OGP Arctic Response Consequence Analysis Tables (ARCAT): Marine-associated Bird Valuable Ecosystem Components (VECs)

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LGL Ecological Research Associates Inc. 2014. OGP Arctic Response Consequence Analysis Tables (ARCAT): Marine-associated Bird Valuable Ecosystem Components (VECs). Rep. by LGL Ecological Research Associates, Inc., Bryan, TX, for Environ, Port Gamble, WA. 34 p. + appendix.

Table of Contents

Page

Table of Contents ...... ii List of Figures ...... iv 1.0 Introduction ...... 1 2.0 Profiles of Marine-associated Bird VECs ...... 2 2.1 Steller’s Eider (Polysticta stelleri) ...... 2 2.1.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 2 2.1.2 Species Description ...... 2 2.1.3 Species Resilience ...... 4 2.1.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 4 2.2 Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri) ...... 4 2.2.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 4 2.2.2 Species Description ...... 4 2.2.3 Species Resilience ...... 6 2.2.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 7 2.3 King Eider (Somateria spectabilis) ...... 7 2.3.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 7 2.3.2 Species Description ...... 7 2.3.3 Species Resilience ...... 9 2.3.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 9 2.4 Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)...... 10 2.4.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 10 2.4.2 Species Description ...... 10 2.4.3 Species Resilience ...... 11 2.4.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 12 2.5 Red Knot (Calidris canutus) ...... 12 2.5.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 12 2.5.2 Species Description ...... 12 2.5.3 Species Resilience ...... 14 2.5.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 14 2.6 Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Calidris pygmea) ...... 14 2.6.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 14 2.6.2 Species Description ...... 14 2.6.3 Species Resilience ...... 16 2.6.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 16 2.7 Dunlin (Calidris alpina) ...... 16 2.7.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 16 2.7.2 Species Description ...... 16

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2.7.3 Species Resilience ...... 18 2.7.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 18 2.8 Thick-billed Murre (Uria lomvia) ...... 19 2.8.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 19 2.8.2 Species Description ...... 19 2.8.3 Species Resilience ...... 20 2.8.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 21 2.9 Black Guillemot (Cepphus grylle) ...... 21 2.9.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 21 2.9.2 Species Description ...... 21 2.9.3 Species Resilience ...... 23 2.9.4 VEC - AEC Interaction ...... 23 2.10 Kittlitz’s Murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris) ...... 24 2.10.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 24 2.10.2 Species Description ...... 24 2.10.3 Species Resilience ...... 25 2.10.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 26 2.11 Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)...... 26 2.11.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 26 2.11.2 Species Description ...... 26 2.11.3 Species Resilience ...... 28 2.11.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 28 2.12 Ivory Gull (Pagophila eburnea) ...... 29 2.12.1 Justification for Selection as VEC ...... 29 2.12.2 Species Description ...... 29 2.12.3 Species Resilience ...... 30 2.12.4 VEC-AEC Interaction ...... 31 3.0 References ...... 32 Appendix 1: Interaction of Marine-associated Bird VECs and AECs and Other VEC-associated Data ...... 35

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List of Figures

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Figure 2.1. Global Distribution of Polysticta stelleri...... 3 Figure 2.2. Global Distribution of Somateria fischeri...... 5 Figure 2.3. Global Distribution of Somateria spectabilis...... 8 Figure 2.4. Global Distribution of Fulmarus glacialis...... 11 Figure 2.5. Global Distribution of Calidris canutus...... 13 Figure 2.6. Global Distribution of Calidris pygmea...... 15 Figure 2.7. Global Distribution of Calidris alpine...... 17 Figure 2.8. Global Distribution of Uria lomvia...... 19 Figure 2.9. Global Distribution of Cepphus grille...... 22 Figure 2.10. Global Distribution of Brachyramphus brevirostris...... 24 Figure 2.11. Global Distribution of Rissa tridactyla...... 27 Figure 2.12. Global Distribution of Pagophila eburnea...... 29

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OGP-ARCAT: Marine-associated Bird VECs

1.0 Introduction

Compared to other marine biota, marine-associated birds have relatively high vulnerability to impact from oil spills and Oil Spill Response (OSR) residuals, particularly in the upper water column, at the sea surface and in the air immediately above an oil slick at surface. Twelve marine-associated bird species have been selected as Valuable Ecosystem Components (VEC) in the development of Arctic Response Consequence Analysis Tables (ARCAT). Marine-associated birds include seabirds, seaducks and shorebirds. They have been selected as VECs for a variety of justifiable reasons that will be described. They also interact with various Arctic Environmental Compartments (AECs) and associated sub-compartments that are described and mapped in an associated document.

This report includes profiles for all 12 marine-associated bird species selected as VECs. Each profile includes information related to the following four topics: (1) justification for selection as VEC, (2) species description, (3) species resilience, and (4) VEC-AEC interaction. Appendix 1 contains a spreadsheet that indicates the interactions between the marine-associated bird VEC species and the AECs, in addition to information related to distribution, IUCN listing, Areas of Special Biological Significance (ASBS), exposure differences by sex, and subpopulations for each VEC.

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2.0 Profiles of Marine-associated Bird VECs

The marine-associated bird VEC profiles included in this report are based primarily on the most up-to-date information available from the BirdLife International website (BirdLife International 2014).

2.1 Steller’s Eider (Polysticta stelleri)

2.1.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

The seaduck Steller’s Eider is currently listed as Vulnerable by the IUCN due to its rapid population reduction, particularly in the Alaskan populations. In addition, this seaduck is targeted during subsistence hunting.

2.1.2 Species Description

Two distinct populations of Steller’s Eider occur within the Study Area. One breeds west of the Khatanga Gulf in western Russia as far as the Novaya Zemlya archipelago, and the other breeds east of the Khatanga Gulf in eastern Russia and the Arctic plain of Alaska. Non-breeding populations summer in Novaya Zemlya in Russia, in northern Norway and adjacent Russian waters, and in southwestern Alaska. While much of its wintering range occurs south of the Study Area (e.g., Bering Sea, northern Japan, northeast Atlantic Ocean, and Baltic Sea), some Steller’s Eider winter in the Barents Sea around Varangerfjord, northern Norway, on the Kola Peninsula in Russia, and potentially in the White Sea (Pihl 2001; Koryakin and Kondratyev 1983 in Pihl 2001). Within the Study Area, Steller’s Eider occurs in the Chukchi Sea, the Beaufort Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Barents Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea (Figure 2.1).

The breeding season typically includes June to September. Breeding occurs several kilometers inland. Males remain on breeding grounds until mid-June to mid-July before moving to the sea with failed breeding females. These birds flock on the coast where they feed and moult becoming flightless for a few weeks during the period of late-July to mid-August. Females remain at inland nesting sites until the young are old enough to fly to the coast in August. While overwintering, this seaduck typically occurs close to shore, generally along rocky coasts in bays and, preferentially, estuaries.

The breeding season typically includes June to September. Breeding occurs several kilometers inland, with all birds moving to coastal habitats after hatching. While females and young are located inland, males remain at the sea coast, feeding and moulting. While overwintering, this seaduck typically occurs close to shore, generally along rocky coasts in bays and, preferentially, estuaries.

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Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.1. Global Distribution of Polysticta stelleri.

Steller’s Eider typically forages in waters <10 m deep. During the summer, subadults, males and non-breeding/incubating females typically feed in coastal waters where prey includes marine invertebrates such as worms, molluscs and crustaceans. Breeding pairs inhabit tundra wetlands and likely feed on insect larvae, seeds, shrimps and flies, until males and failed breeding females move to the sea after successful breeding females begin egg incubation (typically mid-June to mid-July; BNA 2014). During unsuccessful breeding years, most male and female Steller’s Eiders return to the sea from the breeding grounds in July (BNA 2014). During the non-breeding season, flocks of these seaducks inhabit salt water and conduct synchronized foraging, diving and resurfacing in unison as they feed on marine worms, clams, mussels, snails, limpets, shrimp and crabs. Steller’s Eider is preyed upon by various birds and mammals, including egg removal by Pomarine Jaegers and Common Ravens (BNA 2014).

The total current population estimate is 110,000–125,000 individuals. Steller’s Eider is a protected species in the US and Russia, and is known to occur in four Important Bird Areas (IBA) in Russia: Yana delta, Lena delta, Terpyey-Tumus, and Bezymyannaya and Gribovaya Bays and adjoining waters (BirdLife International 2012).

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2.1.3 Species Resilience

Steller’s Eider is a K-selected species, with small clutch size (e.g., generally 3–8 eggs in Alaska), high parental care (until fledging), multiple reproduction events (one brood annually upon maturation, possibly from age 2–3 years onwards), and long life expectancy (up to 21 years recorded) (BNA 2014). The annual production rate of Steller’s Eider varies considerably. The number of successful nests at Barrow, AK, was highly variable (14.6–71.3%) among years (1991–1995); nest success is related to the abundance of lemmings, an alternative prey for common nest predators of eiders. On breeding grounds avian and mammalian predation is common; primary avian predators on eggs at Barrow, AK, were Pomarine Jaegers, but Common Ravens also removed whole eggs from attended and unattended nests (Quakenbush and Suydam 1999). This species has low fecundity, low recruitment and high breeding adult mortality (due to predation) (FWS 2007), and spends most of its foraging time either sitting on the sea surface or diving. Given these factors, while little to no information exists regarding the resilience or recovery rate of Steller’s Eider (FWS 2007), it is speculated to be highly sensitive to oil spills (Aps et al. 2009).

2.1.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During migration and foraging, the Steller’s Eider regularly interacts with the following four AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; 3. Water-Water Interface: (a) estuarine areas; and 4. Water-Sediment Interface: (a) shorelines (including intertidal zone); and (b) shallow subtidal (<10 m).

2.2 Spectacled Eider (Somateria fischeri)

2.2.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

The seaduck Spectacled Eider has traditionally been harvested in subsistence hunting for clothing, rugs and food (Portenko 1981 in BNA 2014). Some of these seaducks are still taken during the spring and fall (BNA 2014).

2.2.2 Species Description

There are three coastal breeding populations of Spectacled Eider, with two in Alaska (the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta and the North Slope; USFWS 1996 in Marz 2010) and one in Arctic Russia (USFWS 2001 in Marz 2010). This seaduck moults and winters at sea. Its primary

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wintering grounds were recently discovered in the Bering Sea in a sea of ice between St. Lawrence Island and St. Matthew Island. This species is now known to form large, concentrated flocks among sea ice far from shore in the Bering Sea. In the Study Area, Spectacled Eider is found in its summer breeding grounds in tundra habitat relatively near the coastlines of the Chukchi Sea, the Beaufort Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea (Figure 2.2).

Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.2. Global Distribution of Somateria fischeri.

The breeding season for Spectacled Eider is May/June to September. It breeds on small lakes, pools, bogs and streams of the tundra along the coasts of northeastern Siberia, Russia, and east from the Leni delta to northern Alaska (Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea) with females known to exhibit nest site fidelity (HBW 2014). Males leave the breeding grounds for the coast soon after the female begins incubation in late-June to early-July. Females and young depart the breeding grounds for the sea in the fall as ponds begin to freeze in late-August and early-September (BNA 2014). Overwintering occurs in pelagic waters in the Bering Sea in association with packed sea ice and polynyas, with specific polynya locations varying annually dependent on surface currents (HBW 2014). It is unclear from the literature whether Spectacled Eider specifically associates with annual or multi-year ice, therefore for the purposes of this profile it is presumed that both ice-types may be used, providing the ice is densely packed and near a polynya.

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Spectacled Eider forages at sea during the non-breeding season, mostly consuming benthic invertebrates such as molluscs (e.g., gastropods, bivalves [particularly clams; Petersen et al. 1998 in BNA 2014]) and crustaceans (e.g., barnacles, amphipods and crabs). While adults moult and overwinter at sea (most immature subadults are thought to remain at sea year-round until 2–3 years of age [BNA 2014]), foraging occurs in waters up to 80 m deep, and feeding occurs along pond edges and bottoms when in tundra pools during the breeding season (Dau 1974 and Kondratev and Zadorina 1992 in BNA 2014). While in the breeding area during the summer, the diet of Spectacled Eider also includes insects, arachnids, berries and seeds. On the breeding grounds, Spectacled Eider is preyed upon by various avian and mammalian predators, including gulls, skuas, Arctic fox, red fox and mink (Dau 1974 and Flint and Grand 1997 in BNA 2014; HBW 2014).

The total population of Spectacled Eider was estimated at approximately 400,000 individuals in the mid-1970s (HBW 2014). Avicultural egg-collecting and sport harvest of Spectacled Eider was closed in 1991 throughout Alaska (USFWS 1996 in BNA 2014), and lead shotgun shells are banned for use in hunting waterfowl in western Alaska wetlands (BNA 2014). Two IBA have been identified in Russia for Spectacled Eider: West Chaun plain and Inchoun and Uelen lagoons (BirdLife International 2012), and Ledyard Bay, Alaska, has been designated as Critical Habitat (important moulting area for North Slope-breeders in the summer [males] and fall [breeding females]; USFWS 2001).

2.2.3 Species Resilience

Spectacled Eider is a K-selected species, having a small clutch size (1–11 eggs in the wild and 5–9 in captivity; BNA 2014), high female parental care (until fledging; BNA 2014), multiple reproduction events (annually from maturation, likely from age 2 years for females and possibly 3–4 years for males; Kear 2005 in BNA HBW 2014), and long life expectancy (average life span for adult females in western Alaska is >4 years; Brownie 1985 in BNA 2014). Population growth for Spectacled Eider is most affected by survival rates of adult females (BNA 2014), and inclement weather can have deleterious effects on breeding success by delaying the onset of breeding by several weeks, forcing females to reduce clutch size, or precluding nesting attempts altogether (Kear 2005 in HBW 2014). The majority of adult mortality tends to occur outside of the brood-rearing period (Flint and Grand 1997 and Grand et al. 1998 in BNA 2014), while fledglings have high mortality rates within the first year of life (HBW 2014). Prominent causes of mortality for adults and fledglings include predation and exposure to accumulated pesticides and/or heavy metals (e.g., lead poisoning from accumulated lead shotgun shells on western Alaska breeding grounds; BNA 2014); eggs additionally sometimes float away from the next during storm tides (Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta; Mickelson 1975 and C.J. Lensink, pers. comm. in BNA 2014) and hatchlings sometimes drown in nests during extreme spring tides (JBG, MRP, and CPD in BNA 2014). Spectacled Eider spends most of its foraging time either sitting on the sea surface or diving, placing it at substantial risk of oiling. Additionally, if an oil spill occurred

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in close proximity to or within the Ledyard Bay Critical Habitat Unit, a large number (up to tens of thousands) of moulting Spectacled Eider could be oiled, likely resulting in injury or death (US Department of the Interior 2011). Resiliency and recovery rates could not be obtained from the literature for Spectacled Eider; it is presumed to be highly sensitive to oil spills, dependent on season and associated flock location.

2.2.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During migration, moulting and foraging, the Spectacled Eider interacts with the following six AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; 3. Pelagic Open Water: (a) <1 m stratum; (b) 1 to <10 m stratum; and (c) 10 to <100 m stratum; 4. Ice-Water Interface: (a) ice-water edges-annual ice; (b) ice-water edges-multi-year ice; and (c) ice-water edges-polynya; 5. Water-Water Interface: (a) estuarine areas; and 6. Water-Sediment Interface: (a) deep subtidal (10 to <100 m).

2.3 King Eider (Somateria spectabilis)

2.3.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

The King Eider is harvested for food during subsistence hunting (BNA 2014).

2.3.2 Species Description

King Eider is a common and widespread breeder north of the Arctic Circle. There are two populations in North America, with one wintering in the west and the other in the east. It breeds along the Arctic coasts of Europe, North America and Asia. It typically overwinters further south (e.g., northeast/northwest coasts of North America, Iceland, islands north of the United Kingdom, and the Pacific Asian coast to the tip of the Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia), along with locations that occur within the Study Area (including the Greenland and Norwegian Seas). Within the Study Area, King Eider occurs (at least along the coasts) in the Chukchi Sea, the Beaufort Sea, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Lincoln Sea, Baffin Bay, the Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea (Figure 2.3).

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Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.3. Global Distribution of Somateria spectabilis.

The breeding season runs from late-June to September. Breeding occurs on dry Arctic tundra near freshwater lakes, pools, bogs, marshes, streams and small rivers on coasts or up to 50 km inland. Initial brood rearing preferentially occurs in shallow freshwater ponds with emergent vegetation; the female and young later move to more marine areas where the young fledge. Males leave the breeding grounds in late-June to early-July about a week after the female begins incubation. They stage in large flocks in a marine environment close to the breeding grounds before migrating to traditional moulting areas which may be hundreds of kilometers away, in July and August. Sheltered fjords and bays with large densities of benthic fauna are favoured during the moulting period. Males and females migrate to wintering areas between August and October, although some individuals remain on the breeding grounds until September. Overwintering occurs at sea where water depths are less than 100 m, on offshore waters close to the edge of sea ice and polynyas or in coastal areas with shallow waters. Non-breeders typically spend the summer south of the breeding range or remain on the wintering grounds.

King Eider typically forages by synchronous diving while at sea, generally reaching depths of 25 m below the surface with some diving to 55 m (HBW 2014). It is thought to mostly forage on the seabed, however it also feeds in the upper layers of the water column or under sea-ice (BNA 2014). Its typical food at sea includes molluscs, crustaceans, larval insects, echinoderms, algae, eelgrass, and various other marine invertebrates. Seeds and vegetative portions of tundra plants, sedges, bur reeds, and aquatic plants are also consumed on the breeding grounds. Adults are occasionally preyed upon by snowy owls and peregrine falcons (generally injured or starving ducks), and there is a low incidence of predation during moulting. Incubating hens are sometimes taken by Arctic and red foxes. Young ducklings are preyed upon by Arctic foxes,

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gulls, jaegers and ravens. Arctic and red foxes, jaegers and gulls also consume a large number of eggs, sometimes resulting in complete King Eider reproductive failure in some years.

Total King Eider population is estimated at 885,000 individuals (HBW 2014). Several IBA have been identified for King Eider: Southeast Svalbard Nature Reserve (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Inner parts of Kongsfjorden (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Russki Zavorat peninsula and eastern part of Malozemelskaya tundra (Russia), Khaypudyrskaya Bay (Islands of B. Zelenets, Dolgi, Matveyev; Russia), Terpyey-Tumus (Russia), Lena delta (Russia), Yana delta (Russia), West Chaun plain (Russia), Beaufort Sea nearshore (US), Barrow Canyon and Smith Bay (US) (proposed IBA), Chukchi Sea nearshore (US) (proposed IBA), Umiiarfik (Greenland), Nordfjord and adjacent valley (Greenland), Aqajarua-Sullorsuaq (Mudderbugten and Kvandalen) (Greenland), and the Northern part of Store Hellefiskebanke (Greenland) (BirdLife International 2012).

2.3.3 Species Resilience

King Eider is a K-selected species, with small clutch size (generally 1–8 eggs; mean 4–5; BNA 2014), high parental care (generally until or just before fledging; BNA 2014), multiple reproduction events (annually upon maturation, at 3 years of age; HBW 2014), and long life expectancy (up to 15 years recorded, but could be longer; BNA 2014). This species spends most of its foraging time either sitting on the sea surface or diving, and is vulnerable to oil spills at sea due to large flock sizes, distance from shore, and use of moderate-ice areas (BNA 2014). Bentzen and Powell (2012) modelled a hypothetical oil spill in the eastern Chukchi Sea during a spring migration based on an initial population estimate of 10,000 individual nesting females in the North Alaskan region, and found that a spill that killed 1,000–5,000 breeding-age females would result in a population decline from 10,000 to 1,500–3,500 in 50 years (this model did not take into account juveniles, males and non-breeding females, which would also be affected by a spill). Bentzen and Powell (2012) further noted that despite a severe decline in the local population, transient population dynamics would remain relatively stable. These findings suggest that, combined with the King Eider’s decreasing population trend, a localized population may not be able to recover to historical levels following exposure to a severe oil spill at sea.

2.3.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During foraging, moulting and breeding, the King Eider interacts with the following six AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; 3. Pelagic Open Water: (a) <1 m stratum; (b) 1 to <10 m stratum; and (c) 10 to <100 m stratum;

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4. Ice-Water Interface: (a) ice-water edges-annual ice; (b) ice-water edges-multi-year ice; (c) ice-water edges-polynya; (d) under ice-annual ice; and (e) under ice-multi-year ice; 5. Water-Water Interface: (a) surface currents; and (b) areas of upwelling and down-welling; and 6. Water-Sediment Interface: (a) shorelines (including intertidal); (b) shallow subtidal (<10 m); and (c) deep subtidal (10 to <100 m).

2.4 Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)

2.4.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

Northern Fulmar plays a significant role in food web dynamics throughout much of the Study Area. Although Northern Fulmar was heavily exploited for food historically, relatively few birds are presently taken each year (HBW 2014).

2.4.2 Species Description

Northern Fulmar is a common and widespread breeder north of the Arctic Circle. It breeds throughout the North Atlantic and North Pacific (from Japan and the United Kingdom in the south to the high Arctic), northern Russia (Kuril Island, northern Sea of Okhotsk, Commander Island and Bearing Sea coast north to Cape Stoletiya, Chukchi Peninsula), northern Greenland, Jan Mayen Island, Bear Island, Svalbard, Novaya Zemlya, Franz Josef Land, Iceland, Faeroes, Britain, Ireland, Norway, Germany and France (BNA 2014). Northern populations migrate south to overwinter (e.g., northern limits of open water in the Bering Sea to the Pacific coast of Mexico and Gulf of California, and as far south as Cape Hatteras and the South Atlantic Bight; BNA 2014), while southern populations disperse without reaching warm water zones. It is a year-round resident within various Study Area water bodies, including the Chukchi Sea, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Lincoln Sea, Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, the North Atlantic Ocean, the Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Barents Sea, the White Sea, the Kara Sea, and the East Siberian Sea (Figure 2.4).

Breeding occurs from spring through summer, with fledging beginning in early-fall (BNA 2014). It typically breeds on cliffs (usually <300 m high, up to 1,000 m) and rock faces at sea, but sometimes breeding occurs up to >2 km inland from the coast on flatter ground or in sand dunes (Snow and Perrins 1998 in HBW 2014). Northern Fulmar will also breed near human habitation, including occupied houses along town seafronts. During the non-breeding season it generally frequents open pelagic waters (particularly over the continental shelf) and open leads among pack ice (HBW 2014).

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Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.4. Global Distribution of Fulmarus glacialis.

Northern Fulmar seeks prey by low near-water flight, feeding either on surface or diving to depths of up to 4 m (BNA 2014; Brooke 2004 in HBW 2014). Typical prey of Northern Fulmar include fishes (e.g., sandeels, capelin), macrozooplankton (e.g., euphausiids, amphipods, copepods), and molluscs (e.g., squid). It also feeds on fish offal and carrion (e.g., whale blubber). Breeders appear to prefer foraging on the continental shelf, typically close to the colony. Predators of Northern Fulmar include gulls, ravens and other corvids, eagles, falcons, Arctic and red foxes, and possibly also ermine (BNA 2014).

The total current population is estimated at 20,000,000 individuals (HBW 2014). Several IBAs have been identified for Northern Fulmar, including: Jan Mayen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Bjørnøya (Bear Island) (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Prince Leopold Island (Canada), Cape Vera (Canada), Hobhouse Inlet (Canada), Baillarge Bay (Canada), Buchan Gulf (Canada), and Scott Inlet (Canada) (BirdLife International 2012).

2.4.3 Species Resilience

Northern Fulmar is a K-selected species, with small clutch size (1 egg annually upon maturation; BNA 2014)), high parental care (both parents incubate eggs and feed chicks until fledging; BNA 2014), late maturation (8-10 years of age; BNA 2014), and long life expectancy (mean >30 years; some recorded as breeding over ≥40 years; BNA 2014). Based on observations from fairly recent oil spills, e.g., the Exxon Valdez spill in Alaska, Northern Fulmar does not appear to be strongly affected by oil spills (Piatt et al. 1990 and Hatch 1993 in Mallory 2006). It is possible that fulmars may be able to avoid spills using their good sense of smell (Hatch 1993 and Wareham 1990 in Mallory 2006). Effects on Northern Fulmar from an oil spill

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would be highly dependent on the time of year, with potentially catastrophic effects on a local population if fulmars are aggregated (e.g., spring migration or close to a colony at fledging), and reduced effects during late incubation or chick-rearing periods (Mallory 2006). If relatively few breeding fulmars were oiled, the number of birds that would therefore not return to the colony may be within the range of normal levels of nest abandonment (Mallory 2006). As such, the time required for recovery after an oil spill/response actions could range from nearly immediate (in the case of few oiled breeders) to a much longer period (in the case of oiled aggregations).

2.4.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During foraging and migration, the Northern Fulmar interacts with the following five AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; 3. Pelagic Open Water: (a) <1 m stratum; and (b) 1 to <10 m stratum; 4. Ice-Water Interface: (a) ice-water edges-annual ice; and (b) ice-water edges-multi-year ice; and 5. Water-Water Interface: (a) surface currents; and (b) areas of upwelling and downwelling.

2.5 Red Knot (Calidris canutus)

2.5.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

Red Knot was heavily hunted for market and sport in the latter half of the 19th century and the first quarter of the 20th century. Currently this shorebird is hunted for food in some regions of South America (particularly the Guianas), and for sport in Barbados (BNA 2014).

2.5.2 Species Description

The Red Knot has six subspecies that breed in Arctic polar regions, including Calidris canutus canutus (breeds in northwest Russia), C. c. islandica (breeds in high latitudes of Arctic Canada, Greenland and Svalbard), C. c. rufa (breeds in low latitudes of Arctic Canada), C. c. rogersi (breeds on the Chukotka Peninsula, Siberia), C. c. roselaari (breeds on Wrangel Island, Siberia and northwest Alaska), and C. c. piersmai (breeds in the New Siberian archipelago) (BNA 2014). During the summer breeding season, Red Knot occurs along the coasts of the Chukchi Sea, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Lincoln Sea, Baffin Bay, the Greenland Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea. Red Knot overwinters south of the Study Area, including the far reaches of the southern hemisphere (Figure 2.5).

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Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.5. Global Distribution of Calidris canutus.

The Red Knot breeds from June to August in the high Arctic on dry upland tundra, including weathered sandstone ridges, upland areas with scattered vegetation, moist marshy slopes and flats in foothills, well-drained slopes, and upland glacial gravel close to streams or ponds. After chicks hatch, families quickly move from higher terrain to lower wetland habitats (BNA 2014). Outside of breeding season, this bird is strictly coastal, frequenting tidal mudflats and sandflats, sandy beaches of sheltered coasts, rocky shelves, bays, lagoons, harbours, and occasionally oceanic beaches and saltmarshes.

During the breeding season, Red Knot initially feeds on vegetation such as sedge seeds, horsetails and grass shoots; with the later arrival of various insect prey, its diet predominantly consists of adult and larval Diptera, Lepidoptera, Trichoptera, Coleoptera and bees, along with spiders, small crustaceans, snails and worms in the intertidal zone. During the non-breeding season, Red Knot forages in the intertidal zone for invertebrates such as molluscs (e.g., bivalves and gastropods), crustaceans (e.g., large migrating flocks gorge on horseshoe crab eggs in spring; BNA 2014), annelid worms and insects, and rarely fish and seeds. On the breeding grounds, predators include jaegers, Gyrfalcons, and Arctic foxes (including egg and chick predation). Off the breeding grounds, common predators are falcons, harriers, accipiters, Short-eared Owl, and Great Black-backed Gull (BNA 2014).

The total Red Knot population is estimated at 1,310,000 individuals, with an approximate rufa population of 13,500–15,000 individuals (COSEWIC 2007; modified from HBW 2014). The rufa subspecies is protected from hunting in the US (USFWS 2013a). Its US range is currently under review to identify critical habitat (USFWS 2014).

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2.5.3 Species Resilience

Red Knot is a K-selected species, with small clutch size (typically 4 eggs; BNA 2014), multiple reproduction events (annually from maturation, likely at 2–3 years of age; BNA 2014; HBW 2014), high parental care (both sexes incubate eggs; females depart several days after hatching, while males attend young until fledging) (BNA 2014), and long life expectancy (oldest ringed bird 16 years of age; HBW 2014). Red Knot is particularly susceptible to oil spills and released toxins while travelling in large flocks (USFWS 2013b), and spills could potentially have short-and long-term effects on vegetation and invertebrates which are primary food sources for the Red Knot (Garland and Thomas 2009). Highly migratory birds such as the Red Knot depend on foraging in non-breeding habitats to provide necessary fuel for migratory flight (Withers 2002 in Henkel et al. 2012); therefore, if oiled birds must spend more time preening than foraging to remove oil from their feathers (Burger 1997 in Henkel et al. 2012) or have decreased foraging success due to a decrease in prey population after a spill (Andres 1997 and NRC 2003 in Henkel et al. 2012), they could experience weight loss and diminished health which may delay the birds’ continued migration, decrease survival rates during migration or reduce reproductive fitness (Henkel et al. 2012). Information regarding the resilience or recovery rate of Red Knot could not be located in the literature; it is speculated that Red Knot is most sensitive to oil spills when in large concentrations or when their primary prey is severely reduced following a spill.

2.5.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During the summer breeding season, the Red Knot interacts with the following three AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; and 3. Water-Sediment Interface: (a) shorelines (including intertidal).

2.6 Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Calidris pygmea)

2.6.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

Spoon-billed Sandpiper is listed as Critically Endangered by the IUCN, with an extremely small population undergoing rapid reduction. This shorebird’s population decline appears to be largely due to habitat destruction on its breeding, passage and wintering grounds.

2.6.2 Species Description

The Spoon-billed Sandpiper has a naturally limited breeding range on the Chukotsk Peninsula, and southwards up to the isthmus of the Kamchatka Peninsula in northeastern Russia. It mainly overwinters in Bangladesh and Myanmar, but it has also been recorded from India, Sri Lanka,

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Thailand, Vietnam, the Philippines, the Fujian province of China, and peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Within the Study Area, the Spoon-billed Sandpiper occurs in coastal regions of the western Chukchi Sea during the breeding season (Figure 2.6).

Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.6. Global Distribution of Calidris pygmea.

The breeding season typically includes June to July (HBW 2014). Breeding birds are very site faithful and breeding habitat is very specific – lagoon spits with crowberry-lichen vegetation or dwarf birch and willow sedges, together with adjacent estuary or mudflat habitats used as feeding areas. Breeding has never been seen more than 5 km from the seacoast. This species preferentially overwinters on mixed sandy tidal mudflats with an uneven surface and very shallow water, principally in the outermost portions of river deltas and outer islands, typically with a high sand content and thin mud top layer. Immature Spoon-billed Sandpiper remain on their wintering grounds until 2 years of age.

Spoon-billed Sandpiper feeds on invertebrates in the intertidal zone by pecking and probing, and also using its bill as a shovel. Prey items generally include beetles, Hymenoptera and Diptera, small seeds, beetle larvae, small aquatic amphipods, and possibly larval crustaceans, juvenile polychaetes and juvenile molluscs (HBW 2014). This species typically feeds either alone or in small flocks (HBW 2014). Near villages, nests are sometimes destroyed by dogs, while adults are occasionally killed by children with slingshots or hunters; other predators include foxes and skuas, and eggs and adults have occasionally been collected by humans for scientific purposes over the past 20 years (resulting in the complete destruction of one small colony).

The total Spoon-billed Sandpiper population is estimated at 240–400 mature adults. Protected breeding areas on the Chukotsk peninsula, Russia, include Moroshechnaya and several local wildlife refuges. Hunters in several of this bird’s overwintering grounds are following mitigation

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measures to reduce or completely desist taking this species during subsistence hunts. A captive-rearing and breeding program is also underway in the United Kingdom.

2.6.3 Species Resilience

The Spoon-billed Sandpiper is a K-selected species, with low clutch size (4 eggs; HBW 2014), high parental care (both parents incubate eggs and initially tend chicks; females abandon chicks at 4.5–6 days old, or immediately post-hatch in late broods; males leave when chicks are 15–20 days old; HBW 2014), multiple reproduction events (annual breeding attempts upon maturation, from 2 years of age for males; HBW 2014), and long life expectancy (oldest ringed bird >10 years). This species has low breeding success (average productivity was 0.66 young fledged per nest in 2005, and even lower in 2007), with brooding only successful when lemmings are present in moderate to high numbers serving as an alternate prey source for sandpiper predators; HBW 2014). This sandpiper also has low fledging success and recruitment, with a very low rate of juveniles and adults returning to the breeding grounds. The Spoon-billed Sandpiper now has an ageing and rapidly declining population. Given the severe population decline and breeding difficulties experienced by this bird, the Spoon-billed Sandpiper population is presumed unlikely to be capable of full recovery after exposure to an oil spill.

2.6.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During the breeding season, the Spoon-billed Sandpiper interacts with the following three AECs, and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; and 3. Water-Sediment Interface: (a) shorelines (including intertidal).

2.7 Dunlin (Calidris alpina)

2.7.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

Dunlin was commonly hunted in the 1800s. Wintering Dunlin are still hunted in China, while Calidris alpina pacifica and C. a. hudsonia are no longer hunted (BNA 2014).

2.7.2 Species Description

There are ten subspecies of Dunlin currently recognized: Calidris alpine arctica (northeast Greenland), C. a. schinzii (southeast Greenland and Iceland through Faroes, northern British Isle to Baltic and southern Scandinavia), C. a. alpina (northern Scandinavia and Russia to Taymyr region and R Yenisey), C. a. centralis (northeastern Siberia from Taymyr peninsula to Kolyma delta), C. a. sakhalina (R Kolyma to Chukotskiy peninsula and Anadyrland), C. a. actites (north

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Sakhalin Island), C. a. kistchinski (northern Sea of Okhotsk and Koryak Mountains through Kamchatka to northern Kuril Island), C. a. arcticola (northwestern Alaska and Canada), C. a. pacifica (southwestern Alaska), and C. a. hudsonia (central Canada from southern Victoria Island to southwestern Hudson Bay) (HBW 2014). Dunlin is a fully migratory circumpolar breeder, breeding in the Study Area and overwintering south of the Study Area. Within the Study Area, Dunlin occurs in the Chukchi Sea, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea (Figure 2.7).

Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.7. Global Distribution of Calidris alpine.

Breeding by this shorebird typically occurs from May to July, on moist boggy ground with surface water (e.g., tussock or peat-hummock tundra), as well as coastal grasslands, salt marshes and wet upland moorland. During the non-breeding season, Dunlin prefers estuarine mudflats and a variety of coastal and inland freshwater and brackish wetlands, such as lagoons, muddy freshwater shores, tidal rivers, flooded fields, sewage farms, salt-works, sandy coasts, lakes and dams. Immature Dunlin sometimes remain on the wintering grounds year-round. Dunlin sometimes occurs in large flocks of thousands to tens of thousands (BNA 2014).

During the summer breeding months, Dunlin mainly consumes insects, spiders, mites, earthworms, snails, slugs and plant matter (generally seeds). During the non-breeding season, it forages in the intertidal zone, eating prey that includes marine worms, molluscs, crustaceans, insects, plant matter and occasionally small fish. The highest mortality occurs on the wintering grounds and during migration, primarily due to avian predators such as Peregrine Falcons and Short-eared Owls; other predators on wintering grounds include Northern Harriers, accipiters, Sparrowhawks, Merlins and at times mammals (BNA 2014). On the breeding grounds, Dunlin

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(particularly eggs and chicks) are preyed upon by jaegers, Northern Shrike, gulls, Black Turnstone, weasels, and Arctic and red foxes (BNA 2014).

The total Dunlin population is estimated at 4,600,000–6,500,000 individuals. Western Hemisphere populations are protected by the North American Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 (BNA 2014). No IBA or critical habitat designations were identified in the literature within the Study Area.

2.7.3 Species Resilience

Dunlin is a K-selected species, with small clutch size (typically 4 eggs; BNA 2014), high parental care (both parents brood, although at times only the male incubates; BNA 2014), multiple reproductive events (annually upon maturation, at 1–2 years of age; BNA 2014), and long life expectancy (oldest captured was 24 years; BNA 2014); it also experiences relatively high first-year mortality rates (62–75% in Europe). In November 1997, the M/V Kure punctured a fuel tank and spilled ~4,500 gallons of Intermediate Fuel Oil 180 while docked in Humboldt Bay, California, resulting in the death of an estimated 2,033 shorebirds, among other species (USFWS 2008). It was very difficult for human searchers to find Dunlin carcasses, as dying Dunlin tend to seek vegetation in which to hide; however, Dunlin nonetheless comprised >80% of the shorebirds collected during the spill (USFWS 2008). In the event of such coastal oil spills, in addition to death or injury as a result of direct contamination of the birds, there is also a reduction in prey availability due to a high likelihood of exposure of invertebrates – an important food source for Dunlin – to oil in shoreline areas (USFWS 2008). A further impact and recovery delay for Dunlin lies in the necessary removal of oiled wrack from beaches during clean-up, which decreases the abundance of detritus and decaying organic matter available for shelter and food (USFWS 2008). USFWS (2008) estimated that a heavily impacted mudflat shoreline (0.11 acres or 445 m2) would itself require 90 days for full recovery. Dunlin would be most vulnerable to oil spills while foraging in intertidal zones during the non-breeding season, although specific recovery rates were not available in the literature.

2.7.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During the breeding season, the Dunlin interacts with the following three AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; and 3. Water-Sediment Interface: (a) shorelines (including intertidal).

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2.8 Thick-billed Murre (Uria lomvia)

2.8.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

Thick-billed Murre is targeted during subsistence hunting. This includes harvesting of eggs (e.g., by two native communities in the Canadian Arctic [Pond Inlet, Nunavut, and Ivujivik, Quebec] and in Alaska at Cape Thompson) and adults (e.g., in the Canadian Arctic, eastern Canada and Greenland) (BNA 2014).

2.8.2 Species Description

Thick-billed Murre has four subspecies, including Uria lomvia (northeast Canada and Greenland to eastern Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya), U. l. eleonorae (eastern Taymyr Peninsula to eastern New Siberian Isle), U. l. heckeri (Wrangel Island, Herald Island and northern Chukotsky Peninsula), and U. l. arra (northern Pacific from northwest and southeast Alaska, and Aleutians south to Sakhalin) (HBW 2014). Thick-billed Murre is exclusively marine, ranging from sea coasts to the continental shelf edge. This auk has a circumpolar distribution and is common and widespread in the Study Area during breeding season, occurring in the Chukchi Sea, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Bay, the Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea. It overwinters in the northern Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and northern Europe, including southeastern Baffin Bay, southern Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, and southwestern Barents Sea within the Study Area (Figure 2.8).

Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.8. Global Distribution of Uria lomvia.

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The start and end of the breeding season is variable dependent on sea temperatures, but it generally runs from spring to late-summer with fledging typically peaking by mid- to late-August (HBW 2014). The Thick-billed Murre breeds on coasts and islands, nesting along narrow ledges (HBW 2014). This auk is highly colonial, forming very large aggregations on sea cliffs during the breeding season. The post-breeding dispersal is determined by ice conditions and food availability, with poorer conditions prompting early departure. During non-breeding season, it typically occurs in large flocks in open water, including in polynyas and leads in the pack ice. First-year individuals remain at sea year-round rather than joining a colony on breeding grounds (BNA 2014).

While its dives are typically <50 m deep, Thick-billed Murre has been known to dive as deep as 100 m and occasionally below 200 m (BNA 2014). Typical prey includes fishes, various crustaceans and squid, along with polychaetes and molluscs. Foraging generally occurs within 30–50 km of the colony, but Murres may travel ≥100 km from the colony in response to prey density and movements and ice cover (HBW 2014).

The total population of Thick-billed murre is estimated at 22,000,000 (11,000,000 pairs). Numerous IBA have been identified for this auk, including Prince Leopold Island (Canada) (320 km2 confirmed; 2,438 km2 proposed), Southwest Bylot (Canada) (000 km2 confirmed; 3,191 km2 proposed), Cape Graham Moore (Canada) (330 km2 confirmed; 2,032 km2 proposed), Cambridge Point (Canada) (1,900 km2 confirmed; 5,823 km2 proposed), Reid Bay (Canada) (5 km2 confirmed; 1,112 km2 proposed), Hakluyt Island (Greenland), Carey Islands (Greenland), Saunders Island (Greenland), Saunders Island/Coast between Appaliarsulissuaq and Kap Atholl (Greenland) (proposed), Apparsuit (Kap Shackleton) and Kippaku (Greenland) (proposed), Islands and waters south and west of Upernavick town (Greenland), Jan Mayen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), South Spitsbergen National Park (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Bjørnøya (Bear Island) (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Hopen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), and Bezymyannaya and Gribovaya Bays and adjoining waters (Russia) (BirdLife International 2012).

2.8.3 Species Resilience

Thick-billed Murre is a K-selected species, with very low clutch size (1 egg; BNA 2014), high parental care (one parent guards the chicks throughout the rearing period while the other forages; BNA 2014), late maturation (generally at 5–6 years of age; BNA 2014), multiple reproductive events (mostly annually upon maturation, however adults – usually females – may skip a year after the first breeding year; BNA 2014), and long life expectancy (at least 29 years; BNA 2014). Due to adult Murres’ limited ability to carry only small amounts of food back from the sea to their young, chicks leave the colony when partially grown and continue growing at sea while being fed by the male parent (BNA 2014). Adult annual survivorship is usually relatively high, around 90% (BNA 2014), along with breeding success (70–80% of eggs laid produce fledglings; del Hoyo et al. 1996 in OSPAR 2009a). While the Thick-billed Murre is extremely vulnerable to

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oil pollution, much of the global range is away from areas at high risk from oil spills (BNA 2014). Wiese et al. (2004) modelled the impact of mortality caused by chronic oil pollution and legal hunting on Thick-billed Murre populations breeding and wintering in eastern Canada, and found that oiling and hunting mortality reduced population growth rate by 0.025 and 0.020, respectively. Lance et al. (2001) examined post-spill trends (1989–1998) of several seabird populations in Prince William Sound, Alaska, following the Exxon Valdez oil spill. During that time, murres (including Thick-billed and Common, Uria aalge) did not show signs of recovery during summer or winter, possibly due to lingering spill effects and natural survivability. Thick-billed Murre has low resilience, in that it would take a long time for a population to recover from adverse effects from human activity, including oil spills (OSPAR 2009a).

2.8.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During breeding, foraging and migration, the Thick-billed Murre regularly interacts with the following five AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; 3. Pelagic Open Water: (a) <1 m stratum; (b) 1 to <10 m stratum; (c) 10 to <100 m stratum; and (d) 100 to 1,000 m stratum; 4. Ice-Water Interface: (a) ice-water edges-annual ice; (b) ice-water edges-multi-year ice; and (c) ice-water edges-polynya; and 5. Water-Water Interface: (a) surface currents; and (b) areas of upwelling and downwelling.

2.9 Black Guillemot (Cepphus grylle)

2.9.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

Historically, it was heavily targeted during subsistence hunting but the current level of hunting pressure on this seabird is less (BNA 2014).

2.9.2 Species Description

Black Guillemot has five subspecies, including Cepphus grille mandtii (Arctic eastern North America south to Labrador and northern Newfoundland, western and eastern Greenland, Jan Mayen and Svalbard east through eastern Siberia to northern Alaska), C. g. arcticus (north America [south of mandtii] and southern Greenland to British Isles, Norway, southwestern Sweden, Denmark, Murmansk and White Sea), C. g. islandicus (Iceland), C. g. faeroeensis (Faeroes), and C. g. grille (Baltic Sea). This auk is common and widespread in the Study Area during the breeding season, including coastal regions (and sometimes brackish water; HBW

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2014) in the Chukchi Sea, the Beaufort Sea, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Bay, the Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea. It overwinters in the Barents Sea, Svalbard, northern Scandinavia, Iceland, Greenland, Baffin Bay/Davis Strait and Chukchi Sea (Figure 2.9).

Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.9. Global Distribution of Cepphus grille.

Black Guillemot spends more days per year attending colonies than other alcids, at times returning up to 110 days prior to egg-laying (BNA 2014). This auk typically nests along rocky coastlines under boulders, scree and overhangs, and in various cavities (e.g., under tree roots, fissures in cliff faces, under driftwood, fish boxes, iron buoys, etc.; BNA 2014). It generally arrives on the breeding grounds in late-winter or early-spring, with egg-laying occurring in late-spring to early-summer and fledging in late-summer (BNA 2014). Early-spring and breeding distributions appear to be influenced by the Hell Gate and Cardigan Strait polynya located in western Jones Sound, between Ellesmere and Devon Islands (Canada). Ice edges are very important for this auk, with the March to May distribution coincident with locations of open water and associated ice edges. During the non-breeding season, it typically occurs in open water, including in polynyas and leads in the pack ice. First-year Black Guillemot spend much of their time on the water and are rarely observed near breeding colonies (BNA 2014).

Black Guillemot is a pursuit diver, typically diving <30 m deep in waters 10–130 m deep, although there is evidence for dives as deep as 130 m. It is primarily a benthic forager, feeding mainly on benthic fishes (e.g., sandeels, blennies, various flatfishes and gadoids) and invertebrates (e.g., polychaetes, pteropods, molluscs, sponges, ctenophores and crustaceans [HBW 2014]; particularly during the winter), while some prey is also likely captured in the water column. Feeding sites are typically within 2 km from the seacoast, with birds in the eastern Canadian Arctic and Northwest Territories feeding within 15 and 55 km of breeding colonies,

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respectfully. Black Guillemot are preyed upon by Herring and Great Black-backed Gulls, Hooded Crows, mink, ermine, otters, and raccoons (BNA 2014).

Black Guillemot population is estimated at 400,000–700,000 individuals. Several IBA have been identified for this species, including Prince Leopold Island (Canada) (320 km2 confirmed; 2,438 km2 proposed), Islands and waters south and west of Upernavik town (Greenland), Jan Mayen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Northwest Spitsbergen National Park (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Forlandet National Park (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Bjørnøya (Bear Island) (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Hopen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), and Bezymyannaya and Gribovaya Bays and adjoining waters (Russia). Scandinavian populations, including adults and eggs, are protected from hunting by law as of the 1970s (BNA 2014).

2.9.3 Species Resilience

Black Guillemot is a K-selected species, with small clutch size (generally 1–2 eggs; BNA 2014), high parental care (up to or shortly before fledging; BNA 2014); late maturation (generally around 4–5 years of age, but can be as early as 2 years; BNA 2014), multiple reproductive events (generally annually upon maturation; some 20-year-old breeding adults have been found in Shetland and Iceland; BNA 2014), and long life span (at least 21 years; BNA 2014). This auk has moderate hatching success (58-67% noted on Great Duck Island, ME from 1991–1993; BNA 2014), with most chick mortality occurring within <1 week following hatching and little mortality after 24 days (BNA 2014). Black Guillemot has low to moderate recruitment, varying with geographic location (e.g., ~20–50% in several North American colonies versus ~60–70% in some European colonies) (BNA 2014). This auk spends a great deal of time swimming on/diving in the water, and can be highly vulnerable to oil pollution (HELCOM 2013). In 1991, an oil spill near the Shetland Islands (off the coast of Scotland) resulted in the death of approximately 1,700 individuals (14% of Shetland’s population) (HELCOM 2013). In January 1993, an oil spill as a result of the wreck of the Braer on the Shetland Islands resulted in substantial decreases in the numbers of breeding Black Guillemots; however, these effects were limited and localized (Ritchie and O’Sullivan 1994 in Wiens 1996) and breeding success in the following summer was not affected (Wiens 1996; Mosbech 2000). Black Guillemot resiliency likely varies with location and season, with the ability to recover within one year after an oil spill in some cases.

2.9.4 VEC - AEC Interaction

During foraging, Black Guillemot regularly interacts with the following five AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface;

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3. Pelagic Open Water: (a) <1 m stratum; (b) 1 to <10 m stratum; (c) 10 to <100 m stratum; and (d) 100 to 1,000 m stratum; 4. Ice-Water Interface: (a) ice-water edges-annual ice; (b) ice-water edges-multi-year ice; and (c) ice-water edges-polynya; and 5. Water-Water Interface: (a) surface currents; (b) estuarine areas; and (c) areas of upwelling and downwelling.

2.10 Kittlitz’s Murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris)

2.10.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

Kittlitz’s Murrelet was recently re-categorized from Critically Endangered to Near-threatened by the IUCN, as the rate of population decline is thought to be less rapid than previously assessed. Populations may have declined by up to 80–90% from 1995–2010, although declines appear to have leveled off in recent years. In addition, this seabird has a relatively limited distribution within the Study Area.

2.10.2 Species Description

Recently, Kittlitz’s Murrelet from Attu Island and the Gulf of Alaska represent two discrete evolutionarily significant units (HBW 2014). It has a distribution geographically centered in the Bering Sea, from east of Cape Lisburne south to the Aleutian Islands and east to LeConte Bay in Alaska, and the eastern Chukotskiy Peninsula west to Cape Schmidt and south to Anadyr Gulf, and Shelikov Bay in the northern Sea of Okhotsk in Russia. Within the Study Area, it occurs in the Chukchi Sea and far eastern portion of the East Siberian Sea year-round (Figure 2.10).

Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.10. Global Distribution of Brachyramphus brevirostris.

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The breeding season includes May to August, with fledging occurring mid-August. During the breeding season, it typically occurs in near shore waters and coastal bays and fjords, nesting on the ground amongst unvegetated scree or on cliff faces, or more rarely, on exposed bedrock. Post-breeding dispersal into bays and fjords of Prince William Sound occurs in late-July and August (HBW 2014). Its winter range is poorly known; most birds likely leave protected bays and go out to sea (BNA 2014). It is almost always found in open leads of pack ice during early-spring, but not at other times of the year.

Diving depths are not known for this species, but up to at least 10 m is assumed based on its prey species. During the summer months in the Study Area, Kittlitz’s Murrelet typically searches for food inshore in bays and inlets as well as around the outflows of glacial streams (HBW 2014), feeding on various fishes (sandeels, capelin, herring, and smelt) and invertebrates (amphipods, krill and shrimps). Winter prey is generally unknown, but likely includes planktonic crustaceans and small fish (HBW 2014); one bird collected at the edge of pack ice in Bristol Bay in 1977 had consumed amphipods (BNA 2014). Concentrations in large flocks of ≥500 birds have been recorded at food-rich locations (HBW 2014). Predators may include Bald Eagles, Peregrine Falcons and Common Ravens (BNA 2014).

The Kittlitz’s Murrelet population is estimated at 48,000–82,000 individuals. No IBA have been identified for Kittlitz’s Murrelet within the Study Area. Guidelines have been created in the US to avoid disturbance to nesting birds.

2.10.3 Species Resilience

Kittlitz’s Murrelet is a K-selected species, with low clutch size (1 egg), late maturation (generally at 2–4 years of age), and multiple reproductive events (not necessarily annually). Breeders in the Aleutian Islands have low reproductive success (<10% in the Agattu and Kodiak Islands), primarily due to avian predators locating unattended eggs and inclement weather causing the death of chicks during the nestling period. This bird experiences elevated adult mortality due to hydrocarbon contamination, entanglement in gillnets and high predation pressure. It spends most of its foraging time either sitting on the sea surface or diving, placing it at substantial risk of oiling; for example, 7–15% of the Prince William Sound population died as a result of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. It has an Oiling Vulnerability Index score of 88 (scale of 1–100), making this species the most highly vulnerable of all non-endangered birds in the northeast Pacific (King and Sanger 1979 in BNA 2014). Given the reduced population size, low productivity and high rate of mortality when exposed to oil pollution, Kittlitz’s Murrelet populations would not likely be capable of full recovery after exposure to a severe oil spill.

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2.10.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During foraging, Kittlitz’s Murrelet interacts with the following five AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; 3. Pelagic Open Water: (a) <1 m stratum; and (b) 1 to <10 m stratum; 4. Ice-Water Interface: (a) ice-water edges-annual ice; (b) ice-water edges-multi-year ice; and (c) ice-water edges-polynya; and 5. Water-Water Interfaces: (a) surface currents; (b) estuarine areas; and (c) areas of upwelling and downwelling.

2.11 Black-legged Kittiwake (Rissa tridactyla)

2.11.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

Black-legged Kittiwake is harvested extensively in the Greenland subsistence hunting (HBW 2014).

2.11.2 Species Description

There are two subspecies recognized for Black-legged Kittiwake, including Rissa tridactyla (north Atlantic from north-central Canada and northeastern US east through Greenland to western and northern Europe, and on to northern Taymyr Peninsula and Severnaya Zemlya), and R. t. pollicaris (north Pacific from northeastern Siberia, Kamchatka, Sea of Okhotsk and Kuril Isle through the Bering Sea to Alaska) (HBW 2014). Black-legged Kittiwake is common and widespread along coastlines in the Study Area during the breeding season, including the Chukchi Sea, the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Bay, the Greenland Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea. Some of these seabirds also winter in open water areas within Study Area, including the Norwegian and Greenland Seas, and Iceland (Figure 2.11).

Black-legged Kittiwake arrive on its breeding grounds beginning in January, with the breeding season from mid-May to mid-June. This gull breeds on coastal cliffs with narrow ledges and easy access to freshwater, in huge single- or mixed-species colonies, often exceeding 100,000 pairs. It also occasionally nests on glaciers or snow banks (where these have covered traditional cliff sites), on buildings and piers, or on flat, rocky or sandy sites up to 20 km inland. It disperses from the breeding colonies between July and August, often moulting in large flocks (thousands of individuals) before migrating to the open ocean. During the non-breeding season, Black-legged Kittiwake is highly pelagic, often remaining on the wing and occurring singly or in pairs, or concentrating at sea on continental shelves, areas of upwelling and at rich fish banks.

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Non-breeders may remain at sea during the breeding season; most young gulls are pelagic for 2–3 years, although 1-year-olds have occasionally been observed in the vicinity of colonies (though not the nest sites) (BNA 2014).

Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.11. Global Distribution of Rissa tridactyla.

Black-legged Kittiwake seeks prey by low near-water flight, feeding either on surface or within the top 1 m of the water column (HBW 2014). The diet of Black-legged Kittiwake consists primarily of marine fishes (e.g., sandeels, capelin, and herring) and invertebrates (e.g., shrimps and squid), and occasionally bird eggs. During the breeding season, it may also consume intertidal molluscs and crustaceans (e.g., crayfish), and plant matter (e.g., aquatic plants, tubers and grain). At sea during the winter, it will also feed on planktonic invertebrates, often exploiting sewage outfalls and fishing vessels, and taking other offal in estuaries (HBW 2014). This gull generally feeds within 50 km of the breeding colony. Black-legged Kittiwake sometimes pirates food from alcids, terns and seals, although it is also frequently a victim of skua piracy (HBW 2014). Egg predators for this species include Glaucous-winged Gulls, Glaucous Gulls, Great Black-backed Gulls, Common Ravens, Northwestern Crows, Bald Eagles, Peregrine Falcons, and red foxes (BNA 2014). Bald Eagles, Peregrine Falcons, Common Ravens, Pomarine Jaegers, Great Black-backed Gulls and Herring Gulls also regularly take adults or chicks (BNA 2014).

The total population of Black-legged Kittiwake is estimated at 17,000,000–18,000,000 individuals. Numerous IBA have been identified for this species, including Prince Leopold Island, Lancaster Sound (Nunavut; IBA Canada 2014), Søndre Isortoq (Greenland) (proposed), Appat, Ritenbenk (Greenland) (proposed), Islands and waters south and west of Upernavik town (Greenland) (proposed), South Spitsbergen National Park (Svalbard and

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Jan Mayen Islands), Bjørnøya (Bear Island) (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Hopen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), Preobrazheniya Island (Russia) (35 km2 confirmed; 3,450 km2 proposed), Lisburne Peninsula (US), Icy Cape (US) (proposed), Chukchi Sea nearshore (US) (proposed), and Barrow's Canyon and Smith Bay (US) (proposed) (BirdLife International 2012).

2.11.3 Species Resilience

Black-legged Kittiwake is a K-selected species, with small clutch size (1–3 eggs; BNA 2014), high parental care (both parents take it in turns to incubate the eggs, and brood the chicks until between 20 days of age to fledging; BNA 2014), late maturation (3–5 years of age; BNA 2014), long life expectancy (13 years; BNA 2014), and multiple reproductive events (potentially annually; BNA 2014). This gull had moderate to high hatching and fledging success (from 50–88% in various locations in Alaska; BNA 2014), although breeding effort thought to reduce life expectancy (possibly due to energy expenditure and/or elevated stress levels; BNA 2014). Because Black-legged Kittiwakes are colonial breeders, contaminated adults from an oil spill could potentially transfer oil to the breeding sites, which could decrease reproductive success if hydrocarbon compounds persisted at the sites for multiple generations (Piatt et al. 1990 in Stantec 2012). Population declines of this gull were documented in Prince William Sound following the Exxon Valdez oil spill; however, more recent studies found that breeding colonies in the area had not only recovered to pre-spill levels but had also increased by 1.6% since the 1970s (USFWS 2006 in Stantec 2012). Due its life history characteristics (long-lived and relatively slow to reproduce), Black-legged Kittiwake has low resilience to adverse effects from human activity, with slow recovery (OSPAR 2009b).

2.11.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During foraging and migration, the Black-legged Kittiwake regularly interacts with the following six AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; 3. Pelagic Open Water: (a) <1 m stratum; 4. Ice-Water Interface: (a) ice-water edges-annual ice; (b) ice-water edges-multi-year ice; 5. Water-Water Interface: (a) surface currents; (b) estuarine areas; and (c) areas of upwelling and downwelling; and 6. Water-Sediment Interface: (a) shorelines (including intertidal).

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2.12 Ivory Gull (Pagophila eburnea)

2.12.1 Justification for Selection as VEC

Ivory Gull is categorized as Near-threatened by the IUCN. It is also taken in subsistence hunting in northwest Alaska and Greenland (BNA 2014).

2.12.2 Species Description

Ivory Gull is a year-round circumpolar resident in the Arctic seas among pack ice with narrow leads and large open areas. Within the Study Area, this migratory species breeds in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Greenland Sea, the Barents Sea, the Kara Sea, the Laptev Sea, and the East Siberian Sea (Figure 2.12).

Source: HBW (2014).

Figure 2.12. Global Distribution of Pagophila eburnea.

The breeding season is between late-June and August, in colonies rarely exceeding 100 pairs. The Ivory Gull breeds on inaccessible, snow-free areas of rock on coastal cliffs up to 300 m high, broken ice-fields, and bare, level shorelines with low rocks. It departs from the breeding grounds between August and October, with most active migration to wintering areas occurring in November. During the non-breeding season, it is associated with edges of pack ice, showing preference for areas with 70–90% ice cover, and typically occurs singly or in flocks of up to 20 individuals. Gulls in less than fully adult plumage are rarely reported at or near breeding colonies (BNA 2014).

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Ivory Gull seeks prey by low near-water flight, feeding either on surface or within the top 1 m of the water column. It feeds mostly by hovering and contact dipping in open leads in ice-filled waters. The diet of Ivory Gull consists primarily of marine fishes (e.g., lanternfish, juvenile arctic cod) and invertebrates (e.g., large zooplankton), along with algae and carrion. Flocks of Ivory Gull gather in the spring at hooded and harp seal whelping sites, feeding on carrion and discarded placentae. It also follows polar bears to feed on scraps from their kills. Ivory Gulls, particularly eggs and young at breeding colonies, are preyed upon by polar bear, Arctic fox, Parasitic Jaeger, Long-tailed Jaeger, Glaucous Gull, Thayer’s Gull, and Snowy Owl (BNA 2014).

The total global population of Ivory Gull is estimated at 19,000–27,000 individuals. Critical habitat has been designated for this gull at 39 breeding colonies in Nunavut, including the following islands: Seymour, Cornwallis, Devon, Ellesmere, and Brodeur Peninsula of Baffin Island (Environment Canada 2014). An action plan is further scheduled for the Ivory Gull in 2018 (Environment Canada 2014). Several IBA have been identified for this gull, including Northwestern Brodeur Peninsula (Canada), Southwest Bylot (Canada), Eastern Devon Island Nunataks (Canada), Inglefield Mountains (Canada), Kilen (Greenland), Henrik Krøyer Holme (Greenland), Northeast Svalbard Nature Reserve (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands), and Izvestiy Tsik Islands (Russia).

2.12.3 Species Resilience

Ivory Gull is a K-selected species, with low clutch size (typically 1–3 eggs; BNA 2014), high parental care (both parents incubate the eggs and brood chicks in shifts; BNA 2014), long maturation (presumably >2 years of age; BNA 2014), long life expectancy (mean of 6.4 years, with a maximum of at least 17 years; BNA 2014), and multiple reproductive events (typically one clutch per year upon maturation; BNA 2014). Little is known regarding hatching or fledging success; Ivory Gulls from Canada may generally have lower breeding success than other gulls, as the proportion of immatures observed during at-sea or winter surveys is low (~5%) (BNA 2014). The Ivory Gull is particularly vulnerable to oil pollution owing to its extensive time spent at sea (Government of Canada 2012). Oiled Ivory Gulls have not been documented, but since this gull is generally far offshore it would not necessarily be expected to be capable of reaching land or be well documented (due to difficulties locating and recovering carcasses) after exposure; therefore, this species is considered at high risk from oil pollution (COSEWIC 2006a in Government of Canada 2012). Given the low total population levels, conservation status, K-selective lifestyle, and uncertainties regarding survivorship and recruitment levels, it is reasonable to assume that Ivory Gull has low resiliency, and would likely either require a substantial length of time to recover after an oil spill event, or may not be capable of full recovery.

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2.12.4 VEC-AEC Interaction

During foraging, migration and overwintering, the Ivory Gull interacts with the following six AECs and, where applicable, the associated sub-compartments indicated by alphabetic designation.

1. Atmosphere; 2. Air-Water Interface; 3. Pelagic Open Water: (a) <1 m stratum; 4. Ice-Water Interface: (a) ice-water edges-annual ice; (b) ice-water edges-multi-year ice; and (c) ice-water edges-polynya; 5. Water-Water Interface: (a) surface currents; and 6. Water-Sediment Interface: (a) shorelines (including intertidal).

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3.0 References

Aps, R., M. Fetissov, K. Herkül, J. Kotta, R. Leiger, Ü. Mander, and Ü. Suursaar. 2009. Bayesian interference for predicting potential oil spill related ecological risk. WIT Transactions on the Built Environment 108: 149-159. Bentzen, R. and A.N. Powell. 2012. Population dynamics of king eiders breeding in Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 76: 1011-1020. BirdLife International. 2012. Marine IBA e-atlas. Available at http://maps.birdlife.org/marineIBAs/default.html. BirdLife International. 2014. ICUN Red List for Birds. Available at http://www.birdlife.org. BNA (The Birds of North America). 2014. The Birds of North America Online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Available at http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna. COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada). 2007. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Red Knot Calidris canutus in Canada. COSEWIC, Ottawa. vii + 58 p. Environment Canada. 2014. Recovery strategy for the Ivory Gull (Pagophila eburnea) in Canada. Species at Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series. Environment Canada, Ottawa. iv + 21 p. FWS (Fisheries and Wildlife Service). 2007. Biological opinion on the effects of the Akutan Airport Project on Steller’s Eiders (Polysticta stelleri) and northern sea otter (Enhydra lutris kenyoni). 68 p. + appendices. Garland, S. and P. Thomas. 2009. Recovery plan for Red Knot, rufa subspecies (Calidris canutus rufa), in Newfoundland and Labrador. Wildlife Division, Department of Environment and Conservation. Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, Corner Brook, NL. iv + 12 p. Government of Canada. 2012. Species of conservation concern. Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada. Available at https://www.aadnc- aandc.gc.ca/eng/1315766228731/1315920299014. HBW (Handbook of the Birds of the World). 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Available at http://www.hbw.com/. HELCOM. 2013. Species information sheet: Cepphus grille. 8 p. Henkel, J.R., B.J. Sigel, and C.M. Taylor. 2012. Large-scale impacts of the Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill: Can local disturbance affect distant ecosystems through migratory shorebirds? BioScience 62(7): 676-685. IBA (Important Bird Areas) Canada. 2014. IBA Canada Important Bird Areas: Prince Leopold Island, Lancaster Sound, Nunavut. Available at http://www.ibacanada.com/site.jsp?siteID=NU006&seedet=Y. Lance, B.K., D.B. Irons, S.J. Kendall, and L.L. McDonald. 2001. An evaluation of marine bird population trends following the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Prince William Sound, Alaska. Marine Pollution Bulletin 42(4): 298-309.

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Mallory, M.L. 2006. The Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis) in Arctic Canada: Ecology, threats, and what it tells us about marine environmental conditions. NRC Canada. Environmental Reviews 14: 187-216. Marz, S. 2010. Arctic sea ice ecosystem: A summary of species that depend on and associate with sea ice and projected impacts from sea ice changes. Prepared for CAFF. 64 p. Mosbech, A. 2000. Predicting impacts of oil spills – Can ecological science cope? A case study concerning birds in environmental impact assessments. National Environmental Research Institute, Denmark. 126 p. OSPAR (Commission). 2009a. Background document for Thick-billed Murre Uria lomvia. OSPAR Commission Biodiversity Series. Rep. by K. Tanner and N. Varty for BirdLife International. 13 p. + annexes. OSPAR. 2009b. Background document for Black-legged Kittiwakes Rissa tridactyla tridactyla. OSPAR Commission Biodiversity Series. Rep. by N. Varty and K. Tanner for BirdLife International. 16 p. + annexes. Pihl, S. 2001. European species action plan for Steller’s Eider (Polysticta stelleri). European Union Action Plans for 8 Priority Bird Species – Steller’s Eider. 26 p. Quakenbush, L. and R. Suydam. 1999. Periodic nonbreeding of Steller’s eiders near Barrow, Alaska, with speculations on possible causes. Pages 34-40 In: R.I. Goudie, M.R. Petersen, and G.J. Robertson (eds.) Behaviour and ecology of sea ducks. Canadian Wildlife Service Occasional Paper No. 100. Stantec (Consulting Limited). 2012. Effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill on marine birds: A literature review. Enbridge Northern Gateway Project. 34 p. US Department of the Interior. 2011. Biological evaluation for oil and gas activities on the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea Planning Areas prepared for the Fish and Wildlife Service on polar bear and polar bear critical habitat, Steller’s Eider, Spectacled Eider and Spectacled Eider critical habitat, Kittlitz’s Murrelet, and Yellow-billed Loon. Rep. by the Office of Environment, Alaska OCS Region, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement, US Department of the Interior. 163 p. + appendices. USFWS (United States Fisheries Wildlife Service). 2001. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Final determination of critical habitat for the Spectacled Eider. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior. 50 CFR Part 17, RIN 1018-AF92. Federal Register 66(25): 9146-9185. Available at http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr3706.pdf. USFWS. 2008. Kure/Humboldt Bay oil spill: Final damage assessment and restoration plan/environmental assessment. Rep. by California Department of Fish and Game, US Fish and Wildlife Service. 74 p. + appendices. USFWS. 2013a. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants: Proposed threatened status for the Rufa Red Knot (Calidris canutus rufa). US Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior. 50 CFR Part 17, RIN 1018-AY17. Federal Register 78(189): 60024-60098. USFWS. 2013b. Rufa Red Knot: Calidris canutus rufa. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior. 2 p.

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USFWS. 2014. Service reopens comment period on proposal to protect Red Knot under Endangered Species Act. US Fish and Wildlife Service Newsroom. Available at http://www.fws.gov/midwest/news/717.html. Wiens, A. 1996. Oil, seabirds and science: The effects of the Exxon Valdez oil spill. Bioscience 46(8): 587-597. Wiese, F.K., G.J. Robertson, and A.J. Gaston. 2004. Impacts of chronic marine oil pollution and the murre hunt in Newfoundland on Thick-billed Murre Uria lomvia in the eastern Canadian Arctic. Biological Conservation 116: 205-216.

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Appendix 1:

Interaction of Marine-associated Bird VECs and AECs and Other VEC-associated Data

Common Name Scientific Name Sources for General Distribution General Distribution (Study Area Sub-areas with Records of IUCN Status Arctic Environmental Compartments Occurrence) Atmosphere Air-Water Pelagic Open Water Ice-Water Interface Water-Water Interfaces Water-Sediment Interface Areas of Special Biological Significance Interface (SML) <1 m Stratum 1 to <10 m 10 to <100 m 100 to 1,000 m Ice-Water Edges Under Ice Within Ice Surface Estuarine Areas of Upwelling Shorelines (incl. Shallow Subtidal Deep Subtidal (10 Deep Subtidal (100 Deep Subtidal Stratum Stratum Stratum Annual Ice Multi-year Ice Polynya Annual Ice Multi-year Ice Currents Areas and/or Down-welling intertidal) (<10 m) to <100 m) to <1,000 m) (>1,000 m)

Steller's Eider Polysticta stelleri BirdLife International 2012, 2014; BNA Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Laptev Vulnerable x x x x x -Yana delta (Russia) (IBA) 2014 Sea, East Siberian Sea -Lena delta (Russia) (IBA) -Terpyey-Tumus (Russia) (IBA) -Bezymyannaya and Gribovaya Bays and adjoining waters (Russia) (IBA) Spectacled Eider Somateria fischeri BirdLife International 2012, 2014; BNA Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea Least Concern x x x x x x x x x x -West Chaun plain (Russia) (IBA) 2014 -Inchoun and Uelen lagoons (Russia) (IBA) -Ledyard Bay (Alaska) (USFWS Critical Habitat) d King Eider Somateria spectabilis BirdLife International 2012, 2014; BNA Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, the Least Concern x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x -Southeast Svalbard Nature Reserve (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) 2014; HBW 2014 Lincoln Sea, Baffin Bay, Davis Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian -Inner parts of Kongsfjorden (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) Sea, Barents Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian -Russki Zavorat peninsula and eastern part of Malozemelskaya tundra (Russia) (IBA) Sea -Khaypudyrskaya Bay (Islands of B. Zelenets, Dolgi, Matveyev; Russia) (IBA) -Terpyey-Tumus (Russia) (IBA) -Lena delta (Russia) (IBA) -Yana delta (Russia) (IBA) -West Chaun plain (Russia) (IBA) -Beaufort Sea nearshore (US) (IBA) -Barrow Canyon and Smith Bay (US) (propsoed IBA) -Chukchi Sea nearshore (US) (proposed IBA) -Umiiarfik (Greenland) (IBA) -Nordfjord and adjacent valley (Greenland) (IBA) -Aqajarua-Sullorsuaq (Mudderbugten and Kvandalen) (Greenland) (IBA) -Northern part of Store Hellefiskebanke (Greenland) (IBA) Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis BirdLife International 2012, 2014; BNA Chukchi Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Lincoln Sea, Baffin Bay, Least Concern x x x x x x x x -Jan Mayen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) 2014; HBW 2014 Davis Strait, North Atlantic Ocean, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, -Bjørnøya (Bear Island) (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) Barents Sea, White Sea, Kara Sea, East Siberian Sea -Prince Leopold Island (Canada) (IBA) -Cape Vera (Canada) (IBA) -Hobhouse Inlet (Canada) (IBA) -Baillarge Bay (Canada) (IBA) -Buchan Gulf (Canada) (IBA) -Scott Inlet (Canada) (IBA) Red Knot Calidris canutus BirdLife International 2014; BNA 2014; Chukchi Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Lincoln Sea, Baffin Bay, Least Concern x x x HWB 2014 Greenland Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea

Spoon-billed Sandpiper Calidris pygmea BirdLife International 2014 Chukchi Sea Critically Endangered x x x -Moroshechnaya and several local wildlife refuges on the Chukotsk peninsula (Russia) Dunlin Calidris alpina BirdLife International 2014 Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Arctic Ocean, Canadian Arctic Least Concern x x x Archipelago, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea Thick-billed Murre Uria lomvia BirdLife International 2012, 2014; BNA Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Greenland Least Concern x x x x x x x x x x x -Prince Leopold Island (Canada) (320 km2 confirmed; 2,438 km2 proposed; IBA) 2014; HBW 2014 Sea, Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East -Southwest Bylot (Canada) (2,000 km2 confirmed; 3,191 km2 proposed; IBA) Siberian Sea -Cape Graham Moore (Canada) (330 km2 confirmed; 2,032 km2 proposed; IBA) -Cambrige Point (Canada) (1,900 km2 confirmed; 5,823 km2 proposed; IBA) -Reid Bay (Canada) (5 km2 confirmed; 1,112 km2 proposed; IBA) -Hakluyt Island (Greenland) (IBA) -Carey Islands (Greenland) (IBA) -Saunders Island (Greenland) (IBA) -Saunders Island/Coast between Appaliarsulissuaq and Kap Atholl (Greenland) (proposed IBA) -Apparsuit (Kap Shackleton) and Kippaku (Greenland) (proposed IBA) -Islands and waters south and west of Upernavick town (Greenland) (IBA) -Jan Mayen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -South Spitsbergen National Park (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Bjørnøya (Bear Island) (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Hopen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Bezymyannaya and Gribovaya Bays and adjoining waters (Russia) (IBA)

Black Guillemot Cepphus grylle BirdLife International 2012, 2014; BNA Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Least Concern x x x x x x x x x x x x -Prince Leopold Island (Canada) (320 km2 confirmed; 2,438 km2 proposed; IBA) 2014; HBW 2014 Bay, Davis Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, -Islands and waters south and west of Upernavik town (Greenland) (IBA) White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea -Jan Mayen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Northwest Spitsbergen National Park (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Forlandet National Park (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Bjørnøya (Bear Island) (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Hopen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Bezymyannaya and Gribovaya Bays and adjoining waters (Russia) (IBA)

Kittlitz's Murrelet Brachyramphus brevirostris BirdLife International 2012, 2014; BNA Chukchi Sea, East Siberian Sea Near-threatened x x x x x x x x x x 2014; HBW 2014 Black-legged Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla BirdLife International 2012, 2014; BNA Chukchi Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Bay, Greenland Least Concern x x x x x x x x x -Prince Leopold Island, Lancaster Sound (Nunavut) (IBA) 2014; HBW 2014; IBA Canada 2014 Sea, Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East -Søndre Isortoq (Greenland) (proposed IBA) Siberian Sea -Appat, Ritenbenk (Greenland) (proposed IBA) -Islands and waters south and west of Upernavik town (Greenland) (proposed IBA) -South Spitsbergen National Park (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Bjørnøya (Bear Island) (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Hopen Island (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Preobrazheniya Island (Russia) (35 km2 confirmed; 3,450 km2 proposed; IBA) -Lisburne Peninsula (US) (IBA) -Icy Cape (US) (proposed IBA) -Chukchi Sea nearshore (US) (proposed IBA) -Barrow's Canyon and Smith Bay (US) (proposed IBA) Ivory Gull Pagophila eburnea BirdLife International 2012, 2014; BNA Chukchi Sea, Beaufort Sea, Canadian Arctic Archipelago, Baffin Near-threatened x x x x x x x x -Islands with breeding colonies in Nunavut (39 locations; Seymour, Cornwallis, Devon, Ellesmere, and Brodeur Peninsula on Baffin 2014; Environment Canada 2014; HBW Bay, Davis Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, Barents Sea, Island (Critical Habitat) 2014 White Sea, Kara Sea, Laptev Sea, East Siberian Sea -Northwestern Brodeur Peninsula (Canada) (IBA) -Southwest Bylot (Canada) (IBA) -Eastern Devon Island Nunataks (Canada) (IBA) -Inglefield Mountains (Canada) (IBA) -Kilen (Greenland) (IBA) -Henrik Krøyer Holme (Greenland) (IBA) -Northeast Svalbard Nature Reserve (Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands) (IBA) -Izvestiy Tsik Islands (Russia) (IBA) References: BirdLIfe International. 2012. Marine IBA e-atlas. Available at http://maps.birdlife.org/marineIBAs/default.html. BirdLife International. 2014. ICUN Red List for Birds. Available at http://www.birdlife.org. BNA (The Birds of North America). 2014. The Birds of North America Online. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Available at http://bna.birds.cornell.edu.bnaproxy.birds.cornell.edu/bna. USFWS (United States Fisheries Wildlife Service). 2001. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; Final determination of critical habitat for the Spectacled Eider. US Fish and Wildlife Service, Department of the Interior. 50 CFR Part 17, RIN 1018-AF92. Federal Register, 66(25): 9146-9185. Available at http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr3706.pdf. HBW (Handbook of the Birds of the World). 2014. Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive. Available at http://www.hbw.com/. IBA (Important Bird Areas) Canada. 2014. IBA Canada Important Bird Areas: Prince Leopold Island, Lancaster Sound, Nunavut. Available at http://www.ibacanada.com/site.jsp?siteID=NU006&seedet=Y. Environment Canada. 2014. Recovery strategy for the Ivory Gull (Pagophila eburnea ) in Canada. Species at Risk Act Recovery Strategy Series. Environment Canada, Ottawa. iv + 21 p. Total Population Estimate Subsistence Seasonality of Common Name Scientific Name (No. Individuals) Use Subpopulations Arctic Use Sexual Exposure Differences - Breeders west of Khatanga Gulf (western Russia) to Novaya Zemlya archipelago Males exposed while females nesting inland; a Steller's Eider Polysticta stelleri 110,000-125,000 Y - Breeders east of Khatanga Gulf (eastern Russia) & Arctic Alaskan plain -Year-round otherwise equal exposure

Males exposed for ~11 months/year while females - Two breeding populations in Alaska and young remain on breeding grounds; b,c Spectacled Eider Somateria fischeri ~400,000 Y - One breeding population in Russia -Summer breeding females/young exposed for 8-9 months

Males exposed year-round except for several weeks on breeding grounds; females not exposed while on inland breeding grounds for several b King Eider Somateria spectabilis ~885,000 Y -Two populatios in North America: one winters in the west and one in the east -Year-round months b Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis 20,000,000 Y -Northern and southern -Year-round None -C. c. canutus (breeds in northwest Russia) -C. c. islandica (breeds in high latitudes of Arctic Canada, Greenland and Svalbard) -C. c. rufa (breeds in low latitudes of Arctic Canada) -C. c. rogersi (breeds on the Chukotka Peninsula, Siberia) Females exposed after they abandon hatchlings, d ~1,310,000 -C. c. roselaari (breeds on Wrangel Island, Siberia and northwest Alaska) while males remain on nesting grounds until e Red Knot Calidris canutus rufa 13,500-15,000 Y -C. c. roselaari (breeds in the New Siberian archipelago) -Summer breeding chicks fledged

Females potentially 2-3 weeks longer than males b Spoon-billed Sandpiper Calidris pygmea 2,000-2,800 pairs Y None -Summer breeding when females abandon chicks -C. a. arctica -C. a. schinzii -C. a. alpina -C. a. centralis -C. a. sakhalina -C. a. actites -C. a. kistchinski -C. a. arcticola -C. a. pacifica a Dunlin Calidris alpina 4,600,000-6,500,000 Y -C. a. hudsonia -Summer breeding None -U. l. lomvia -U. l. eleonorae -U. l. heckeri a Thick-billed Murre Uria lomvia 22,000,000 Y -U. l. arra -Year-round None -C. g. mandtii (Arctic eastern North America south to Labrador and northern Newfoundland, western and eastern Greenland, Jan Mayen and Svalbard east through eastern Siberia to northern Alaska) -C. g. arcticus (north America [south of mandtii] and southern Greenland to British Isles, Norway, southwestern Sweden, Denmark, Murmansk and White Sea) -C. g. islandicus (Iceland) -C. g. faeroeensis (Faeroes) a Black Guillemot Cepphus grylle 400,000-700,000 Y -C. g. grylle (Baltic Sea) -Year-round None a Kittlitz's Murrelet Brachyramphus brevirostris 48,000-82,000 N -Attu Island and Gulf of Alaska populations are distinct evolutionarily significant units -Year-round None -R. t. tridactyla (north Atlantic from north-central Canada and northeastern US east through Greenland to western and northern Europe, and on to northern Taymyr Peninsula and Severnaya Zemlya) -R. t. pollicaris (north Pacific from northeastern Siberia, Kamchatka, Sea of Okhotsk and Kuril Isle a Black-legged Kittiwake Rissa tridactyla 17,000,000-18,000,000 Y through the Bering Sea to Alaska) -Year-round None a Ivory Gull Pagophila eburnea 19,000-27,000 Y None -Year-round None a BirdLife International 2014 b HBW (Handbook of the Birds of the World) 2014 c Estimated in mid 1970s d Modified from HBW 2014 based on updated rufa population estimate in COSEWIC 2007 e COSEWIC (Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada). 2007. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the Red Knot Calidris canutus in Canada. COSEWIC, Ottawa. vii + 58 p.