The Prosecutor
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Chapter 2 Political Background
Chapter 2 Political Background Early History The area presently occupied by Rwanda has been inhabited since the 1300s. By the 17th century a kingdom was established inhabited by Hutus, Tutsis and Twa. Rwanda first became a German protectorate in 1884, and under the name Ruanda-Urundi, became part of German East Africa in 1890. After the First World War, it came under Belgian administration under a League of Nations mandate, and after World War II Ruanda-Urundi became a UN trust territory with Belgium as the administrative authority. Towards Independence After the Second World War, Rwanda continued to be administered by Belgium. In 1959, as the independence movement gathered pace, the ruling Tutsi elite formed a political party, Union Nationale Rwandaise. The Belgian authorities encouraged the Hutu majority also to aspire to political power and, in the same year, a rival party, Parti de l’émancipation du peuple Hutu (Parmehutu), was established. As the 1960 local elections approached, Parmehutu initiated a Hutu uprising resulting in the death of many Tutsis and forcing King Kigeri V and tens of thousands of Tutsis to flee into exile in Uganda and Burundi. In 1961 the monarchy was abolished. Independent Rwanda Rwanda achieved independence from Belgium in 1962, with Parmehutu leader Gregoire Kayibanda as President; many more Tutsis left the country and those who remained faced continuing state-sponsored violence and institutionalised discrimination. The most serious eruption of violence at this time was triggered in 1963 by an incursion from Burundi of exiled Rwandan Tutsis and resulted in the death of at least 15,000 Tutsis at the hands of Hutu gangs. -
Out of Africa
Out of Africa Chris McGreal The Guardian, March 27, 2009 Chris McGreal began repor- the infection spread across Africa. ting from Africa at a time of pro- But running in parallel were the found change. He witnessed both worst of times. Weeks after watching the unbridled optimism of Nelson Mandela vote, I was standing at a Mandela’s release and the hor- church among thousands of corpses ri- rors of the Rwandan genocide. sing from the ground. It was about 3am Two decades later, in his final and I had just listened to a small group dispatch, he relives the moments of nuns in the Rwandan town of Kibuye that affected him most deeply, describe the massacre of thousands of and asks what the future holds for Tutsis in the Roman Catholic church. this great continent Eleven thousand died there in a single “”hey were the best of times in day. Another 10,000 were murdered in Africa, and the worst. They were the the football stadium the next. years when South Africa was swept The bodies were swiftly buried away by the belief that it was a na- around the church but rains washed tion blessed, a moral beacon to the the soil away, and everywhere the re- world, symbolised by a single moment mains of people frozen in futile de- as Nelson Mandela stood outside a fence against bullets and machetes small KwaZulu school in April 1994, were emerging from the soil. Women, dropped his vote into the ballot box children, old men - no one was spared, with a cross next to his own name, and not even the priest. -
The International Response to Conflict and Genocide:Lessom from the Rwanda Experience
The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience March 1996 Published by: Steering Committee of the Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda Editor: David Millwood Cover illustrations: Kiure F. Msangi Graphic design: Designgrafik, Copenhagen Prepress: Dansk Klich‚, Copenhagen Printing: Strandberg Grafisk, Odense ISBN: 87-7265-335-3 (Synthesis Report) ISBN: 87-7265-331-0 (1. Historical Perspective: Some Explanatory Factors) ISBN: 87-7265-332-9 (2. Early Warning and Conflict Management) ISBN: 87-7265-333-7 (3. Humanitarian Aid and Effects) ISBN: 87-7265-334-5 (4. Rebuilding Post-War Rwanda) This publication may be reproduced for free distribution and may be quoted provided the source - Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda - is mentioned. The report is printed on G-print Matt, a wood-free, medium-coated paper. G-print is manufactured without the use of chlorine and marked with the Nordic Swan, licence-no. 304 022. 2 The International Response to Conflict and Genocide: Lessons from the Rwanda Experience Study 2 Early Warning and Conflict Management by Howard Adelman York University Toronto, Canada Astri Suhrke Chr. Michelsen Institute Bergen, Norway with contributions by Bruce Jones London School of Economics, U.K. Joint Evaluation of Emergency Assistance to Rwanda 3 Contents Preface 5 Executive Summary 8 Acknowledgements 11 Introduction 12 Chapter 1: The Festering Refugee Problem 17 Chapter 2: Civil War, Civil Violence and International Response 20 (1 October 1990 - 4 August -
We Are All Rwandans”
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles “We are all Rwandans”: Imagining the Post-Genocidal Nation Across Media A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Film and Television by Andrew Phillip Young 2016 ABSTRACT OF DISSERTATION “We are all Rwandans”: Imagining the Post-Genocidal Nation Across Media by Andrew Phillip Young Doctor of Philosophy in Film and Television University of California, Los Angeles, 2016 Professor Chon A. Noriega, Chair There is little doubt of the fundamental impact of the 1994 Rwanda genocide on the country's social structure and cultural production, but the form that these changes have taken remains ignored by contemporary media scholars. Since this time, the need to identify the the particular industrial structure, political economy, and discursive slant of Rwandan “post- genocidal” media has become vital. The Rwandan government has gone to great lengths to construct and promote reconciliatory discourse to maintain order over a country divided along ethnic lines. Such a task, though, relies on far more than the simple state control of media message systems (particularly in the current period of media deregulation). Instead, it requires a more complex engagement with issues of self-censorship, speech law, public/private industrial regulation, national/transnational production/consumption paradigms, and post-traumatic media theory. This project examines the interrelationships between radio, television, newspapers, the ii Internet, and film in the contemporary Rwandan mediascape (which all merge through their relationships with governmental, regulatory, and funding agencies, such as the Rwanda Media High Council - RMHC) to investigate how they endorse national reconciliatory discourse. -
Where Will Another United Nations Contingent Come from After the One Deployed Now Goes Home Empty-Handed ? [English Translation]
Kangura No. 56 Editorial Where Will Another United Nations Contingent Come From After the One Deployed Now Goes Home Empty-Handed ? [English translation] Hassan Ngeze Kangura, February 1994 Unamir troops will re- will quickly fade into oblivion with- turn after over thirty of out knowing it. That is why out of the over one hundred newspapers that them have been killed were founded, not more than five have survived. The only reason is that some It is usually said that we predict the take up the profession just to earn a future, but the present revelation by living, without conviction or love of the Kangura is categorical. We have al- profession. ways held that the journalist that the people need is one who is capable of analyzing the time, on the basis of his- How did the Inkotanyi tory, while contemplating the present and predicting the future. By so doing, newspapers cease to ap- he appreciates the good things and dis- pear? approves of the bad. This is how Kan- gura’s articles have become successful. We started the private press in 1985, But credit for the success of Kangura over nine years ago. We [Hassan Ngeze does not go only to a single individual and Vincent Ravi Rwabukwisi] were but equally to the behavior of the jour- the first to realize the need for a pri- nalists and those supporting the pub- vate press. On the spot, we found lication. publications like Kinyamateka, Dia- logue and other government newspa- pers. As we loved the profession, we How does the press were even undaunted by the danger succeed? we incurred, namely death and im- prisonment. -
Why Waning Wars Wax; a Relook at the Failure of Arusha Peace Accord, the Peace Agreement-Implementation Gap and the Onset of the Rwandan Genocide
Journal of Global Peace and Conflict June 2016, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 33-47 ISSN: 2333-584X(Print), 2333-5858 (Online) Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved. Published by American Research Institute for Policy Development DOI: 10.15640/jgpc.v4n1a2 URL: https://doi.org/10.15640/jgpc.v4n1a2 Why Waning Wars Wax; a Relook at the Failure of Arusha Peace Accord, the Peace Agreement-Implementation Gap and the Onset of the Rwandan Genocide. Edwin Wuadom Warden 1 Abstract The signing of peace agreement does not always end conflicts. Rather, dying conflicts have resurrected after the failure of peace implementation. This article introduces the concept of Peace Agreement-Implementation Gap (PAIG) as an explanation to why waning wars wax after peace agreement. The Arusha Peace Accord (APA) and the infamous Rwandan Genocide is revisited to examine the role of spoilers and incentive incompatibility in the failure of peace agreement. The article argues that the negotiation of the APA was flawed by the exclusion of key stakeholders who later became substantively organised spoilers, thus, undermining the peace agreement. Additionally, with a lack of potential benefit, there was minimal international commitment to the implementation of the APA. Ultimately, the reluctance of strong powers to commit troops in a difficult field coupled with the internal wrangling of local spoilers hindered the successful implementation of the APA, which in turn led to the genocide. Keywords: Spoiler, Rwandan genocide, Peace Agreement-Implementation Gap, Conflict. Introduction In April 1994, war broke out in the Rwanda between Hutus and Tutsis in what later become known as the Rwandan genocide. -
Rwamakuba Ictr-98-44C-T
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda Tribunal pénal international pour le Rwanda UNITED NATIONS NATIONS UNIES OR: ENG TRIAL CHAMBER III Before Judge: Dennis C. M. Byron, Presiding Karin Hökborg Gberdao Gustave Kam Registrar: Adama Dieng Date: 20 September 2006 THE PROSECUTOR v. André RWAMAKUBA Case No. ICTR-98-44C-T JUDGEMENT Office of the Prosecutor: Defence Counsel Dior Fall David Hooper and Andreas O’Shea Iain Morley Adama Niane Tamara Cummings-John Judgement 20 September 2006 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................................................................................3 CHAPTER I – CHARGES AGAINST THE ACCUSED...................................................................................................6 CHAPTER II - FINDINGS ....................................................................................................................................................13 I. RULES ON EVIDENTIARY MATTERS.................................................................................................................13 I.1. Presumption of Innocence......................................................................................................................................13 I.2. Chamber’s Discretionary power in the Appreciation of the Evidence ...........................................................14 II. FACTUAL FINDINGS .................................................................................................................................................14 -
Report on the Rwanda Media Experience After The
IMS assessment mission: The Rwanda media experience from the genocide International Media Support • Report • March 2003 Monique Alexis, IMS Consultant Ines Mpambara, Co-director of Rwanda’s School of Journalism Contents 1 Introduction ............................................................................. 3 1.1 Background for the mission .............................................................................3 1.2 Mission Objectives..........................................................................................3 1.3 Method and Scope of work ..............................................................................3 1.4 Structure of the report....................................................................................4 2 The Rwandan Context............................................................... 5 2.1 Political background .......................................................................................5 3 The media and the genocide ................................................... 10 3.1 Historical development of the Rwandan media before the genocide .................... 10 3.2 The media during the genocide: the hate media............................................... 14 4 The media after the genocide ................................................. 19 4.1 Reconstruction of a destroyed media sector (1994 - 2003)................................ 19 4.2 Today: Absence of pluralism and constant threats and pressures ....................... 20 4.3 The new Press Law and the High Press Council -
Beyond the Rhetoric Beyond The
June 1993 Vol. 5, No. 7 BEYOND THE RHETORIC Continuing Human Rights Abuses in Rwanda Table of Contents Introduction.............................................................................................1 Background to the Conflict.............................................................2 The International Commission on Human Rights Abuses in Rwanda ........................................................................................................................3 New Massacres in the Northwest ................................................5 Elsewhere in Rwanda.........................................................................6 Killings in February and March......................................................7 Abuses by the Rwandan Armed Forces......................................7 Living with Fear....................................................................................12 The Displaced.......................................................................................15 Response of the Rwandan Government.................................16 Abuses by the Rwandan Patriotic Front.................................23 The International Role....................................................................25 Conclusion............................................................................................26 Recommendations...........................................................................28 INTRODUCTION More than 300 Tutsi and members of political parties opposed to Rwandan President Juvenal -
ORIGINAL: ENGLISH TRIAL CHAMBER I Before: Judge Erik Møse
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda Tribunal pénal international pour le Rwanda ORIGINAL: ENGLISH TRIAL CHAMBER I Before: Judge Erik Møse, presiding Judge Jai Ram Reddy Judge Sergei Alekseevich Egorov Registrar: Adama Dieng Date: 18 December 2008 THE PROSECUTOR v. Théoneste BAGOSORA Gratien KABILIGI Aloys NTABAKUZE Anatole NSENGIYUMVA Case No. ICTR-98-41-T JUDGEMENT AND SENTENCE Office of the Prosecutor: Counsel for the Defence: Barbara Mulvaney Raphaël Constant Christine Graham Allison Turner Kartik Murukutla Paul Skolnik Rashid Rashid Frédéric Hivon Gregory Townsend Peter Erlinder Drew White Kennedy Ogetto Gershom Otachi Bw’Omanwa The Prosecutor v. Théoneste Bagosora et al., Case No. ICTR-98-41-T TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 1 1. Overview ................................................................................................................... 1 2. The Accused ............................................................................................................. 8 2.1 Théoneste Bagosora ................................................................................................... 8 2.2 Gratien Kabiligi ....................................................................................................... 10 2.3 Aloys Ntabakuze ...................................................................................................... 10 2.4 Anatole Nsengiyumva ............................................................................................. -
An Examination of the Varying Role of the United Nations in the Civil Wars of Rwanda and El Salvador
University Libraries Lance and Elena Calvert Calvert Undergraduate Research Awards Award for Undergraduate Research 2012 An Examination of the Varying Role of the United Nations in the Civil Wars of Rwanda and El Salvador Vanessa Jaramillo-Cano University of Nevada Las Vegas, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/award Part of the Comparative Politics Commons, International Law Commons, International Relations Commons, and the Political Theory Commons Repository Citation Jaramillo-Cano, V. (2012). An Examination of the Varying Role of the United Nations in the Civil Wars of Rwanda and El Salvador. Available at: https://digitalscholarship.unlv.edu/award/11 This Research Paper is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by Digital Scholarship@UNLV with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Research Paper in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you need to obtain permission from the rights-holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/or on the work itself. This Research Paper has been accepted for inclusion in Calvert Undergraduate Research Awards by an authorized administrator of Digital Scholarship@UNLV. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Jaramillo-Cano 1 An Examination of the Varying Role of the United Nations in the Civil Wars of Rwanda and El Salvador Vanessa Jaramillo-Cano Jaramillo-Cano 2 Special thanks to Dr. John Tuman, Dr. Peter Starkweather, and Dr. -
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9 The Tutsi body in the 1994 genocide: ideology, physical destruction, and memory Rémi Korman Since 1994, bodies have been at the centre of the memorialization of the Tutsi genocide. For, in addition to constituting evidence in the context of forensic investigations, they are publicly exhibited in memorials to the genocide. The display of bodies aims principally to remind visitors of the historical facts of the genocide: not only the sites of massacres, but also the form these took. Far from being an incidental detail, the methods employed by the killers are an important source of information on the ideology of genocide which developed at the beginning of the 1990s. Spurred on by ‘hate media’, this ideology targeted the country’s Tutsi minority, more than 80 per cent of whom were exterminated between 7 April and 4 July 1994. This process of extermination was accompanied by practices of cruelty involving the infliction of specific forms of violence upon Tutsi bodies, in particular using edged weapons. In order to understand these practices, it is crucial to examine the history of bodily representations since the colonial era, and in particular the Hamitic myth which was elaborated in this period.1 While the terms ‘Hutu’, ‘Tutsi’, and ‘Twa’ used today did exist before colonization, they were reinforced by the arrival in the area of the first European colonizers, who exercised social control through the implementation of an ideology of racial inequality. According to Hamitic ideology, the Hutus were the country’s true indigenous inhabitants, of ‘Bantu’ stock, while the Tutsis were foreign invaders, of ‘Nilotic’ or ‘Hamitic’ origin.