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Faculty Publications in Educational Administration Educational Administration, Department of

1995 Compulsory : Challenges and Opportunities Marilyn Grady University of Nebraska–Lincoln, [email protected]

Doreen Gosmire University of , [email protected]

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Grady, Marilyn and Gosmire, Doreen, ": Challenges and Opportunities" (1995). Publications in Educational Administration. 7. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cehsedadfacpub/7

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Educational Administration, Department of at DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications in Educational Administration by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln. COMPULSORY EDUCATION: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES 1

by Marilyn L. Grady Doreen K. Gosmire

Compulsory education is a deep taproot in the his­ connection is acknowledged in the work of Horace tory of our country and is at the heart of our educa­ Mann (1830). tional system. Since Thomas Jefferson's presenta­ There is also a belief that illiteracy is linked to tion of the "Bill for the General Diffusion of Knowl­ crime (Eisenberg, 1989). The basis for this belief is edge" in 1775, we have made compulsory educa­ that individuals who are uneducated do not have tion a central focus of our society. access to lucrative jobs and thus become criminals. Initially, jefferson's proposal called for mandatory Therefore as a society, we must further the educa­ children for three years. In the tional opportunities for all to stem the crime tide. 1700s, a year of schooling was not the same as a One of the historically most significant practices year of schooling in the 19005. Jefferson's proposal and beliefs in the has been the belief required schooling in reading, writing, and cipher­ that education is the key to assimilating new ethnic ing so that an individual was capable of conducting groups into our society. As wave after wave of im­ daily business affairs. migrants landed on our shores or, more recently, at Compulsory education is also linked to the develop­ our airports, public education has been the means ment and conduct of . jefferson's bill of teaching a language and a culture to the new im­ was closely aligned with the need to have an edu­ migrant groups. Compulsory education has pro­ cated citizenry so that democracy could flourish. vided access to U.S. society to individuals of great Without reading and writing skills, individuals diversity. would not be able to vote knowledgeably on issues The transformation of the U.S. economy from one of importance to the society. based on agriculture to one based on industry is re­ The Attendance Act (1852) flected in policies related to compulsory education. was the first general compulsory attendance statute In Jefferson's time, "three years," loosely defined, in the U. S. The legislation that emerged from colo­ was an adequate education for the needs of busi­ nial Massachusetts became the national model for ness or democracy. During agricultural times, state legislation regarding education and training American were intimately involved in the programs for children ( State Board of Edu­ family wo~k of making a farm successful. However, cation, 1983). Eisenberg (1989) reports that 16 com­ as farms grew larger, or consolidated, many farm­ pulsory attendance laws were enacted in the 1870s, ing operations ceased to exist. This led to the move­ 22 in the 1880s, and 83 in the 19005. Between 1910 ment towards cities and industrial jobs. As fathers and 1915, 4Slaws were enacted. went to work in factories, there was no longer a need for the children to be at home to help with a Compulsory education is based on beliefs about so­ family business. In conjunction with the move to­ cietal good being achieved through compulsory at­ ward industrialization, the length of the school tendance at school. There is a perceived linkage year and the ages for mandatory attendance both between an educated citizenry and democracy. The increased.

1 For an extensive policy analysis of this topic, please see: Compulsory EdUCIJtion (1994) by Grady, UerUng, and Gosmire available from the Nebraska Department of Education, Lincoln, Nebraska. 392 Creating the Quality School

These changes in attendance laws were designed to telephone survey of the 50 states was conducted in keep young men from competing for jobs with December 1993. The findings of this survey are out­ heads of households, and to avoid the dangers of lined in Table 1. that might occur if young The table illustrates a number of trends in compul­ people were allowed to roam the streets of the cit­ sory education. First, children are going to school at ies. Compulsory education, thus, filled another so­ younger ages. Thirteen states have children in cietal need of occupying American youth while school at age five. Seventeen states require adults worked. to be enrolled by age six. Second, there is a move­ A more positive belief that has prevailed is that lit­ ment to change the exit age to 18 or a high school eracy is linked to a productive society. It is good for diploma. society if young people are in school. Compulsory Some states have developed unique compulsory schooling was seen as a means of developing com­ attendance laws. recently changed the petition and creating wealthy nations (Miller, 1989). attendance requirement from the age of 16 to the In the cities, we also saw the end of the era of age of 18. The legislation also called for a definition labor in factories. This cessation resulted in more of habitual truant. This label was designed for the children in school. purposes of the JUVenile courts. Wisconsin further called for each district to develop a plan. Opponents to compulsory education have cited Contributing to the truancy of a child has been iden­ compulsory attendance laws as an infringement on tified as a crime. The Wisconsin legislation ad­ parental rights or an intrusion on individual free­ dresses the need for a system that is doms (Eisenberg, 1989; Illinois State Department of effective and responsive in truancy (Henkel, 1988). Education, 1983; Miller, 1989). Challenges to com­ The Wisconsin plan goes beyond the mere change pulsory attendance are typically from individuals of attendance ages and addresses the accompany­ who refuse to send their children to school or indi­ ing truancy issues that are of concern to educators viduals who have placed their children in unauthor­ who attempt to address mandatory attendance ized educational programs. Unauthorized laws. education is sometimes referred to as underground education and includes home schooling and unac­ The state of bases its state funding alloca­ credited (Lines, 1983). tion system on average daily attendance (A.D.A.). The prevailing beliefs concerning compulsory edu­ AD.A. excludes all excused absences. The focus in cation are that: education promotes a democratic so­ California is on how to combat truancy or unex­ ciety; education is a tool for society, specifically for cused absences. The California Department of Edu­ economic growth; and, there is a need to assimilate cation (1980) requires each school district to new groups into our society. Keeping children in develop an attendance plan that uses an, attendance school keeps them out of the labor market, thus board, improves school attendance, and lowers making jobs available to adults. Keeping children campus crime, vandalism, and other effects of ab­ in school reduces vandalism. or daytime juvenile senteeism.. California is often cited as a model for crime. the use of attendance boards. Opponents to compulsory attendance have two The Illinois Department of Education (1983) stud­ basic premises: mandatory attendance is an in­ ied the ag~ at which students may leave school. fringement of parental rights and responsibilities; They examined the rates of attendance across states and mandatory attendance is an infringement of re­ and noticed that they are very similar. They further ligious beliefs and convictions. noted t~at there is a noticeable drop in rates of at­ tendance in each of the states at the age at which at­ The Current Status tendance is no longer required. The state of Illinois of Compulsory Attendance Laws enacted a change in the age of allowable exit from school from 16 to 18 years of age. This change was Recent changes to compulsory attendance laws prompted by the belief that attendance rates will in­ have focused on the adjustment of the age of en­ crease when the compulsory attendance age is in­ trance to five or six years old thus requiring manda­ creased. tory as well as the adjustment of the allowable exit age from 14 to 16 or 18 years of age. Wisconsin, California, and illinois are examples of To determine the current status of the compulsory states that have developed unique laws to deal with attendance laws throughout the United States, a the compulsory attendance. Each state has separate Section 6 Conditions for Qualify and Success 393

Table 1 U.S. Compulsory Attendance Laws*

Ages of Required Attendance Changes In the last five years

Alabama 7-16 no 7-16 no 6-16 changed to 6 in 1991 5-17 parental wavier allowed many changes focused on entrance age California 6·18 no 7-16 changed requirements for home schooling 7·16 no 5-16 no District of Columbia 5·18 changed to 18 5-16 no 7·16 no 6·18 no 7·16 no Illinois 6·18 changed to 18 6·16 yes; changed from 7 to 6 and 14 to 16. 7·16 no 6·15 no 5·17 changed the entrance age 7·16 or 9th grade completers Increased t 4 to 16 5-16 made kindergarten mandatory Massachusetts 6-16 no 6-16 changed home schooling requirements 7·16 changed from 16 to 18 (the year 2000 will be 7-18) 6·17 no 6-18 mandatory kindergarten Nebraska 7·16 no 7-16 no 7·17 no 6·16 no New 5-18 changed entrance age NewVork 6-16 changed entrance age 7-16 no 6·16 no 5·18 no 7·18 no 8-17 proposing to go to 6·1 8 5·16 changed entrance age 5·17 no South Dakota 6-16 changed entrance and exit age 7-18 changed exit age 6·17 no 7·16 no 7·16 no 5·18 changed entrance and exit age 8·18 no 5·16 no Wisconsin 6-18 changed exit age 6·16 no

'Data based on telephone survey conducted December 1993. 394 Creating the Quality School issues and needs. Compulsory attendance laws re­ students from two-parent families. Those who par­ flect the needs and desires of the state. ticipate in co-curricular activities will generally at­ Causes and E"ects of Absenteeism tend school more often than will nonparticipants (Rood,1989). Truancy, dropouts, and at-risk students are the ma­ jor issues that emerge in a literature search on the There are four basic reasons why a may not topic of compulsory education. These are persistent be in school on any given day: weather and trans­ and perplexing issues that trouble educators. portation, poor health, family choice, and personal choice. The personal reasons why students choose The literature on compulsory attendance reflects not to come to school range from an inability to the question of why students choose not to come to maintain social relationships with peers to an atti­ school. Do the schools lack relevance for a signifi­ tude by the school staff of "good riddance." Other cant population of American youth? Does entitle­ reasons cited by students for leaving are: lack of ment make schooling less desirable? What causes home stability, permissive attendance policy, diffi­ students to be truant? culty with c1asswork, lack of electives or choice in Students who are truant are generally considered school work, and lack of ownership (Mervilde, "at-risk" (Elliot, 1987). The at-risk designation en­ 1981; Rood, 1989; Thomas, 1986). compasses a wide range of meanings from drop­ Little and Thompson (1983) suggested that both ping out to not obtaining meaningful parents and may be contributing to truant throughout life. Being at-risk and truant are often children's unwillingness o~ inability to consistently synonymous. attend school. The overvaluing parent (overindul­ Personnel in the Chicago Public School System and gent and overprotective) was described in recent in the Omaha Public School System suggest that the studies as one who fosters dependence, protects "at-risk" population often disproportionately in­ children from the consequences of their behaviors, cludes students who are minorities, usually male, and allows children to dominate the household and in the junior high age group. Leaders in these with few pressures to conform to parental stand­ urban school systems realize that these students ards. Truant children may have learned from over­ often get lost from the school system and do not re­ protective parents that they need to make port to school. Even though these students are tech­ themselves ill to receive parental attention. Teach~ nically truant, no one can find them or has ers of these children reportedly value them less identified them to label them truant (Kolasa, 1989; than they value the nontruant children. The child Kyle, 1989). There simply are not enough resources gets the message that not going to school is better available to handle this situation. than going to school. Where do these kids go and why 't they come Tyler (1988), calling for educational reform, stated to school? Rood (1989) reported the following infor­ that the American compulsion for education is the mation from different attendance studies: problem. He notes that compulsory attendance • Each school day, 2,500,000 students are ab­ gives no guarantee that all teenagers are capable of sent from school. mastering a . He fur­ ther argues that compulsory school attendance laws • On an average Monday, many urban high give a disag~eeable message that schools are some­ schools have an absence rate of more that 300/0. thing to be endured until one's 16th or 18th birth~ • It is common for many secondary students to day. Thus, school does not stimulate effort. miss 20 to 90 days of school in an academic School absenteeism has been consistently identified year. by educators as a major concern. Truancy and exces­ Studies indicate that nonattenders are usually older sive absenteeism influence an entire spectrum, from than their middle/junior high school classmates or pupils whose education is af~ected, to teachers are in high school. Absenteeism increases as students whose instruction is disrupted, to principals who progress through high school. Girls have higher must account for empty desks, to superintendents rates of absenteeism than boys in the first three who must rely on attendance for state aid, to atten­ years of high school. Minority students are more dance officers, home school counselors, and law likely to be absent. Students with higher grades enforcement officials who must contact parents and/ or IQs have better attendance. Students from and locate absent students, to judges who occasion­ one-parent families have poorer attendance than ally rule on truancy cases, and to merchants who Section 6 Conditions for Quality and Success 395 complain of daytime crime due to truancy that students will stay in school and not be truant. (Mervilde, 1981). The Illinois (1983) study provided evidence that Absenteeism is expensive in terms of academic when the compulsory attendance age increases, attendance rates increase. Further efforts are being achievement, economic loss to school districts, and efficiency. Most importantly however, tru­ made in states like California and Wisconsin to re­ quire districts to have plans for dealing with tru­ ancy is expensive because it is a lost opportunity ancy and for improving attendance rates. for a large number. of distressed youth. Englander (1986) studied one of the most devastating effects School Attendance Programs and Initiatives. There of truancy -loss of self-esteem. Data from his have been several efforts by local school districts to study clearly demonstrate that truants feel1ess wor­ increase attendance and decrease truancy. Santa thy than nontruants. Furthermore, current punitive Maria Joint Union High School District (1983) devel­ and coercive measures used in most schools and oped a system for "truancy sweeps." On the day of states simply exacerbate the conditions. the sweep, assistant principals from each school are on duty at law enforcement agencies. Students are The Safe Schools Overview Resource Paper (1986) identified, their parents are telephoned and told to identified a relationship in various communities be­ come and get their sons or daughters and return tween truancy and daytime delinquency. Short­ them to school. The law enforcement agencies term studies indicated that decreasing truancy make a concentrated effort to find students who are decreases community crime. truant on these days. The school districts see a de­ Bancky (1985) reported on a pilot program in the crease in the number of students who are picked. up Minneapolis area dealing with habitual truants. on these sweeps as time goes on. The program unites social services, school districts, Dean (1990) described the use of an attendance and the court system using a team approach. This board in various locations in as an alterna­ approach was found to be effective in eliminating tive to sending students to court for truancy. TIle the effects of criminal behavior, and the breakdown attendance board provides a team approach to de­ of family communication. veloping a plan for improvement for students. Due The Sweetwater Union High School District in to the dissatisfaction with the courts as a vehicle for Chula Vista, California sees unauthorized absences dealing with truancy, a number of states - includ­ as a monetary expense. For each student day of un­ ing California, Florida, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, authorized student absence, the district loses Minnesota, and Wisconsin - have legislated' alter­ $11.95. For instance, in one year there were 95,818 natives similar to the attendance board. days of unauthorized absence for which the district Ethridge and Percy (1993) examined Leamfare, a did not receive any money from the state, repre­ Wisconsin program in which welfare benefits are senting a loss of $1,145,125. reduced when children in families receiving aid to The effects of truancy are vast. They include per­ families with dependent children (AFDC) have sonal, societal, and monetary losses. Possible poor school attendance. They reported that the find­ causes of truancy include the compulsory atten­ ings of various education studies cast doubt on the dance laws, student choice, and parental and effectiveness of Leamfare in triggering improved teacher attitudes. school attendance by teenagers in AFDC families. Ethridge and Percy (1993) project that the causal Efforts to Increase School Attendance theory of learnfare has been lost in the implementa­ tion of the policy. There have been many efforts made to increase school attendance. TIle efforts can be grouped into Hassler (1993) studied the use of grade reduction 01' three categories: regulations by state governments, loss of credit for unexcused absences. In her study school attendance programs and initiatives, and de­ of various attendance policies of school districts, velopment of alternative programming for students Hassler (1993) found that a policy which removed who drop out or are identified as at-risk. credit for excessive absenteeism provided an incen­ tive for excellent attendance and increased parental Regulation by State Governments. There is a na­ contact. tional trend to increase the age at which students are allowed to leave school. Leaders in many states A typical measure that's often taken by school. are considering increasing the age from 16 to 18 district personnel for students who are truan~ IS years. This increase is based on the assumption suspension. Stine (1989) argued that suspenslOn 396 Creating the Quality SdlOoi may seem absurd because the student is being aSSigned to a teacher advocate and a "com­ dismissed from class for missing class. However, he munity counselor." pointed out several benefits to suspension. 4. Higher Horizons provides groups of 100 un­ Suspension usually sets up a parent conference and derachieving secondary school students in opens up some lines of communication. Parents Hartford, Connecticut with an integrated pro­ may feel that the suspension is a punishment and gram of academic, cultural, and counseling embarrassment for them which consequently helps services designed to develop and improve ensure the student's attendance. their basic skills in language and mathemat­ Several educators and organizations advocate more ics, self-concept, and adjustment to school. comprehensive approaches to improving school at­ Desnoyers and Pauder (1988) conducted a survey tendance (Stine 1990, Duckworth, 1988, Eastwold, of methods and programs used to increase school 1989). The comprehensive approaches involve per­ attendance in Canada and the United States.1hey sonnel, technology, and policy. Most all comprehen­ found that when students could return to alterna­ sive approaches to increasing student attendance tive programming there was more incentive to go call for administrators and support staff to focus on to school and remain in school. Alternative pro­ reporting and following up on student absences. gramming is a key to successful return of students The use of technology helps school personnel. to school. Many school districts have computer software pro­ grams that monitor school attendance each period. The Educators' Perceptions Some districts use automatic dial machines. These In 1990, South Dakota enacted legislation that machines call parents and notify them immediately raised the allowable exit age for students from 14 or if their child is miSSing from school. All comprehen­ completion of the eighth grade to 16. To under­ sive plans involve defined policy as it relates to at­ stand the impact of changes in compulsory atten­ tendance. Some policies outline incentives as well dance laws, interviews were conducted with as disincentives. A comprehensive approach ap­ personnel from three different school districts - a pears to be the most popular and effective among of a high school with a population of less school districts. than 150i an assistant principal of a high school with a population of 1000i and a social worker for a Alternative Programming. Several programs that school district with a population of 17,000. are considered alternative have been developed as a result of emphasis on increased school attendance The interviews focused on three topic areas - the age. One such program is Project Return in Port­ differences that they have observed since the imple­ land, Oregon. According to Grice (1986), the pri­ mentation of the new compulsory attendance age, mary objective of Project Return is to identify, the effects that have resulted since the implementa­ contact, and counsel students who have left school tion of the law, and how they felt about the law and or are failing to attend regularly. any changes that they would make. Zafirau (1987) outlined four programs aimed at stu­ The primary difference that has been observed dents who are returning to school. since the change in the compulsory attendance law is a change in climate. "There are more kids who 1. Project DEEP in Wichita, Kansas - Diversi­ just come to school with no intention of learning," fied Educational Experiences Program - was one description of how school climate has gives students a chance to complete a project changed. Another difference was the anxiety ex­ of tlleir own design in a nontraditional set­ ting and receive academic credit for it. pressed. by teaching staff members regarding train­ ing and resources available to meet the needs of the 2. Project Focus operates in two 1,600 student "kids who don't want to be here." high schools in District Positive effects that have been observed since the #623 Roseville, Minnesota. This NON-funded passage of the new compulsory attendance law in­ project provides an alternative program in a clude high schools that have become more accom­ "family group" setting. The idea is to encour­ modating. There appear to be fewer kids on the age "positive youth development" by using streets. Comments included: "What did we do with peer pressure within a group structure. these kids before? At least we have some kind of 3. Project HOLD originated by the Pajoaro Val­ trace of where they are and what they are doing, ley Unified School District has target students even if they are failing." Another positive outcome Section 6 Conditions for Quality and Success 397 was the realization by teaching staff that all stu­ One unique program is that conducted by Sandy dents do not learn in the same way. There were McBrayer who teaches approximately 50 homeless several suggestions for changes or support. There kids a day in San Diego, California. McBrayer cre­ was an overwhelming call for alternative educa­ ated a storefront school for the homeless six years tional programs. "Give us some ~sources, some ago. The school is funded by San Diego and a U.S. flexibility so we can develop programs to meet State Department grant. McBrayer was named 1994 kids' needs." There was also a plea for a change of Teacher of the Year for her efforts (NEA, 1994). focus. "We shouldn't concern ourselves with how long a child is in school. We need to know what There is a cry for educational reform in the United they can do. Who cares when they are in school as States. One trend in school reform is to focus on in­ long as they key skills?" Children ~eed sup­ creased time spent in school, which often translates port systems to help them cope with the many pres­ into an increase in the compulsory age of atten­ sures in today's society. Schools can serve as that dance. However, the increase in the compulsory support structure. age of attendance has not signalled an increase in the resources for schools. The themes that emerged during the interviews indicate that the change in the compulsory atten­ Policy Considerations dance law in South Dakota has provided a chal­ Questions persist about our national compulsion to­ lenge to improve education for all students. The wards compulsory education. Certainly the ques­ effects of the change have highlighted the need for tion "Should the length of compulsory attendance schools to seek alternative programming and to de­ be extended?" must be addressed. As a nation, we velop support systems and resources. The state still hold many of the same beliefs that we did in leaders, thus far, have not been able to meet the dis­ the earliest years of the 20th century. We still see tricts' needs. the relationship between a democracy and a literate Issues in Compulsory Education populace. We still acknowledge the role of public education in aSSimilating new ethnic groups. We The trend to increase the years of compulsory atten­ do not want young people to take the jobs of dance has drawn attention to some issues. Home adults. We do not want young people wandering in schooling and will be affected communities during the daytime. We are opposed by changes in compulsory attendance laws. Home­ to juvenile crime. We continue to see an educated less or lost kids continue to be overlooked. Re­ populace as linked to a strong, competitive econ­ sources for school reform and alternative instruc­ omy. We continue to perceive education as being tional programs need to be identified. linked to prosperity. Challenges to the compulsory attendance laws Philosophically we would lobby for extending the often emanate from disputes between parents and years of mandatory school attendance. Particularly, school officials over home 'instruction. Whenever a we suggest that having children in school at age compulsory attendance law changes, there is a con­ five is a social good. The national goals for educa­ cern about the impact on home schooling practices tion indicate readiness to learn is a national prior­ (McGee, 1988). ity, and having children in school at age five will There have been several legislative changes related help to achieve that goal. Keeping children in to home schooling that focus on: legalizing home in­ school until a high school diploma is earned is also struction, permitting home schooling under admin­ a social good. Individuals who do not complete istrative rules, requiring state and local approval, and high school are at a disadvantage in our society. developing notification requirements and teacher Their earning capacities and job opportunities are qualifications (Gordon, 1991). There is a trend limited. among state legislatures to modify compulsory at­ Our philosophical beliefs, however, are veryexpen­ tendance laws to proVide parents with greater con­ sive. To extend the length of attendance means that trol over where they may educate their children. schools will need more resources. More personnel Education leaders in every state must develop a will be required to staff classes. New building plan for the homeless and the education of the space will be needed to house students. Alternative homeless under the McKinney Act. Currently, there programs will be needed, since the individuals who is little evidence that effective educational pro­ are not currently in attendance may require alterna- , grams exist for homeless students (Department of tive programming to keep them in school. More Education, 1990). enforcement personnel will be needed to halt the 398 Creating the Quality School

truancy problem. The juvenile court system will Report to the California Legislative Budget also need to make adjustments to support compul­ Committees in Response to the Supplemental Budget Direction Item 307-1 of the 1979 Budget Act. (ERIC sory attendance as well as to address the rising inciA dence of criminal actions by youth. More than 80% Reproduction Service Document No. 208 488). of the one million prisoners in the United States are Compulsory attendance mandate report and preliminary high school dropouts whose care costs the taxpayer recommendations: The age of leaving school. Report over $20,000 for each individual. (Hodgkinson, 1991). No. EA 016 256. Springfield, Ill.: Illinois State Board. of Education. (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. The skills our youth will need for work in the fu­ 238159). ture are changing (Daggett, 1991). Our schools may need to be structured in vocational and ­ Daggett, W. R. 1991. Ide1ltifying the skil1s students need bound tracks in the way that they were in the major for success in the workplace: Implications for eastern U.S. cities during the early part of the 20th curriculum and assessment Schenectady, N.Y.: International Center for Leadership in Education. century. Our economy requires a skilled labor pool that our industries cannot fmd in the United States. Dean, A. 1990. The attendance board: An alternative to It will be a costly dilemma if our youth are unem­ taking truancy to court. Report No. EA 022 877. (ERIC ployable. Reproduction Service Document No. 331143). Ultimately, the choices are about money and educa­ Desnoyers, }., and J.D. Pauker. 1988. School attendance tion for whom. As the chasm between the haves and nonattendance in Canada and the United States: and have-nots becomes greater in cities such as Survey of methods and programs to increase school Chicago, Los Angeles, , Miami~ and attendance, decrease absenteeism, and deal with drop outs. Report No. EA 012 186. Toronto: Kansas City, the threat to the stability of our society Department of Education. (ERIC Reproduction Service becomes greater. In other countries, the class con­ Document No. 309 558). flicts between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat have led to revolution and an overthrow of the Duckworth, K. 1988. Coping with student absenteeism. bourgeoisie. Report No. EA 020 194. Reston, Va.: National Association of Secondary Principals. (ERIC As a country, the key tool to reduce this chasm is Reproduction Service Document No. 297451). schooling. Giving each individual access to jobs and income begins with an education that will Eastwold, P.1989. Attendance is important: Combating prepare the individual for participation in the eco­ truancy in the secondary school. NASSP Bulletin 73 (516): 28-31. nomic life of a community. Looking back to Jeffer­ son's proposal, providing an education that Eisenberg, M.J.1989. The passage of compulsory prepared individuals to conduct daily business af­ attendance laws 1870-1915.joumal ofMidwest fairs was a priority. Two hundred years later, we History ofEducation Society 17: 184-198. . still seek to achieve this objective. Elliot, J. 1987. Rural students at risk. Report No. RC 016 References 362. Elmhurst, IL: North Central Regional Educational Lab. (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. 285 Bancky, N.R.1985. A last resort: Truancy referrals of 708). juvenile court. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association of Social Workers, New Englander, M.E. 1986. Truancy/Self Esteem. Paper Orleans, Louisiana. Report No. CG 018249. (ERIC presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Reproduction Service Document No. 257 627). Educational Research Association, San Francisco, California. Report No. CG 019 051. (ERIC Beckman, J.e. 1985. Legal challenges to compulsory Reproduction Service Document No. 269 666). attendance laws. Report No. E 018428. Topeka, Kans.: National Organization on Legal Problems in Ethridge, M.E., and S.L. Percy. 1993. A new kind of Education. (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. public policy encounters disappointing results: 268684). Implementing learnfare in Wisconsin. Public School AdmJi1Jstrator53(4): 340-347. Bloom, D. 1993. LEAP: Interim findings on a welfare initiative to improve school attendance among Grice, M. 1986. Project Return: 1985-86 evaluation report. teenage parents. New York: Manpower Report No. EA 019356. (ERIC Reproduction Service Demonstration Research . Document No. 281 292). California State Department of Education. 1980. Plan to Gordon, W.M. 1991. Home Schooling. Report No. EA 022 improve student attendance in California public 667. (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. 322 schools. Report No. EA 013970. Sacramento, Calif.: A 291). Section 6 Conditions for Quality and Success 399

Hassler, L.B. 1993. An analysis of factors influencing Conference of the National Association of Private student attendance: The attendance policy" Schools for Exceptional Children, Riviera, Fla. Report demographic variables. and academic achievement. No. EC 152621. (ERIC Reproduction Service Dissertation Abstracts InfernatiOJlal54(2): 0419-4209. . Document No. 232 34O). Henkel, J.R.1988. Revisions in laws relating to truancy Rood, R.E. 1989. Advice for administrators: Writing the and dispositional alternatives for delinquent or truant attendance policy. NASSP Bulletin 73(516): 21 -25. childn!1l. (1987 Wisconsin Act 285): Information memorandum 88-1. Report No. CG 020 926. Madison, Santa Maria Joint High School District. 1983. Truancy Wis.: Wisconsin State Legislative Condole. (ERIC sweeps: Target area: Discipline. Report No. CG 400 Reproduction Service Document No. 296 236). 203. Santa Maria, Calif.: Santa Maria Joint High School District. (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. Hodgkinson, H.L. 1991. Beyond the schools: How 240481). schools and commuJlities must collabOlafe to solve tile problems facing America ~ youth. Arlington, Va.: Sherry, D.J. 1990. The imposition of automatic grade and AASA and NSBA. credit reductions for violations of school attendance and disciplinary rules: Analysis and implications for Kolsa, B. 1989. Student retention and the Omaha Public practice. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Schools: Perfonnance and challenge. Paper prepared National Council of of Educational for the Omaha MinOrity Conditions and Research Administration, Los Angeles, California. Report No. Conference, Omaha, Nebraska. Report No. UD 027 EA 022 0073. (ERIC Reproduction Service No. 331139). 997. (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. 331 913). Stine, M.D. 1989. Why suspend students for Truance: A principal responds. NASSP Bulletin 73{516}: 45-47. Kyle, C.L.,J. Sween, and O. Vasquez. 1989. Lost!: An initial study of the magnitude of and reasons for early Stine, M.D. 1990. Do your students a favor and get tough schoolleavers from the Chicago Public Schools. on truants. The Executive Educator 12(3): 12N13. Report No. UD 026882. Chicago: Loyola University. Sweetwater Union High School District. 1982. What do (ERIC Reproduction Service No. 309 220). unauthorized absences cost the district? Lines, P.M. 1983. Private education alternatives and state Superintendent's Communicator3(2). education. !ou11lal of Law and Education 12(2): Thomas, T.E.1986. Student absenteeismN-school 189-234. dropouts: The cause--how to resolve? Report No. EA Little, L.F., and R.E. Thompson. 1983. Truancy: How 021564. Pontiac, Mich.: Oakland County Schools. parents and teachers contribute. The (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. 315 859). 30(4): 285-291. Tyler, L.E.198B. A proposal for reorganizing American Mervilde, J.1981. Student absenteeism: Causes, effect, public education. Report No. EA 019 841. (ERIC and possible solutions. Report No. EA 013 884. (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. 290 224). Reproduction Service Document No. 207157). Zafirau, S. James. 1987. Analysis of 1985-1986 Cleveland Miller, P. 1989. Historiography of compulsory schooling: school district data with policy and plarming What is the problem? History ofEducati01l18(2): implications: Attendance issues. Report No. UD 025 125-144. 775. Cleveland, Ohio: Cleveland Public Schools Department of Research and Analysis. (ERIC Missouri State Department of Elementary and Secondary Reproduction Service Document No. ED286 956). Education. 1990. Meeting educational needs of Missouri's homeless children: Administrative manual and consensus report. Report No. PS 020 039. Washington, D.C. National Education Association (NEA). 1994. Teacher of the year takes schools to the streets. NEA Today12(a): 20. National School Safety Center. 1986. Safe schools overview: NSSC resource paper. Report No. CG 019 207. Washington, D.C.: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquent Prevention. (ERIC Reproduction Service Document No. 271668). O'Malley, C.J.1993. Major issues confronting the nation's private education community. Paper presented at the