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HEALTH AND DISEASE ON THE DUTCH HIGH SEAS: AN ANALYSIS OF MEDICAL SUPPLIES FROM BATAVIA, VERGULDE DRAAK AND ZEEWIJK A Thesis by CORAL AM-ERIKA EGINTON Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Chair of Committee, Luis Filipe Vieira de Castro Committee Members, Kevin J. Crisman April Hatfield Wendy Van Duivenvoorde Head of Department, Cynthia Werner May 2014 Major Subject: Anthropology Copyright 2014 Coral Am-Erika Eginton ABSTRACT During the 17th and 18th centuries the Dutch East India Company or Vereenigde Oost- Indische Compagnie (henceforth the VOC or the Company) maintained its presence as a power of trade in Asia by establishing footholds and even monopolizing spice markets through its active and successful network of maritime transportation. Unlike its predecessors in the Indies, the VOC was not interested in colonization so much as pure economic gain. It was understood from the inception of the Company in 1602 that making a profit was dependent upon the safe arrival and return of cargo laden ships, the chances of which could be greatly increased by the presence of ship surgeons who worked to keep the crew healthy enough to function. Thus it became Company policy to employ ship surgeons on every outbound and homeward vessel and by the end of its two hundred year presence in Asia close to ten thousand surgeons had served aboard ships heading to the Indies. During the 1970s the Maritime Archaeology Department of the Western Australia Museum conducted full-scale excavations of three VOC ships off the coast of Western Australia. The artifact collections of Batavia (1629), Vergulde Draak (1656) and Zeewijk (1727) yielded archaeological evidence for the presence of surgeons practicing aboard these ships. Ship surgeons were a unique class of medical practitioner whose profession was significantly different at sea than it was on land. These men acted as barber, surgeon, and apothecary to crews commonly exceeding two hundred individuals. They faced diseases that had never before been encountered and commonly found themselves treating the casualties of maritime war in addition to treating the daily dietary imbalances and ailments of a standard early modern life. This thesis will explore the education, career, and status of ship surgeons employed in the VOC and provide an in-depth analysis of the artifacts recovered from Batavia, Vergulde Draak and Zeewijk that are associated with the surgeon’s daily practices. As the ships in question date to the rise ii and height of Company power in Asia, they provide an excellent snapshot of the surgeon’s profession at the busiest and most dangerous periods in VOC shipping. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Though many people were influential and encouraging throughout the long and arduous process of completing this master’s thesis I would like to thank a few in particular. To Filipe Castro: thank you for always entertaining my most outlandish ideas and encouraging me to pursue the path I wanted, instead of the path that got me there quickest. To Wendy Van Duivenvoorde: thank you for taking me under your wing in Australia and leading me to an amazing research opportunity and an even more amazing life experience. To Kevin Crisman: thank you for introducing me to the new world and keeping me structured, concise, and grounded. To April Hatfield: thank you for stepping in and seeing me through to the end of this journey. I would like to acknowledge and thank the entire team of the Western Australia Museum Maritime Archaeology Department and the Shipwreck Galleries including Jeremy Green, Myra Stanbury, Patrick Baker, Mac McCarthy, Corioli Souter and Ross Anderson. I have so much gratitude and affection for Jeremy and Susan Green without whose hospitality, generosity, constant companionship and fantastic cooking I would have been entirely lost. You two are such amazing people with truly big hearts. I fell in love with Fremantle because of the effort you made to show me its charms. Thank you to the Institute of Nautical Archaeology (INA), the Department of Anthropology at Texas A&M University, the Melbern G. Glasscock Center for Humanities Research and Dr. Peter Amaral who all believed in me and helped fund my research. Thank you to Mark Polzer, without whom I would never have thought to pursue this avenue of study. iv To my fellow students of the Nautical Archaeology Program (NAP) specifically Kelby Rose, Veronica Morriss and Lindsey Thomas: you are all shining stars who helped to brighten the sometimes gloomy College Station. I wish you the greatest success and hope to see you again sometime in the not-so-wide-world of maritime archaeology. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................................. viii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER I: METHODOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1 CHAPTER II: INTRODUCTION TO THE VOC AND THE SHIPS BATAVIA, VERGULDE DRAAK, AND ZEEWIJK .................................................................................................. 4 A Brief History of the Dutch East India Company ................................................................... 4 Outfitting and Trade Routes ...................................................................................................... 7 The Story of Batavia ............................................................................................................... 10 The Story of Vergulde Draak .................................................................................................. 12 The Story of Zeewijk ............................................................................................................... 15 The Presence of Surgeons ....................................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER III: THE EDUCATION, OCCUPATION, AND STATUS OF SHIP SURGEONS IN THE VOC ........................................................................................................ 22 Surgeons First Arise ................................................................................................................ 23 Education ................................................................................................................................. 25 Career Options on Land .......................................................................................................... 27 Career Options at Sea .............................................................................................................. 29 Employment in the VOC ......................................................................................................... 30 Shipboard Life ......................................................................................................................... 35 Success? .................................................................................................................................. 37 CHAPTER IV: BARBERING DUTIES AND TOOLS ....................................................................... 40 Barber’s Bowls ........................................................................................................................ 44 Razors ...................................................................................................................................... 51 Scissors .................................................................................................................................... 54 Combs ...................................................................................................................................... 57 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 60 vi Page CHAPTER V: SURGICAL DUTIES AND TOOLS ........................................................................... 63 Required Instruments .............................................................................................................. 64 Handles .................................................................................................................................... 72 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 74 CHAPTER VI: APOTHECARY DUTIES AND TOOLS ................................................................... 79 Mortar and Pestle..................................................................................................................... 81 Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 91 Apothecary Jars ....................................................................................................................
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