at Radio Universidad from UNICACH.

Source: Interview with Humberto Gordillo, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, 2nd February 2013.

308 Gutiérrez García, Danilo *November 8th, 1926, Villaflores, Chiapas. Mexico.

Danilo Gutiérrez grows up in the neighborhood Villa Morelos in the municipality of Villa Corzo. He started to play the marimba at the age of nine when he was studying the elementary school. He was part of a music school group and his teacher was Manuel Zavaleta. Three months later he began to be part of the marimba aggrupation of Mr. Zavaleta who was playing professionally in of the town festivities, and a year later he earned his first salary as a marimbist. After he finished the elementary school his father asked him to do something for a living in order to help his family. So he decided to continue with the music.

In 1947 he became a member of the group of the Hermanos García from Villaflores, which later would be known as Reyna Fraylescana. At the beginning of the 50’s in Tuxtla Gutiérrez he takes part of Marimba Orquesta Carta Blanca along with Zeferino Nandayapa and Tito (El Chato) Vidal, with which he made a tour around Chiapas, highlighting towns as Frontera Comalapa, Motozintla, Huixtla, and Tapachula. Afterwards, this group served with the army, but soon all of the members deserted. Danilo fit in the marimba La Poli de Tuxtla, in which he participated in its first recordings. One of them was the first professional recording made in Chiapas in 1957. There were produced many LP’s out of this recording.

At the end of the 1950 he travels to the city of Tapachula, Chiapas, where along with Chato Vidal, Übel Infante, Juvenal Fernández, his brothers Amet and Óscar formed the Marimba Orquesta Perla de Tapachula, making many recordings. In 1966, because of legal problems, they had to change the name of the aggrupation for Marimba Perla de Chiapas, playing for a period in the Casino de la Selva in the city of Cuernavaca, Morelos. During this term he made many of his well-known compositions.

In 1993 he received an acknowledgement made by the State of Chiapas for his contributions to the Chiapanecan traditional music. In the year of the 2007 the government of Chiapas, in the period of the 7th Festival Internacional de Marimbistas made another homage for his contributions to the music of marimba.

309 Danilo recorded, between 1960 and 2003, more than 150 songs of Mexican well-known authors such as Agustín Lara, Gonzalo Curiel, Roberto Cantoral, the Hermanos Domínguez, and others in 56 albums recorded in which are also included 45 compositions of his own.

Danilo Gutiérrez has been a noticeable influence in the marimba music in Chiapas, in the instrumentation of the Marimba Orchestra marking a unique style which has also influenced other marimbists in their way to improvise in the marimba as well as the style of the structures of the tropical music.

Compositions highlight the danzones: “Villaflores”, “Cacahuatán”, “Mazatán”, “Palenque”, “Casino de la Sel- va”, “Icach”; other kinds “La Malandraca”, “Caminos de la frailesca”, “El volcán Tacaná”, “Sentencia”.

Sources: Interview with Danilo Gutiérrez, Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, January 15th 2010. Personal video archive of the journalist Raúl Mendoza Vera, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas.

Molina Argueta, Flavio *August 20th, 1932. Villa Las Rosas, Chiapas, Mexico.

He started his musical studies at the age of six in his natal town, playing with the family group La Conga roja, next to his brothers. His brother Cliserio taught him to play the marimba, first he learned the bass and the harmony position, after the second voice and the rest of positions, becoming to handle the four mallets when he was young. In 1948 he moved to San Cristobal de las Casas where he started to be a tenorist of many marimba groups. Years later, during the fifties he moved to the city of Comitan, where as well began his “formal” musical studies with Roberto Martinez Utrilla and Javier Mandujano Pinto, learning to play also the alto and tenor saxophones.

In 1950 he formed his own group the Marimba Clave de Oro, with his brothers Cliserio, Alir- rosay, Carmen, Gildardo and Emilio. In 1954 he moved to the North border city Tijuana and after he moved to United States, working as a musician in different places and there he started to play the vibraphone.

310 In 1958 he came back to Chiapas, working as a musician in the new radio station XEON in Tuxtla Gutiérrez. In the same year he got married and moved definitely to Comitan, playing again with his brothers and after including his sons, starting a new epoch of the group and generating musical influences in the region, where they became to be recognized as an excellent musicians, they recorded two albums and had several presentations all around the country.

At the beginning of the 1970’s he started to work as a music teacher in the State High School “Comitan”, and the elementary School "Mariano N. Ruiz" in La Trinitaria. In 1982 he participated with his brothers in the State Marimba Contest, in the “Family Groups Category” getting the first place. A year later he definitely retired from commercial music, playing just in very special events and is focused more to teaching. In 2007 publish his book “Apuntes de Cultura Musical”.

Compositions: “Juan Pablo II”, “Chiapa de Corzo”, “Michoacán”, “Bodas de Plata”, “Cintalapa”, “Pañuelo Ro- jo”, “Villa Corzo”, “Concierto de Marimba”, “11 de Abril”, “Tapachula”, “Catazajá”, “San Crsitobal”.

Sources: Interview with Flavio Molina, in Comitan, Chiapas. May 14th 2011. Photograps, CDs and videos from the personal archive of Flavio Molina.

Montero Molina, Jorge. *May 25, 1919, Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, Mexico.

He started his musical career at the age of 13 with the marimba of Heriberto (Tito) Vidal Nuñez, some time later he became a member of the aggrupation of Flavio Gómez. In 1950, at the age of 31, he becomes a member of the marimba orchestra Carta Blanca leaded by Ze- ferino Nandayapa, placed in Tuxtla Gutiérrez. In the year 1953, Jorge Montero started a tour around many cities and towns of the state of Chiapas with this aggrupation. The members of the aggrupation were Pablo Cervantes in the second, Domingo Cervantes in the harmony, Francisco Gutiérrez in the bass. In the marimba requinta: Zeferino Nandayapa in the tenor and saxofon, Danilo Gutiérrez in the second of requinta and saxofon, Alfonso (Chato) Vidal in the triplet of requinta; Carlos García in the tololoche and Jaime Durán in the drums.

311 The musical repertoire of this marimba group in which Jorge Montero participated included pieces from popular music like “En er mundo”, “El bobo de la yuca”, to academic-type pieces like “La danza de las horas”.

After a very long tour around many different towns of Chiapas, Mr. Jorge Montero and the aggrupation went back to Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Jorge Montero left the group and came back to Chiapa de Corzo, where he kept playing with several local marimbas such as Marimba Or- questa Los Gómez, the Grupo Domínguez Señorial, the Marimba of Jorge Acuña, La Lira de Chiapa, among others. The city council of Chiapa de Corzo has given him several recogni- tions due to his work as a marimbist and traditional music promoter in 2002, 2004, 2011, and 2015. To the end of this publication, Jorge Montero is 96 years old and his bright memory shared treasured memories to the present document.

Source: Interview with Jorge Montero, Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, May 21th 2011.

Morales Matus, Fernando *September 20th, 1943, Benque Viejo, Belize. +March 22nd 2015, Xalapa, Mexico.

Morales Matus learned from his father Benito Felipe Morales. The execution and the work of building the instrument comes from a family of musicians. He moved to make his studies at Conservatorio Nacional de Guatemala, being the first graduate as marimbist. He was founder of the group Herencia Maya Quiché in 1969 with the Maestros Benigno Mejía Cruz and Ma- nuel Toribio Díaz, being this one of the most important aggrupation of the guatemaltecan music, with this he accompany the Ballet Folklórico and Moderno de Guatemala to the Festival Folklórico in Arequipa, Peru, in 1972. In 1974 he had a presentation in Austin Texas in the Percussive Artist Association International Congress (PASIC by the acronym in Spanish). He was also one of the forefathers and founders of the Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes of Guatemala in 1981.

In the same year, he moves to the city of Xalapa, in Mexico, where he was a professor of the B.A. in Musical Education in the Universidad Veracruzana, and in the center of musical initi-

312 ation of the aforementioned school, combining his work with the building of classical marimbas. He also promoted the concert music of marimba of Guatemala in the same city, with the music ensembles of the university.

Fernando Morales Matus was the one who performed the first Concert for Marimba and Or- chestra by Jorge Alvaro Sarmiento more times, some of these under the baton of Jorge Sar- mientos, Eduardo Diaz Muñoz (Mexico) and Ricardo del Carmen, he also made arrangements for marimba and orchestra of representative works of the marimba repertoire such as “Fiesta de Pajaros” by Jesus Castillo, “Ave Lira” by Luis Bethancourt and “Ferrocarril de los Altos” by Domingo Bethancourt. He performed with the symphony orchestras from Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, Xalapa, and Guadalajara, in Mexico and the Dominican Republic, among others.

Sources: Personal archive of Lester Godínez. Guatemala City.

Moreno Penagos, Humberto -and his marimba orchestra- “Brisas del Grijalva” *May 6th, 1933. Villaflores, Chiapas, Mexico.

Marimba player and director of the marimba orchestra “Brisas del Grijalva”. He started playing the marimba at the age of ten. At twelve he formed the group “Hermanos Moreno”, after that he changed the name to “Lira Villaflorense”. In his youth he participated with many different groups in Chiapas, like Arriaga, Tuxtla Gutierrez, and Chiapa de Corzo, playing with musicians such as René Ruiz Nandayapa. In 1958 he left to Mexico City, and organized a new aggrupation called “Marimba Orquesta Gardenias de Chiapas”, then he met Mr. Pinto Meneses ATTY. who was the manager of the marimba groups of Chiapas, and he renamed the marimba as “Ecos del Grijalva” to make a tour around the state of Mexico and make the recording of many albums. Sometime forward, he finished his working relationship with Pin- to Meneses, and he had to rename his orchestra as marimba orchestra Brisas del Grijalva, name which remains until nowadays.

In his first LP album with this last orchestra, they recorded big hits such as “Extraños en la noche”, “Norma en Guadalajara”, “Estoy pensando en ti”, “Humanidad”, “Reconciliación”,

313 “Cuando me enamoro”, “¿Dónde estás, Yolanda?”, and “Caminos del ayer”. He and his aggrupation traveled to Peru to make many presentations in 1968.

With Orfeón Records, they made a recording with the singles “Capullo de rosa”, “La bola”, “Va cayendo una lagrima”. Afterwards, in 1971, they recorded with Cisne Raff Records, “Sombrita de cocales”, but most of the LP’s were recorded with Caleidofón Records. In 1973, he recorded some stadards of jazz, blues, and ragtime, such as “Cervecinas calientes”, “Calle doce”, “Amapola”, “Nola”, and “Carolina”. Afterwards, in 1985, he created his own record label HMP, in which besides making his own orchestra recordings, he recorded the most representative marimba orchestras of the time of the state of Chiapas, such as La Perla de Tapachula, La diosa del Sureste, and some others. He has a song of his own authorship named “En tí, Villaflores”, it was recorded in 1991.

Having more than 50 recorded albums, he also participated in music for movies such as “La montaña sagrada” by Alejandro Jodorovsky in 1973, and in his main participations on national and Latinamerican TV were with the Chiapanecan singer Amparo Montes in the show “Siempre en Domingo”, the show “Reventón tropical” of the Sindicato Único de Trabaja- dores de la Música (Labor Union of Music Workers), “El Club del Hogar”, in the 80’s, the interlude of the weekly TV show “El Güiri Güiri” in the 90’s, and some others.

During the 70’s and 80’s, Humberto Moreno had a very high demand to play in events, from private parties to events of organizations and institutions, accomplishing to have a number of 20 events per weekend. Those last kind of events required to hire many musicians, particularly Chiapanecan. During those years, almost all the Chiapanecan musicians who were looking for a new job opportunity in Mexico City looked forward to work with him. He also organized for over 40 years the Chiapanecan dance to celebrate the annexation of Chiapas to the Mexican country, where he used to program the most famous marimba orchestra of Chiapas, with more than 3000 attendees. Nowadays, the marimba orchestra “Brisas del Grijalva” is almost vanished.

Source: Interview with Humberto Moreno, Mexico City, August 8th 2011.

314 Moreno García, Oscar Pascual. * May 27th 1949, Arriaga, Chiapas. México.

At age of 13 he arrived to live in Mexico City. Started his musical learning at the age of 14 under his father Oscar Moreno Tapia, being the drum set his first instrument. He begun to play with many groups in the Bocanegra Street in Mexico City, place where many groups had their business office boots. He started to play with musicians such as Ciro Juárez, Gabriel Solis, Tito Antonio, among others. In 1968 he joined the quartet of vibraphone player Jesus Lopez Denis, traveling to work in tourist places in Queretaro and Puerto Vallarta. In the same year he participated with his father and his brothers Obet and Roldan in the album record “Danzones de Agustín Lara” by the marimba group La Lira de Plata of Arturo Gomez.

In 1969 he started to play marimba with Marimba Nandayapa of Zeferino Nandayapa where remained for ten years. In 1970 as well with Zeferino Nandayapa founded the Marimba Mexi- cana de Concierto of the Education Minister of Mexico (SEP), where he got retired in 2002. With his father and brothers forming the group Marimba de los Hermanos Moreno García, recording their first four LPs in 1970 under the record company Mus-Art. In the 1980’s the family group got to consolidate as one of the most important marimbas in Mexico. They recorded 15 LPs and 10 CDs. Between 1987 and 2005 they toured six times in Japan and two times in Taiwan.

Oscar Moreno He participated with many groups in Mexico City playing in Italian restaurants, Jewish community, Nightclubs. Also he was an active session musician participating in TV shows, Radio and theater programs as well as recording in jingles and as drummer fro TV singers as José José. Today he is living in Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas.

Source: Interview with Oscar Moreno García, Mexico City, August 10th 2011.

315 Moreno Tapia, Oscar * 1924 Tonala, Chiapas, Mexico. +December 2003, Mexico City.

Marimba and trumpet player; director of the marimba orchestra Marimba de los Hermanos Moreno García, also known as Marimba los Mecateros de los Hermanos Moreno García.

He started playing the marimba at the age of eight and trumpet at the age of ten. With his brothers Arcadio and José formed the group “Marimba de los Hermanos Moreno”, in Ar- riaga, in the Pacific cost of Chiapas. His father Mr. Abelino Moreno was an artesian specialized to make hammocks “Hamacas” made it by ropes “mecate”, for that reason they got the nickname “mecateros”, name which they used years after for their group.

During some years they played around the Pacific cost area, with a Marimba quartet, as weel as they worked playing in the towns around the Cost of Oaxaca, and the Golf of Mexico in Veracruz. In the middle of 1930’s they include to their group wind instruments, bringing musicians from Oaxaca to play in the group, then they formed their first marimba orchestra creating an important influence in the marimba bands around the cost of Chiapas.

Oscar Moreno In his youth he participated with many different groups in Chiapas, like Ma- rimba de los Hermanos Peña Ríos, and Marimba Lira de Oro of Carlos Tejada. In 1942 he moved with his brothers to Arriaga, Chiapas, where they got married and continue with the marimba group. In 1962, he moved with his wife, daughters and sons to Tuxtla Gutiérrez were he joined to the Marimba de los Hermanos Fernandez from Venustiano Carranza, with them got a contract by Jose Pinto Meneses to play in Guanajuato and record an album with marimba music, after that they moved to Mexico City. There he started to play with musicians such as René Ruiz Nandayapa, Ciro Juárez Acuña and his group El Águila de México, Gabriel Solís, Ariosto López, Armando Juárez (El tumbaito), and marimba groups like Marimba Bon- ampak, Marimba Lira de Plata, Marimba Hermanos Aquino, Marimba Nandayapa, among others.

316 Together with his sons Oscar, Obet, Roldan and Fredy formed the Marimba de los Hermanos Moreno García, having a great success in the capital city, performing tours all around Mexi- co, and recording 22 albums and went a tour in Japan in 1987.

Source: Interview with Oscar Moreno García, Mexico City, August 10th 2011.

Nájera Montes de Oca, Norberto -and his Marimba Espiga de Oro. *May 7th 1930. San Bartolome de los Llanos, Chiapas, Mexico.

He started playing since he was 12 years old with the marimba of Javier and Jorge Coello, with them he started working as a marimbist, his repertoire was exclusively formed by swing. Javier Coello, Jorge Coello, Norberto Najera, Amador Albores, Augusto Allar and Luis Gor- dillo were the members of what, at the 1940s, was known as the Marimba de los Coello, who not only were marimbists but also were marimba builders.

In 1945 he formed his own quartet named “Flor de mi tierra”, where he played the tiple of the marimba grande also he add the accordion to the ensemble. The quartet played songs like “La Maruchita”, “Las Chiapanequitas”, “El padrecito Rubén”, “El Huataneco”, “El Chingoncito”, among others.

In 1946, at the age of 16, he got married to Lourdes del Carmen Peña Coello, she lived with her for 63 years and had six children: Josefa, Edelmira, Norberto, Fernando, Jorge Alejandro, Segundo José, and Araceli de Jesus. During the next 12 years he worked as a musician and farmer.

Circa 1950, “Flor de mi tierra” was not longer a quartet, it became a marimba orchestra and some new members such as Manuel Vleeschower, Danilo Gutiérrez, Arturo Peña, Noe Vleeschower, and Anger Santiago joined it. After many name changes like La Marimba Co- rona Extra, La Marimba Carta Blanca, among others, and finally the group adopted the name La Espiga de Oro, in 1970.

317 La Marimba Espiga de Oro was the first marimba in Venustiano Carranza that recorded an album in 1971. Norberto Najera has not had any preference in a specific musical genre, his musical repertoire in the Marimba Orchestra includes all the possible genres that are usually played in the popular marimba.

The first marimba group in which he listens brass instruments was La Corona de Tapachula, this influenced him and he decided to incorporate that kind of instruments to his marimba orchestra: four saxophones and two trumpets. He also states that the other aggrupation that influenced him was “Lira de San Cristóbal de los Hermanos Domínguez”.

With his group La Espiga de Oro has performed in several sceneries of the country and have recorded many albums. Four with Sonosur records and nine with Celeidofon records. Some of the songs they have recorded are “Blue Moon”, “Noche y día”, some jazz standards, sones and zapateados such as “El Piri”, “El Rascapetate”, among others.

Source: Interview with Norberto Najera, Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, March 3rd 2012.

Nandayapa Ralda, Zeferino. *August 26th, 1931, Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas (Mexico); †December 28th, 2010; Mexico City.

Musician, composer, and well known as the greatest exponent of the Mexican marimba. He started playing the instrument at the age of six, since he was very young he leaded many marimba groups in the states of Chiapas and Veracruz. When he was 21 years old he moved to Mexico City, there he entered to the National Conservatory of Music. Soon he became known in the music field in Mexico City, where he participated in many recordings and radio programs in the XEW station (the biggest in Latin-America) playing many instruments, such as marimba, accordion, melodic, trumpet, saxophone, vibraphone, and piano.

In 1956, he founded Marimba Nandayapa and he recorded his first six LP albums with the group. Starting in 1958, he, along with his group, took the marimba music to Europe, Asia

318 and the Americas to different events, being the most important: Presencia de México in Co- lombia and Chile (1976), Cultural Olympiad in Munich, Germany (1972), and in Montreal, Canada (1976), and Congreso Internacional de Juventudes Musicales in Zagreb (1979). In 1978, his sons Oscar, Norberto, and Mario entered to the group and went on their first tour to Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, United States, and Austria. Marimba Nandayapa participated in the satellite broadcast to 20 countries of the TV show La noche de la música en el sol- sticio de verano, from Teotihuacan, in 1986. Two years later, the aggrupation debuted in the PASIC (The Percussive Arts Society International Convention) event, in San Antonio, Texas.

In 1989, his youngest son, Javier, entered to the group and the musical ensemble was formed. Nowadays, the ensemble continues having presentations in very important events, such as Expo 1990, in Osaka, Japan; the great exposition México: Esplendores de 30 siglos, in New York, San Antonio, and Los Angeles, U.S.; Expo 1992 in Sevilla, Spain; the Book Fair in Frankfurt, Germany; Music Under the Stars Festival in El Paso, Texas (1992); World Eco- nomic Forum in Davos, Switzerland; Bogota´s International Book Fair, Colombia (1993); Carifesta Six Festival in Trinidad and Tobago; The Percussive Arts Society International Convention (PASIC) and the International Percussion Lecture in Phoenix and Tucson, Arizo- na (1995); Temporada de México, in Vancouver and Calgary, Canada (1996), the Quetzal- tenango Municipal Theatre, Guatemala (1998); two tours in Japan (1994 and 1996); the Inter- national Film Festival in Moscow, Russia, and in New York (1999); in 2000 he performed in Proyecto Tajin, in Veracruz; and many others.

Between the years 2000 and 2007, Marimba Nandayapa went on six tours to Denmark where he had more than 100 presentations. Also, in the years 2000 and 2001, he performed in Gothenburg, Sweden; in the Schleswing-Holstein Festival in Germany; and the Rhythm Sticks Festival at the Purcell Room of London, England. He participated in the first and second Percussion Festival in Belgium (2001 and 2004), there, Zeferino Nandayapa was awarded with the Percussion Society Award. During his fifth tour in Japan he performed in the Ex- po-Aichi (2005). He had a concert at Chicago Old Town School of Music (2006), taught in musical clinics and performed at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas (2007), and the Uni- versity of Texas, Brownsville (2008). In 2010, he participated in the International Marimba Festival and Lecture, Minneapolis, U.S.

319 In the educational field, Zeferino Nandayapa and his group have taught marimba clinics in different universities and conservatories in Europe, United States, Japan, and Mexico.

Moreover, he played in the most important symphony orchestras of the country; most of the pieces he performed were dedicated to him, composed or arranged by him. In 1989, leaded by Eduardo Mata, he performed solo at the VIVA Festival of the Royal Philarmonia Orchestra, at the Royal Festival Hall of London, England. In 2000, he was a soloist of the Orquesta de la Comunidad de Madrid, at Palacio de Bellas Artes and Teatro Municipal of Madrid, Spain.

Due to his successful concerts at Carnegie Hall of New York, Nandayapa was awarded with the United Nations Medal in 1976. In 1973 and 1976, thanks to his contributions to the Chiapanecan marimba, he received Premio Chiapas; in 1992, he obtained the Diploma y Medalla de Oro del Comité de la Excelencia Europea, in Paris, France. In 1996, due to his 50 years of artistic career dedicated to the marimba diffusion, President Ernesto Zedillo presented him with the National Prize of Arts, in the field of popular art and tradition. In 2009, he was named Creador Emerito of the National Fund for Culture and Arts (Fondo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes, FONCA).

To date, Marimba Nandayapa has done more than 70 recordings (1995, 1996, and 2004) for Auvidis records, in France; King Records, in Japan; and Winter & Winter, in Germany. In 2006, they released a triple CD of Mexican music to celebrate their 50th anniversary.

Filmography: Al son de la marimba (Mexico 1956); Nani ga Kanojo o so Saseta ka (Tokyo 2001); Mexican Marimba Legends (New York 1999).

Compositions: “Fantasía Profana”, “Ixchel”, “Aires Mexicanos”, “Sinfonía de la Paz”, “Nandacacué”, “Baque- tofinías”, “Marimboleando”, “Chachalacas”, “Himno al Cirijano”, “Himno a la educacion”, among others.

Sources: (Mendoza 2007); (Brenner 2006:28-34); Interview with Zeferino Nandayapa, Mexico City, August 2010; Interview with Javier Nandayapa Velasco in January 18th 2012, Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas.

320 Nandayapa Velasco, Javier *December 3rd 1970, Mexico City.

He started his musical career in 1989 with the Marimba Nandayapa, he participated in all the records, concerts, and international tours made by the group until 2011. In 1995 he started playing solo, promoting around Mexico a big amount of marimba works made by Mexican and foreigners composers. He has travelled around 38 countries of Europe, Asia, Africa, Mid- dle East, and the Americas. As a soloist he has performed in different universities, forums, and international festivals in Japan, France, Spain, Germany, Denmark, Lithuania, Latvia, Poland, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, United Arab Emirates, Kenia, United States, Argen- tina, Uruguay, Brazil, Paraguay, Chile, Peru, Costa Rica, Belize, and Guatemala. Since 1992 he has given clinics of Mexican marimba in universities of the United States and many conservatories and music schools in Europe, Centre and South-America. He has performed as a soloist in several Symphonic Orchestras from Mexico, Lithuania, Argentina, and Paraguay.

To date, he has recorded 11 albums as a soloist and as a session musician he has participated in more than twenty album productions of very different musical genres and styles. Along with Marimba Nandayapa he made 15 recordings. He has been a scholar of FOCAEM (Fund for the Culture and Arts of the State of Mexico) in 1999 and 2009 and also of FONCA ( Na- tional Fund for the Culture and Arts of Mexico) in 1995, 1997, 2002, 2007, he also had the scholarship “Creadores escénicos con trayectoria” from 2012 to 2014, during that time he recorded three CDs and gave 60 concerts in Mexico and abroad.

Javier Nandayapa is one of the marimba players with the most international projection. Be- sides he is part of the traditional marimba a players, he is also one of the biggest promoters of the contemporaneous classic marimba repertoire and one of the few marimbists that survive only by playing in concerts around the world. Javier Nandayapa is sponsored by the American companies “Marimba One” and “Innovative Percussion”.

Source: Interview with Javier Nandayapa Velasco in January 18th 2012, Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas.

321 Palomeque [Celaya], [Roberto] “Tito” *November 8th, 1937, Pijijiapan, Chiapas; Mexico.

Son of Enrique Palomeque Ruiz and Maria Celaya Gómez. Roberto “Tito” Palomeque is the fourth of seven brothers; he started playing at the age of six under his father’s instruction, who, besides of being a marimbist he had a great love for the marimba building. Roberto Pal- omeque began playing melodies that he listened in the marimba rehearsals leaded by his father; some years later he and his brothers entered to the group known as La marimba de En- rique Palomeque ‘el chato’, lead by his father.

In 1955, once his father retires from music, Roberto Palomeque and his six brothers continue with the marimba group and changed the name to Marimba Orquesta Hermanos Palomeque, under their own lead. That same year, he got married with MS Dora Montes Lopez and they had six children: Guadalupe, Maria Esther, Carlos +, Javier, Alcira, and Marco Antonio.

Years later, near 1960, when five of his brother decide to move to other states of the country, he only counts on his brother Inocente. Little by little his sons and nephews became members of the aggrupation. They had tours in big part of the state of Chiapas, Oaxaca, Tabasco, Cam- peche, Mexico City, and some other places; they alternate with different marimba groups, such as: Los Mecateros, from Arriaga; Marimba Peña Ríos, and Lira de Oro, from Tonalá; Alma Mexicana, La Perla del Soconusco, La Perla de Chiapas, and La Corona de Tapachula, all of them from Tapachula; also with marimba Seguridad Pública, from Tuxtla Gutiérrez.

Between the 1950´s and 1960´s the group recorded the first album called “Vals para mi madre”, with El Cisne records. They have recorded around 15 records with different companies. During his musical career he share the stage with important marimbists, such as: Carlos Tejada, Emigdio Aquino, Felipe Peña, Zeferino Nandayapa, and many others. Moreover, he is a big fan of marimbas like La Perla de Chiapas and La corona de Tapachula. Many respected marimbists of traditional music in Chiapas have emerged from his group Los Hermanos Palomeque.

322 Roberto “Tito” Palomeque has received many awards and ceremonies in his honor; the most important ones are: the “Duvalier” ceremony, in Pijijiapan, Chiapas; the award recognizing his career offered by the government of the state of Chiapas and via CONECULTA Chiapas (Consejo Estatal para la Cultura y las Artes de Chiapas); the ceremony in his honor held in the 12th International Marimba Festival, in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas; Mexico.

His arranges and compositions are the reflection of his search for having his own musical style. His musical repertoire goes from the popular to the classics. He worked for 30 years as a music teacher in the elementary school “Rodulfo Figueroa”; nowadays he teaches the marimba workshop in Casa de la Cultura, in Pijijiapan, and leads the Marimba Orquesta Her- manos Palomeque.

Compositions: 1975: “Anatolio Trinidad si” (march); 1986: “Liliana” (waltz); “Susana” (waltz). 1990: “Paola” (waltz). 1996: “Finca Parral” (march); “El hombre talent”. 1998: “Pijijiapan” (bolero). 1999: “El desastre”. 2000: “Nayeli” (bolero). 2000: “Wendy” (ballad). 2001: “Son del Pijuy” (son). 2002: “Bety” (bolero).

Source: Interview with Roberto Palomeque Celaya, Pijijiapan, Chiapas, in May 25thth 2011, Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas.

Peña Gordillo, Francisco *March 27, 1927, San Bartolomé de los Llanos, nowadays known as Venustiano Carranza.

He started his musical studies in the execution of the marimba at the age of 18 in the group of Francisco Santiago Borraz. He began by playing the tiple, and afterwards he also played the bass and second voice (full). He was a member of the group until the passing of Santiago Borraz in 1974. After, he continued as a member of small groups, this just with one marimba until he and his brothers Arturo, Raul, and Rodolfo Peña Gordillo formed the group La Ma- rimba Alma Mexicana de los Hermanos Peña where he becomes a trumpet player besides being a marimbist.

La Marimba Alma Mexicana de los Hermanos Peña played for about 15 years in Venustiano Carranza. Later, in 1958 approximately, Francisco Peña and his brothers moved to Tuxtla Gutierrez, and stayed there playing for about 14 years.

323 All along his marimbistic carreer he played with Norberto Nájera, the Gomez brothers, Santi- ago Borráz, the Hernández brothers, Tomas Aquino’s group, Manuel Queda, Joel González, among others, always playing in any place wher the Marimba was requested. When he moved back to Carranza he became a member of the group Marimba Espiga de Oro, with whom he worked for many years, and where he would have the opportunity to participate in the recording of 12 albums. Francisco Peña finished his musical carreer a few days after the passing of Manuel Vleeschower in 2000.

Source: Interview with Francisco Peña, Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, March 3rd 2012.

Reyes Palacios, Hugo *February 2nd, 1926, Tonala, Chiapas. +January 3rd, 2014, Tonala, Chiapas, Mexico.

He started to play the marimba at the age of 15; in 1944 he participated for a short time in the marimba group of Felipe Peña Palacios. A short time later, he became part of the marimba orchestra Lira de Oro of Carlos Tejeda, with whom he stayed until 1958 and where, as he has declared, he acquired lots of his musical knowledge and influence in this style of marimba orchestra. In 1958, he founded his own aggrupation known as Marimba Orquesta Virreynal. In 1996 he was named conductor of the municipal marimba of Tonalá, having it under his direction until 1998.

Hugo Reyes and his Marimba Orquesta Virreynal made many performances in many states of the Mexican Republic, such as Campeche, Puebla, Yucatán, Tabasco, Veracruz, Oaxaca, Mexico City, among others. He also performed in television. He received awards like: Silver Record for 20 years of the Marimba Orquesta Virreynal, in 1978; the Golden Record for 25 years of artistic career, in 1983. In April 2001, he was given an award for his 60 years of musical life. In April and December 2006, many cultural non-governmental institutions gave him an award for his almost 50 years of professional career with the Marimba Orquesta Virreynal.

In December 2008, the City Council of Tonalá gives him a tribute. In November 2010, the government of the state of Chiapas, during the “10th International Marimbist Festival 2010”,

324 also gives him a tribute due to his long professional career in the execution and marimba musical composition. In a little more than 50 years he made 120 records in vinyl, cassette, and compact disc.

Outstanding compositions: “Puerto Arista”, “Sabroso Dulcito”, “María Luisa”, “Querido To- nalá”, “Neyra”, “Así Gavito”, “Bodas de Plata del Club de Leones”, “ Julián Grajales”, etcetera.

Sources: Interview with Hugo Reyes, Tonalá, Chiapas, May 26th 2011; Personal video archives of the journalist Raul Mendoza Vera

Santiago Borraz, Ángel Francisco *October 4th, 1896, San Bartolomé de los Llanos, currently Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, Mexico. +May 7th, 1974, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas.

Better known among the musicians as Pancho Santiago, son of Manuel Trinidad Santiago and Carmen Borraz, started studying music by his father’s side who was then part of the first marimba group that played with a chromatic marimba in Chiapas, when he was just a kid (Trujil- lo 2010:73). His father taught him the basics to become a marimbist. At the age of 14 he got fatherless, he continued studying with Luz Moreno, then. Later, he studied music theory and the violin with a professor of music who stayed a short term in San Bartolomé, renowned as Artemio. So he continued taking classes with Manuel Balcazar, who prepared him to the point of being able to play classical pieces.

Along with his brothers José, Segundo, and Hector, he formed his own group to be able to sustain economically his family. In 1915, they decide to go to work to the city of Comitan with his marimba quartet. There, in 1916, Francisco Santiago Borráz built a small marimba of four and a half octaves to complement the “silence he noticed” in his musical arrangements, and this marimba was entitled requinta. Francisco invited to joy his group to the marimbist Domingo García Goméz and Ciro Juárez, adding the doble bass or tololoche played by Ho- racio Trujillo, forming then the first group in Chiapas with two marimbas, a marimba grande and a requinta one, plus a bass of strings. This group débuted in style cinema of the time,

325 “Piconi” and he called it El Águila de Mexico. Francisco Santiago says he took this model to his cousins, the Dominguez brothers in San Cristóbal de las Casas, and then to Mr Librado de la Torre, in Chiapa de Corzo.

In 1922, he moved with his aggrupation to Mexico City where the obtained a contract to travel to Germany, in 1925. Francisco Santiago did not accept, however his brothers José, Segun- do and Hector did make the travel, under the representation and direction of Domingo García. Francisco entered to the Conservatory of Music where he studied the piano two years and another one the saxophone, instrumentation, theory and dictation. He also worked as xylophonist in the Orquesta Tipica Presindencial, and as musical director in the Alcázar cinema.

In 1931, he moved back to his native land, San Bartolomé de los Llanos where he organized once again a marimba group. In 1933, he went to a competition in the city of Tuxtla Gutiér- rez, capital of the state of Chiapas, executing mainly regional music of the town and music proposed by the qualifier jury in the event’s eve, representing his composition “la Maruchi- ta”, which became a standard melody of the traditional repertoire of marimba in Chiapas.

In 1946, he started his work as professor of music in the kindergarten of Venustiano Carranza where he stayed until his retirement. With his marimba group he traveled all around the state of Chiapas. He had under his direction some of the ones who would become some of the greatest exponents of the marimba in Chiapas such as Jorge Zuñiga Bermúdez, Manuel Vleeshower, Limbano Vidal, and others. Francisco Santiago passed away from a respiratory attack in the capital of Chiapas in 1974. In 1997, the 14th State Marimba Contest in Chiapas hold his name.

Compositions: “La Maruchita”; “Corrido de Carranza”; “Mi Canción”; “Tu Sonrisa”.

Source: Chiapas, Suplemento Cultural, July 1, 1951, 1-2

326 Santiago Villafuerte, Rodrigo de Jesús *December 19th 1956, Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, Mexico.

He learned how to play the marimba at the age of nine with his father José Santiago Zúñiga and his grand father Leopoldo Villafuerte. He started to play the harmony or third positions as also is known, at that time he had to used a bench to reach the keyboard of the marimba. At the age of ten he started to work as a marimbist with the marimba quartet organized by his grandfather, his father and his uncle Isaac Villafuerte, playing in private events around his town. When he started to study the elementary school was part of the marimba group of the school.

In 1975 founded and conducted the marimba Estrella de Plata already playing with four marimba mallets. After he joined also as a soloist to the group Marimba el Águila de los Her- manos Santiago conducted by Arturo Santiago. In 1978 he got married with Victoria Concep- ción Chávez and they got two children, Emmanuel and Floribeth who also plays marimba.

Afterwards he was invited to record the first albums by the Marimba Espiga de Oro in Mexi- co City. In 1983 forming his own group the Marimba Orquidea where Manuel Vleeshower was the tenorist until he died in 2000. Rodrigo Santiago comment that during the 1980’s the Record Company Caleidofon, came to Venustiana Carranza to recorded the principal marimba groups from the town such as Espiga de Oro, La Marimba Orquídea.

In 2001 decided to stop the group Marimba Orquidea and in 2002 he started to play with La Espiga de Oro where he still been the tenorist until today. Rodrigo Santiago is well known in the marimba circles as heir of the Vleeshower’s style with two and four mallets.

Source: Interview with Rodrigo Santiago, Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, March 3rd 2012.

327 Santiago Zuñiga, Jose *January 25th 1928, Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, Mexico.

He started his musical learning at the age of eleven with Leopoldo Villafuerte. In 1941 started to play the harmony in the group of Hermanos Villafuerte, in which he remained for three years. In 1944 he joined to the marimba group of Ignacio Caballero, afterwards he was invited to be part of the group of Francisco Santiago Borraz, participating with young marimba players that become to be recognized in the marimba music with their own groups such as Jorge Zuñiga, Ramiro Alfaro, among others. In 1953 he started to play in the marimba group Flor de mi Tierra with Manuel Vleeshower.

In 1975 he traveled in a tour with the marimba group leaded by Manuel Vleeshower, invited by the governor of Chiapas. Later he was part of many marimba groups such as Marimba Orquesta Ecos de los Llanos, Marimba el Águila de los Hermanos Santiago, Marimba Espiga de Oro of Norberto Nájera and Marimba Orquídea leaded by his oldest son Rodrigo Santiago.

Jose Santiago is one of the most recognized marimbist in Venustiano Carranza where he has been played with practically all the marimba groups in the region in the last 60 years, participating in around of 15 album records with many marimba groups. During his musical career he met and share with important musicians in the marimba history of Venustiano Carranza like: Francisco Santiago, Hector Santiago, Manuel Vleeshower, Santiago Brothers, Fernandez brothers, as well as many marimba builders. Having very interesting stories about marimba success in the region.

Source: Interview with Jose Santiago, Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, March 3rd 2012.

Tejada Henestrosa, Carlos *September 3rd, 1897. Tonala, Chiapas; Mexico. †April 3rd, 1995, Tonala, Chiapas; Mexico.

He started his musical studies approximately in 1909 with Professor Andrés Antonio, with whom he finished his learning in 1912. His musical learning was also influenced by José Ma-

328 ría Prado and Ernesto Vera, he worked with them the necessary time to consolidate himself. The marimba was the instrument that Carlos Tejada stood out, also it was the first instrument he played at the beginning of his career.

Between 1916 and 1917 he was invited by Los Hermanos Marín to be part of their group. In 1920, General Álvaro Obregón, who was President of Mexico then, invited the aggrupation to perform in Texas, United States. Thanks to this trip, the group obtained a contract in New York; later, back in Mexico, they played in Palacio Nacional and Chapultepec Castle during the celebrations of the Centenary Anniversary of the Mexican Independence.

As a member of the marimba group “Los Hermanos Marín”, Carlos Tejada performed in Buenos Aires, Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, and Panama. After that long trip, when he arrived to Mexico, Carlos Tejada decides to create his own aggrupation and leave the group. In 1923, Carlos Tejada and his marimba group started a big tour in United States; cities like Los Ange- les, San Diego, Oakland, Chicago, Detroit, Florida, Washington, San Luis Missouri, and others; finally they settled in New York and he lived there for eight years. There, we worked as a freelance musician in many orchestras and radio broadcasts, such as the National Broadcast- ing Company (NBC).

In 1936, when he comes back to Chiapas, Mexico, he met his future wife, Mrs. Isabel Calza- da. He decides to move to Tonala, Chiapas, and he founds his marimba orchestra, which he made popular in parties along the Pacific Coast of Chiapas, playing all kinds of music. Includ- ing in the group the seven marimba players plus tow saxophones and two trumpets, something new in tose years.

It is in 1954 when maestro Carlos’s aggrupation formally receives the name of Lira de Oro. The music and arrangements they played were very notorious in the region, the vast knowledge that Carlos Tejada acquired when he was in United States made that a big part of his arrangements were from American music, also known as jazz standards, with his own style, more orchestral. Nonetheless, his repertoire included boleros, zapateados, tropical music, and Mexican popular music.

329 He recorded five albums with Lira de Oro in the RCA Victor records company. He is considered as the principal influence in the instrumental style known as Marimba Orchestra, which became very popular in the state of Chiapas and then spread to all Mexico and Guatemala. Near 1982, Carlos Tejada retired from music and dedicated his life to read in his small personal library.

Source: (Cigarroa 2011:11-15).

Tovilla Jiménez, Ruffo *September 12th, 1931. Copainala, Chiapas; Mexico. Marimbist.

His beginning in the music field happened spontaneously when he was nine years old. His grandfather, Jose Maria Jimenez Polo, with whom he lived with since he was one year old until he turned 18, taught him how to build a marimba with small pieces of wood, he used it to start playing his first songs. Little by little he built a marimba himself, it had more keys because he needed to find lower and higher notes to help him play more melodies.

The first groups in which he participated where in the Riviera de Chilpancigo community, in Guerrero State, later he moved to Copainala where he was a member of many marimba groups. During his learning process, in 1951, he takes the decision to move to Tuxtla Gutiér- rez, Chiapas, to study music. He enrolled to the academy of maestro Santiago Hernández Lu- na. That same year he met Gustavo Ruiz, they started playing together and having better in- comes as musicians. After that, he enters to marimba “La Reyna de Tuxtla” of Ranulfo Mon- toya.

In 1953 he came back to Copainala and, in 1954, along with his cousins, he founded the marimba group Arrullo del Grijalva; that same year they played for the governor of the state of Chiapas: Efraín Aranda Osorio and they received a marimba requinto made by Pedro Acuña. Later they incorporated metal instruments and drums to become a marimba orchestra, which name was Arrullo de Mezcalapa.

330 Their repertoire was formed mainly by boleros, cha-cha-chas, danzones, and mambos. The group kept the same until 1957, year in which he returned to Tuxtla Gutiérrez to learn how to play the saxophone. There, he participated with many marimba groups leaded by Ranulfo Montoya, Jorge Aquino Díaz, Gonzalo Molina, among others. Then he founded Marimba Tuxtla, in which he travels around many states of the country, such as: Tabasco, Estado de Mexico, Guerrero, Quintana Roo, and Campeche.

Ruffo Tovilla was influenced by classic marimba groups like El Cuarteto Clásico of David Gómez, and groups like La Poli de Tuxtla, in the popular field. He recorded five albums with Marimba Tuxtla, aggrupation that he leaded and founded. Some of the songs they recorded were: “Luna llena en mi ciudad”, “Mezcalapa”, “Son de Papá Cheito”, “Vals Carolina”, “El Copainalteco”, “El Sabinal”, and “Vals Berenice”, this last one written by him. He also made a record with Hermanos Tovar, in 2009.

He worked as a music teacher in the elementary school Angel Albino Corzo and the kindergarten Leona Vicario, in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, place where he currently lives and continues his marimba work as a workshop instructor in the Marimba Museum “Zeferino Nandayapa”.

Source: Interview with Rufo Tovilla, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, May 12th 2011.

Vidal Mazariegos, Limbano. *January 25th, 1926, Socoltenango, Chiapas, Mexico. +May 5th, 2011, Comitán de Domínguez, Chiapas, Mexico.

His parents were Adulfo Vidal Ancheita and Elodia Mazariegos Gordillo. Since he was very young, he showed to have big aptitudes for the music. He made his first studies in marimba and musical theory in his hometown. His professors were Mr. Mariano Guillen, Agustin Lara Castillo from Michoacán, and the well known Francisco Santiago Borráz from San Bartolome de los Llanos, nowadays Venustiano Carranza.

331 He started as a marimbist in the groups of Socoltenango, Comitan and Venustiano Carranza. From 1962 to 1964 he was the mayor of the town of Socoltenango. In 1965 he moves to Comitan de Dominguez, Chiapas, where he founded the Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas. In the 1971, he graduated as a professor of artistic education from the INBA (National Institute of the Fine Arts, in Mexico city). He was a founder and professor during 30 years at the secondary school E.T.I. 141, now called Escuela Secundaria Técnica Número 5, in Comitan de Dominguez, Chiapas. In 1978, he began participating in the marimba contests organized by the government of the state of Chiapas winning the first place that year.

Later, in 1984, when the Marimba State Contests were reintroduced, he and his group won the first place five times. This is the aggrupation that has received the biggest number of awards in the Chiapas Marimba Contest. In 1994 he received a tribute by the Government of the State of Chiapas naming the 11th State Marimba Contest after him and declaring him as Honorary Citizen of the state of Chiapas. He made artistic presentations all along Mexico, Guatemala, and Japan.

He made more than 30 recordings for different record companies; his repertoire includes the classical music, folklore, boleros, tropical music, among others. Besides, he wrote songs like: “Socoltenango es mi tierra”, “Mi bello Comitán”, “Amor y ternura”, “Toreros mexicanos”, among others. Source: Interview with Limbano Vidal, Chiapa de Corzo, and Comitán, Chiapas, January 18th 2010.

Vleeshower Borraz, Manuel del Carmen *April 26th 1923, San Bartolomé de los Llanos; +September 22nd 2000, Venustiano Carran- za, Chiapas, Mexico.

Son of Lisandro Vleeschower Coutiño and María Asunción Borraz Fuentes. Lisandro Vleeshower was the son of Emilio Justo Alberto Vleeshower, original of Belgium, who first arrived to San Cristobal and later he moved to San Bartolome de los Llanos, place where he was a mayor in 1886. Manuel was the fifth son out of eight, four of them had contact with the

332 music, but only Manuel and Segundo had recognition in the musical field. Segundo Vleeshower was one of the most acknowledged marimba builders in Chiapas.

He started at the age of eight to work in marimba groups, the first one was the marimba of Luis and Humberto Ordoñez, after with Francisco Santiago Borraz, who accepted him in his aggrupation despite he was very young. In 1933, the group participated in a marimba contest in Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, winning the first place with the songs “La Maruchita” and “Las Chiapanequitas” by Francisco Santiago. In the classical genre with “Si yo fuera rey” by Adol- phe Adam. Around those years he listened Hector Santiago Borraz playing with four mallets; something not very common in those days, that event inspired him to practice a technique that made him become one of the most important marimba players in the Mexican history.

When he was 11 years old, he moved to Comitan to work with Domingo Palacios and despite he was so young he became the soloist of the group, there he studies music theory, piano and other instruments such as saxophone, besides he studied a year of secondary school.

Between 1936 and 1941 he moved to the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez and played in the marimba of José Ruíz “El Conejo”, in the marimba of Cicerón Cuesta, and when he was 17 years old, he entered for the first time to the marimba Poli de Tuxtla. Later he went on a tour in several cities, such as: Arriaga, Chiapas; Matías Romero, Oaxaca; Minatitlán and the port of Vera- cruz, Veracruz; and finally in Mexico City, where he worked in nightclubs and some national radio shows from the XEQ. In the year 1941, Vleeshower comes back to Venustiano Carranza and becomes a member of the Marimba de los Hermanos Coello and some other local marimba groups.

On November 22nd, 1944, he got married to Margarita Morales Cruz and had five children: Víctor Manuel, Mario, Abraham, Olga del Carmen, Jorge Roberto. In the next ten years he played in Chiapas in several marimbas in the cities of Tuxtla Gutiérrez, San Cristobal, and Venustiano Carranza, in all of them he was a soloist, being the most important ones: Noé Nandayapa, Jorge Ricci , Jorge Zúñiga Bermúdez from Teopisca with whom he travels to Nuevo Laredo, Tamaulipas; Poli de Tuxtla in 1947, Marimba Flor de mi Tierra of Norberto Nájera Montes de Oca. In 1955 he became part of the famous marimba group Los Hermanos

333 Paniagua from the city of San Cristobal, in 1958 he came back for the third time to the “Poli de Tuxtla” being part of the recording of more than 20 albums with songs like: “La flor del café”, “Popurri de Lara”, “Sones Chiapanecos”, among others. He also played with Maderas de mi Tierra in Tuxtla Gutiérrez; the Marimba Orquesta Ecos de San Cristóbal of Arturo Hidalgo; La Marimba Santa Cecilia conducted by Arcadio Urbina Camposeco; La Marimba Lupita of Horacio Trujillo.

At the beginning of the 1980’s he moves to Venustiano Carranza and became a member of the Marimba Espiga de Oro recording with them nine albums, he was a member of this aggrupation until 1988. It´s in that aggrupation where he left his legacy in the maturity and influence in the marimba of Chiapas with songs like: “La calle 12”, “La danza de la pulga”, “Perfidia”, “Frenesí”. Later he played the vibraphone with the group of Flavio Molina in Comitan. After that he was the soloist of the Marimba Ecos de los Llanos and the Marimba Orquesta Orquídea de Chiapas, in Venustiano Carranza where he participated in several recordings; he stayed in the aggrupation until he passed away.

Manuel Vleeshower only tried twice to form his own marimba groups, one in 1950 called the Marimba Vleeshower and that lasted less than a year. In 1976, he formed a second marimba, this new aggrupation accompanied the governor Manuel Velasco Suárez to Panamá.

He received several acknowledgements from Civil Organizations and the City Councils of Venustiano Carranza, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, San Cristobal de las Casas, and other cities. In 1991, the 8th Marimba State Contest was named after him, in 1996 he received the Premio Chiapas award, the biggest one given by the state of Chiapas in recognition to the researches and artist who contributed to the improvement and development of the state.

Manuel Vleeshower was not known as a composer; however, his song named “Mi cielo eres tú” is a standard in the marimba repertoire in Chiapas. Moreover, he is one of the most influential marimbists in the development of the marimba music in Mexico. His skill in handling four and five mallets was an inspiration for hundreds of marimbists who tried to copy his style. It was in this way that he became a legend and as prove of his legacy, his hometown has a statue in which he has three mallets in each hand.

334

Source: Interview with Norberto Najera, Jorge Coello, Jose Santiago, Rodrigo Santiago in Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, March 3rd 2012. Also taken from (Albores Constantino 2000).

Zúñiga Bérmudez, Jorge Elpidio *March 4th, 1917, Teopisca, Chiapas, Mexico. +February 6th, 1955.

His parents were Mr Hermilio Zúñiga Z. and Mrs. Emiliana Bermúdez Constantino. His sib- lings were: Lucio, Alberto, Hilario Humberto, José Antonio, Dolores Albertina, Josefina Guadalupe, Luisa Elena, Lindoro Agustín, and Mario Arturo Zúñiga Bermúdez. In 1940 he got married to Mrs. María Petra Ocampo Moreno, their children are: César, Angelina, Rob- erto, Jorge Bulmaro, and Luz Esther Zúñiga Ocampo.

Despite the limitations of his time, he finished third grade of Elementary School. Time later he entered in the music field; at the beginning he played the guitar, then the marimba. The first group he was part of was the marimba leaded by Alfredo Moreno, in which he played the harmony part, then he played with his uncle Luz Zúñiga and his sons: Manuel, Fidel Eduardo, Juventino, and Mariano de la Luz Zúñiga Coronel.

At the age of 13 he moved to the city of Comitán, Chiapas, where he was hired by Mingo Palacios, who thought him his first notes. Later, he came back to Teopisca and formed his first marimba group Aguila, being the conductor and arranger, with this marimba he made his first tours to the cities of Comitan, Villa de las Rosas, San Bartolome de los Llanos, the Con- cordia, San Cristobal de las Casas, among others. Later he renamed the aggrupation as Lira Teopiscana.

Later, some other musicians entered to the aggrupation, including his brothers Lindoro and Mario. Jorge Zúñiga played with Francisco Santiago Borraz, while he was with him he met and played with Manuel Vleeshower; he played with Limbano Vidal Mazariegos, Danilo Gutiérrez, Bulmaro Ortega, and Jorge Ricci in San Cristobal de las Casas; with the Nandaya- pa and the Cartagena brothers in Tuxtla Gutiérrez; also with the Tejeda brothers in Tonala, in Comitan with the brothers Ramiro and Javier Alfaro, and some other musicians. He also

335 played with the musicians Arturo M. Peña, in Valle de las Rosas, the brothers Flavio and Cli- serio Molina Argueta from Comitan. In 1948, he was hired by the beer company Cervecería Moctezuma from Orizaba, Veracruz to lead the marimba orchestra that represented the company. Later, the group moved to Oaxaca de Juárez, Oaxaca because the governor, General Mayor Heredia, requested them to lead “La Marimba Orquesta Chabelita”.

In Tuxtla Gutiérrez, the capital of Chiapas, he worked as a musical education teacher in a school named “21 de agosto”, from 1945 to 1946. When General César A. Lara was interim governor of the state, he invited him to represent the Chiapanecan music in Laredo, Tamauli- pas. Zúñiga asked Manuel Vleeshower Borraz and Juventino Zúñiga Coronel to accompany him. Their perfect execution was the reason why the Argentine Anita Filiú hired them and took them to Laredo, Texas.

In 1948, the union of workers of Cervecería Moctezuma asked the City Council of Orizaba, Veracruz to make the necessary negotiations to name one of the streets where the company is located “Calle Jorge Zúñiga Bermúdez” that year.

From 1960 to 1970, the Cultural and Sports club of the city of Teopisca has a theater named after Jorge Zúñiga Bermúdez. His masterpiece “Quisiera ser para ti” is considered the hymn of Teopisca.

Compositions: 1933 “El Eclipse del Amor” (foxtrot); 1934 “Ensueños” (foxtrot); 1938 “Azul Celeste” (corrido); 1939 “Aquella Miradita” (bolero); 1940 “Quisiera ser para ti” (danzón); 1942 “Dos gotitas de llano” (danzón); 1942 “La Pispireta” (rumba); 1943 “La Canica” (rumba); 1944 “Tonala” (bolero); 1945 “Esperanza” (danzón); 1946 “El Indito de Teopisca” (zapateado); 1946 “El Teopiscaneco” (zapateado); 1948 “Ojazaos que Alumbran” (danzón); 1948 “Orizaba Divino” (danzón); 1949 “Salinacruz” (blues); 1949 “el 24 de Agosto” (corrido); “Ser Feliz” (bolero). among others.

Source: Interview with Mario Zuñiga, Tuxtlla Gutierrez, Chiapas, May 24th 2011.

336 Zúñiga Bermúdez, Mario May 24th 1940, Teopisca, Chiapas, Mexico.

Around the age of eight years old, he started playing the marimba along with his brother Lin- doro Zuñiga. His first attempts were playing the harmony part mostly in private parties, his musical repertoire were tropical music, mexican corridos, and boleros. Between the 13 and 14 years old, when his brother Lindoro moved to San Cristobal to study, he kept learning songs and developing his knowledge in the marimba along with his brother Jorge Zuñiga, who taught him since how to hold the four mallets to some basic improvisation principles.

When his brother Jorge died and the leaving of his brother Lindoro, Mario became the leader of the marimba, later he moved to San Cristobal city where he studied Law. A short time after finishing university in 1968 he moved to the city of Tuxtla Gutiérrez. Between 1975 and 1976, after quitting music due to his profession, he received the suggestion of creating a marimba orchestra and it is in that moment when he asked Maestro Alejandrino Nandayapa Ral- da to build the marimbas for his group. At the age of 45 he became the conductor and founder of the marimba orchestra “Quisiera ser para ti”, named after a song composed by his brother Jorge Zuñiga.

During some time he combined both areas: Law and music; however, after his professor’s death, the attorney Manuel A. Burguette dedicated his life completely to music. Among the musicians he played with and he accepted to have some kind of influence are: Manuel Vleeshower, Marimba Lira de San Cristóbal de los hermanos Domínguez, and the Marimba de los Hermanos Paniagua.

Mario Zúniga grew up with his brother who also became great musician. In his musical repertoire there are all those genres that are traditionally played in marimba since many years and has a vast repertoire of around one thousand tunes.

Source: Interview with Mario Zuñiga, Tuxtlla Gutierrez, Chiapas, May 24th 2011.

337 7.2 Marimba Groups

Cuarteto de los Hermanos Gómez -(Quartet of the Gomez Brothers).

The Cuarteto de los Hermanos Gómez is one of the groups with the biggest acknowledgement in the musical history of Chiapas. Original from Tuxtla Gutierrez, the group was founded by David Gomez Solana who included his children David and Arturo Gutiérrez, Domingo Gomez and Francisco Sol since the beginning.

David Gomez Solana (1867-1945) was a well-known builder of marimbas and distinguished player of the marimba. He studied the piano at the end of the 19th century in the National Conservatory of Music in Mexico City. In 1960, he composed the Vals Tuxtla, originally for piano, and which later would become symbolically the hymn of the city executed by all the marimbas of Chiapas.

Arturo and David Gómez became part of the quartet when they were just children of 10 and 12 years old. In 1917, David Gómez son became the director along with Arturo “El Gordito Goméz”, Jesus Jiménez and Álvaro Lopez. At the end of the 1918, the Cuarteto de los Her- manos Gómez traveled to the capital of the Mexican Republic where Miguel Lerdo de Tejada hired them to start an artistic tour all around the United States where they also had some presentations under the name of Marimba Cuauhtémoc. Later the Compañía Artística de Guadalupe Rivas Cacho hired them to make a tour in the Antilles and Europe.

Afterwards, in the 1930’s, they settle in the Port of Tampico, in Tamaulipas, at the East of Mexico. It was there where they included to their repertoire transcriptions of classical music, inspired by Jose Elguera, which provided them many opportunities to play in very important theaters of Mexico.

In 1940, the quartet went back to Chiapas; however, without Arturo Gómez who decided to stay in Mexico City. It was then when Daniel Garcia Blanco substituted him. Daniel Garcia would become one of the most well-known musicians of Chiapas. The Cuarteto de los Her-

338 manos Gómez distinguished for being one of the few quartets which stayed updated even after the marimba orchestras were heard in all of the cities and towns in Chiapas.

They kept their repertoire focused on the traditional sounds, fixed in potpourri formats, as well as in the interpretation of repertoires of Mexican composers such as Ricardo Castro, Ma- nuel M. Ponce, and the masters of the classical music of Europe such as Mozart, Bach, Vival- di, Rosini, and others. They never accepted the influence of jazz and tropical music which made their musical performances always took place in artistic and civic events. (Gutiérrez 1951)

Sources: (Martinez 1951:172-174); Interview with Guillermo Gómez. Tuxtlla Gutierrez, Chiapas, May 27th 2011.

Marimba Cuquita- Marimba Orchestra Cuquita (1931-1960)

Integrated by the Narvaez Villafuerte brothers, original from San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas, México. The marimba group was created by the brothers Juventino (director), Gua- dalupe and Ramiro Narvaez Villafuerte, recognized in the musical circles as excellent marimbists; besides, Ramiro and Juventino were composers. Also, other members entered to the group, such as Juventino Narvaez Jr, son of Juventino, who was a drummer, arranger, and composer; Horacio Aguilar Villafuerte, who was their cousin. Moreover, very important Chiapanecan musicians were part of this marimba group: Mario Penagos Rojas, Urbano Mar- tínez and Rodolfo Gómez.

In the 1930’s, Juventino Narvaez Villafuerte was member of a marimba group in San Cristo- bal, which was leaded by Jesus Penagos. Later, in 1931, Juventino traveled to Mexico City where, without planning, he got a job as a conductor in an orchestra in a nightclub. After that, Ramiro Narvaez Villafuerte traveled to be part of the group; later, his brother Guadalupe and his cousin Horacio (who had been a member of the also well-known Marimba de los Her- manos Paniagua. By the initiative of Juventino Narvaez Villafuerte, the “Marimba Orquesta Cuquita de los Hermanos Narvaez Villafuerte” was born; they decided to name it after their mother.

339 “Marimba Cuquita” alternated many times with great marimbas orchestras and musical aggrupations, such as the famous Lira de San Cristobal de los Hermanos Domínguez , the orchestras of Luis Alcaraz, Gonzalo Curiel, Pablo Beltran Ruiz, Carlos Campos, Ramón Már- quez, among others. They played in big ballroom dances, like in Salón Riviera, El Rincón Colonial, El Patio, Salón México, and other places.

They recorded albums in the companies R.C.A. Victor, and Discos Perlees, was in this last one where they gained recognition with two songs: “Mi perro y sus pulgas” and “Olga Darzón”, from composer Rodolfo Gómez. Later some other big hits will come, such as “Dán- dole sabor al caldo” by Ramiro Narvaez Villafuerte, “Luis Bailando Twist”, “Twist a la Nar- váez”, among others that were re-edited many times.

When director Juventino Narvaez Villafuerte died, his brother Ramiro took the lead of the marimba orchestra. He was the author of many songs like “Rinconcito Chiapaneco”, dedicated to San Cristobal City. At the beginning of the 1960’s, with the passing of many of the members and the sickness that made Ramiro retire from the musical career, the Marimba Or- questa Cuquita disappeared.

Source: Personal archive of Journalist Raul Méndoza Vera.

Marimba del Estado de Oaxaca (Marimba of the State of Oaxaca).

The Marimba of the State of Oaxaca was formed in 1946, motivated by the fact that the government of Chiapas gave the state their first marimba as a gift, being governor of Oaxaca the General Edmundo Sanchez Cano. Afterwards the acting governor Eduardo Vasconcelos, in coordination with Guillermo Rosas Solaegui, principal of the School of Fine Arts of the Beni- to Juarez University of Oaxaca, requested the district judge of Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, the musicians needed to form “La Marimba del Estado”, due to the lack of instrument players in Oaxaca at the time.

340 In the year of 1948, the first marimbists arrived, represented and leaded by José Espinosa Lopez and four of his brothers, Ruben (bass), Rafael (harmony), Artemio (Tiple of requinta), and Oscar (in the first and the second voices). At the beginning they prepared and interpreted oaxaqueña music, being their first participation in a social event of the General Secretary of State.

In 1950, “La Marimba del Estado” is raised to the status of Government Institution taking leadership of the group Rubén Lopez Aguilar, who restructured it musically, incorporating some instruments such as the drums, the vibraphone, and some other percussions, relaying on 9 elements. Gonzales Ribera was in charge of this musical institution for a period of 30 years. Afterwards, in 1988, Otilio Perez Areas assumed the leadership for a period of one year, and since January in 1989, Elpidio Alberto Ibañez Carrillo acted as director and bass player of the marimba, who achieved a musical career of over 54 years in that institution. It was under his direction that new instruments like the tenor saxophone, the alto saxophone, were incorporated, covering, as a result, the expectations of the oaxaqueños, and highlighting that institution. Under his direction, 14 musical records were made.

On December 4th, 2013, Maestro Elpidio Ibañez passes away, and a call was announced to look for a new director, obtaining the position one of the marimba players of “La Marimba del Estado de Oaxaca”. On March 3rd, 2014, Maestro Diego Palacios Gonzales takes the leadership, becoming, and acting until nowadays, in the youngest director in “La Marimba del Estado de Oaxaca”. The aggrupation has made important tours for all around the state and in many other states of Mexico, abroad, in Japan, and some other states of the American Union. In total, “La Marimba del Estado de Oaxaca” has 21 recordings with regional oa- xaqueña music, mostly, incorporating also popular mexican music, and some pieces of universal composers.

Source: Interview with Diego Palacios, December 4th 2015.

341 Marimba de los Hermanos Aquino

The “Marimba de los Hermanos Aquino” was founded in 1931, in Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas; Mexico. Integrated by Tomás Aquino Díaz, who was the leader, the twins Cosme and Damián Aquino Díaz, and Jorge Aquino Díaz. At the beginning it was conducted by Cicerón Cuesta. During the 1940’s and 1950’s, they only played in the state of Chiapas, they used to travel to many places inside the state territory, but Chiapa de Corzo was their main city to perform. By the late 1950’s they moved to the capital, Tuxtla Gutiérrez. In 1960, Jorge Aquino takes the decision to move to Mexico City.

Their musical repertoire was basically popular in parties and dances. As in all the marimba orchestras of the time, they had a strong influence from the Big- bands. They didn’t make any transcriptions because they were empirical musicians, they adopted to their marimba orchestra the arrangements of Benny Goodman, Glenn Miller, Tommy Dorsey, and many others, just by ear. The instruments they had to play were: four musicians in the marimba grande and three in the marimba requinta, a double bass and the drums. Later, they incorporated wind instruments.

Their first recording “Marimba Hermanos Aquino” was in 1953, by Pearles records. Many of their recordings were made with the old record company “Cisne Raff”. They also recorded with other companies; however, they changed the name of the group from “Marimba de los Hermanos Aquino” to “Akino Marimba Band” in their albums; also they didn’t use the group pictures due to the exclusivity signed with Cisne Raff.

In the 1980s, the group was leaded by Jorge Aquino Díaz; it was formed by his brothers Damian and Tránsito Aquino, and the son of this last one: Jorge Luis Aquino. Some time later, Jorge Luis Aquino Gómez took the lead of the group. Nowadays, the Marimba de los Hermanos Aquino plays sporadically.

Source: Interview with Jorge Aquino Gómez, Mexico City, August 4th 2011.

342 Marimba de Los Hermanos Marin.

Jesus Marin Hernández (1885, Tonala, Chiapas – March 9, 1969, Mexico City); Pablo Marin Hernández (1887, Tonala, Chiapas – December 23, 1959, Mexico City); Hermilo Marin Her- nández (February 13, 1889 Tonala, Chiapas – May 30, 1966, Mexico City); Delfino Marin Sancho (May 28, 1903 Tonala, Chiapas – October 1, 1980, Mexico City); José Belén Marin Sancho (July 3, 1905 Tonala, Chiapas – May 2, 1991, Mexico City); Leopoldo Marin Sancho (November 15, 1914 Tonala, Chiapas – December 6, 1996, Mexico City).

It is a marimba group with a very well-known professional career at the beginnings of the 20th century. The family background is set in Oaxaca, state that makes border with Chiapas. The brothers Lucano and Eusebio Marin Piñon -native from Tehuantepec, Oaxaca, region better known as the Itsmo- moved to Tonala, Chiapas –region very alike the Itsmo oaxaqueño. Lucano Marin was born in 1885. He is renowned as an outstanding marimbist, pianist and organist. Lucano Marin Piñon got married to Cesárea Rincón Betanzos, and they had six children together: Eusebio, Efrén, María, Ninfa, Juana and Gelacio. Lucano and Eusebio formed the aggrupation Hermanos Marin with Jesús, Pablo, Hermilo, Delfino, José Belén and Leo- poldo, all of them children of Lucano; Eusebio and Efrén, children of Eusebio.

In 1921, the general Alvaro Obregon, president of the Mexican Republic, visited the train station of Tonala. In the reception the Hermanos Marin played. They interpreted pieces of the region and some pieces of classical music. The General Obregon invited them to represent Mexico in a World Fair in the city of Dallas, Texas, and afterwards they were hired to make a tour around many states and cities of the United States. The group kept traveling in other occasions to North America as well as Brazil, Sweden, China, Uruguay, etc. Some of their most outstanding presentations were forums such as Grauman’s Chinese Theatre, and the New York’s Latin Palace. At the ends of the 1920’s, Lucano and Eusebio left the marimba group, and it stayed integrated by their sons uniquely. It would be built on Lucano’s sons only who moved with the group to Mexico City.

In 1925, the Hermanos Marin participated in the Orquesta Típica de la Ciudad de México, exclusively during the breaks in their trips abroad at first, and later, five of the brothers,

343 Pablo, Hermilo, Jesús, Delfino and José Belén became definitely members of the orchestra. The marimba constituted a fundamental section and they work together until their retirement.

In 1941, Pablo Marin was named general director of the Orchestra. It was him who made most of the greatest arrangements for the orchestra, and soloist of Mexican music which are still being interpreted currently, and constitute his basic repertoire of the orchestra where the marimba is still present.

The Hermanos Marin were also composers and out stand:

Pablo Marin: “Concierto en Re para Marimba y Orquesta”, “Ritmos Mexicanos”, “Mosaico Mexicano”, “Con- cierto para violín”, “Polka Concierto para Salterio”, “Mazurca para salterio”, etcetera.

Hermilo Marin: “Polka de concierto para marimba y orquesta”; “El Vals”, "Cuando no estás aquí”.

Delfino Marin: the waltz “Beatriz”, “Lupita”, besides multiple arrangements for Hungarian, Zingara and Euro- pean music in general.

José Belén Marin: out stand his waltz: “Vivita”, “Claudia”; his songs: “Dos o Tres Muchachitos”, “Mi Niño”, the baião "Goza Corazón”; he also composed religious hymns, jingles, and popular music.

Leopoldo Marin was a doctor in medicine, and composer. His boleros out stand: “Junto al Mar”, “Eterno Amor”, “Estrella de Oriente”, “Errante” and the blues “Cielo Azul”.

Source: Information given by Sofia Mireles Gavito, journalist of Tonala, Chiapas, from her interview with José Belén Marin Osorio, in August, 1997. Facilitated by Doctor Apolinar Sancho Toledo.

Marimba Lira de San Cristóbal of Hermanos Domínguez.

The marimba Lira de San Cristobal was formed by seven musician brothers out of ten, the brothers Dominguez Borraz (Francisco, Abel, Ernesto, Alberto, Gustavo, Armando and Rami- ro).

All of them were born in San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas, between 1900 and 1920. They were educated in music with his father Abel Dominguez Ramirez who was a pianist in San Cristobal. While they were children, they formed the Marimba de los Hermanos Dominguez. After, when they grew up, Francisco, Abel, Ernesto Alberto and Armando formed the Marim- ba Lira de San Cristóbal. In 1921 the family arrived to Mexico City, and it was there where

344 Abel, Alberto and Armando studied in the National Conservatory of Music. They were the three most well-known composers in the nation.

The Hermanos Domínguez had a very prolific musical career since they all were compositors of pieces which are still being played nowadays. Abel composed some work of more academic style and some music for some movies. However his biggest productions are boleros, zapateados and marchas. Armando, also a composer, was a great pianist of jazz. He worked for many years in some cities of the United States, such as New York, Las Vegas and Los Ange- les.

Alberto Dominguez was the renowned among his brothers. His compositions “Perfidia” and “Frenesí” occupied the first places in the Hit Parade of New York during 24 weeks in 1941. Both have been interpreted in many languages, and by the most well-known voices of the second half of the 20th century; some of them are Paul Anka’s and Frank Sinatra’s. “Frenesí” has around 200 known adaptations.

The Hermanos Domínguez lived an ideal historic moment to develop and show the marimba to the rest of Mexico. They were hired constantly since 1939 until 1958 in the XEW radio, the biggest in Latin America which had a range that reached the whole American continent. This enabled them to show their music. They had regular presentations, although they played many instruments, the marimba was a constant in their performs. That is when they took the name Lira de San Cristóbal and made their first marimba recordings in gramophone records as well as participating in some movies of the 40’s. Their recordings show their compositions, but they were also great interpreters of marimba classical music and many other musical genres.

Something distinguishing from the aggrupation was that besides the marimba they also added the piano, trumpet, accordion, and saxophone, besides the classical marimba, and the vibraphone, all of them directed by Abel Domínguez, the oldest of them. The instrumentation and the style of Lira de San Cristóbal influenced many marimbists to diversify the instrumental sound of the marimba groups in Mexico, and the compositions of the Hermanos Domínguez became part of the standard repertoire of marimba, which were also recorded for the greatest artists of the moment in records and movies. The Hermanos Domínguez are admired and

345 well-known as an artistic symbol of Chiapas, and the principal theater of San Cristóbal has their name. The marimba Lira de San Cristobal made many recordings to companies such as Pearles, Orfeon, and Columbia, from which they have been reedited until nowadays in different collections.

Some of their compositions are: waltz, zapateados, foxes, mambos, doble steps, samba, and tropical music to dance. In their compositons there are pieces such as: “Frenesí”, “Perfidia”, “Hay que saber perder”, “Hilos de plata”, “Óyelo bien”, “Mi tormento”, “Al son de la marimba”, “Tierra para las macetas”, “Chiapas”, “Vals Ocosingo”, “Vals San Cristóbal”, “Adiós en el puerto, and many others.

Source: (Robledo 2004); Photo archive of Cultural center of San Cristobal de las Casas. Museo de la marimba in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas..

MARIMBA PRINCESITA, of Hermanos Bethancourt Bethancourt Brothers.

Founded in the year of 1900 by Porfirio Bethancourt Hurtado, the group played at that time with diatonic marimbas. During the second decade of the 20th century they started to use the chromatic marimbas. Since 1920 it was integrated by his sons: Mariano, Ru- ben, Efraín, Rafael, José, Porfirio and Fabian Bethancourt, with the name of Maripiano Betancourt, playing all kind of music.

Through the time, they thought to change its name and denominate it as: Marimba Nacional, on the year 1930, playing popular and classical music in “marimba pura”, (marimba ensemble without additional instruments). Because Mr. Porfirio’s death they decided to keep the same name. After, they changed that name again and call it Marim- ba Alma de Xelaju of Bethancourt and Hurtado Bros., at that time, many successes were reached and Luis, Manuel, and David Hurtado joined to the group.

In the year of 1950, they decided to name the Group of Marimba as Marimba Princesita of Bethancourt Bros, with which they started to get the same greatest successes that

346 they had gotten before. In 1975, because the Mr. Mariano’s death, the Bethancourt and Hurtado brothers decided to do a pause during a period of time because their sicknesses and their age were worrying their lives, then they decided make records and to form a group called Hurtado and Betancourt sons.

In 1985 it was the death of the Luis, Manuel Hurtado and Ruben Betancourt. Then Fa- bian Betancourt decided not to work in the marimba field anymore and he started to teach marimba art to his grandsons Luis and Julio Taracena Bethancourth. In 1992, Fa- bian Bethancourt died, and in 1994, in honor to those great artists Luis and Julio Tara- cena Bethancourt decided to join the group again, calling it Marimba Princesita de los Hermanos Bethancourt.

The Marimba Princesita de los Hermanos Bethancourt is an organization dedicated to the study, promotion and develops of all about marimba. Since the foundation of this group they have written a line with its own tempo, in other words, with its own rhythm, with little and big advances. The new generation had having presentations all around Guatemala and many cities and festival in Chiapas Mexico.

Source: Interview With Julio Tarracena Bethancour. Quetzaltenango, Guatemala, January 2012. Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, March 2013.

347 8. Conclusions

In Guatemala as well as in the Southern States in Mexico, there are projects that intend to rescue the marimba as an identity instrument and also for the diffusion of its music. Most of these projects have been planned according to the criteria that the governments in power consider appropriate, however, they don’t have a clear direction and there are no policies to measure its weaknesses and strengths in order to have a more precise projection of the objectives and take the necessary steps to reach them. Many of these projects receive generous financial resources, however, they are used to purchase instruments and organize some festivals, but little has been done for the diffusion of the instrument, for education or for its reinte- gration to their social life, in the most profound sense.

This work provides a broader and more accurate vision of the role that the marimba plays in the cultural development of Mexico, especially in the state of Chiapas and in Guatemala, not only in its physical aspect or for its entertainment value, but also for the contributions that the history of this instrument provides and is captured in its repertoire. It presents the cultural diversity of the countries it represents; strengthens the cultural values of the regions where it developed and shows the identity features that make it special and different to other cultures.

Although the initial goal of this research was to address specifically marimba improvisation and then study the most specific aspects involved. I considered that an analysis presented from a broader view regarding the historic processes of the instrument and the social and historic contexts that it stems from are necessary, because they provide a broader view to understand the musical versatility that the marimba represents, not only in Guatemala, where it is firmly integrated, but also in Mexico, where it represents part of its musical culture and where the differences from the Guatemalan marimba arise, as a result of the unique musical and diverse context of the country it was developed in, transforming in a remarkable way the development of improvisation and the technical excellence that the musicians have with four mallets as a result of a musical transformation that through many decades achieved its optimum expression.

348 The consolidation of the marimba with its technical development and musical transformation is precisely because the repertoire is not only integrated by traditional sones. It is exactly the need of the marimbists to take on other musical genres that created the transformation of the marimba and open the door to its evolution and expansion.

The most complex part is perhaps describing the current marimba as a traditional instrument if its repertoire is based on several phases. It is clear that the marimba went through two very well defined aspects. In Guatemala it is evident the existence of the diatonic marimba in indigenous zones, where its character of traditional instrument continues prevailing, that is, it continues functioning with a ceremonial character on specific dates of religious relevance. In Mexico, on the border between Chiapas and Guatemala, there are places with similar traditions, but they are few, since the commercial situation in this region is affected by more dynamic migration and economic movements subjected to various influences that transform its society and diversify its religion.

The diatonic marimba in this region is a clear example that the marimba was a traditional instrument with specific social functions, which fortunately were preserved and are a testimony of its historical and musical process and allows us to witness its organological transformation. It is in Guatemala where it is firmly established as an example of historical and cultural diversity which continues to survive and makes it unique to the rest of the other regions where marimbas exist, not only in Latin America but worldwide.

Its presence among different linguistic groups and diverse ethnic roots, provides arguments to consider that it is not an instrument introduced by Spanish priests during the Christianization process, but it was born of the cultural syncretism of races living together during the period of Spanish monarchy in America, and although it is an African legacy, the marimba was adopted and appropriated by the indigenous and mestizo communities that transformed and diversified it to become a national symbol of Guatemala.

In Mexico, and particularly in Chiapas, there was an important racial mixing, and as a result the diatonic marimba with its traditional repertoire gradually lost its function and entered a

349 dynamic of greater musical transformation and national projection that participated in the diffusion of fashionable events that took place with the arrival of radio, cinema and television.

On the other hand, the development created by marimbists with the adaptation of all possible types of repertoire, allowed them to achieve the transformation that we know now a days, from a chromatic instrument of lesser range and tessitura, to marimbas of six and a half octaves that can interpret many types of musical genres, comparable to what can be interpreted on a piano four hands. One of the most important features is that the marimba, in this region, is played as a group on a single instrument, usually four players for a big marimba or three for a marimba requinta, and sometimes, in the new groups, at least two people play. This marks an important difference with other instruments that exist in Latin America or even between other marimbas, balaphones or to be precise, with all the other xylophones in the world, because even though ensembles exist with different types of xylophones in different cultures, on the marimbas particular to Guatemala and Mexico seven musicians play two instruments, which is the reason many groups are formed by members of the same family that sustain the permanence and the evolution of the marimba.

The chromatic marimba started a new musical movement with the diffusion of a repertoire from different periods, and even though sones and zapateados are not specifically played, its cultural roots, established in previous centuries, were assimilated by society that identifies with it as their popular and traditional instrument.

In addition to the cultural syncretism, there is the fact that for more than a century there have been remarkable marimbists that stand out in each region. During the time of the great world fairs in the United States, at the end of the XIX century and the beginning of the XX century, these great marimbists made contact with different cultures, starting a new dynamic that allow the marimba to consolidate as we know it today, increasing its repertoire but also interpreting musical works with greater virtuosity that required musicians to play with four mallets, making a great technical jump in this occupation and creating new forms of coexistence and musical competitions among specialized marimbists that in Mexico are a fundamental part of the profession.

350 In light of this work, we now know that the Hurtado Brothers from Quetzaltenango, Guatema- la, were the first ones to experiment with new techniques, first playing with three mallets and later on with four. Celso Hurtado and Jose Bethancourt were also marimbists that influenced the technique of playing with four mallets in the United States. It is important to mention that xylophonists, who were very popular during the second decade of the XX century, also played with four mallets, as is explained in Chapter 6 of the present text, and it coincides with the time that marimba groups from Guatemala and Chiapas, Mexico, traveled to the United States. According to the interviews carried out with marimbists in Mexico, with relatives of musicians and from photographic sources found, we know that for Chiapas, the first ones to consolidate as four mallet performers were Jose Ovando and Hector Santiago Borraz.

The arrival of four mallets was the result of the need that marimbists had to complement in the best way the voices of the transcriptions or adaptation of the repertoire to the marimba and those that had better knowledge of musical theory were the ones that started this new technique. When groups started to use two marimbas, one grande and the other requinta, it made room for new players, who have been very important for the marimba ensembles. The tenorista, or marimbist that plays on the marimba requinta the lower pitch melodies, known as tenor, generally plays with four mallets and in Mexico they became an essential part of the groups, who besides playing the improvisations, many times act as the director of the marimba.

Recordings clearly show the technical dexterity that tenors already had during the 1950’s, and sections destined to play brief improvisations can be observed. Before that period, we only have oral testimonies that corroborate the ability of marimbists to perform with four mallets and the recordings made by the Hurtado Brothers in 1916. According with the testimony of Jesus B. Hurtado, two of the brothers played some pieces with three mallets.

Different texts regarding the marimba, both in Chiapas and Guatemala comment without mentioning its importance, that marimbists added variations and ornamentations to their performances. Also, in traditional music we can observe patterns used in improvisation, which is an important element in marimba music, particularly in Chiapas. It is not farfetched to think that marimbists were improvising before the XX century. Although there are many testimo-

351 nies that have only been oral, we can consider the possibility that there was improvisation on the diatonic marimba, because the styles of improvisation heard in the recordings show the dexterity of the musicians and their well-defined styles, which make us to believe that it was a recurrent element in marimba music.

The inclusion of many types of musical genres was a determining factor for the technical development of playing with four mallets that contributed elements for the thorough knowledge of voicings as well as improvisation; once they were adapted to the marimba they provided elements for musical composition and for musical arrangements that enhanced the performance skills of marimbists since they required new forms and techniques. The contributions of different genres to popular and classical music created five types of improvisation with well-defined backgrounds: 1) Simultaneous improvisation over the melodic line; 2) Cadences; 3) Improvisation over the form; 4) Bridge of improvisations; and 5) Open improvisation.

The first recordings made before the 1950’s show improvisations with two mallets and it was not until after the 1950’s when improvisations with four mallets are appreciated. It is important to stress that this diversity of repertoire in the marimba contributed elements and musical patterns used in improvisations that are completely different to the rest of the improvisations of traditional genres of Mexican music.

This is how marimba music marks the difference with the rest of the traditional Mexican music since it performs all types of repertoire, depending on the place and role it assumes, whether it is traditional dances, patron saints ceremonies, concerts, private events, birthdays, funerals, etc.

Improvisation as well as the use of four mallets was not properly documented and there are no texts referring to this topic. With this research we set up the foundation to explain the many factors that came together in order for marimbists to achieve a great growth. Among these factors was the need to extend the duration of the pieces to avoid shortening the intensity of the dances or parties where they participated; also the competitions in this field, to achieve prestige and to survive. This created a constant competition among musicians to demonstrate their abilities, all this influenced by the repertoire that came mainly from the United States

352 during the 1930’s and 1940’s, which produced that unique sound that forms part of the harmonic elements characteristic of the solos interpreted by the tenorista.

The technical level and the eloquence in improvisation attained by marimbists with four mallets are exceptional, and it is in Chiapas where its greatest exponents appeared.

Finally this book makes important contributions on different issues; documenting topics that had not been addressed before, like improvisation and technical development of marimbists. It also provides musical and historical backgrounds with photographic sources representing the marimba as it was in the middle of the XIX century. Texts such as the one by Desiree Charnay, help us understand that since that time Chiapas has had an important musical development regarding the marimba. At the beginning of the XX century marimba influence was greater in Guatemala than in Mexico, which Chiapas belongs to. This text strengthened the hypothesis that classical marimba was developed with the contributions of Guatemalan marimbists and it also shows how the use of four mallets was incorporated to their daily musical life.

This work also breaks some paradigms, as the fact that in Chiapas, since 1916, the inclusion of the marimba requinta has been attributed to Francisco Santiago Borraz and the fact that Guatemalans never considered it important to mention this process in their history. Regard- less, they have been using it in its diatonic form since the end of the XIX century and it appears in some presentations, in chromatic form since 1915. In the first recordings made by Guatemalan marimba groups in the United States they appear with seven marimbists and double bass, breaking years of belief that this was a Chiapanecan invention.

It also documents the origin of marimba orchestras, so unique and representative of Mexico and how they spread to the rest of Mexico. It provides new references for Guatemala, since in the great diversity of documents by Guatemalan authors, nothing has been written about their current musicians and their contributions to the marimba in this century.

Finally, an opinion forged at the light of this work is that most of the contributions for the development of the marimba in the transition from the XIX century to the first decades of the

353 XX century definitively came from Guatemalan musicians and that the technical and musical development in the second half of the XX century and the transition to the XXI century was established in Chiapas, on the part of Mexico.

With the current work we can observe the loss of that essential place that the marimba occupied in their daily life and how it has been relegated to a second place in the Chiapanecan society. Although Guatemala has suffered similar problems, its legislation has allowed them to establish policies to “safeguard” the marimba, as they call it. In my opinion, however, they hold a very conservative position in their musical process and as a result the new generations are not interested in including its common use to their culture. Some marimbists have also been responsible for this loss, because for financial reasons they have been forced to include electronic instruments to their groups and therefore placing the marimba in second level. Many marimbists both in Mexico and Guatemala have not made any efforts to dignify their instrument and they are controlled by the commercial trends of music, leaving the marimba out of their projects.

However, it is important to mention that in spite of all the vicissitudes faced in both countries, there are still many active marimbists that are still present in the social and cultural life of their regions and some of them with an international projection.

This century carries elements that diversify the two currents of marimba unique to Mexico and Guatemala. However, in this musical climate it is probable that in a few years these currents of styles could cross paths again. The new dynamic forms of communication are bringing musicians together and that is the key for the development of the marimba in both countries and its integration to academic life in colleges will give interesting results that will open new models of documentation, discussion and interpretation.

It is important to launch initiatives of diffusion and preservation of the marimba in both places and design clear goals to be successful in reinserting this instrument in a more dynamic way than currently done. Perhaps it won’t reach the same level of popularity it had during the 1950’s and 1960’s but it is possible to incorporate it into society as an important part of their cultural life, forging a new future and a new historic period for the marimba, based on the

354 context of the regions it belongs to, promoting and dignifying their musicians and offering opportunities to include them in their own festivities and representations.

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380 10. APPENDIXS

10.1 Glossary

Arpeggio Interpretation of a chord alternately, mimicking the technic of the harp, from which it takes its name.

Atabal It is a type of drum with a membrane and a resonator of half sphere. (Andres 1995:25).

Bass This musician plays the instrument’s lower extension.

Break A transitional passage in which a soloist plays unaccompanied.

Bridge The contrasting middle section of a tune, especially the 'B' section of an AABA song forms. Traditionally, the bridge goes into a different key, often a remote key.

Cachimba Orifice at the bottom of the resonator made of Jobo wood; it is where the ‘tela’ is placed.

Campana An idiophone makes a sound when struck by a metallic piece or exterior hammer. Its origin should be researched among the Mesopotamian cultures.

Caxa de Guerra Small snare drums (Andres 1995:55).

Center Synonymous with Harmony player (mainly in Central America).

Chirimia Wind instrument made of wood, with conical tube and double tongue, with a pronounced pavilion. In the strictest meaning of the word, it can be considered an ancestor of the oboe (Ib. 77). Its origin is French and Hispanic and it was adopted by the natives.

Chromatic In mu- Scale containing 12 semitones. sic

Chuchumbe Also called “son of Chuchumbe” is a popular piece of music, half new and half traditional, belonging to the Son Jarocho, and popular in Mexi- co in the middle of the XVIII century, and is still performed in a modern version in concerts and in fandangos in different zones of the state of Veracruz. This piece stands out because the lyrics denote a sexual character, as well as social criticism and satire.

Cimarron In the American Continent, it is said of a slave who took shelter in the

381 mountains looking for freedom. 5. This adjective is used in: Antillas, Argentina, Colombia, Ecuador, Honduras, México, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela.

Clair Omar American industrialist who contributed for the physical and industrial Musser marimba in the United States. She created the Marimba Symphony Or- chestra in 1938, with which she toured France, Belgium and Britain.

Close voicing One in which the chord tones are bunched together, generally within an octave range.

Compas (Bar) Musical division marking a period formed by two, three or more units.

Counter-tiple In the Guatemalan marimba, second tiple.

Countermelody Alternating voice to the melody, this is not seeking to compete with it, but to complement it.

Cuitlatecos Cuitlateco is an indigenous language of Mexico, today an extinct language previously spoken by Cuitlatecos in the territory where the State of Guerrero is now. By 1930 the language was only spoken in San Mi- guel Totolapan. The last speaker was Juana Can, who is believed to have died during the 1960’s.

Diatonic Music scale of seven sounds, including two and five second intervals major, second intervals minor.

Dulcaina Of the wind family, considered a popular chirimia, common since the XV century (Andres 1995:141). It is smaller than the chirimia known today.

Flautas Wind instruments and the name acquired a generic character, since it covers all instruments in which an air column, produced by the musician blowing, passing through a section generally cylindrical, or slightly conical (Andres 1995:160). The flute was probably used in that period as a “beak flute”, in contrast with the one we now know as transverse flute.

Frame In the Guatemalan marimba, oblong structure that supports the keyboard.

Glissandi From French glisser, to slip, to glide. Effect achieved by gliding several alternating sounds.

Guarimba Guatemalan dancing rhythm, written in 6/8 compasses, created by Wot- zbetí Aguilar.

Guitarrilla Small strings instrument derived from the guitar.

382 Guitarron The Mexican guitarron is a musical string instrument invented in Mexi- co in the XIX century to play the section of low notes with the mariachi. It reminds us of a guitar by its form and strings but it is bigger, wider and with a proportionally short neck. About six strings with different tuning than in the guitar and it is played using two of them at a time to give strength and volume to the sound. This way it only has one octave. The common tuning is (A-D-G-C-E-A).

Harmony player The player who uses three or four mallets and stays between the second voice and the bass. The function of this player is to play the rhythmic accompaniment together with the bass.

Hormiguillo Kind of wood used to make the marimba keyboard.

Huítzizil Kind of wood used to make the mallets.

Improvisation For many centuries this branch of Art Music was considered of great importance but currently it has been much reduced to become almost insignificant among serious musicians. It is skillfully performed by members of dancing orchestras... [] … and the gypsy orchestras in Cen- tral Europe as well as by all the oriental musicians… [] … Harvard Dic- tionary of Music 1972:404-405

1. Different historic types of improvisation. From the XII to the XVII centuries the art of descant developed. This was a free vo- cal part for the singers (with more or less individuals, according to the need of the moment) interwoven with the fixed part of the traditional choral song carried by another voice [..] During the first stages of evolution of instrumental music, a lot used to be improvised, and the names “toccata”, “fantasia”, “prelude” and other titles still used today derive from improvisations …

Ornamentations [..]that were introduced freely by the player or singer during that period, are elements of the same kind, even though many ornaments could be written by the composer in his text …

Burney, in his third volume of his “History of Music” (1789), warns about this progress to a modern concept with the following words: “It used to be easier to compose than to play an ada- gio, which generally consisted of a few notes left up to the preference and ability of the performer… [] …

In a concert, the Cadence towards the end of the movements is almost an element of improvisation that still persists. Up to the XIX century it was customary to give total freedom to the performer (Brahms violin concerto is the last example, in 1879).

383 Other examples are the choral preludes which were improvised in many German churches as an introduction for the singing of the congregation … [] …

2. The golden age of keyboard improvisation. The XVII century and the beginning of the XIX century can be considered as a blooming period for the art of keyboard improvisation. It was normal and common to expect the performer to come up with something “from his head”. Bach was able to improvise non- stop during two hours on a single choral theme; first presenting a prelude and fugue, later a movement with lighter harmonies, as a trio, continuing with a choral prelude and finally another fugue, and of course, combining the original theme with other themes that occurred to him while he played.

In Mozart’s own time this performing tradition was kept.

With Beethoven improvisation had the same importance.

At the end of the XIX century organ improvisations by Franck were, they say, of extraordinary interest. Saint-Saens was a notable improviser for piano and organ. In the XX century Dupré is elevated above all improvisers for organ. In English competitions for organist positions, fugue themes over which to improvise were frequently proposed.

Oxford Dictionary of Music, 1964:647-648

3. The element of improvisation. The word “break” is important in jazz vocabulary. It means a passage alternated to fill the gap between the end of a jazz melody of eight or sixteen bars, and others. Such passages are improvised generally by some performers. Improvisation without a doubt had an important part in the development of jazz technique, even greater than in any other branch of music since the glorious days of XVII century Italian opera, when it was perfectly understood that great part of the reputation of a singer depended on his ability to ornament the melodic line of the composer …[] … Oxford Dictionary of Music, 1964:679.

Jarana A type of guitar of smaller size used to accompany the Son Jarocho and Son Huasteco, and some other genres; it carries the harmony and is played with syncopated strumming. There are a great variety of sizes and registers. It is said that the vihuela is its ancestor.

Jicara In marimba, hard shell of some kind of wild fruit.

384 John Calhoun Musician, industrialist and artisan, creator manufacturer of various mu- Deagan sical instruments, including tubular bells and marimba developer of the industrial marimba.

Kelon Wood substitute material to build marimbas and xylophones.

Leona The Leona is a 4 string chordophone which works as a bass guitar for the Son Jarocho. It is percussed with a peg, usually a chunk of bone or carved bull horn 15 centimeters long and 1.5 centimeters wide. It has a similar form as the requinto Jarocho. It can also be called: bumburona, bombona, vozarrona or guitarra grande.

Lleno (Full) Term used for the second voice since harmonically it complements the first voice.

Mallets They are the hammers used to strike the marimba keys. Also; Flexible wooden rod with a striker head to play marimba or other percussion instrument.

In the international system of numbering the four mallets in the academic books of marimba, as well as the music works for marimba solo, the numbers assigned to each mallet from left to right are 1-2-3-4.

Inner Mallets: Refers to the mallets 2 and 3 Outside Mallets: Refers to the mallets 1 and 4

In the vibraphone, the numbers assigned are the opposite; from the left to the right are: 4-3-2-1. That responds because is the way of the voicing leading and is usual in jazz music books.

Manico in popular language refers to the form of strumming the strings of different types of guitars, (jaranas, vihuelas, requintos, huapanguera etc.) used in some of the traditional Mexican sones, like the mariachis or huastecos. Manico makes reference to the form to attack the strings, the type and rhythm of the strumming in accompaniment; Manico comes from the word (mano) that in Spanish means hand.

Marimba Piano Also known as Big Marimba, it usually has an extension from 5 ½ to 6 ½ octaves, and it is played by four, or occasionally five musicians.

Mulato From mulo, in the hybrid sense, applied to any mestizo. 1. Adj. It refers to a person who is born from a black mother and a white father, or vice-versa. Used also as noun. 2. Adj. Swarthy. 3. Adj. From a swarthy lineage.

Nahuas The Nahuas are a group of native people of Central America, with

385 whom the Mexicas and other ancient peoples of Anahuac had in common the Nahuatl language. The pre-Hispanic peoples of Tlaxcala, Chal- co, Cholula and Acolhuacan are Nahuas. The Mexicas stand out because in 1325 they founded Tenochtitlan and for the influence they had over other peoples of the region, which are currently the States of Guer- rero, Hidalgo, Estado de Mexico, Morelos, Michoacan and Puebla, as well as smaller portions of Oaxaca, San Luis Potosi and Veracruz.

Organo A keyboard and wind instrument that has several registers to produce its sounds. (Andres 1995: 278-280) It can be classified as a wind instrument that allows the wind to pass through by pressing the keys that acti- vate a flute to produce each sound.

Pickup A phrase beginning that comes before the beginning of the first bar. A pickup can be one note or a longer phrase.

Pumpos Dried gourds which function as sound amplifiers in the diatonic marimbas. They are also known as ‘tecomates’ or ‘calabazos.

Pure Marimba Only marimbas.

Quijada de burro A donkey’s or horse’s jaw. Used as a percussion instrument in several places of Hispanic America and in some of them it is known as charras- ca, cacharaina. It is elaborated with the lower maxillary or jaw of a donkey or horse that is boiled and dried until the molars get loose and produce a rattling sound. Depending on the performance technique two sounds are obtained. The first involves striking the end of the jaw with the palm of the hand or the side of a closed fist, causing the vibration of the teeth. The second is obtained by rubbing the row of teeth with a wood stick. The last one is called “carrasca”, probably an onomatopoe- ic voice. It is used as an instrument in marches, carnivals or religious ceremonies and also in several rhythms of African American origin such as the Afro-Peruvian percussion from the central and north coast of Pe- ru; in sones from the Dominican Republic, as well as in Mexican music like the son Jarocho and the son Afro-mestizo from Costa Chica, the Colombian dance torbellino and the Chilota music of Chile.

Riff (1) A relatively simple, catchy repeated phrase. May be played behind a soloist or as part of a head. Often in a bluesy style. Riff tunes are made up of riffs, characteristic of the black bands of the 30s. (2) A pre- packaged phrase used by an improviser when he can't think of anything else, especially one which is especially catchy.

Root The fundamental pitch on which a chord is based, from which the chord takes its name, and to which the other tones of the chord are referred to intervals of the third, Fifth, seventh, and some extensions, regardless of their actual intervallic relationship in an actual keyboard voicing.

386 Sacabuches Wind instrument. Ancient name of the trombone derived from the French verbs “saquer” which means to pull out and “bouter” push out.

Soloist Person dedicated to give concerts. In marimba music the persons who plays the tenor and play also improvisations.

Son Son is the name given to various American dances. The most characteristic are:

(1) The Cuban son, originally from the eastern part of the island and today one of the most popular dances from Cuba and one of the most renown outside its country of origin… [] … (2) The Mexican son which assumes a variety of aspects. Dif- ferent dances of different rhythms and structures receive this name. (3) The Guatemalan son (or Chapin son. Both adjectives are synonyms) is the most popular dance in this country, it is ¾ (sometimes 6/8 alternated) and derives from the European theme dances popular at the end of the last century, the waltz and the mazurka. Oxford Dictionary of Music, 1964:215-217.

Sonecitos de la (Sons of the land) or (Little sones of the country land). During the last tierra colonial decades, this was said about the jarabes and other popular songs with Spanish style but by Mexican authors. Los sonecitos del pais were very popular during the War of Independence, but they were also known during the XIX century and up to the beginning of the XX century. However, they played a fundamental role during the period of Mexican emancipation in 1810. The most popular sonecitos were El Perico, Los Enanos, El Gato, El Aforrado, La Chupicuaraca, El Bejuquito, El Churripampli, La Tuza, El Palomo, etc. They were interpreted by popular singers (among them Jose Bonilla and Ana Pardo), who generally offered performances at the New Coliseum* of Mexico City. These songs served as an effective artistic means in favor of the insurgents and constitute the first mestizo nationalistic manifestation of the Mexican music. The viceroyalty authorities came to consider sonecitos as a form of revolutionary propaganda and some singers and theater entrepreneurs were persecuted. These sonecitos, presented on stage played a similar role as in Theater Reviews in which the government was criticized, during the approaching years of the revolution, 1920-1917. (Pareyon 1995:525)

Tela (Mirliton-film) Fine membrane made from pig or wild boar intestine. It is placed on the ‘cachimba.’

Tempered Tuned.

Tenor Term to designate both the extension of the first low voice and the Ma-

387 rimba Requinta (with a lower extension).

Tenor Manly voice equivalent in different musical instruments./ in The traditional marimba ensembles is the position played in the low pith on the marimba requinta, in Mexico usually with four mallets. Also is called with this name to the marimba requinta in Chiapas and Guatemala.

Tenorista Player of the first voice in the low extension; he regularly uses four mallets.(In many of the Chiapanecan groups the tenorista is also the artistic director and the soloist).

Tessitura Extension of the human voice. Using in the marimba concerns to the extension of number of octaves.

Tiple Player of the first high voice.

Tiple Soprano voice in some musical instruments. Musical registration of the Guatemalan and Mexican marimba located one octave higher than middle C on the piano.

Trompetas high and mute trumpets are wind instrument made of metal with a semi- spherical mouthpiece. The name comes from the French “trompette” and the Catalan “trompeta”, derived from trompe and trompa respec- tively, and their diminutives are known since the XIV century. (Andres 1995:391)

Tune A single Jazz composition or Jazz performance, a piece. The word 'song' is frowned on.

Tunkul (or Is a musical instrument and type of drum with slots, of Central Ameri- Teponaztli) can origin used by the Aztecs, the Maya and related cultures. The Teponaztli consists of a thick tree trunk, hollowed out underneath to form a chamber of resonance. The teponaztli are made of hollowed out trunks of hard wood, frequently harden by fire. As most of slit drums the teponaztli had three open- ings on the top, cut in form of an “H”. The resulting flaps are hit with rubber balls over mallets, frequently made with deer antlers. Since the flaps have different lengths, or carved in different thicknesses, the teponaztli produces two different notes, usually at intervals of a third or a fourth. Pareyon, Gabriel (2006).

Tzotsiles The Tzotzil people lives in the Central and North Central parts of the state of Chiapas, in the Mexican southeast. It forms part of the Maya family as well as other ethnic groups in the States of Tabasco, Yucatan, Campeche, Quintana Roo and the Central American countries of Gua- temala, Belize and Honduras. They can be located with certain precision in the municipalities of Ama-

388 tan, El Bosque, Huitiupan, Simojovel, Chachiutan, Pantelho, Bochil, San Andres Larrainzar, Chamula, Zinacantan, Ixtapa, Acala, San Lucas and San Cristobal de las Casas. The Tzotzil ethnic people are not homogeneous, and we can observe a first great division as a result of its geographic extension: the Tzotzil region of Los Altos de Chiapas, with cold weather and mountainous topography and the Tzotzil region of the Low Land, with tropical weather and a less precipitous topography.

Vamp A simple section like a riff, designed to be repeated as often as necessary, especially one at the beginning of a tune. Also a constantly repeated bass line over which a solo is played.

Vihuela Chordophone with a handle and resonator, played with an arch or point. In the current work we use this name to refer to the hand vihuela, which was a dotted chordophone instrument made with a harmonic box and a handle as in the guitar, which was very appreciated in Spain during the XVI century. (Andres 1995:411)

Violas Term applied during the middle ages to different chordophones, dotted or with arch, descendants of the vihuela. (Andres 1995:417)

Violón (Bass) Popular instrument of three strings used in Guatemala to reinforce the marimba bass.

Voice-leading Getting the succession of harmonic tones in the inner voices to form coherent melodic lines of their own, or, at least, to move in a smooth, mainly step-wise motion. The perfection of voice-leading was in Bach, where 4 or more independent melodies can mesh to form perfect chordal harmony.

In contrapuntal music, the principles governing the progression of the various voice-parts (particularly those other that the soprano), especially in terms of the individual lines. Among such principles are preference of step-wise motion (at least in the three upper parts), contrary motion in at least one part, and avoidance of parallel fifths and octaves. (Harvard Dictionary of Music 1972:920)

Voicing A particular arrangement of the notes of a chord in which chosen harmonies color the tone.

Zenzontle American songbird with great ability to mimic the songs of other birds. Its name is Náhuatl, which means "400 voices".

389 10.2 DISCOGRAPHY

Adesca o.N.: 2000 Homenaje a Francisco Sojuel y el rilaj maam. Antiguos cantos sagrados maya-tzutujiles. En memoria de los integrantes desaparecidos. Conjunto Jul’Juuj Tijaax, [CD] Santiago Atilán, Sololá [Guatemala]

Adesca o.N.: o.J. [1910-1930, Re-Edition] Música de Guatemala, Vol. 4. Marimba Centroamericana, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Alfa Records, S.A. Alfa Musical Internacional, CDAMI-4: 1992 Musica Mexicana Para El Mundo Con El Sonido En Marimba De ZEFERINO NANDAYAPA, [CD] México D.F. [México]

ALOHA OE: 1916 Blue and White Marimba Band [LP] USA

ALPHA REC. 1062: o.J. Marimba Nandayapa, "Surianita". [CS]

ALPHA REC. CDAMI 12: o.J. Marimba del Edo. de Oaxaca, "Temas de la Guelaguetza vol 1". [CD]

ALPHA REC. CDAMI 13: o.J. Marimba del Edo. de Oaxaca, "Temas de la Guelaguetza vol 2". [CD]

ALPHA REC. CDAMI-4: o.J. Marimba Nandayapa, "Música Mexicana Para el Mundo". [CD]

ALPHA REC.AMI-2: o.J. Marimba Nandayapa, "AI son de la Marimba con el sonido de Zeferino Nandayapa". [CS]

ALSUR YLPS3263 : o.J. Marimba Perla de Chiapas, "Perla de Chiapas". [CS]

ASTEREO CDNW-7005: o.J. Marimba Nandayapa, "La Magia de Chiapas". [CD]

390 Audio de America Latina, S.A.: 1984 Marimba Hermanos Aquino, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Audio Distribuidora, S.A. Monaural-Estereo, AD-8061: 1978 valses chiapanecos Con Marimba, Marimba De Los Hnos. Palomeque, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Audio Fidelity, Stero Disc AFSD-5900: 1981 CHA CHA CHA. Marimba Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Audio Mex, Cia Importadora de Discos, S.A., Monaural Estereo ALD-2253: 1979 Clasicos en Marimba Vol. 2. Cuarteto Femenil I.C.A.CH. [LP] México D.F. [México]

Audio Mex, Cia. Importadira de Discos, S.A., Monaural-Estereo ALD-2242: o.J. Clasicas en Marimba, Cuarteto Clásico Femenil I.C.A.CH., [LP] México, D.F. [México]

Audio Mex, Monaural-Estereo, Cia Importadora de Discos S.A. ALD-2242: 1971 Clasicas en Marimba. Cuarteto Clásico Femenil I.C.A.CH. [LP] México D.F. [México]

AUVIDIS (France) AD59: o.J. Marimbas: Nandayapa, del Edo. de Veracruz, del Edo. de Chiapas, "México Voyage musical". [CD]

BELART, Grabaciones Belart S.A. B.024: 1964 canta! marimba… Hermanos Pineda, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Bertlssmann de Mexico, S.A., CSEX-8049: 1985 Marimba Peña Rios, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Caleidofon Discos, S.A. Stereo CF-1: 1971 Jugo de Piña. Marimba Villa Florence, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Caleidofon Discos, Stereo CF-11: o.J. Añoranzas… Marimba Tonalteca de Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México] CAMDEN CDV-7432: o.J. "Corona de Tapachula" "Danzones Clásicos". [CD]

CAMDEN CDV7431: o.J. Lira San Cristóbal, Bonampak, Soconusco, Poli de Tuxtla, "Chiapas" Mexico musical. [CD]

391

Caprice Records CAP 21598: 1999 Music from Guatemala I, [CD] Stockholm [Guatemala]

Caprice Records CAP-21631: 1999 Music from Guatemala II. Carifuna Music, [CD] Stockholm [Guatemala]

Casa Avelar, Tikal, Stereo SLP-5: 1981 Marimba Souvenir From Guatemala. Marimba Gallito, [LP] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Casa Kojom CK-801: 1998 Música maya tradicional. Instrumentos de ritual, [CD] Antigua [Guatemala]

CBS / Columbia Internacional, S.A. (17-05-5136) MC-1274: 1981 Cuarteto Marimbístico Coutiño Ayala, [LP] México D.F. [México]

CBS / Columbia Internacional, S.A. de C.V., Headliner Series, Harmony Estéreo, QSA- 463749: 1953-1955-1957 Solo Marimbas Vol. 1. Marimba La Poli de Tuxtla Gutierrez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

CBS Mexico, OKL-10455: 1976 Marimbas Recuerdo Del Sur, [LP] México D.F. [México]

CDMAEO-02: 2006 Marimba Espiga De Oro del Maestro Norberto Najera Montes de Oca con El Gran Solista Internacional El Maestro Manuel “El Güero Vleeschower” Borraz. Homenaje a Los Inmortales Agustín Lara y Los Hermanos Domínguez, [CD] Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas [México]

CDPE-01: o.J. Los Mejores Exitos. Marimba Orquesta Perla de Chiapas, Del Maestro Danilo Gutiérrez García, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

CEFOL/ADESCA: o.J. Marimbas Huehuetecas. Sones, zapateados, zarabandas, barreños, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Cementos Progreso o.N.: o.J. Lester Godínez y su marimba de concierto. Presentada por: Cementos Progreso, [CD]

392 Guatemala City [Guatemala]

CIA. Importadora de Discos, S.A. Audio Mex, Monaural-Stereo ALD-2202: 1973 Chiapas Tierra de Ensueño. Con la marimba de Zeferino Nandayapa y la presencia del poeta Enrique Aguilar y Sanchez en Tristezas Tzeltal y a Tuxtla Gutiérrez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Coleos Compactos Cassettes, JBP Record’s México, CDLEOS-7175: o.J. Tropicalisimo y Algo Mas, Vol. 3. Marimba Orquesta Jiquipilas de Seguridad Publica del Gobierno del Estado, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Columbia Graphophone Company A2136: 1916 Blue and White Marimba Band, [LP] USA [USA]

Columbia Internacional, S.A., OKL-10476: 1977 Lindo Chiapas. Marimba de Zeferino Hermanos Nandayapa, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Compañia Fonografica Internacional, S.A. de C.V., IM Discos & Cassettes, CD-IMI-273: 1992 Los Grandes Temas de La Pantalla. La Internacional Marimba Nandayapa de Zeferino Nandayapa, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Compañia Fonografica Internacional, S.A. de C.V., IM Discos & Cassettes, CD-IM-0274: 1992 Los Grandes Valses. Con La Internacional Marimba de Zeferino Nandayapa, [CD] México D.F. [México]

CONACULTA, Proyecto PACMYC, Marimba Nueva Lira Tuxtepecana 001: 2008 Evolución. Marimba Nueva Lira Tuxtepecana, Casa de la Cultura de Tuxtepec, [CD] Tuxtepec, Oaxaca [México]

Coneculta o.N.: o.J. Sincretismo, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez [Mexico] Consejo Estatal para la Cultura y las Artes de Chiapas, CONECULTA: 1998 XV Concurso Estatal de Marimba. En Homenaje al Maestro Arturo Solís Alvarez, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

CORAT-ESTELARIS: o.J. Marimba Nandayapa, "Nandayapa a Santamaría". [CS]

393

CORO S.A., CLP-879: 1969 Marimba Palma de Oro, [LP] México D.F. [México]

CORO, S.A., ACP-780: 1960 Ecos del Istmo, [LP] México D.F. [México]

CORO, S.A., CLP-919: 1968 Exitos Del 67’. Tap Marimba Band, [LP] México D.F. [México]

CST HA-1: o.J. Marimba Hermanos Aquino, "Folklore Mexicano". [CS]

CST HA-2: o.J. Marimba Hermanos Aquino, "Concierto Internacional". [CS]

CST HA-3: o.J. Marimba Hermanos Aquino, "Concierto Romántico en vivo". [CS]

CST HA-4 : o.J. Marimba Hermanos Aquino, "Sabor Latino". [CS]

Cuatro Jotas Producciones, S.A. de C.V., 2003 el canto del guayacán, de Tino Escalante, [CD] Villahermosa, Tabasco [México]

Decibelio Digital, 001: 2005 Tradiciones e Influencias. Marco Tulio Rodríguez, [CD] Chiapas [México]

Dicesa, Casa Avelar, Tikal, L.P. 53: o.J. Alma India. Marimba Princesita, Hermanos Betancourt y Hurtado, [LP] Guatemala City [Guatemala] Dideca 011051-2 AAD: 2001 Marimba Quiché. Sones. Volumen I y II, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca 99094-2: 1999 Sones. Marimba Ecos de Manzaneros, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca AAD-99091-2: 1999

394 Viejos recuerdos. Marimba Kaibil Balam, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca CD-91005: 1991 Suite maya-kekchi “El Paabanc". Marimba Nacional de Concierto, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca CD-94023: 1994 Música indígena de Guatemala. Marimba de Concierto, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca CD-95032: 1995 30 años de liderazgo en pura marimba, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca CD-95042: 1995 Suite etnodramática quiche-achi. El urram. Marimba de Concierto, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca CD-98084-2: 1998 Alegría de Tecpán. Marimba Sonora Quetzal, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca CD-99092-2: 1999 Suite de las bodas de San Juan. Marimba Nacional de Concierto, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca CDRS-04: o.J. Viejitas pero buenas. 16 grandes éxitos. Vol. II. Marimba Orquesta Almatuneca, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca o.N.: o.J. Primera Antología “Colección de Oro”. Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca o.N.: o.J. Segunda Antología “Colección de Oro”. Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Dideca, o.N: 1997 FACETAS Y VIVENCIAS. Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

395 Dideca, LP-6724: o.J. Marimba Alma del Regimiento. Edición Especial con motivo de la Feria de Independencia Quezaltenango, [LP] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-067: 1997 Con sabor a manzana. 16 grandes éxitos, Vol. I. Lalo y su Marimba Orquesta Ecos Manzaneros, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-074: 1997 El son ...folklore de Guatemala. Marimba Ecos Manzaneros, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-085: 1997 16 grandes éxitos. Marimba Orquesta Alma Tuneca, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-087: 1998 Mosaico '98. Marimba Maderas Chapinas, Vol. 24, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-096: 1998 Encuentro Maya-Kaqchikel. Marimba Sonora Ideal, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-104: 1998 Seguimos siendo. Lalo y su Marimba Orquesta Ecos Manzaneros, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-114: 1995 Lo mejor para ti, madrecita. Marimba Maderas Chapinas, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-115: 1999 El son ... Folklore de Guatemala, Vol. II. Marimba Internacional Los Conejos, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-123: 1999 El son ... Folklore de Guatemala Vol III. Marimba Maderas Chapinas. Rukotz’i’j Tz’umpam. Flor de Sumpango, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-124: o.J. Con altura. Marimba Pura Flor del Manzano, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

396

Difosa CDDC-131: 1999 Antología hondureña. Marimba Usula, [CD] Guatemala City [Honduras]

Difosa CDDC-132: 2000 Éxitos y ritmos. Marimba Usula, [CD] Guatemala City [Honduras]

Difosa CDDC-142: o.J. El son folklore de Guatemala, Vol. 4. Danzas mayas en marimba pura, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-239: o.J. Tradición Quetzalteca. Marimba Princesita Hermanos Betancourt, [CD] Quetzaltenango [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-253: 2004 Ixtia jalcalteca. Sones Huehuetecos, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDDC-95: 1998 La jacarandosa. 16 grandes éxitos, Vol. II. Lalo y su Marimba Orquesta Ecos Manzaneros, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDPE-001: o.J. Marimba Perla Escondida de Cuilco, Huehuetenango, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala] Difosa CDRS-005: 1998 Recorriendo y recordando con Marimba Ecos Pochutecos, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDRS-03: 1998 Seguimos de fiesta. Marimba Valle de Almolonga, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDRS-06: 1998 Mosaico Nacional, Vol. 5. Marimba María Concepción, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDRS-07: 1998 Así es Guatemala. Marimba Voz Paduana, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

397 Difosa CDRS-6012: 1999 Guillermo de León Ruiz y su Marimba Estrella de Guatemala, Vol. II [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDRS-6016: 1999 Primer ensamble de marimbas grabado en vivo en el gran teatro Nacional Miguel Ángel Asturias, 22 de mayo de 1999, Guatemala, C.A., [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDRS-6019: 1999 A nuestro estilo. Marimba Sonora Ideal, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDRS-6020: o.J. Mosaico 92-2000. Marimba Unión Musical, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDRS-6029: o.J. Bailando todo el siglo. Marimba Orquesta Alma Tuneca, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa CDRS-6031:o.J. Zarabanda. Fidel Funes y su Marimba Orquesta, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa Hemisphono CDDC-064: o.J. Los mejores éxitos bailables, Vol. II. Fidel Funes y su Marimba Orquesta, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa Music CDEO-3009: o.J. Epoca de Oro, Vol. 1. Fidel Funes, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa Music, 2009 Exitos. Internacionales Conejos, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa Music, 2010 125 Años de Trayectoria Musical. Internacionales Conejos, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difosa Music, 2012 Fiesta Conejera. Marimba Orquesta Internacionales Conejos, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

398 Difosa, VYPRO, CDDC-123: o.J. EL SON, Folklore de Guatemala, Vol. 3. Marimba Maderas Chapinas, Rukotz’i’j Tz’umpam - Flor De Sumpango, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difusa CDRS-6015: 1999 Así canta Guatemala, con Paco Cáceres acompaña Marimba Estrella de Guatemala de Guillermo de León, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difusa Music CDDC-100: o.J. Exitos de Siempre. Fidel Funes y su Marimba Orquesta, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difusa Music CDRS-6046: o.J. El Son Folklore de Guatemala, Vol. 5. Fidel Funes y su Marimba Orquesta, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difusa Music CDRS-6054: o.J. Zarabanda, No. 4. Fidel Funes y su Marimba Orquesta, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Difusion Cultural: 1999 Nuevas Expresiones XX Aniversario. Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes de Guatemala, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

DIiscos F.M. S.A. de C.V., FM-112: o.J. Agustin Lara En Marimba. Marimba Oro y Plata de Arturo Cordero, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Dimsa CDN-13467: 1997 Marimba Nandayapa en concierto, [CD] Mexico City [Mexico]

Discos & Cassettes Master-Stereo, S.A., CDNW-7005: 2006 La Magia de Chiapas, México. Marimba Nandayapa, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Discos & Cassettes Master-Stereo, S.A., CDNW-7015: 2006 La Magia de… Oaxaca, México. Marimba Nandayapa, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Discos Ad, Audio Distribuidora, S.A. AD-8050: 1975 Las Mañanitas en Marimba. Hermanos Palomeque, [LP] México D.F. [México]

399 Discos Ad, Audio Distribuidora, S.A., AD-8021: 1971 “Lo increible”, Mambos Con Marimba, Marimba Orq. de los Hnos. Pineda, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

Discos Ad, Audio Distribuidora, S.A., AD-8046: 1975 a bailar con… la marimba tropical. Hermanos Palomeque, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Ad, Audio Distribuidora, S.A., AD-8066: 1979 Boleros En Marimba, Marimba de los Hnos. Palomeque [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Audion, S.A., A.L.P.-103: A-A: o.J Maderas que Cantan con Voz de Mujer. Zeferino Nandayapa, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Audioton, S.A., Estereofonico ATE-1020: 1973 Que Rico Mambo!. Marimba Orq. Estrella de Chiapas de Ruperto Aguilar V., [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Azteca, Discos Caleidofon S.A. Serie de Lujo Estereo LPAZ-032: 1984 25 Aniversario de la Marimba Orquesta Internacional del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon S.A., Sonido 32 LPS-32-121: o.J A Tabasco, con La Marimba Internacional. Del Maestro HUGO REYES, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon S.A., SONIDO 32 S32-101: 1986 15 Impactos Musicales de los Grandes. Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno T., Marimba Orquesta Internacional, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, ESTEREO LPCF-125: 1980 Marimba Espiga de Oro, del Maestro Norberto Najera bajo la Dirección Del Internacional Solista Maestro: Manuel Vleeschower Borraz, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, éstereo LPCF-83: 1978 Marimba Orquesta Internacional Aguilas de Chiapas de Limbano Vidal, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, Marimar Records, CDM-571: o.J. Mejor… ¡Imposible!. Marimba Reyna Fraylescana, Marimba el Aguila Hnos. Santiago, VOL. 17, [CD] México D.F. [México]

400 Discos Caleidofon, S. A. LP-CF-81: 1978 Son Tus Perjumenes Mujer! Marimba Brisas del Grijalva del Mtro. Humberto Moreno, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S. A. LPCF-68: 1976 Solo Exitos. Marimba Brisas del Grijalva de Humberto Moreno, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. CDM-510: 1998 simplemente... Danzones. Marimba Orquesta Reyna Fraylescana, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. estéreo CF-29: 1973 Fiesta con la Marimba Brisas del Grijalva, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. Estereo LPAZ-019: 1983 13 Exitos al Estilo del Maestro Hugo Reyes y Su Marimba Orquesta Virreynal, cantan: Chuy Cueto, Issac Santiago, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. Estereo LPCF-111: 1980 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del maestro HUGO REYES, vocalistas Oscar Solís y Chemo Ruiz, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. Estereo LPCF-151: 1982 Como Quisiera. Marimba Orquesta Virreynal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. Estereo LPCF-92: 1979 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. LPC-F-140: 1981 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. LPCF-105: 1979 Marimba Espiga de Oro del Maestro Norberto Najera de Oca con el internacional solista Manuel Vleeschower Borraz, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. LPCF-152: 1982 El Baile de Los Pajaritos. Marimba Orquesta Maderas de Comitan, [LP] México D.F. [México]

401

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. LPCF-173: 1982 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. S32-101: 1985 Los Mecateros. Marimba orquesta internacional, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. Stereo CF-11: 1972 Añoranzas… Marimba Tonalteca de Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. Stereo LP-CF-107: 1980 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A. Stereo LPCF-132: 1981 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Discos Azteca, Estereo LPAZ-033: 1984 15 Exitos de la Marimba “Maderas de Chiapas” de Ocozocoautla que dirige: Oel Sarmiento, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Discos Azteca, LPAZ-043: o.J. 15 Tropicales 15, Marimba Internacional. Del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Discos Azteca, Serie De Lujo Estereo LPAZ-032: 1984 25 Aniversario de la Marimba Orquesta Internacional del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Estereo LPCF-170: 1982 Vamos a la Fiesta, Marimba los Mecateros, [LP] México. D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Estereo LPCF-88: 1978 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., LPC-F 140: 1981 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Marimar Records, CDKM-503: o.J. Marimba Orquesta Perla del Sureste, [CD] México D.F. [México]

402

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Stereo LP-CF-110: 1980 Marimba Espiga de Oro, Del Maestro Norberto Najera Montes de Oca con el virtuoso de la Marimba, El Gran Solista Manuel Vleschower Borraz, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Stereo LP-CF-79: 1978 Marimba en Onda, Marimba Espiga De Oro Del Mtro. Norberto Najera Montes, Vol. VIII, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Stereo LPCF-113: 1981 Fiesta con la Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Stereo LPCF-115: 1980 Marimba Espiga de Oro, Del Maestro Norberto Najera Montes de Oca con el Gran Solista Manuel Vleschower Borraz, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Stereo LPCF-131: 1981 Marimba Espiga de Oro, Del Maestro Norberto Najera Montes de Oca con el Gran Solista Manuel Vleschower Borraz, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Stereo LPCF-142: 1981 Marimba Espiga de Oro, Del Maestro Norberto Najera Montes de Oca con el solista número “unos” Manuel Vleschower Borraz, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, S.A., Stereo LPCF-56: 1976 Entre en onda con Hustle-Cumbias, Marimba Tonalteca De Los Hermanos Reyes Chirino, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, Stereo CF-1: 1971 Jugo de piña. Marimba Villa florence, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, Stereo LP-CF-101: 1979 Disco Samba. Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México].

Discos Caleidofon, Stereo LPCF-56: 1977 entre en “onda” con Hustle-Cumbias. Marimba Tonalteca de los Hermanos Reyes Chirino, [LP] México D.F. [México]

403 Discos Caleidofon, Stereo LPCF-73: 1977 marimba en onda, Marimba Tonalteca de los Hermanos Reyes Chirino, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, stereo LPCF-74: 1978 Marimba en Onda. Marimba Orquesta Aguilas de Chiapas de Limbano Vidal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, Stereo LPCF-75: 1978 Marimba en onda, Vol. VI. Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas de Limbano Vidal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Caleidofon, Stereo VOL. VIII LP-CF-78: o.J. marimba en onda. Marimba Espiga De Oro del Maestro Norberto Najera Montes con el mejor solista mundial Manuel Vleeschower Borraz, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos California RCE, S.A., RCE-1017: 1979 Españolas Con Marimba. Marimba Orquesta Virreinal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos California RCE, Stereo RCE-1010: 1978 Fiesta Navideña, Marimba Orquesta Virreynal de Hugo Reyes de Tonalá, Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos CBS, S.A., OKEH OKL-10015: 1964 Agustin Lara en Marimba (Marimba la Poli), [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos CBS, S.A., Okeh OKL-10090: 1965 Existos de Los Panchos en Marimba, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos CBS, S.A., Okeh, Monoaural OKL-10090: 1965 Exitos De Los Panchos En Marimba. Manuel Martinez y su Marimba, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos CBS, S.A., OKL-10074: 1965 Valses En Marimba, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Celeidofon, Stereo LPCF-132: 1981 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

404 Discos Centroamericanos S.A., Casa Avelar, TIKAL LP-1: o.J. Ave Lira Y Fiesta De Pajaros, [LP] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Discos Cisne S.A,CI-2059;1977. Para su Fiesta. Marimba Hermanos Aquino, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne S.A. CI - 1140: 1965 Danzones con Marimba, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne S.A. CI - 1200: 1966 Super 34 Exitos Bailables, Marimba a go-go, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne, CI-1483: o.J Ritmo!. Marimba Orquesta “Brisas del Grijalva”, [LP] México, D.F. [México] Discos Cisne, S.A. CI - 1024: 1967 fiesta… con la Marimba Noe Nandayapa, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne, S.A. CI-1516: 1970 ...vamos a la TOCADA!. Marimba “La Niña de Tonala”, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne, S.A. CID-1229: 1966 Marimba con Exitos Bailables. “Maderas Que Cantan”, “Alba” y “Los Conejos”, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne, S.A., CI-1250: 1967 Marimba La Niña de Tonala, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne, S.A., CI-1386: AA Marimbas de Mexico, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne, S.A., CI-1924: 1975 Moscovita y Sus Monarcas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne, S.A., cisne CI-1434: 1969 Maderas en Ritmo. Marimba Hnos. Palomeque Vol. 2, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne, S.A., Cisne CID-1231: 1966 Concierto de Marimba. Marimba de la 5ª zona bajo la dirección del maestro Alfredo Bethanncourt, [LP] México D.F. [México]

405

Discos Cisne, S.A., CIT-1348: 1968 La Flor de Cafe. Marimba Gallito, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Cisne, S.A., Estereo CI-1535: 1971 Danzones con la marimba de los Hermanos Dominguez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Columbia de Mexico 2272-C: o.J. Marimba Tuxtleca de Gabriel Solis, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Columbia de Mexico 2602-C: o.J. Marimba Orquesta de La Policia (“La Poli de Tuxtla”) Dir. Ricardo Sanchez Solis, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Columbia de Mexico 2620-C: o.J. Marimba de la Policia (“La Poli de Tuxtla”) Dir. Ricardo Sanchez Solis, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Columbia de Mexico 2635-C: o.J. Conjunto Alma de Huixtla. Dir. Emigdio de Aquino, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Columbia de Mexico 2809-C: o.J. Marimba de la Policia (“La Poli de Tuxtla”) Dir. Ricardo Sanchez Solis, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Columbia de Mexico 2896-C: o.J. Marimba de la Policia (“La Poli de Tuxtla”) Dir. Ricardo Sanchez Solis, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Columbia de Mexico 3228-C: o.J. Orquesta de la Policia (“La Policia de Tuxtla”) Dir. Ricardo Sanchez Solis, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Columbia de Mexico 3599-C: o.J. Marimba Orquesta de Tuxtla Gutierrez Chiapas Dir. Ricardo Sanchez Solis, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Columbia de México, S.A., DCL-8: o.J. Canciones Mexicanas en Marimba Vol. I. Bailes Regionales, [LP] México D.F. [México]

406

Discos de Centroamérica o.N.: 1991 Música tradicional Garífuna de Lívingston. Instituto Guatemalteco de Turismo. Grupo Despertar Carífuna “Sánchez Díaz”, Vol. II, [LP] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Discos de Centroamérica o.N.: 1992 Música tradicional Q’eqchi’ de Alta Verapaz. Instituto Guatemalteco de turismo. Consejo Regional de Desarrollo Urbano y Rural II, Vol. III, [LP] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Discos De Centroamerica, IDECA Alta Fidelidad LP-6413: o.J. “Marimba Hurtado Hermanos” Vol. II. Dirigida por el Maestro Rocael Hurtado, [LP] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Discos Delfin, S.A. Estereo LPD-001: 1981 Marimba Orquesta Virreinal del Maestro Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Fantasía, LP-D.F-002: : o.J. Marimba Orq. Virreynal de Hugo Reyes, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Fénix FE-CD 2003: o.J. Folklore de Nicaragua. Varios intérpretes, [CD] Miami, Fl [Nicaragua]

Discos FM, S.A. de C.V. FM-113: 1972 La Zandunga. Marimba Oro Y Plata De Arturo Cordero, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Fusa, Estereo 063: 1976 Recordando a la CUQUITA linda escuintleca. Marimba alma de escuintla, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Fusa, Fusa Records, Estereo LP-FUSA-071: 1978 Exitos y Mas Exitos. Marimba Brisas del Grijalva, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos GAL, Estudios Sonosur, GAL-001: 1983 Marimba El Aguila, de los Hermanos Santiago, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos GAL, Estudios Sonosur, GAL-1020: 1985 Marimba Orquesta de Los Hermanos Palomeque de Pijijiapan, Chis. Director Tito Palomeque, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

407 Discos GAS, Intergas estereo 1141: 1977 Remenbranzas del Usumacinta. Marimba Hermanos Paniagua,[LP] México, D.F. [México]

Discos GAS, S.A. de C.V., Estereo Intergas, GAS 1517: 1985 Marimba Hermanos Palomeque, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos GAS, S.A. de C.V., gas ING-1675: 1989 Marimba Orquesta Palomeque “La Güera Salome”, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos GAS, S.A. de C.V., IM Discos & Cassettes, CD-IM-0319: 1996 Música de México, Maderas que cantan. Marimba Nandayapa, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Discos GAS, S.A., FLAG-17: 1974 Marimba Tonalteca, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Globo, Monaural Estereo, GL-50041: 1978 Solo Marimba. Marimba Maderas Felices, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Guitarra S.A., Monaural - Estereo DG17: 1974 Mambos, Cumbias y Danzones. Marimba Brisas de Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Guitarra, S.A. Monaural-Estereo DG13: 1975 Mambos. Marimba Orquesta Virreynal Director Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos HMP, Brisas del Grijalva 001: o.J En tí Villaflores. Grupo Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijalva de Humberto Moreno Penagos, [CD] Villaflores, Chiapas [Chiapas]

Discos HMP, HMP-1009: o.J Bailemos Con La Gran Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijalva de Humberto Moreno Pena- gos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos HMP, HMP-1014: 1986 SOLO EXITOS. Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijalva de Humberto Moreno, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

Discos HMP, HMP-1023: o.J. Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijalva de Humberto Moreno Penagos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

408

Discos HMP, LP-1001: o.J La Nueva Honda. Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijalva de Humberto Moreno Penagos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Latinoamericanos, S.A. DILA DL-5116: o.J Marimba Hurtado Hermanos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Latinoamericanos, S.A. DL-5029: o.J. Lo Mejor De: Marimba Hurtado Hnos., [LP] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Discos Malibu, LPM-1073: 1974 Marimba Caliente. Marimba Orquesta Balun Canan de Antonio Gordillo V., [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Mariposa Satín, CDMS-012: 2000 Chiapas, Tierra de La Marimba. XVI Concurso Estatl de Marimba, Festival Internacional de Marimbistas, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Mariposa Satín, CDMS-020: 2001 Marimba Session. Silvestre Revueltas, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Mariposa Satín: 1996 Duo Nandayapa - Ulloa, (Zeferino Nandayapa- Marimba / Enrique Ulloa- Flauta) "Ixchel". [CD]

Discos Mexicanos, S.A., DIMSA DML-8149 SF-2: 1961 Marimba chiapaneca. Marimbas: Corona, Seguridad de Chiapas y Hermanos Dominguez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Mexicanos, S.A., Maya LY-70023: 1960 “Marimba Suriana” Vol. II, [LP] México D.F. [México]R

Discos Mexicanos, S.A., Orfeon, JM-11: 1987 30 Exitos Al Son De La Marimba. Álbum de oro con sus 30 grandes éxitos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Mitla, Estereo LPM-1023: 1975 Clasica Suriana, Con Las Marimbas del Estado de Oaxaca, [LP] México D.F. [México]

409

Discos Musart REX-138: 1968 Hits En Marimba. Marimba Guatemalteca, [LP] Impreso en México

Discos Musart, Dedica, REX-175: 1968 Hits En Marimba. Marimba Guatemalteca, VOL. 2, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, Musart D-328: o.J. Marimba Internacional Marimba Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, Oasis, Monaural - Estereo OA-119: 1963 Todo En Chiapas Es… Marimba Universitaria De Los Hermanos Fernández, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, OASIS, OA-339: o.J. Marimba Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, S.A. Acapulco, OA-305: 1977 Marimbas En Concierto. Marimba Tecnica Industrial No. 141, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, S.A. de C.V. Trebol, Estudios Sonosur, T - 10991: 1985 Marimba Espiga De Oro, Con El Maestro Manuel Vlees Chower Borraz, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Musart, S.A. DE C.V., Trébol L, T-10854: 1981 Lo Mejor de La Internacional Marimba Orquesta Corona de Tapachula de Víctor Betanzos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, S.A., Trébol, T-10799: 1979 “Exitos Rancheros Con La Internacional” Marimba Orquesta Corona de Tapachula, de Víctor Betanzos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, Trébol T-10659: AA Lo Nuevo de La Internacional, Marimba Orquesta Corona de Tapachula, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, Trébol, ESTEREO T-10710: 1977 “La Tremenda”. Marimba Orquesta Perla de Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

410 Discos Musart, Trébol, T-10448: 1973 La Insuperable. Marimba Orquesta Corona de Tapachula, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, Trébol, T-10492: 1974 Popurris Con La Insuperable Marimba Orquesta Corona de Tapachula, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, Trébol, T-10582: 1975 Mas Perlas Musicales. Marimba Orquesta Perla de Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, Trébol, T-10586: 1975 Candela En Popurri. Marimba Orquesta Perla de Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Musart, Trébol, T-10789: 1979 “Puras Tropicales”, con la internacional Marimba Orquesta Corona de Tapachula de Victor Betanzos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Naranja Popocatepetl, Estudios Sonosur: 1982 Marimba Clasica De La Universidad Autonoma De Chiapas, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Olimpia Marca Registrada, LD 0-006: 1967 Concierto En Marimba, Vol. II. Zefer Nandayapa y su cuarteto clásico, [LP] México D.F. [México] Discos Olimpia Marca Registrada, LD-0-005: 1967 Concierto En Marimba, VOL. I. Con Zefer Nandayapa y su cuarteto clásico, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Orvimex, S.A., Estereo LPOR-1040: o.J Homenaje a Chiapas. Marimba Orquesta de Los Hermanos Nandayapa, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Peerless, S.A. 1190: 1996 Rincon de Mexico en Maderas. Marimba Hnos. Paniagua, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Peerless, S.A. 1981 Hnos. Molina, [LP] México D.F. [México]

411 Discos Peerless, S.A. 25724: 1979 Marimba Hermanos Paniagua, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Peerless, S.A. DE C.V., ESTEREO ECO-26190-5: 1987 Marimba y Marimbas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Peerless, S.A. ECO 25633: 1978 “Tapachula”. Marimba Corona de Tapachula, Dir.: Víctor Betanzos Castellanos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Peerless, S.A., ECO 25026: 1977 Marimba de Los Hermanos Paniagua, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Peerless, S.A., LD-746: o.J Vibracion De Maderas, Música del Sureste. Con La Marimba Internacional De Los Hermanos Paniagua, [LP] México D.F. [México] Discos Peerless, S.A., LONDON 1627: 1972 Marimbas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Pentagrama Musical, PEN-005: 1982 Marimba Orquesta Alma de Chiapas, H.S de Ocozocuautla, CHIS., [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Pimesa, Pime S.A. Romenor, RMD-018: o.J ¡Hola Amigos!. Alicia Azurdia La Chapinísima, [LP] Guatemala City[Guatemala] Discos Popular, LDP-58: o.J. RITMO! Marimba Orquesta “Brisas Del Grijalva”, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Popular, LDP-58: 1975 RITMO. Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijalva de Humberto Moreno, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

Discos Promofon. PF-54: 1984 Bateando 27 Hits Tropicales. Marimba Orquesta Balum Canan, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Rapsodia, RAM 10001: o.J. Fiesta Tropical. Orquesta Marimba “Brisas del Grijalva”, [LP] México D.F. [México]

412 Discos Rex, S.A., R-642: o.J. Rompe y Rasga. La Marimba Orquesta Gallito, [LP] México D.F. [México] Discos Rex, S.A., R-727: 1977 Mosaico Bailable Con La Marimba Orquesta Gallito, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Sasiain, S.A. Sello Azul, Estereo 3-1032: 1976 Marimba Orquesta “Tonalteca”, De Los Hnos. Reyes Chirino/Cuatro, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos SGC, CDSGC-017: o.J El Maestro Manuel Vleeshower Borraz, Para Siempre. Marimba Orquidea, Concierto en Vivo “Casa de la Marimba” San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapas, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Son-Art, S.A. D-335: 1970 Marimba Chapinlandia, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Son-Art, S.A. D-478: 1972 Marimba Chiapaneca. Hnos. Moreno García, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Son-Art, S.A., Stereo Monaural DS-720: 1979 Marimba Chapinlandia, VOL. II, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Sonosur S.A. DE C.V., sonosur LP-12: 1981 Marimba Tuxtla. Del Güero Tovilla, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Sonosur, PEN-006: 1982 Homenaje a Ocozocuautla y su Musica Antologia Coiteca. Marimba Orquesta Alma De Chiapas de H.S de Ocozocuautla, Chis., [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos sonosur, S.A de C.V, Sonosur LPS-019: 00: o.J Bailables Chiapanecos, Volúmen IV, con la Marimba Claro de Luna, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Sonosur, S.A. de C.V –VMV 001 Serie Dorada: 1991 Marimba Orquidea con el Internacional Solista Manuel Vleeshower, [CS] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas, [México]

413 Discos Sonosur, S.A. de C.V., S Sonosur LPS-011: o.J Bailables Chiapanecos, Volúmen I, con la Marimba Claro de Luna, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos sonosur, S.A. de C.V., Sonosur LP-21: o.J Estudiantina de la Unach, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Sonosur, S.A. de C.V., Sonosur LPS-015: o.J Bailables Chiapanecos, Volúmen II, con la Marimba Claro de Luna, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos Sonosur, S.A. LP-20: 1982 Homenaje a los Hermanos Domínguez, con la Marimba Claro de Luna, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Discos TAP KC RCS04: o.J Marimba Perla de Chiapas, “Sones Chiapanecos". [CS]

Discos TAP KCRCS12: o.J Marimba Perla de Chiapas, "Recordando a Lara". [CS]

Discos TAP KCRCS14: o.J Marimba Perla de Chiapas, "Todo me gusta de Ti". [CS]

Discos TOKA, S.A. DP-10029: 1984 Que es lo Que Quiere El Negro. Marimba Orquesta Balum Canan de A. Gordillo, [LP] México D.F. [México] Discos Usumacinta: o.J Marimba Joyas del Usumacinta de los Hermanos Baños, "Sabor a Tabasco". [LP]

Discos Valsur, S.A. Yuriko YLPS-3077: 1980 Marimba Orquesta Perla del Soconusco del Chato Vidal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Valsur, S.A., Yuriko LPYS-3126: 1981 La internacional Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas de Limbano Vidal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

414 Discos Valsur, S.A., Yuriko LPYS-3127: 1981 La internacional Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas de Limbano Vidal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Valsur, S.A., Yuriko YLPS-3078: 1978 Internacional Marimba Águilas de Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Valsur, S.A., Yuriko YLPS-3098: 1981 La Internacional Marimba Águilas de Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Valsur, S.A., Yuriko YLPS-3160: 1984 “Música Clasica” con la Internacional Marimba “AGUILAS DE CHIAPAS” de: Limbano Vidal Mazariegos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Valsur, S.A., Yuriko YLPS-3189: 1984 Hermosas Canciones Grandes Recuerdos. Internacional Marimba Orquesta Aguilas de Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Valsur, S.A.,Yuriko Estereo YLPS-3065: 1979 Marimba Orquesta Perla del Soconusco, del Chato Vidal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Valsur, S.A.,Yuriko Estereo YLPS-3069: 1979 MARIMBA ORQUESTA AGUILAS DE CHIAPAS, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Y Accesorios Rasos De Mexico, S.A. LPE-106: 1978 Clasico En Marimba, con la marimba alma de huixtla del maestro Emigdio de Aquino, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Y Cartuchos De Mexico, S.A., DCM, DM-58: 1971 20 Exitos Bailables. Marimba Tuxtla, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos y Cassette, S. A. Carnaval, CRLP-162: o.J Marimba Pa’ Goza… Marimba Brisas Del Grijalva De Humberto Moreno, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos y Cintas Helix S.A. De C.V., Impacto, Estereo IMLP-2081: 1979 Marimba Orquesta Tonalteca /5, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discos Y Cintas Helix, S.A. De C.V., Sasiain, SALP-1017: 1979 Luis Arcaraz Gonzalo Curiel. Marimba Orquesta Virreinal de Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

415 Discos Zodiaco, S.A., LPZ-7443: o.J Marimba Orquesta, Reyna Frailescana De Los Hnos. Garcia, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Discoteca Juvenil CD-DJ-030: o.J. The Best in Marimba from Nicaragua Palazzio Brothers, [CD] Mexico City [Nicaragua]

DJM Estrella Musical Del Sur, CDJM-PE 1001: 2006 Lo mejor de la Salsa en Marimba. Orquesta Caribe, Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas. México, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

DJM Estrella Musical Del Sur, CDJME-23: o.J 50 Aniversario 1954-2004. La Internacional Marimba del Estado de Chiapas Mexico, Secretaria de Gobierno del Estado. Dirección de Acción Cívica, “(Antes) Marimba Orquesta “Seguridad Pública”, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

DJM Estrella Musical Del Sur, CDJME-75: 2007 23 Super Exitos Bailables. Marimba Orquesta La Reyna Tuxtleca Del Gobierno Municipal De Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

ECO 26190: o.J. Corona de Tapachula y Hermanos Paniagua "Marimbas". [LP]

ECO-Peerless, ECO 25096 LD:1974 Marimba Cuquita de los Hermanos Narvaez, [LP] México.

El Disco de Oro, CD-2001-001: 2001 Homenaje al Maestro Víctor Betanzos Castellanos. Interpretando su música y los éxitos de la Marimba Corona de Tapachula con la Marimba de Conciertos Soconusco, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

El Disco de Oro, CDO-008: 2007 La Mundialmente Famosa Marimba Orquesta Corona De Tapachula. Victor Betanzos Castellanos, VOL. 4, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

El Disco de Oro, CDO1: 2005 Internacional Marimba Orquesta Corona De Tapachula. Dir. Victor Vetanzos Castellanos, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México] El Disco de Oro, DCDO-003: o.J 16 Puros Exitos Con Marimba. Varias Marimbas, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

416 El Disco de Oro, DCDO-004: o.J POPURRI, Para bailar sin descansar. Marimba Perla De Chiapas, Del Maestro Danilo Gutierrez, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

El Disco de Oro, DO-001: o.J 15 Bailables de Siempre. Marimba Perla De Chiapas De Danilo Gutierrez, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

El Disco de Oro, Mundicd Music, (CDJCK-115) CDO2: 2007 La Mundialmente Famosa Marimba Orquesta Corona De Tapachula. Victor Betanzos Castellanos, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

EMI Capitol de Mexico, EMI LPE-138: 1987 INOLVIDABLES, Al son de la marimba, [LP] México D.F. [México]

EMI Capitol de Mexico, S.A. DE C.V. EMI Angel SAM-8613: 1985 Federico Alvarez Del Toro. Sinfonia “El Espiritu De La Tierra”, Para Marimba, Y Orquesta - Zeferino Nandayapa, Solista Orquesta Filarmonica De La Ciudad De Mexico F. Alvarez Del Toro, Director, [LP] México D.F. [México]

EMI Capitol de Mexico, S.A. DE C.V. EMI-POPS (33C 032 451204) POP-471: 1979 Marimba Los Mecateros, [LP] México D.F. [México]

EMI Capitol de Mexico, S.A. DE C.V. LME-178: 1984 Pepe Brindis Riquelme Y Sus Canciones, Amor Tuxtleco, [LP] México D.F. [México]

EMI Capitol de Mexico, S.A. DE C.V., LME-213: o.J. La Internacional Marimba Orquesta Lira de Comitan de Los Hnos. Vidal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

EMI Capitol de Mexico, S.A. de C.V., POP-432: 1977 A Bailar con orquesta show de Zefer Nandayapa y el conjunto musical, musical, sonido 13- 73, [LP] México D.F. [México]

EMI Capitol de Mexico, S.A. de C.V., SAM-138: 1982 Los Clasicos En Marimba, VOL. 4. Marimba nandayapa, [LP] México D.F. [México]

EMI Capitol de Mexico, S.A. de C.V., SAM-35034: 1975 Los Clasicos En Marimba. Marimba nandayapa, [LP] México D.F. [México]

417

EMI Capitol de Mexico, S.A. de C.V., SAM-35063: 1979 Los Clasicos En Marimba, VOL.2. Marimba Nandayapa, Zeferino Nandayapa Director, [LP] México D.F. [México] EMI Capitol de Mexico, S.A. de C.V., SAM-35069: 1982 La otra cara de nandayapa. Zefer Nandayapa y su marimba, vol. 2, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Estudio Promusic, Marimba Infantil Copainalá 003: o.J Marimba Infantil Copainalá, [CD] Copainalá, Chiapas [México]

Estudio Promusic, Marimba Infantil Copainalá 004: o.J X Aniversario. Marimba Infantil Copainalá, [CD] Copainalá, Chiapas [México]

Estudios Córdova Music, JBP Records, Marimba Orq. Municipal de La Trinitaria 001: o.J Alegre Zapalutequita. Marimba Orquesta Municipal de La Trinitaria, [CD] Comitán, Chiapas [México]

Estudios Gamboa, Marimba de Concierto Municipalidad de Chiantla 001: o.J Chiantla… es cultura. Marimba De Conciertos Municipalidad De Chiantla - VOL. 1, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Estudios Gamboa, Marimba de Concierto Municipalidad de Chiantla 002: o.J A Chiantla Milenaria. Marimba de Concierto Municipalidad de Chiantla - Vol. 2, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Estudios Sangeet, Marimba Hnas. Y Hnos. Diaz 001: o.J “Se Despeino La Marimba”. Marimba Hnas. y Hnos. Diaz, San Cristóbal de Las Casas Chis. Director: César Alexis Díaz López, [CD] San Cristóbal de Las Casas, Chiapas [México]

Fabrica de Discos Peerless, S. A. 5133: o.J Marimba Hermanos Paniagua, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Fabrica de Discos Peerless, S. A. 5446: o.J Orquesta de Los Hermanos Salinas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

418 Fabrica de Discos Peerless, S. A. LD-746: o.J “Vibracion De Maderas”. Marimba Orquesta De Los Hermanos Paniagua, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Fabrica De Discos Peerless, S.A. de C.V., Peerless 88-1140: 1988 Marimba Nandayapa e Hijos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

FER Records, S.A. Stereo L.P.FER-554: 1977 La Chica De La Boutique, Con Los Reyes De La Cumbia, Marimba Juvenil De Homer Hernandez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Fonogramas Triángulo, S.A., 2033: o.J Marimba Hnos. Sarmiento, de Coita, Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Fonoteca del INAH, Laboratorio de Sonido M.N.A: 1946 Files numbers: MNA 977 to 979, 1066 to 1069. Yurchenco, Henrietta Collection. Album de Música Folklórica de Guatemala, [LP] Mexico City

Fonoteca del INAH, Laboratorio de Sonido M.N.A: 1957-1958 Files numbers: MNA 2125, 2194, 2195, 2242 to 2247, 2253 to 2265, 2276 to 2297, 2276 to 2297, 2324, 2337to 2342, 2807 to 2818. Stanford Thomas Collection. [M-Tape] Mexico City

Fonoteca del INAH: 2002 Soy el negro de la costa… Música y poesía afromestiza de la Costa Chica 33 Testimonio Musical de México, INAH, México, 2002, 2ª edición. (P) 1996. Producción: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia y Ediciones Pentagrama CONACULTA – INAH [CD] Mexico.

Fonoteca del INAH: 2002 Sones de Veracruz 06 Testimonio Musical de México, INAH, México, 2002, 10ª edición. (P) 1969. Producción: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia y Ediciones Pentagrama CONACULTA – INAH

Fonoteca del INAH: 2002 Sones y gustos de la Tierra Caliente de Guerrero 10 Testimonio Musical de México, INAH, México, 2002, 6ª edición. (P) 1971. Producción: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia y Ediciones Pentagrama CONACULTA – INAH

419 Fonoteca del INAH: 2002 Música de la Costa Chica de Guerrero y Oaxaca 21 Testimonio Musical de México, INAH, México, 2002, 5ª edición. (P) 1977. Producción: Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia y Ediciones Pentagrama CONACULTA – INAH

Fonovisa-Melody, S.A. de C.V., LME-469: 1988 De Lo Selecto A Lo Clasico. Zeferino Nandayapa Y Su Marimba Clasica, [LP] México D.F. [México]

GLM STUDIOS, Marimba Lira Costeña Hermanos Barranco 001: o.J Marimba Lira Costeña Hermanos Barranco, [CD] Xalapa, Veracruz [México]

GLM STUDIOS, Marimba Lira Costeña Hermanos Barranco 002: o.J MARIMBA “LIRA COSTEÑA” HNOS. BARRANCO, [CD] Xalapa, Veracruz [México] GLOBAL ENT.CD2014: o.J Marimba Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno Tapia, "Nostalgia Musical". [CD]

GLOBAL-GELDS- 6788: o.J Marimba Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno Tapia, "La Marimba Una Leyenda". [CD]

Gobierno del Estado de Chiapas, LPCH-01: 1977 Chiapas Canta. Amparo Montes Y Compositores Chiapanecos, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Gomsa Records o.N: 2012 Narianguela. Estrella Prodigiosa, [CD] Chiapas [México]

Gomsa Records, GSJA-023: 2004 Pegajosas al estilo de la: MARIMBA Niluyarilu. De chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, VOL. 3, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Gomsa Records, Marimba Nandacachumbi 001: o.J Marimba Nandacachumbi, [CD] Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur S.A. de C.V. CDS-010: o.J INOLVIDABLES. Marimba Nandayapa, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

420 Grabaciones Sonosur S.A. de C.V. Chipi-Chipi, LPE-59: 1987 Lo Mejor De Paco. Homenaje A Francisco Chanona, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. De C.V. Estereofonico LPS-011: o.J Bailables Chiapanecos, Volúmen I. [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. De C.V. Estereofonico LPS-016: o.J Bailables Chiapanecos, Volúmen III, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V. LPS-018: o.J Homenaje A Los Hermanos Dominguez Con La Marimba Claro De Luna, [LP] México D.F. [México Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. De C.V. SEC Chiapas LPE-43-44: 1986 Musica Zoque, Tecpatan-Chiapas, Danzas de Moctezuma, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. de C.V. o.N: o.J Canciones Famosas de España, Famous Spanish Songs. Marimba “Hermanos Tovar”, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. de C.V., Discos Quetzal LPQS-018: 1958 Inolvidables, VOL.1. Marimba Nandayapa, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. de C.V., Discos Quetzal, CDQS-102: 2000 Canciones Famosas de Italia, Famous Italian Songs. Marimba Hermanos Tovar, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. de C.V., estereofónico LPS-009: 1982 Hugo Reyes y su orquesta, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., LPE-46: 1er Concurso Estatal de Marimba Hermanos Domínguez. Primer Lugar, Marimba San Cristobal, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., LPE-50: 1986 2º Concurso Estatal de Marimba, En homenaje a Corazón Borraz, Primer Lugar. Marimba Aguila de Chiapas, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

421 Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., LPE-60: 1988 4º Concurso Estatal de Marimba, En homenaje a Zeferino Nandayapa, Primer Lugar. Marimba Aguila de Chiapas, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., LPS-002: 1981 Marimba Poli De Tuxtla, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., LPS-026: o.J Marimba en Concierto, Marimba Municipal Jiquipilas, Volumen 5 [LP] México D.F. [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. de C.V., SONOSUR LPE-050: 1986 2º Concurso Estatal de Marimba, En homenaje a Corazón Borraz. PRIMER LUGAR, Marimba Aguilas De Chiapas, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. de C.V., Sonosur LPE-46: 1986 1er Concurso Estatal de Marimba Hermanos Dominguez. 1er. Lugar, Marimba San Cristobal, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. de C.V., Sonosur LPQS-017: 1986 Los Lacandones, Con el sonido caliente del sur, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. de C.V., sonosur LPQS-019: 1989 Latinoamerica Musical. Marimba nandayapa, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México] Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., sonosur LPS-024: 1987 marimba en concierto. Marimba Tuxtla, VOLUMEN 3 [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., sonosur, LPE-30: o.J ¡30 Aniversario Tropicalissimo!. Marimba Orquesta Virreynal De Hugo Reyes, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México] Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., sonosur, LPE-53: o.J Noches de chipi-chipi, VOL. I, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., sonosur, LPE-58: o.J Cita Romántica en 2001 Cerca De Las Estrellas Alta Luz, con Orquidea y Pedro, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

422 Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., sonosur, LPS-021: o.J marimba en concierto. Con Las Hermanas Gutierrez Niño, Volumen 1, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., sonosur, LPS-022: o.J marimba en concierto. Con Las Hermanas Gutierrez Niño, Volumen 2, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., sonosur, LPS-023: o.J Bailables Chiapanecos Volúmen V, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A. DE C.V., sonosur, LPS-025: 1987 marimba en concierto. Marimba San Cristobal, Volumen 4, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grabaciones Sonosur, S.A., Estereofonico LPS-019: o.J BAILABLES CHIAPANECOS, Volúmen IV, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Grupo Musical Guatemala o.N.: o.J. El Paabanc Ixiles. Grupo Musical Guatemala: Marimba-Percusión- Viento, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

H. Ayuntamiento Constitucional de Tuxtla Gutierrez Chiapas LPT-01: 1971- 1973 Homenaje a los Hermanos Gomez. Cuarteto clásico municipal, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

H. Ayuntamiento Constitucional de Tuxtla Gutierrez Chiapas LPT-01: 1977 Tuxtla De Mis Amores, con la Marimba Chiapas De Los Hermanos Gómez y el Cuarteto Clásico Municipal, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Heart of Wood Project, Conservatory of Music, University of Missouri-Kansas City, HWP- 002: 1994 Marimba Yajalón ¡Chiapas!, [CD] Kansas City [USA]

Hemisphono DH-4102: 1996 Voces de Sula. Folklore y música hondureña, [CD] Miami, Fl [Honduras]

423 Hnos. Aquino CD1-2000: 2000 Un gusto latino. Hermanos Aquino, [CD] Mexico City [Mexico]

HOY Monostereo, LPH-65: 1973 Música de Agustín Lara. Con la Marimba Lira de Chiapas de los Hermanos Meda, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

IM Discos CD-IM 0264: o.J Marimba Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno Tapia, "La Guelaguetza vol.1". [CD]

IM Discos CD-IM 0265: o.J Marimba Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno Tapia, "La Guelaguetza vol.2". [CD]

IM Discos CD-IM 0266: o.J Marimba Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno Tapia, "La Guelaguetza vol.3". [CD]

IM Discos CD-IMI 0319: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "Maderas que Cantan". [CD]

IM Discos CDIMI-0273: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "Los Grandes Valses". [CD]

IM Discos CDIMI-0274: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "Los Grandes Temas de la Pantalla". [CD]

Importadora de discos, S.A., CIA, Mononaural Estereo ALD-2253: 1979 Clasicas en Marimba, VOL.2. Cuarteto clásico femenil I.C.A.CH, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Indica S.A., CBS-100028: o.J Un Vals Para mi Madre. La música de Santiago Pivaral con la Marimba Chapinlandia, [LP] Costa Rica [Costa Rica]

Indica, S.A. CBS, Estereo 20.039: 1973 Valses Inmortales. Marimba Chapinlandia, [LP] Costa Rica [Costa Rica]

424 Inguat o.N.: 2000 Música de marimba, Vol. I., [CD]; Música de marimba, Vol. II., [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Instituto Nacional Indigenista INI o.N.: 1994 Música de los Pueblos Mayas, [CD] Mexico City [Guatemala, El Salvador]

Jade, Estereo JL-515: 1970 Marimba Turula De Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

JVC CDVICG-5335: o.J Marimba Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno Tapia, "Songs of Mexico I". [CD]

JVC CDVICG-5336: o.J Marimba Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno Tapia, "Songs of Mexico II". [CD]

Karussell, Poly Gram, LPM-12173: 1982 Un Toque De Cumbia Para Bailar. Rulli Rendo, orquesta y coro, [LP] México D.F. [México]

KCT, S.A. DE C.V., Discos y Cassettes Phoenix, S.A. DE C.V., KCT-214: 1999 De Lo Selecto A Lo Clasico Vol. 3. Zeferino Nandayapa y Su Marimba Clasica, [CD] México D.F. [México]

KCT, S.A. DE C.V., Discos y Cassettes Phoenix, S.A. DE C.V., KCT-213: 1999 De Lo Selecto A Lo Clasico Vol. 2. Zeferino Nandayapa y Su Marimba Clasica, [CD] México D.F. [México]

KCT, S.A. DE C.V., Discos y Cassettes Phoenix, S.A. DE C.V., PHCD2016: 1995 Colección Musical Danzon con Marimba 15 Exitos. Marimba Nandayapa, [CD] México D.F. [México] KCT, S.A. de C.V., Discos y Cassettes Phoenix, S.A. DE C.V., PHCD-2009: 1995 Colección Musical 15 Exitos mambos. Marimba Nandayapa, [CD] México D.F. [México]

KCT, S.A. de C.V., Phoenix, KCT-121: 1996 Boleros Romanticos. Marimba Nandayapa y Orquesta, 26 Grandes Exitos, [CD] México D.F. [México]

425 KCT, S.A. de C.V., Phoenix, KCT-128: 1996 De lo Selecto a lo Clásico. Zeferino Nandayapa Y Su Marimba Clasica, [CD] México D.F. [México]

King Record Co., Ltd., World Music Library, Stereo KICC-5220: 1997 Marvelous Mexican Marimba/ Marimba Nandayapa, [CD] Otowa, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo [Japan]

King Record KICC5220: 1997 Marvellous Mexican Marimba. Marimba Nandayapa, [CD] Tokyo [Mexico]

King Records (Japan) KICC5220: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "Marvelous Mexican Marimba". [CD]

Mantica/Waid o.N.: o.J. Nuestro piano de madera. Grupo Musical y Escuela de Marimba Flavio Galo, [CD] Managua [Nicaragua]

Mar Music Records o.N.: 1988 Típicas bailables. Grupo Marimba San José, [CD] San José [Costa Rica] MARIMBA DEL INGUAT 001: o.J Marimba de Turismo, GUATEMALA. Marimba del INGUAT, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

MARIMBA NIÑA MAM 001 TORIBIO FELIX Y SU MARIMBA NIÑA MAM, [CD] Chiantla, Huehuetenango [Guatemala]

Mariposa Satin CDMS-009: 2000 Na’rimbo, [CD] o.O. [Mexico]

Mark Records, Heart of Wood Project, Conservatory of Music, University of Missouri- Kansas City, 2552-MCD: 1997 Echoes of Chiapas. Marimba Yajalón, [CD] Kansas City [USA]

Mastereo CDNW-7005: 1995 La magia de Chiapas. México. Marimba Nandayapa, [CD] Mexico City [Mexico]

Mastereo CDNW-7015: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "La Magia de Oaxaca". [CD]

426

Mastereo CDNW-7015: o.J. La magia de Oaxaca, México, [CD] o.0. [Mexico]

Melody Mel-85 : o.J Surianita. Marimba de Zeferino Nandayapa, [LP] México D.F. [México]

META/Difosa Records: 2010 Sabor Latino. Marimba Orquesta Alma Tuneca, La Guapachosa!, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes o.N.: 1989 Q’ojom. Popular Traditional Musicians from Totonicapán, Guatemala, [CD] Stockholm [Guatemala]

Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes o.N.: 1998 Armonía Universal. Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes o.N.: 1999 Nuevas expresiones. XX aniversario. Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes de Guatemala, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes o.N.: 2004 Primer congreso de composición para marimba en Guatemala, Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Ministerio de Cultura, Juventud y Deportes o.N.: 2000 Marimbas Ticas, [CD] San José [Costa Rica] Multicultural Media MCM-3015: 1998 Ecuador and Columbia Marimba Masters and Sacred Songs. The Afro-descendent Musicians of The Pacific Coastal Region, [CD] Barre, VT [Ecuador, Colombia]

Multimusic S.A. de C.V., AMT3-4753: 2004 Marimbas con tradición, Lo Mejor de Chiapas, Oaxaca y Tabasco. Marimba Brisas Del Grijalva, La Marimba En Chiapas, Disco 1, [CD] México D.F. [México] Multimusic S.A. de C.V., AMT3-4753: 2004 Marimbas con tradición, Lo Mejor de Chiapas, Oaxaca y Tabasco. Marimba Brisas Del Grijalva, La Marimba En Chiapas, Disco 2, [CD] México D.F. [México]

427 Multimusic S.A. de C.V., AMT3-4753: 2004 Marimbas con tradición, Lo Mejor de Chiapas, Oaxaca y Tabasco. Marimba Brisas Del Grijalva, La Marimba En Chiapas, Disco 3, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Multimusic S.A. de C.V., CD3-8361: 2005 INTERNACIONAL MARIMBA ORQUESTA Reyna Fraylescana de los Hermanos García, 3 cd, (DISCO 1), [CD] México D.F. [México]

Multimusic S.A. de C.V., CD3-8361: 2005 Internacional Marimba Orquesta Reyna Fraylescana de los Hermanos García, 3 cd, (DISCO 2), [CD] México D.F. [México]

Multimusic S.A. de C.V., CD3-8361: 2005 Internacional Marimba Orquesta Reyna Fraylescana de los Hermanos García, 3 cd, (DISCO 3), [CD] México D.F. [México]

Multimusic, S.A. de C.V., star music, RE-11570: 2003 Internacional Marimba Aguilas De Chiapas, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Music Art Productions Inc.,o.N.: 1998 A Gozar la Fiesta del Rollo. Marimba Orquesta Internacionales Conejos, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala] o.N.: 1995 500 años de herencia hispánica 1492-1992- Marimba de Concierto de Guatemala, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala] o.N.: 1997 Adelina. Música Shecana. Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala] o.N.: 1999 Manuel Vleeschower Borraz. Marimba Orquídea. Concierto en Casa de la Marimba, [CD] San Cristóbal de las Casas [Mexico] o.N.: 2000 Marimbando. Ensamble de Percusión Costa Rica, [CD] San José [Costa Rica] o.N.: o.J. Marimba Joyas del Usumacinta de los Hermanos Baños, "Joyas del Mundo". [LP]

428 o.N.: o.J. Marimba Joyas del Usumacinta de los Hermanos Baños, "Joyas del Sureste". [LP] o.N.: o.J. Marimba Joyas del Usumacinta de los Hermanos Baños, "Mis Blancas Mariposas". o.N.: o.J. La voz del hormigo. Música en marimba pura, Vol. III. Marimba Reina del Ejército, [CD] o.O. [Guatemala] o.N.: o.J. Marimba magia. Papá Roncón, [CD] o.O. [Quito] [Ecuador] o.N.: o.J. El Paabanc. Marimba Femenina de Concierto, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

ORBI-VOX, S.A., JL-516: 1970 Marimba Orquesta Virreynal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeón 25CDLA-905: o.J. Folklore de Nicaragua, [CD] o.O. (USA) [Nicaragua]

Orfeón CDN-13467: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "En Concierto". [CD]

Orfeón JCD-029: o.J Corona de Tapachula, Seguridad Pública del Edo. de Chiapas, Perla del Soconusco, Lira de San Cristóbal. "AI son de la Marimba". [2-CD]

Orfeon Videobox S.A., LP 12-185 :1969 La Marimba. Banda De La Direccion De Seguridad Publica Del Edo. De Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox S.A., LP-12-202: 1967 La Mejor Marimba Del Mundo. Lira De Sancristobal, Las casas de los Hnos. Dominguez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

429 Orfeon Videobox, S. A., Maya LY-70406: o.J Ritmo y Sabor. Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas de Limbano Vidal M., [LP] Estado de México [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A. 45-2810: 1971 Marimba Brisas Del Grijalva, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A. LP/E-JM-11 JM-11: 1976 MARIMBA, [LP] Estado de México [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Dimsa DML-8680: 1971 10 explosivos en marimba. Marimba Brisas Del Grijalva de Humberto Moreno Penagos, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Dimsa DML-8844: o.J Super Folklorico. Marimba Orquesta Virreinal de Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Dimsa, CDN-13425: 1997 Danzones Con Marimba. Marimba Orquesta La Diosa Del Sur, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Dimsa, CDN-13467: 1997 Marimba Nandayapa En Concierto, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Dimsa, DML-8532: 1969 Danzones De Rafael Hernandez. Marimba Corona De Tapachula, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Dimsa, JDM-29007: 2002 Danzones con Marimba, Colección de Oro. Marimba Orq. “La Diosa Del Sur”, 3 CD’S (Disco 1), [CD] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Dimsa, JDM-29007: 2002 Danzones con Marimba, Colección de Oro. Marimba Orq. “La Diosa Del Sur”, 3 CD’S (Disco 2), [CD] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Dimsa, JDM-29012: 2002 Danzones con Marimba, Colección de Oro. Marimba Orq. “La Diosa Del Sur”, 3 CD’S (Disco 1, VOL. II), [CD] México D.F. [México]

430 Orfeon Videobox, S.A., La Voz de Hispanoamerica PL-12-381: 1968 MARIMBA ORQUESTA LA PERLA DEL SOCONUSCO, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Maya LY-70287: 1967 Oye La Marimba, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Maya, LY-70077: 1968 Danzones Con Marimba. Marimba Orquesta “La Diosa Del Sur” de E. Dominguez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeon Videobox, S.A., Teichiku Records Co., UPS-182-F: o.J LAS MEJORES MARIMBAS, [LP] Japan [Japan]

Orfeón Videovox, S.A., Dimsa, DML-8335: 1965 Marimba Orquesta De Los Hnos. Fernandez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeón Videovox, S.A., Maya LY-70206: 1964 Musica De Lara En Marimba. Marimba Orquesta Lira De Plata, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Orfeón Videovox, S.A., Orfeon LP-12-202: 1967 La Mejor Marimba Del Mundo. Lira De San Cristobal Las Casas De Los Hnos. Dominguez, Coleccion De Oro, [LP] México D.F. [México] Pan Americana de Discos, S. A. T-10204: o.J Marimba Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Pan Americana de Discos, S.A. de C.V., MUSANT D-171: o.J Al Son de La Marimba. Marimba Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Pan Americana de Discos, S.A., Musart, D 1059: 1965 Marimba Con Sax. Marimba Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Pan Americana de Discos, S.A., Musart, D 171: o.J Al Son de La Marimba. Marimba Chiapas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

PCS-CS 10099: o.J Marimba Hermanos Aquino, "Concierto Inolvidable". [CS]

Peerless CDE-013: o.J Marimba Hermanos Paniagua, "Hnos. Paniagua". [CD]

431

Peerless LP-295 Marimba Hermanos Paniagua, "Juanita Bonita". [LP]

Peerless PCD-206-1: o.J Marimba Hermanos Paniagua, "Hnos. Paniagua". [CD]

Peerless, S.A. DE C.V., CDP-647: 2000 16 Exitos. Marimba Cuquita, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Phoenix KCT-121: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "Boleros Románticos". [CD]

Phoenix KCT-128: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "De lo Selecto a lo Clásico". [CD]

Phoenix KCT-169: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "De lo Selecto a lo Clásico vol. Il". [CD]

Phoenix KCT-170: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "De lo Selecto a lo Clásico vol. III". [CD]

Phoenix KCT-175: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, Concierto en Vivo (vol. 3). [CD]

Phoenix KCT-221: o.J. Marimba Nandayapa en concierto Vol. II, [CD] Mexico City [Mexico]

Phoenix KLM2-6101: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "40 Aniversario / Conciertos en vivo en Japón, E.U.A., Canadá y México". [2-CD]

Phoenix PHCD2009 Marimba Nandayapa, "15 Éxitos de Mambos". [CD]

Phoenix PHCD2016 Marimba Nandayapa, "15 Éxitos de Danzón". [CD]

432 Pinacoteca do Estado de São Paulo o.N.: 1987 Documentos sonoros: Brasil e Africa. Os Heredeiros de Noile, ed. Tiago de Oliveira Pinto, [CD] São Paulo [Brasil]

Playa-Sound 65904: o.J Marimba Brisas del Grijalva, "Paysages Mexicains vol.4". [CD]

Polygram Discos, S.A. DE C.V., LPSB-6501: o.J Exitos a La Manera de La Generacion 2000, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Produccion Especial Gobierno de Tabasco: o.J Marimba Joyas del Usumacinta de los Hermanos Baños, "Tabasco en música Vegetal". [2- LP]

Producciones Arista, LPA-008: 1983. La triunfadora Marimba Orq. Virreynal de Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Producciones Arista, LPA-011: 1998 25 Aniversario de la Marimba Orquesta Virreynal De Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Producciones Cristo Viene, Marimba Infantil Copainalá 002: o.J Soneando En Mexico. Marimba Infantil Copainalá, [CD] Copainalá, Chiapas [México]

Producciones Fonograficas Jasper, S.A. de C.V., CDSE-30158: 2007 Acuarela Musical De Chiapas & Marimba De Los Hermanos Tovar, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Producciones Fonograficas Jasper, S.A. de C.V., Titanio Records, CDSE-30149: 2007 20 Exitos, 2 Discos en 1, VOL. 1. Reyna Fraylescana Marimba Orquesta, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Producciones Jetca CDPE-01: 1993 X Concurso Estatal de Marimba “Maestro Danilo Gutiérrez García”, [CD] Mexico City/Tuxtla Gutiérrez [Mexico]

433 Producciones Jetca CDPE-02: 1994 XI Concurso Estatal de Marimba “Maestro Limbano Vidal Mazariegos”, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez [Mexico]

Producciones Luvaxi, Audio AEGA, PECD-112, Rothschuh Marimba 001: o.J La Fiesta del Hormiguillo. Rothschuh Marimba, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Producciones Luvaxi, Mexfonic, Rothschuh Marimba 002: o.J La mora limpia. ROTHSCHUH MARIMBA, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Producciones Musicales, S.A., El Dorado DOLP-16: 1974 Clasicos Danzones. Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas de Limbano Vidal, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

Producciones Musicales, S.A., el Dorado, DOLP-12: 1974 Marimba Aguila de Chiapas de Limbano Vidal, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Producciones Musicales, S.A., el Dorado, DOLP-18: 1975 Que Lindo Es Chiapas..! Con sus Valses. Marimba Aguilas De Chiapas De Vidal, [LP] Méxi- co D.F. [México]

Producciones RCS, RCS-CD-02: 1996 Los 20 Mejores Sones Chiapanecos. Marimba Perla de Chiapas de Danilo Gutierrez Garcia de Tapachula, Chiapas, México, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

Producciones RCS, RCS-CD-23: 1999 Los 20 Mejores Exitos de la Internacional Marimba Orquesta Corona De Tapachula. Del Maestro Victor Betanzos Castellanos, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

Producciones WEA, S.A. DE C.V., LMWM-6689: 1987 Exitos Para Bailar. Marimba Orquesta Virreynal De Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Radio Difusora Xecopa, Marimba Infantil Copainalá 001: o.J El Trenza Listón (Bailarin). Marimba Infantil Copainalá, [CD] Copainalá, Chiapas [México]

Rapromex (Radio Programas De Mexico) Institución Mexicana De Radio, DAB194842-I: (9- 20-1953): 1953 Selecciones Musicales. Marimba de los Hermanos Gómez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

434 RCA Camden CDV : o.J Lira de San Cristóbal, “AI Son de la Marimba". [CD]

RCA Camden CDV : o.J Lira de San Cristóbal, "Los Éxitos de". [CD]

RCA CDV-6927 : o.J Lira de San Cristóbal, "Estrellas del Fonógrafo". [CD]

RCA Records, CAMS-737: 1975 Misa Con Marimba. Coro Santa Cecilia, Tonala, Chis., [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA S.A. DE C.V., Camden, Monoestereo CAMS-806: 1976 Super Exitos A La Marimba. Marimba Orquesta Virreynal De Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México] RCA S.A. DE C.V., Cammden CAMS-859: 1976 Los Exitos Del ’76. Marimba Orquesta Virreinal De Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA S.A. DE C.V., Victor, MKL/S-1830: 1969 El Panela Y Sus Marimbas, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA Victor Mexicana S.A. DE C.V., Camden CAM-59: o.J Chiapas. Serie Mexico Musical Vol. V, Lira San Cristobal, Marimba Bonampak, Marimba “Poli”, Marimba Soconusco, Los 3 Montejo, Declamador: Manuel Bernal, Narrador: Adrian Fournier Lilia Paz, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA Victor Mexicana S.A. DE C.V., Camden CAM-64: o.J Twist ...Cha Cha Cha ...y Danzones. Con La Marimba de Los Hnos. Nandayapa, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA Victor Mexicana, S.A. DE C.V., MKL-1263: o.J Marimba Lira De San Cristobal Las Casas de los Hnos. Domínguez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA Victor Mexicana, S.A. DE C.V., MKL-1263: o.J Marimba Lira De San Cristobal Vol. 2. de los Hnos. Domínguez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

435 RCA Victor Mexicana, S.A. DE C.V., Monoaural MKL-1128: 1965 Los Exitos De La Lira De San Cristobal. De Los Hermanos Dominguez, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA Victor Mexicana, S.A. de C.V., RCA Camden, CAM-59: o.J CHIAPAS. Serie Mexico Musical, Vol. V, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA Victor, Estereofonico, Camden, CAMS-351: 1968 Temas De Peliculas Y T.V. Las Marimbas Vivientes (Living Marimbas), [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA-Camden CDV: o.J Marimba "Lira de Oro" de Carlos Tejeda, “Zapateados y Danzones”. [CD]

RCA, S.A. DE C.V. PCS-9698: o.J Serenata En Comitan, Con La Marimba Chiapaneca Maderas Que Cantan De Armando Juarez Albores, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA, S.A. DE C.V. PCS-9705: o.J “Serenata En Comitan”, Con La Marimba Chiapaneca Maderas Que Cantan De Luis Armando Juarez Albores, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA, S.A. DE C.V., Camden CAM-89: 1963 Marimba Soconusco, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA, S.A. de C.V., Camden, Monoestereo CAMS-802: 1976-3 marimba corona de tapachula, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA, S.A. de C.V., Monoestereo Camden CAMS-653: 1973 Exitos Con Marimba. Lira De Oro De Carlos Tejada, [LP] México D.F. [México] RCA, S.A. DE C.V., RCA VICTOR, dynaflex PCS/S - 9446 - 47: 1977 Homenaje Al Maestro Alberto Dominguez Borraz, [LP] México D.F. [México]

RCA, VIK-013: 1986 15 Exitos con la Marimba Lira de Oro, [LP] México, D.F. [México]

RCS, RCS-CD-61: 52 Aniversario de la Internacional Marimba Orquesta Perla de Chiapas, Vol. 2. ¡LA INOLVIDABLE! del Mtro. Danilo Gutiérrez García, Tapachula, Chiapas, México, 27 Super

436 Exitos Bailables, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México]

San Simón/CENAMCO o.N.: o.J. Bavaria Motors, S.A. presenta al Dúo Clásico Tikal-Guatemala, [CD] o.O. [Guatemala]

Smithonian Folksways Records SFW CD 40470: 2002 Raíces Latinas, Smithonian Folkways Latino Collection, compiled and annotated by Daniel Sheely, [CD] Washington. [Colombia, Guatemala]

Smithonian Folkways Records FE 4376: 1967 Afro-Hispanic Music from Western Colombia and Ecuador, [CD] Washington [Colombia, Ecuador] Smithonian Folkways Records FE 6804: 1967 Music from Colombia, recorded by A. H. Whiteford, [CD] Washington [Colombia]

SONEX, Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes Guatemala, 2005 CRISOL ...evolu-son. Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Sonido 32, Sonosur, LP-S32-120: 1986 26 Aniversario de la Marimba Orquesta Internacional del Maestro HUGO REYES, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Sonido Alva, S.A. Estereo PEAL-1004: 1984 Musica Romantica De Los Hnos. Dominguez, con el Piano de Leticia Román de Becerril, [LP]México D.F. [México]

Sonido Alva, S.A., PEAL-1005: 1984 Comitán de mis Recuerdos en Concierto. Con el piano de Leticia Román de Becerril, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Sonopress, Una División de Bertelsmann de México, S.A. de C.V., PCS-10096: 1990 Contrastes. Marimba Hermanos Aquino, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Sonosur o.N: o.J Marimba Nandayapa, "Inolvidables vol. 1”. [CD]

437 Sonosur o.N.: 1990 Antología del concurso estatal de marimba, Vol. 5, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez [Mexico]

Sonosur o.N.: 1997 Antología del concurso estatal de marimba, Vol. II. Concurso No. 3, 1986, ganadora Marimba San Cristóbal; Concurso No. 4, 1987, ganadora Marimba Águila de Chiapas, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez [Mexico]

Sonosur o.N.: 1997 Antología del concurso estatal de marimba, Vol. I. Concurso No. 1, 1984, ganadora Marimba San Cristóbal; Concurso No. 2, 1985, ganadora Marimba Águila de Chiapas, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez [Mexico] Sonosur o.N.: 1997 Antología del concurso estatal de marimba Vol. III. Concurso No. 5, 1988, ganadora Marimba Jiquipilas; Concurso No. 6, 1989, ganadora Marimba San Cristóbal, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez [Mexico]

Sonosur o.N.: 1997 Antología del concurso estatal de marimba, Vol. IV. Concurso No. 6, 1989, ganadora Clásico Marimba Águila de Chiapas; Concurso No. 7, 1990, ganadora Popular Marimba Ocozocoautla; ganadora clásico marimba Hermanas Díaz; ganadora tema original Marimba Ventiuno Nanguelu, [CD] Tuxtla Gutiérrez [Mexico]

Sonosur- Grabaciones, Discos Y Cassettes, Sonosur LPS-003: o.J Marimba Claro De Luna, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Sonosur-Grabaciones Discos Y Cassettes, LP-11: 1981 Las Palomas, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Sonosur-Grabaciones Discos Y Cassettes, sonosur LPS-003: 1981 marimba Claro de Luna, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Sonosur, S.A. de C.V. PELP-077: 1990 Encuentro Internacional De Marimba, Sala Alberto Dominguez, Casa De La Cultura San Cristobal De Las Casa, Chiapas, [LP] Tuxtla Gutiérrez, Chiapas [México]

Sonox CDSC3102: o.J Marimba Claro de Luna, "Bailables Chiapanecos vol. 1". [CD]

438 Sonox CDSC3103: o.J Marimba Claro de Luna, "Bailables Chiapanecos vol. 2". [CD]

Sonox CDSC3104: o.J Marimba Claro de Luna, "Bailables Chiapanecos vol. 3". [CD]

Sonox CDSC3105: o.J Marimba Claro de Luna, "Bailables Chiapanecos vol. 4". [CD]

Sonox CDSC3106: o.J Marimba Claro de Luna, "Bailables Chiapanecos vol. 5". [CD] Sony BMG Music Entertaiment (México), S.A. de C.V., 886971329520: 2007 Lira de San Cristobal De Las Casa de los hermanos Domínguez, Tesoros De Coleccion, CD1, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Sony BMG Music Entertaiment (México), S.A. de C.V., 886971329520: 2007 Lira de San Cristobal De Las Casas de los hermanos Domínguez, Tesoros De Coleccion, CD2, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Sony BMG Music Entertaiment (México), S.A. de C.V., 886971329520: 2007 Lira de San Cristobal De Las Casas de los hermanos Domínguez, Tesoros De Coleccion, CD3, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Sony BMG Music Entertaiment Mexico, S.A. DE C.V. QSA-463853: 1991 Marimba De Hoy. Marimba Los Mecateros De Oscar Moreno, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Spartacus Discos, S.A. DE C.V. 24103 Vol. 3 Asi Canta Mexico, Música de Chiapas, Oaxaca y Guerrero. Brisas Del Grijalva, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Spartacus Discos, S.A. DE C.V., SDL22104: 1996 Marimba Águilas de Chiapas, "Lo mejor de México". [CD] México D.F. [México]

Spartacus Discos, S.A. DE C.V., SDL22105: 1996 Marimba Águilas de Chiapas, “Valses Mexicanos". [CD] México D.F. [México]

TIROSA, LP1: o.J “Luna De Xelaju”. Marimba Chapinlandia, [LP] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

439 Universidad Nacional Costa Rica o.N.: 1999 Marimba UNA, [CD] San José [Costa Rica]

Urtext o.N.: o.J. [2000] Tilingo lingo-México, [CD AUDIO + CD ROM] o.O. [Mexico]

Urtext UL 3010: 2002 La flor en su florear. Tilingo Lingo, [CD AUDIO + CD-ROM] Mexico City [Mexico]

V&M, CDVM-001: 2005 Marimba Orquídea. Con el Maestro Manuel Vleeschower, [CD] México D.F. [México]

V&M, CDVM-7: 2005 Inolvidables De Siempre. Marimba Orquesta Reyna Fraylescana, [CD] México D.F. [México]

Valsur YLPS3098: o.J La Internacional Marimba, "Águilas de Chiapas". [LP]

Valsur YLPS3169: o.J "La internacional Marimba, "Águilas de Chiapas". [LP]

Varsa Records, VR-16: o.J RITMISIMO. La Chapinisima, [CD] Guatemala City [Guatemala]

Victor CDVICP-187: o.J Marimba Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno Tapia, “Viva México". [CD]

Victor CDVICP-211: o.J Marimba Los Mecateros de Oscar Moreno Tapia, "The Best of Mecateros". [CD]

Victor Talking Machine Co. Camden, N. J. 17928-B: 1915 Marimba March. Blue and White Marimba Band, [LP] USA [USA]

Victor, U.S. Pressing, Circa 17928-A: 1916 "Colombia Waltz" (Mariano Valverde) Blue and White Marimba Band, [LP] USA [USA]

Victor, U.S. Pressing, Circa 18092-A: 1916 "Stars and Stripes Forever March" (John Philip Sousa) Hurtado Bros. Royal Marimba Band,

440 [LP] USA [USA]

Videovox, S.A., Maya LY-70406: 1970 Ritmo y sabor. Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas de Limbano Vidal M., [LP] México D.F. [México]

WEA, S.A. DE C.V., LMWM-6771: 1988 Exitos Tropicales. Internacional Marimba Orquesta Virreynal de Hugo Reyes, [LP] México D.F. [México]

Yuriko Records S.A. DE C.V., CDY-115: o.J Boleros con Marimba. Marimba Orquesta Aguilas de Chiapas, [CD] México D.F. [México]

441 10.4 Figure List Information

Fig.1: “New Spain”. In (Brom/Duval 1998:89).

Fig. 2: “The Captaincy General of Guatemala in 1821”. In (G. Zorrilla 1984:60).

Fig. 3: “Map of Traditional Music Genres”. Drawn by Giovanni Meza.

Fig. 4. “The Musicians, Bonampak”. in (Arrivillaga 2006:16).

Fig. 5: “Regions where exist diatonic marimbas in Guatemala with bamboo or tecomates resonators” Map made by Israel Moreno.

Fig. 6: The “Palo Volador” Ceremony in Chichicastenango, Guatemala. In (Gutiér- rez Morales 2011:3).

Fig. 7: “Procession in Congo, Africa, around 1654 and 1678”, Giovanni Antonio Cavazzi, between 1654 & 1678. No. 4 called “Marimbero”.

Fig. 8: Aquarelas Carlos Julião: Brenner quoted: Fundación de la biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, de la Iconografía, C. I. 2. 8. Faksimiles in: Carlos Julião, Riscos illuminados de figurinhos de brancos e negros dos uzos do Rio de Janeiro e Serro do Frio, aquarelas Carlos Julião.

Fig. 9: “Ratinlinxul Vase”, protected in the Museum of Art and Archaeology of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, object #11701, taken from the personal archive of Helmut Brenner.

Fig. 10: “Marimba Parts”, drawn by Giovanni Meza.

Fig. 11: “Colombian Marimbist Baudilio Cuama”, in El Espectador. December 30, 2013. Taken for the article by Albert Traver.

Fig. 12: “Elias Palacios with a Marimba de Arco from Nicaragua”. Photo by Celeste Gonzalez, May 3rd 2009, Masaya, Nicaragua.

Fig. 13: “Hurtado Family with diatonic marimbas”, approximately data 1894, photo from the collection of Julio Guillermo Taracena Bethancourt, from Quetzaltenango, Guatemala. In the center of the picture is Sebastian Hurta- do, on the tiple of marimba requinta.

Fig. 14: “Joueurs de Marimba – Tenorique Tabasco”, by Désireé Charnay. In Amer- ican Philosophical Society (APS); ID number: APSimg5271, Date Issued, 1882.

442 Fig. 15: “Diatonic Marimba of Eduardo Esponda”, photograph from the personal archive of Carlos Nandayapa, Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas. The marimba is now on exhibition at the Museum of the Marimba in Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas.

Fig. 16: “Corazón de Jesús Borráz Moreno and his marimba group”. Photo lends by the personal archive of Dr. Fernán Pavía, chronicler of the city Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas.

Fig. 17: “The brothers Enrique, Julio, Carlos y Adolfo Olivar, 1901”. Source: Mexican marimba players in McGarvie's Streets of Mexico in the Midway. The Rand-McNally Hand-Book to the Pan-American Exposition, Buffalo and Niagara Falls. Chicago and New York: Rand, McNally & Co., 1901. Courtesy of Kerry S. Grant. See more in: http://library.buffalo.edu/pan-am/exposition/music/ethno.html (Last access: June 15th 2015).

Fig.18. “Cuarteto Solís”. El Eco July 18th, 1908:3, by Carlos Cuartero.

Fig. 19. “Solís Brothers Marimba Quartet”. Photograph from the archive of Dr. Fer- nán Pavía.

Fig. 20: “El Águila de México”. Music program for concerts in Leipzig, 1928, during Germany tour. Photograph from the archive of Dr. Fernán Pavía.

Fig. 21: “Part of the repertoire list of El Aguila de Mexico”. Music program for concerts in Leipzig, 1928, during Germany tour. Photography from the archive of Dr. Fernán Pavía.

Fig. 22: “Marimba Orchestra. Hnos. Aquino”, Chiapa de Corzo, April 1943. Personal archive.

Fig. 23: “Marimba orchestra Brisas del Grijalva in the National TV”. Photograph lends by Humberto Moreno.

Fig. 24: “Marimba group with piano, Vibraphone, accordion and bass, in the XEW Radio in Mexico City”. From the archives of Museo de la Marimba; in Tux- tla Gutierrez, Chiapas.

Fig. 25: “Marimba del ICACH”, the formed by the Sisters Gutierrez Niño. Taken from the cover of: Mononaural Estereo ALD-2253: 1979, Cuarteto clásico femenil I.C.A.CH, [LP] México D.F. [México].

Fig. 26: “Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band in 1915”. Taken from the: “La Guatemala Marimba”, in: Diario de Centroamérica, Guatemala, 13 de noviembre de 1915.

443 Fig. 27: “Marimba El Águila de México”. Photography from the archive of Dr. Fernán Pavía.

Fig. 28: “Lou Friscoe”. Photograph from the collection of percussionist David Harbey, This photograph is when Lou performed “Belle nuit or nuit d’amour” by Offenbach. He appears with a Leedy marimba with metal resonators, the keyboard is flat and similar to the vibraphone

Fig. 29. “Score of xylophone piece solo with four mallets”, for the musical theme “That’s my weakness now” by Barris Beaslee and Borell, published in RHYTHM in 1928 in the Julian Vedeys magazine.

Fig. 30. “Distribution of the players on marimbas”. Drawn by Giovanni Meza.

Fig. 31. “Four mallets distribution in close position and drop 2 position”.

Fig. 32. “Danilo Gutiérrez y Manuel Vleeshower” in the Marimba Poli the Tuxtla in 1957 From personal archive of the journalist Raul Mendoza Vera.

444 10.4 Interview list

Name of the Date of interview Place of Interview and comments Interviewee (Day-Month-Year)

Acuña Jorge 14-07-2012 Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, Mexico. Marimbist, director of the Marimba Ecos del Grijalva.

Angel Figueroa January 2011 Interview by email. Amuri Marimba Professor in Arts School of San Carlos University of Guatemala.

Aquino Jorge 04-08-2011 Mexico City. Marimbist and head of the Traditional Mexi- can Music school.

Barranco Jorge 09-04-2013 Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico. Director of Tlenhucani group Of University of Xalapa. And Marimba de los Hermanos Bar- ranco.

Bautista Alfonso January 2011 Interview by email. Director of Marimba de Bellas Artes, Guate- mala..

Betanzos Victor 07-08-2011 Mexico City. Director of the Marimba Orquesta Corona de Tapachula.

Borges Jorge Borges 02-06-2011- Tecpatan, Chiapas, Mexico. Marimbist.

Cigarroa Hilario 02-08-2012 Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico. Director of Marimba Carlos Tejada

Coello Avendaño 4-03-2012 Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, Mexico. Jorge Official chronicler from Venustiano Carranza.

Cruz González Alex- 06-02-2014 Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico. ander Marimbist, vibraphonist and pianist.

Espinoza Joel 12-05-2011 Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico. Trumpet player.

445 Fernandez Roberto 11-08-2011 Mexico City. Freelance marimba player, founder of the group Generacion 2000 and Marimba de los Hermanos Fernandez.

Gerver Palacios 12-01-2010 Huehuetenango, Guatemala. Freelance marimba player from Huehuetenago and cities around.

Godinez Orantes 08-02-2014 Guatemala City. Lester Marimbist, Researcher. Founder of Marimba de Concierto de la Presidencia de Guatemala, Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes, among others. Currently is director and founder of the Marimba Nacional de Concierto.

Gordillo Pérez Hum- 02-02-2013 Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico. berto Marimbist and marimba teacher in Music School in Chiapas.

Gutiérrez Danilo 15-01-2010 Tapachula, Chiapas, Mexico. Director of the Marimba Orquesta Perla de Chiapas.

Luna Felipe 06-06-2014 Villahermosa, Tabasco, Mexico. Journalist and son of the founder of the Ma- rimba del Estado de Tabasco.

Mendoza Vera Raúl Many inter- Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico. views Journalist from Chiapas. Fan of the marimba groups and the tenorist of marimba. He is owner of a huge collection with interviews of marimba players including some ones that already pass away.

Mireles Gavito 18-09-2014 Tonala, Chiapas, Mexico. Official chronicler from Tonala, Chiapas.

Molina Arqueta Fla- 14-05-2011 Comitan, Chiapas, Mexico. vio Marimbist.

Montero Jorge. † 21-05-2011 Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, Mexico. Marimbist.

Moreno Garcia Obet 10-08-2011 Mexico City Marimbsit, Session Musician and director of Marimba de los Hermanos Garcia known as Los Mecateros.

446 Moreno Garcia Oscar 10-08-2011 Mexico City Drummer, session musician and member of Marimba de los Hermanos Garcia known as Los Mecateros.

Moreno Humberto 08-08-2011 Mexico City. Director of the Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijalva.

Moreno Padilla Israel 11-08-2011 Toluca City, Mexico. Marimba player in the Marimba Orquesta Brisas del Grijava.

Najera Norberto 3-03-2012 Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, Mexico. Director of the Marimba Espiga de Oro.

Nandayapa Ralda Agosto 2010 Mexico City. Zeferino. † International marimba player. Director of Ma- rimba Nandayapa.

Nandayapa Velasco Enero 18- Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, Mexico. Javier 2012 International marimba player.

Palacios Diego 04-05-2012 Oaxaca, México. Director de la Marimba del Estado de Oaxaca

Palomeque Roberto 25-05-2011 Pijijiapan, Chiapas, Mexico. (Tito) Director of Marimba Hermanos Palomeque.

Palomeque Inocente 25-05-2011 Pijijiapan, Chiapas, Mexico. Trumpet player, member of Marimba Her- manos Palomeque.

Pavía Fernán 05-09-2012 Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico Historian, Doctor and is the official chronicler from Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas.

Peña Gordillo Fran- 3-03-2012 Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, Mexico. cisco Freelance marimba player.

Reyes Hugo. † 26-05-2011 Tonalá, Chiapas, Mexico. Director of the Marimba Orquesta Virreynal.

Rodriguez Humberto 10-04-2013 Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico Marimba street player.

447 Santiago José 3-03-2012 Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, Mexico. Marimba player with all marimba groups in Venustiano Carranza in the last 60 years.

Santiago Villafuerte 21-05-2010 Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico Rodrigo 3-03-2012 Venustiano Carranza, Chiapas, Mexico Soloist of the Marimba Espiga de Oro

Tovilla Rufo 12-05-2011 Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico. Director of Marimba Tuxtla and Marimba Bonampak.

Vargas Margot† 15-02-2010 Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas, Mexico. Wife of Alejandrino Nandayapa, legendary marimba builder.

Ventura Enrique 11-08-2011 Mexico City. Freelance marimba player.

Ventura Rodrigo 11-08-2011 Mexico City. Freelance marimba player .

Vidal José (Pepe) 18-10-2014 Comitan, Chiapas, Mexico. Son of Limbano Vidal and now is the director of Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas.

Vidal Mazariegos 18-01-2010 Comitan, Chiapas, Mexico. Limbano.† Director of Marimba Aguilas de Chiapas.

Zúñiga Bermúdez 24-05-2011 Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas, Mexico. Mario Lawyer and marimbist. Director of the Ma- rimba Orquesta Quisiera ser para tí.

448 10.5 MUSIC SOCRES

Four Mallets Transcriptions.

Danzón Villaflores Composed and played by Danilo Gutiérrez Como nació el Danzón Villaflores, Video of his profile in: Museo de la Marimba, Tuxtla Gutierrez, Chiapas. Mexico. Transcription by Israel Moreno y Xocotencatl Corzo

Hay que Saber Perder Composed by Abel Dominguez Played by Roberto (Tito) Palomeque Recorded in his house May 25th 2011 Transcription by Roberto Carlos Palomeque

Hay que Saber Perder Composed by Abel Dominguez Version from (Robledo 2004:161-162)

Marta Composed and played by Cliserio Molina. File in: Museo Nacional de Antropología e Historia: 1957- 58. Thomas Stanford Collection, Marimba Orquesta Coro- na Extra, from Venustiano Carranza [Tape], Mexico. Au- dio file: MNA-2293. Transcription by Israel Moreno and Betsabe Reyes

Mi Cielo Eres Tu Composed and played by Manuel Vleeshower Borraz. In: Discos Sonosur, S.A. de C.V –VMV 001: 1991. Ma- rimba Orquidea con el Internacional Solista Manuel Vleeshower, [CS] Chiapas, [México]. Track list A2. Transcription by Israel Moreno

Nandacacué Composed by Zeferino Nandayapa Personal archive.

Nocturnal Composed by Jose Sabre Marroquín Played by Rodrigo Santiago Recorded in the Music School of UNICACH May 21th 2010. Transcription by Israel Moreno

Perfidia Composed by Alberto Domínguez Played by Roberto (Tito) Palomeque Recorded in his house May 25th 2011 Transcription by Roberto Carlos Palomeque

449 Perfume de Gardenias Composed by Rafael Hernandez Played by Limbano Vidal Recorded in his house August 3rd 2011. Transcription by Israel Moreno y Amir Moreno Silverio Pérez Composed by Agustín Lara Played by Mario Zúñiga Recorded in his house May 24th 2011. Transcription by Israel Moreno y Amir Moreno

Volver a empezar Composed by Cole Porter “Begin the beguine” Played by Rodrigo Santiago Recorded in the Music School of UNICACH May 21th 2010. Transcription by Israel Moreno

Danza de las Guacamayas Traditional (Alta Verapaz) Arrangement by Alfonso Bautista. In: Marimba de Concierto de Bellas Artes (Ed.), Solos para Marimba Universal, Música de Guatemala Vol. 2., August 2004, Guatemala: Ministerio de Cultura y Deportes. 11-13.

Improvisations on Marimba

Simultaneous Improvisation Over the Melodic Line

El Jarrito Composed by Abel Dominguez RCA Victor Mexicana, S.A. de C.V., MKL-1263: Ma- rimba Lira de San Cristobal de los Hnos. Domínguez, Vol.2 [LP] México D.F. [México] Track list A4. Transcription by Israel Moreno and Luis Rojas

El Jarrito Composed by Abel Dominguez Version from (Robledo 2004:159-160)

Parachicos Composed by Rafael de Paz Discos Peerless, S.A. ld-746, 1964 “Vibracion de Maderas”. Marimba Orquesta de los Hermanos Paniagua, [LP] Side-A-Track 6. [México]. Transcription by Israel Moreno and Luis Rojas

450 Improvisation Over the Form, or Chorus

Diablesa del Rock Composed by Rodolfo Gomez A ECO-Peerless, ECO 25096 LD:1974 Marimba Cuquita de los Hermanos Narvaez, [LP] México. Transcription by Israel Moreno and Leonardo Garcia

Mi Cielo eres tu Composed and played by Manuel Vleeshower Borraz. In: Discos Sonosur, S.A. de C.V –VMV 001: 1991. Ma- rimba Orquidea con el Internacional Solista Manuel Vleeshower, [CS] Chiapas, [México]. Track list A2. Transcription by Israel Moreno

Silverio Pérez Composed by Agustín Lara Played by Mario Zúñiga Recorded in his house May 24th 2011. Transcription by Israel Moreno y Amir Moreno

Palillos Chinos Composed by Billy Vaughn “Chop sticks” Recorded in Autor’s house May 20th 2010 Transcription by Israel Moreno

Pague Cabal Composed by Antonio Beltran Marimba Chapinlandia from Guatemala, in a live concert for the 60 years of anniversary in 2013 in Guatemala. Transcription by Leonardo Garcia and Miyuki Kojima.

Bridge of Improvisation.

Marta Composed and played by Cliserio Molina. File in: Museo Nacional de Antropología e Historia: 1957-58. Thomas Stanford Collection, Marimba Orquesta Corona Extra, from Venustiano Carranza [Tape], Mexi- co. Audio file: MNA-2294. Transcription by Israel Moreno and Betsabe Reyes

El Cisne Composed by Agustín Lara Played by Manuel Vleeshower Discos CBS, S.A., OKEH OKL-10015: 1964 Agustin Lara en Marimba (Marimba la Poli), [LP] México D.F. [México] Transcription by Israel Moreno

Morenita mía Composed by Armando Villareal Lozano, Played by Limbano Vidal Mazariegos. In: Yuriko Records S.A. DE C.V., CDY-115: 2005 Boleros con Marimba. Marimba Orquesta Aguilas de

451 Chiapas, [CD] México D.F. [México] Transcription by Israel Moreno

Estoy Pensando en ti Composed by Agustín Lara Played by Carlos Cuevas Vidal “El Caliche”. In: Discos Popular, LDP-58: 1975, RITMO. Marimba Orquesta BRISAS DEL GRIJALVA, [LP], México. Track list 4A Transcription by Israel Moreno

Un poco mas Composed by Alvaro Carrillo Played by Alexander Cruz Recorded in Music School UNICACH June 6th 2015 Transcription by Israel Moreno

Open improvisation

Cumbia del sol Composed by Hector Quintero Ballesteros-Paco Godoy Played by Danilo Gutierrez In: CDPE-01: o.J. Los Mejores Exitos. Marimba Orquesta Perla de Chiapas, Del Maestro Danilo Gutiérrez García, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México] Transcription by Israel Moreno

Segunda de la Canalla Composed by Manuel E Toscano Played by Danilo Gutierrez In: RCS, RCS-CD-61: 52 Aniversario de la Internacional Marimba Orquesta Perla de Chiapas, Vol. 2. ¡LA INOLVIDABLE! del Mtro. Danilo Gutiérrez García, Tapachula, Chiapas, México, 27 Super Exitos Bailables, [CD] Tapachula, Chiapas [México] Transcription by Israel Moreno

Cumbia en Sax Composed by Domingo Rullo Played by Danilo Gutierrez A live concert in Tapachula Chiapas, Taken from his personal archives. Transcription by Israel Moreno

Ritmo Cubano. N.A. Information Played by Carlos Cuevas Vidal “El Caliche”. In: Discos Popular, LDP-58: 1975, RITMO. Marimba Orquesta BRISAS DEL GRIJALVA, [LP], México. Track list 2A Transcription by Israel Moreno and Miyuki Kojima

452 Titriki Tritraka N.A. Information Played by Roberto (Tito) Palomeque Taken from his personal archives Transcription by Roberto Carlos Palomeque

Colonia Roosevelt Composed by Froilan Rodas Santizo Marimba Chapinlandia from Guatemala, in a live concert for the 60 years of anniversary in 2013 in Guatemala. Transcription by Israel Moreno and Leonardo Garcia

Musical fragments

En Los Estados Unidos Composed by Gabriel Hurtado Hurtado Brothers Royal Marimba Band of Guatemala, , In: Victor Company, In Format of 25 c/m), number codes to Latin-America catalog (18094): April 19th 1916, [Cadmen New Yersey]. Transcription by Alexander Cruz

Marimba March Composed by Mariano Valverde Blue and White Marimba Band, In: Victor 17928-B 1915, Pressing: Circa. [U.S.A.] Transcription by Alexander Cruz

Cascabel Traditional son jarocho Son de Madera in a live concert in Xalapa, Veracruz in 2006. Transcription by Alexander Cruz and Israel Moreno

La Petenera Traditional son huateco Transcription by Erik Giovanni Valentino Salado

El Pichón Traditional Son de Guerrero Played by Juan Reynoso In: Discos Corasón CO105: 1993, Juan Reynoso el paganini de la tierra caliente, Grabaciones históricas 1972-1993, [CD], Mexico. Track 7. Transcription by Israel Moreno and Francisco Bernal Sánchez.

453 DANZÓN VILLAFLORES

Danilo Gutierrez Garcia Transcription by Israel Moreno & Xicotencatl Corzo

454

455 HAY QUE SABER PERDER

Abel Dominguez Played by Roberto (Tito) Palomeque Transcription by Roberto Carlos Palomeque

456

457

458

459 MARTA

Cliserio Molina Transcription by Israel Moreno & Betsabe Reyes

460

461

462 MI CIELO ERES TU

Manuel Vleeshower Borraz Transcription by Israel Moreno

463

464

465 NANDACACUÉ

Zeferino Nandayapa

466

467

468

469

470

471

472

473 NOCTURNAL

Jose Sabre Marroquín Played by Rodrigo Santiago Transcription by Israel Moreno

474

475 PERFIDIA (Fragment)

Alberto Domínguez Played by Roberto (Tito) Palomeque Transcription by Roberto Carlos Palomeque

476 PERFUME DE GARDENIAS

Rafael Hernandez Played by Limbano Vidal Transcription by Israel Moreno & Amir Moreno

477 SILVERIO PÉREZ

Agustín Lara Played by Mario Zúñiga Transcription by Israel Moreno &Amir Moreno

478

479

480 “BEGIN THE BEGUINE” VOLVER A EMPEZAR

Cole Porter Played by Rodrigo Santiago Transcription by Israel Moreno

481

482 DANZA DE LAS GUACAMAYAS

Traditional (Alta Verapaz) Arrangement by Alfonso Bautista.

483

484

485 EL JARRITO

Abel Dominguez Transcription by Israel Moreno & Luis Rojas

486

487

488

489 PARACHICOS

Rafael de Paz Transcription by Israel Moreno & Luis Rojas

490

491

492

493

494

495 DIABLESA DEL ROCK

Rodolfo Gomez A Transcription by Israel Moreno & Leonardo Garcia

496 MI CIELO ERES TU (Improvisation)

Played by Manuel Vleeshower Borraz. Transcription by Israel Moreno

497

498

499 SILVERIO PEREZ (Improvisation)

Agustín Lara Played by Mario Zúñiga Transcription by Israel Moreno & Amir Moreno

500

501 PALILLOS CHINOS “Chop sticks”

Billy Vaughn Played by Alexander Cruz Transcription by Israel Moreno

502

503

504

505 PAGUE CABAL

Antonio Beltran Marimba Chapinlandia Transcription by Leonardo Garcia & Miyuki Kojima

506 MARTA (Marimba improvisation)

Cliserio Molina Transcription by Israel Moreno & Betsabe Reyes

507 EL CISNE (Marimba improvisation)

Agustin Lara Played by Manuel Vleeshower Transcription by Israel Moreno

508 MORENITA MÍA (Marimba improvisation)

Armando Villareal Lozano Played by LImbano Vidal Transcription by Israel Moreno

509 ESTOY PENSANDO EN TI (Marimba improvisation)

Agustín Lara Played by Carlos Cuevas Vidal “El Caliche” Transcription by Israel Moreno

510 UN POCO MAS (Marimba improvisation)

Alvaro Carrillo Played by Alexander Cruz Transcription by Israel Moreno

511 CUMBIA DEL SOL (Marimba improvisation)

Hector Quintero Ballesteros Played by Danilo Gutierrez Transcription by Israel Moreno

512 SEGUNDA DE LA CANALLA (Marimba improvisation)

Manuel E Tosacano Played by Danilo Gutierrez Transcription by Israel Moreno

513

514 CUMBIA EN SAX (Marimba improvisation)

Domingo Rullo Played by Danilo Gutierrez Transcription by Israel Moreno

515

516

517 RITMO CUBANO. (Marimba improvisation)

Played by Carlos Cuevas Vidal “El Caliche”. Transcription by Israel Moreno & Miyuki Kojima

518 TITRIKI TRITRAKA (Marimba improvisation)

Played by Roberto (Tito) Palomeque Transcription by Roberto Carlos Palomeque

519 COLONIA ROOSEVELT (Marimba improvisation)

Froilan Rodas Santizo Transcription by Israel Moreno & Leonardo García

520 EN LOS ESTADOS UNIDOS (Fragment)

Gabriel Hurtado Transcription by Alexander Cruz

521 MARIMBA MARCH (Fragment)

Mariano Valverde Transcription by Alexander Cruz

522 CASCABEL (Introducction)

Traditional (Veracruz) Transcription by Alexander Cruz & Israel Moreno

523

524 LA PETENERA

Traditional son huasteco Transcription by Erik Giovanni Valentino Salado

525

526

527

528 EL PICHÓN (Marimba improvisation)

Traditional Guerrero Played by Juan Reynoso Transcription by Israel Moreno & Francisco Bernal Sánchez

529

530

531

532

533

534 10.6 SCREEN SHOTS

535

536

537

538

539

540

541

542

543

544

545

546

547

548

549

550