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Home , April 1918, June 1917, May 1915, May 1918

Chapter I

THE WORLD WAR TO , 1918 AND THE ORGANIZATION OF THE AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES

THE WAR BEFORE THE ENTRY OF THE

OR some years prior to 1914 the which comprised , Austria- great countries of had been Hungary and . The other was F divided into two rival groups. the , which consisted One of these was the Triple Alliance, of , and .

Status of European Powers, August 9, 1914

r2l Allied • Centra I Neutral 0"'===='200=-----400====600---BiiEOO'====l:OOO; Miles

(1) 2 THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918

The Triple Alliance, dominated by and adopted an aggressive attitude Germany, was the first to be formed and in the diplomatic negotiations which was initiated by Germany as a part of ensued. Serbia went to great lengths to an ambitious plan to create a great world prevent war with her powerful neighbor, empire with herself at its head. In and after submitting to practically all furtherance of this plan Germany had the demands made upon her, agreed to established close relationships with arbitrate the others. Austria, however, and some of the Balkan states, confident of the support of Germany in had extended her colonies by peaceful a war of aggression, refused to accept the means and seizure, and had launched Serbian proposals and declared war upon a program of military and naval against her on July 28, 1914. expansion with the idea of becoming Austria started mobilizing her supreme on land and sea. and Russia soon thereafter did likewise. Great Britain, France and Russia, Germany demanded that the Russian realizing their individual danger if called mobilization cease at once, and at the upon to act alone against a combination same time sent an ultimatum to France of powers such as the Triple Alliance, requiring that nation to state immediately had formed the Triple Entente. her intentions in case of a Russo-German was not identified with either war. Receiving no reply from Russia, the Triple Alliance or the Triple Entente, and a statement from France that she as her neutrality had been guaranteed by would do what her own interests dictated, all members of both groups except Italy. Germany declared war against Russia on Various incidents which occurred before August 1 and against France on August 3. 1914 had almost caused war between the Italy asserted that her agreements as a two groups and each incident had in- member of the Triple Alliance did not creased to some extent the strain which compel her to take part in a war of ag- existed between them. gression and announced her neutrality. Great Britain did not enter the war until EVENTS OF 1914 August 4, when it became certain that The breaking point came when the Germany had violated Belgian neutrality Crown Prince of Austria was assassinated by invading that country regardless of her on , 1914, while inspecting troops solemn agreement not to do so. in the Austrian city of Serajevo, near By that date, therefore, Germany and the Serbian border. Austria at once Austria-Hungary, commonly known as accused Serbia of having instigated the the , were at war against

German Cavalry Leaving , THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918 3

Approximate Routes Followed by the Invading German in 1914

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R A N Langres

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...-- Limit of German Advance September 6-9, 1914 ----- International Boundary ~ French Fortification the Allies, consisting of France, Russia, mainly centered in her navy which at Great Britain, Serbia and Belgium, which that time was the strongest in the world. were joined by a few days Believing that in the event of war later. Four of these nations, France and Russia would mobilize her forces much Russia of the Allies, and Germany and more slowly than France, Germany, prior Austria of the Central Powers, were able to the opening of hostilities, had made to place large, well trained armies in the plans to crush the latter by a sudden and field at once. Serbia, Belgium and powerful offensive. According to these Montenegro had relatively small armies plans Austria and comparatively small and Great Britain's organized power was German forces were to engage Russia on 4 TH E W 0 R L D WAR T 0 MAY 28, 1918

the east until France could be defeated, to future military operations of the ports after which the combined strength of the of northwestern France, ordered certain Central Powers was to be sent against of their units to secure possession of these Russia to impose the same fate on her. ports with all haste. If they had fallen Immediately after the declaration of to the Germans, not only would British war the German Army began the invasion military operations have been badly of France, using all natural avenues of hampered, but Germany would have approach, including that through neutral secured excellent bases for naval activi- Belgium. In spite of heroic resistance ties. In this famous "race to the sea" by the Belgians, and the vital aid rendered the Allies succeeded in retaining all the French by Great Britain's compara- ports southwest of . tively small expeditionary force, the Allies At the end of these operations neither of were forced back rapidly to the general the contending forces on the line of the Marne River. Making a Front had sufficient superiority to under- determined stand in early September, take a offensive, and each began they withstood further attacks and so to stabilize its position by the use of threatened the enemy's right that his every artificial means available. Elabo- armies were compelled to retire to a posi- rate trench systems, defended by unprec- tion behind the Aisne River. edented numbers of machine guns and Following this battle both sides realized other quick-firing weapons, were built that the war would not end quickly and along the front and broad belts of barbed each, knowing the supreme importance wire were constructed. These continuous

Diagrammatic Sketch of Western Front Showing Certain Topographical Features of Military Importance .-,,..--.-~~,,,..,.,~'='"7~=,,:~

- Front Line of March 20, 1918 -·-·-·- International Boundary A Gas Attack on the Western Front defenses, with the hostile lines separated however, the Russianssucceeded in driving in many places by only a narrow strip of the Austrian troops west of the passes ground, resulted in the type of fighting through the . known as "trench warfare". During the advance of her armies to- ward , Germany became greatly 100 200 300 400 500 Miles alarmed at the speed of the Russian mo- bilization and the progress of that coun- try's offensive against East Prussia. N This situation caused the German High Command, even before the Battle of the RUSSIA Marne, to weaken the force invading France by withdrawing approximately 90,000 men from its right -where 1 they were so badly needed later-and starting them eastward to meet the Rus- sian threat. The units withdrawn al- most equaled in numbers the strength of the in France at that time. Generals von Hindenburg and von Ludendorff came into prominence in August when they were ordered to the German Eastern Army as Commander and Chief of Staff, respectively. The suc- ceeding operations under their direction were characterized by rapid movements and crushing attacks, in which the losses inflicted on Russia were stupendous. The Russian Armies were hurled out of East Prussia bythedecisive German victories at Tannenberg and the Mazurian Lakes, and farther south were soon thereafter pushed, back toward Warsaw. Still farther south, (5) 6 THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918

Turkey entered the war on the side of During the year the French and British the Central Powers in , launched several offensives against the thus threatening Great Britain's commu- Germans, the most important being the nications with the East by way of the attacks begun in Septem her by the French Suez Canal. As a result, many thousands and British Armies north of and of Allied , always badly needed on by the French Army in the Champagne. the French front, were employed through- These operations however did not produce out the war in operations near the eastern any material change in the military situa- end of the . tion on the Western Front. Germany was in a very strong position On 22, 1915, poison gas was used at the close of the year. She had inflicted for the first time during the war when staggering losses on the Russians; was in the Germans employed it against French possession of practically all of Belgium troops serving in the line near . and of industrial areas in France which Germany was again victorious against contained about three fourths of the Russia in a series of desperate battles. French coal and iron deposits; and al- , which entered the war on the though the German colonies were virtual- side of the Central Powers in October, ly lost, her home resources had not been joined in the offensive that overran Serbia damaged by invasion and were still intact. and Montenegro, while the Allied expedi- tion to the was shattered and EVENTS OF 1915 withdrawn immediately after the close of Italy entered the war in on the year. The British Fleet held the mas- the side of the Allies. This caused a large tery of the seas, but the block- proportion of Austria's strength to be ade which Germany had established in withdrawn from the eastern and south- February was becoming a serious menace eastern theaters of operations and be sent to Allied supply, both civil and military. from there for service on the Italian front. EVENTS OF 1916 The Central Powers, believing they had nothing to fear from Russia, planned a vigorous campaign in the west for 1916. In February they began inten- sive assaults against Verdun, which con- tinued for months, only to dash them- selves to pieces against French heroism. The German pressure at Verdun was re- lieved as a result of the British and French offensive on the which began on July 1 and resulted in enormous losses to all armies engaged. It was during this battle that tanks were used for the first time, being employed by the British in an attack on September 15. The German Fleet made a sortie in May and met the British on the in the , the principal na- val engagement of the war. This battle resulted in the loss of several vessels on each side, but was not decisive. It ter- minated when the German Fleet with- drew to its fortified harbors, which it did not leave again in force during the war.

Large German Gun in Action on the Western Front. © G THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918 7

British Tank Set on Fire by German Flame- Thrower Note German trench and soldiers in foreground. © G

Russia astonished the world by her greatly disrupted the Allied plans by powers of recuperation, and in June devastating a large area in the vicinity of practically destroyed the Austrian Army Péronne and by withdrawing from that of . When the Austrian Army in area to a previously-prepared defensive Italy was defeated in August, and Ru- position of great strength. mania entered the war against the Central Germany renewed unrestricted sub- Powers in the same month, it became marine warfare in February and her necessary that Austria be rescued without U-boats were making alarming inroads delay. Germany, quickly passing to the on Allied shipping when the United defensive in the west, started the eastern States entered the war. offensives which not only marked the Meanwhile the Allies had decided to beginning of the end for Russia but re- undertake offensives on a large scale. In sulted in the elimination of Rumania April, a few days after the United States before the close of the year. declared war, the British began the Battle In August General von Hindenburg of Arras, and the French the Second Battle was appointed Chief of the General Staff of the Aisne. These attacks gained some of the German Field Army. Offers of ground but the losses suffered by the peace made by the Central Powers in attacking troops were very great, espe- the month of December were spurned by cially in the battle on the Aisne. The the Allied Governments as insincere. results created a serious situation in the French Army and brought grave dis- EVENTS OF 1917 TO couragement to the Allies. With Russia's The German High Command decided strength waning fast, this was almost final to remain on the defensive in the west proof that without additional help the during 1917. To further this purpose, it Allies would be unable to defeat Germany. Sinking by the Germans of the American Bark Kirhy

Sinking of the British Me.r.ranahis--Torpedoed Twice by a German Submarine

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British Hospital Ship Glouce1ter Ca1tle--Torpedoed in the Mediterranean, REASONS FOR THE ENTRY OF THE UNITED STATES INTO THE WORLD WAR

HE United States was in every respect closed. The sinking of unarmed vessels T a neutral nation at the beginning of soon occurred without any attempt being the World War. The sympathies of the made to save those on board. This American citizens were naturally divided, destruction of people innocent of any but as the causes which brought on the connection with the war reached its conflict were considered by the mass of climax on the afternoon of , 1915, the people to be of no direct concern to when the British liner Lusitania was the United States, the attitude of the sunk, without warning, by a German country as a whole was one of neutrality. submarine off the coast of . Early in the war, however, the activi- 1,195 lives were lost, including 124 ties of the warring nations on the high Americans and 94 children, of which seas began to interfere with American number 35 were infants. maritime trade. Allied interference with The United States protested on May American commerce caused an exchange 13 and, in answer to the German Govern- of vigorous diplomatic notes with Great ment's reply, reiterated its position on Britain while differences with Germany June 9, 1915, stating that the United over the use of the submarine became States was contending for something particularly irritating. It soon developed much greater than mere rights of property that Germany intended to disregard a or privileges of commerce-that it was fundamental principle of international contending for the rights of humanity. law which up to that time in history had On July 8, 1915, Germany assured the remained unquestioned. This was that United States that American would neither merchant vessels of the enemy not be hindered in the prosecution of nor those of neutrals could be lawfully legitimate shipping and that the lives of sunk without first taking steps to remove American citizens on neutral vessels the passengers and crew. would not be placed in jeopardy provided The first serious difficulty with Ger- there was no contraband on board. This many arose when on February 4, 1915, reply failed to meet the real issue and she proclaimed that the waters surround- Germany was informed that a repetition ing Great Britain and Ireland would be by commanders of German naval vessels regarded as part of the war zone in which of acts in contravention to the rights of enemy merchant vessels would be de- the American Government, where they stroyed and in which even neutral vessels affected the lives of American citizens, were in danger of destruction without would be considered as deliberately assurance that the passengers and crew unfriendly to the United States. could be saved. The United States On August 19, 1915, the British steamer strongly protested this action which would Arabic was sunk without warning and two endanger American lives and property, American lives were lost. Germany dis- reminding Germany that under the condi- avowed this act but offered an indemnity. tions which existed her sole right under The events up to this time had brought international law in dealing with neutral a gradual change in the attitude of the vessels on the high seas was limited to people of the United States toward the that of visit and search. war. The violation of Belgian neutrality The German reply was unsatisfactory, by Germany, in spite of her definite stating in effect that the German Govern- written pledges to respect it, naturally ment would not be responsible for the had an unfavorable reaction on the major- consequences to neutral ships if they ity of the people in America and left them entered the waters announced by it as with the impression that the German (9) 10 THE WORLD WAR TO 8 , 19lg

The Leviathan, Formerl y the German Liner V aterland, Being Used as an American Transport

Government would stop at nothing to commercial vessels, diplomatie relations gain its ends. This idea was strength- would be severed. Germany then prom- ened by Germany's submarine policy ised that passenger ships would not be pursued in utter disregard of the prop- sunk, that due warning would be given to erty and lives of neutrals engaged in ail other vessels which her peaceful pursuits. Other contributing might seek to destroy, when no resistance factors were the persistent reports of was offered or escape attempted, and that alleged German atrocities, acts of German care would be taken that the crews were sabotage in the United States, the first given a reasonable chance to save them- use of poison gas in warfare, considered at selves in their life boats. that time as an inhuman weapon, by the This promise relieved the tension and German Army on , 1915, and relations between the two countries be- patently false propaganda emanating came more nearly normal during the next from the German Embassy at Washing- nine months. The situation, however, ton. This propaganda became so ob- again grew critical when on January 31, noxious to the press of America that they 1917, Germany revoked ber pledges to complained to the President with the the United States and announced that it result that the member of the German was her purpose to use submarines to Embassy staff responsible for it was forced sink every vesse! which sought to ap- to return to Germany. proach either the ports of Great Britain During the early part of 1916 the de- and Ireland or the western coasts of struction of unarmed ships continued and Europe or any of the ports controlled by on the President notified Ger- the enemies of Germany within the Medi- many that unless she at once abandoned terranean. President Wilson at once ber methods of submarine warfare against broke off diplomatie relations. He did THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918 11 not, however, then recommend a declara- and that Mexico endeavor to persuade tion of war, stating to Congress that he to desert the Allies and align her- could not take such an extreme step self with the Central Powers. Mexico unless the German Government should was to be allowed "to reconquer her lost actually carry out its threat of sinking territory in , New Mexico and ships under the conditions to which the ". The effect of the publication United States expressly objected. of this telegram upon the American people Events which drove the United States was instantaneous and widespread. It into war now developed rapidly. On seemed to crystallize public opinion into February 26, 1917, the President re- a strong feeling of hostility toward quested Congress to give him authority Germany. The House of Representatives to equip American merchant ships with promptly passed the bill to authorize the defensive arms should that become neces- arming of merchant ships and, although sary. Two days later the President gave due to a filibuster the measure failed to to the press the contents of a telegram pass the Senate before its adjournment on which had been intercepted by the British March 4, it was clear that the overwhelm- Government late in January. This tele- ing sentiment of Congress was in favor gram had been sent by the German of the passage of the bill. Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Arthur After the sinking of American ships by Zimmermann, through the German Em- German submarines had actually oc- bassy in Washington to the German curred, the President addressed a special Minister in Mexico City. It proposed session of Congress on , 1917, that, in the event of war between the saying that under Germany's new policy United States and Germany, an alliance "Vessels of every kind, whatever their be formed between Mexico and Germany flag, their character, their cargo, their

General Pershing Landing at Boulogne, , 1917. © B

German Forced Down at Bourbonne-les-Bains, destination, their errand, have been war only where we are clearly forced ruthlessly sent to the bottom without into it, because there are no other means warning and without thought of help of defending our rights." or mercy for those on board, the ves- Both the sincerity of his statement sels of friendly neutrals along with and the correctness of his interpretation those of belligerents. Even hospital of the national aims and ideals of the ships and ships carrying relief to the United States were forcibly proved to sorely bereaved and stricken people the world, when, at the peace table in of Belgium ... have been sunk with Versailles many months later, the Ameri- the same reckless lack of compassion can Government demanded neither one and of principle." He further stated dollar of indemnity nor one square mile that he was not "thinking of the loss of of territory from the defeated nations. property, immense and serious as that is, but only of the wanton and wholesale American Troops Parading in , destruction of the lives of non-combat- August 15, 1917 ants, men, women, and children, engaged in pursuits which have always, even in the darkest periods of modern history, been deemed innocent and legiti- mate ... " He then advised that war be declared against the Imperial German Government. Congress, with but few dissenting votes, approved this recom- mendation and war was declared against Germany on April 6, 1917. Diplomatic relations were severed with Austria-Hungary two days later, but war was not actually declared against her until December 7, 1917. The President took great care in his speech to Congress on April 2, 1917, to announce the aims and attitude of America. He said: "We have no selfish ends to serve. We desire no conquest, no dominion. We seek no indemnities for ourselves, no material compensation for the sacrifice we shall freely make. We are but one of the champions of the rights of mankind . . . We enter this (13) American Plant and Storage Yard at La Rochelle, Illuminated for Night Work ORGANIZATION

OF THE AMERICAN EXPEDITIONARY FORCES

AND FORMATION OF ITS COMBAT ARMY

HE great task facing the United Navy and by building commercial ships to TStates when she entered the war was replace losses. The Allies also urged that to place on the front as quickly as possible an American unit be sent over at once for an American army the effect on the sufficiently strong morale of their to give the com- armies and people. bined Allied and Accordingly, the American forces a was decisive superiority formed from exist- over the Central ing organizations Powers. It was and sent to France evident that con- where most of its siderable time elements landed would elapse be- on , 1917. fore America could Major General actually have more John J. Pershing 1 than a nominal was designated force in the battle Commander-in- lines, as her very Chief of the Ameri- small Regular can Expeditionary Army, numbering Forces effective less than 135,000 on , 1917, men, was scattered and served con- in weak detach- tinuously in that ments throughout capacity until the her home territory Armistice was and outlying pos- signed and the sessions. There Army was demo- were no complete bilized. He landed and permanent in France on June units larger than 13, 1917, accom- regiments, and panied by a small even these units staff, and immedi- were not suitably ately plunged into equipped and or- the preliminary ganized for major work of organizing operations. the A. E. F. The Allies asked, After a thorough however, that study of the situa- immediate help be tion, Gen er al rendered by other Pershing cabled means, and upon the War Depart- their request the General John J. Pershing men t early in United States American Commander-in-Chief July that every loaned them huge effort should sums of money, sent them great quantities be made to have an American army in of food, and assisted against the sub- France of at least 1,000,000 men by the marine menace both by the use of her 1 Appointed to the rank of General, October 8, 1917. (15) 16 THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918

Strategical Features Influencing Selection of the Lorraine Front for the American Army

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--- International Boundary -+-+-+-Railroad Fortified City Coal and Iron Mines ____ Miles following May. He pointed out that this various classes should be sent; and the figure did not represent the total number requirements of the army in special required, and recommended that plans for equipment and personnel were cabled to the further development of the military Washington. These cables formed the forces of the United States should con- basis of the War Department's policies in template placing 3,000,000 American mobilizing the great National Army in soldiers in the field in Europe. 1917 and 1918, and enabled the authori- Decisions affecting the organization, ties in the United States to proceed with size and equipment of various units; their tasks in such a way as best to meet methods of training to be followed; the the needs of the fighting forces in France. priority in which troops and supplies of One decision which had a marked a•

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THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918 17 influence on the later operations of the be preserved". These instructions were American Army was that all training faithfully carried out by General Pershing should be conducted in preparation for who insisted throughout the war, in offensive warfare in the open. "Trench spite of the greatest pressure from the warfare", although practically the only Allies, each of whom was influenced to method of combat being taught in the some extent by its own special interests, Allied Armies at that time, was con- that the forces under his command should sidered by the American Commander-in- constitute an American army under its Chief only as a special phase of military own flag and its own commander. This operations which, if allowed to assume basic idea was kept constantly in mind too great importance in training, could in organizing the American Expedi- not fail to inculcate a defensive rather tionary Forces and proved to be a decisive than an aggressive spirit in the army. factor in the defeat of Germany. Another important decision was that Agreements had to be reached very affecting the size of the American combat quickly with the Allies as to where the division, which as-organized for service in American Army should be located, in France was about twice the strength of order that the necessary preparations for any European division. Under the con- its development and qse could be ini- ditions then existing this resulted in tiated. With the British forces placed giving to the American division much to cover the channel ports and the French greater driving power in the offensive Armies committed to the protection of than that possessed by any other. Paris, the transportation systems in these General Pershing's instructions from regions were heavily burdened. The the Secretary of War upon sailing for necessity for the supply and movement Europe had stated that he must cooperate of additional forces made it essential for with the Allies "but in so doing the under- the American Army to choose a less lying idea must be kept in view that the crowded area where roads and railways forces of the United States are a separate were relatively free. The fact that there and distinct component of the com- were few troops in Lorraine and that rail bined forces, the identity of which must facilities, although extending across the

First American Troops to Land in France Parading in Paris, July 4, 1917 18 THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918 entire width of France, were available remarkable increase of American arriv.als for transporting men and supplies from to a maximum in one month of over the French ports south of Le Havre to 300,000 officers and men. the Lorraine sector, were important con- This crisis interrupted the formation siderations which finally decided its choice of an American army as the succession of as the American front. German drives in the spring of 1918 re- Another factor in the selection was the quired the use of every available Ameri- determination of the Commander-in- can and Allied division if defeat was to Chief to place his forces where their be avoided. It was at this time that employment would decisively affect the General Pershing went to General Foch outcome of the war. The coal and iron and freely offered him the use of every mines near Metz, the fortress itself and the American man and gun in France. essential railway systems at Sedan and When the American divisions had com- to the southeast, all made the area pro- pleted their part in the emergency and tected by the Lorraine front of vital had assisted in the subsequent counter- importance to Germany. Of the terri- offensive which turned the tide in favor tory within striking distance of the West- of the Allies, the American Commander- ern Front, this was the area which she in-Chief, despite renewed opposition on could least afford to lose, because on its the part of the Allies, again insisted upon retention depended her ability to main- their assembly into one force, and soon tain the German Armies west of the Rhine. thereafter this was resumed. The American Army in Lorraine would, The American First Army was organ- therefore, be admirably located to strike ized on August 10, 1918, and immediately at the most important German strategi- started preparations for the reduction of cal area near the battle front. the St. Mihiel salient, which was to be its The lack of vessels seriously retarded first large offensive operation. the transfer of troops to France, and the Meanwhile, in spite of the handicaps question was one of grave concern to the of a foreign country and language and the American Commander-in-Chief. At the long line of communications to the beginning of 1918 agreements were made United States, a multitude of tasks had by him with the British for the use of a been accomplished in order that the portion of their tonnage as they con- American forces could begin operations trolled most of the world's shipping at when the divisions became available. that time. It, however, took the crisis Staffs had been organized and trained; caused by the German offensive in March docks, railways, roads, depots, hospitals, of that year to bring out the amount of bridges, and telegraph and telephone lines Allied shipping that made possible the had been built; ammunition and supplies

German Infantry Advancing Through Hermies After Its Capture in . © G 'l'HE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918 19

Divisional Training Areas American Expeditionary Forces FIRST

ARMY (!)Divisional Training Area No. 1 ® General Headquarters, A. E. F. ® Army Headquarters AREA • Headquarters, Divisional Training Area -xx xx- Army Boundary )(,., 7+ 0 10 20 30 40 50 Miles ==~=-----~~-----=~==

had been collected; intensive training sidered that, except for four 14-inch naval schemes had been put into effect; and guns on railway mounts, the American plans for the future military operations First Army throughout its entire service of the American Army on the Western on the front did not fire an American- Front had been studied and perfected. made cannon or shell, and that no Amer- The Commander-in-Chief, having fore- ican-made tank was ever available in seen that a considerable part of the artil- Europe for use in battle. lery, airplanes and tanks necessary for a Finally, after months of patient and un- large force could not be obtained from remitting labor, during which obstacles of American sources for some time to come, every nature had been met and overcome, had made arrangements to purchase large the American Army was ready on the quantities of them from the Allies. The morning of September 12, 1918, for its wisdom of this is evident when it is con- first great attack as an independent army. Germans Defending Against a British Tank Attack The tanks are under fire from field and anti- and trench mortars Middle picture shows a direct hit on a tank. © G MILITARY SITUATION IN

AND SUMMARY OF EVENTS TO MAY 28, 1918

HE military situation in June 1917 The sacrifice by France of a large pro- T was very favorable to Germany and portion of her man power, and the pres- her morale was high. Practically all her ence of hostile armies on her soil for three offensives, with the exceptions of the Bat- years, had caused deep discouragement tle of the Marne in 1914 and the Verdun among her civil population. This was operations in 1916, had been crowned with aggravated by the severe reverse which her

Allied Attacks on Western Front in 1917 0 25 50 75 Miles N

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~ Ground Gained by British 411llA Ground Gained by French --- Front Line April 6, 1917 --·-·- International Boundary great success. Her battle lines, save for a armies had suffered in April on the Aisne, small section in Alsace, were on foreign which had resulted in a veritable wave of territory, her own resources were un- defeatism sweeping over the country and touched by hostile occupation and wher- over the French military forces. ever attacked by the Allies her armies Great Britain, except for morale, was had inflicted tremendous losses upon them. scarcely better off than France. Much of

(21) American Troops Marching Through Neufchateau on Their Way to the Battle Line

her best blood had been poured out on the Armies, and the Chiefs of Staff of the battlefields; and like her allies, she had French and British Armies at a conference expended vast sums in the conflict. She held in Paris during the latter part of retained command of the sea, but the July. An extract from their report German submarine campaign was reduc- is given in the following paragraph: ing food and other supplies to the point "General conclusions reached were: where her very existence was threatened. Necessity for adoption of purely defensive Italy was having great difficulty in attitude on all secondary fronts and with- financing the war, and grave deficiencies drawing surplus troops for duty on West- existed in her armies, as the events of the ern Front. By thus strengthening West- autumn of 1917 were to show. ern Front believed Allies could hold until The revolution in Russia, which had American forces arrive in numbers suffi- occurred in March, made it practically cient to gain ascendency." certain that the Allies could not count on As far as their strength would permit effective help from that country. the Allies sought, however, to maintain The Germans were frankly scornful of the offensive on the Western Front during America's ability to exercise any real the latter part of 1917 in order to hinder military influence in the war and evi- the conquest of Russia by Germany and, dently believed it impossible for any con- if possible, to prevent an attack on the siderable American force to be organized Italian front with German troops. and transported to France before the Accordingly, the British attacked in defeat of the Allies could be accomplished. June capturing Messines Ridge, and near Germany, therefore, looked forward with Ypres undertook a series of operations, great confidence to her armies gaining which began on July 31 and lasted until a decisive victory in 1918. November 10. Later in November they General Pershing's arrival in France, launched an offensive near Cambrai, in followed in two weeks by the landing of which many tanks were used, and made the American 1st Division, greatly im- important initial gains which were largely proved the French morale. lost in a German counteroffensive ten The Allied conception of the critical days later. These British attacks though nature of the military situation in the very costly in men and materiel had no summer of 1917, and of the actions to be decisive effect on the military situation. taken to meet it, are indicated in the con- The Cambrai operation was the first clusions reached by the Commanders-in- major offensive in which American troops Chief of the American, French and Italian participated. Three American engineer (22) THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 2 8 , 1 9 1 8 23 regiments were serving with the British which the lst Division alone had served at the time and one of these was actually at the front. The British and French engaged in the front-line fighting. desired to hasten the appearance of The French conducted carefully-pre- American troops in the line if only for the pared limited attacks near Verdun in Au- effect on the morale of their troops, and gust and near the Chemin des Dames in urged that the American training be October, both of which though compara- limited to the minimum necessary for tively small were successful. trench fighting. They also requested Russia finally collapsed in early Sep- that American troops, in company and tember, and the suffered a dis- battalion units, be assigned to their or- astrous defeat near Caporetto in October, ganizations, pointing out the shortage of making it necessary to send French and man power in their armies as sufficient British divisions to their assistance. reason for this request. They contended An analysis of these events left no that the elimination of Russia as a factor doubt in the minds of Allied commanders in the war, together with the Italian de- that Germany would soon resume the of- feat, had so altered conditions for the fensive on the Western Front, with her worse that to withstand the expected armies there augmented by large num- German attacks every American bers of divisions drawn from the Russian in France should at once be made avail- theater of operations. This transfer of able for service at the front. troops from Russia actually started in The American Commander-in-Chief the month of . agreed that every combat unit in France N otwithstanding Germany's favorable should be made available for front-line military position at the close of 1917, service, but remained fixed in his deter- conditions within the Fatherland and the mination to assemble al! Americans into rapidly growing American Expeditionary an independent army. Any sort of Forces made it imperative for her to try prolonged amalgamation with the Allied to bring the war to a prompt conclusion. Armies would have committed the for- We know now that to accomplish this her tunes of the American forces to alien plans contemplated the destruction of the hands, with no responsibility to the British Army in the early spring of 1918, American Government for their proper after which a crushing blow was to be care, training and employment. Such a directed against the French Army. step would have met with the decided On December 31, 1917, there were opposition of the American officers and 17 4,884 American soldiers in Europe, of soldiers and would have been destructive

American Soldiers En Route to the Front German Infantry Attacking Over a Mine-Crater Area at Ripont in . © G

German Cavalry Ready for a Break-Through in March 1918. @ G

German Engineers Advancing Through Captured British Position, March 1918. © G THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918 25 to their morale. It would have been east of Soissons in February; the strongly disapproved by the American 42d went in east of Luneville during the people. There was, on the other hand, same month; and about the middle of no doubt that the effect of aggressive March, the 2d entered the line with the American units in the battle line under French southeast of Verdun. their own commanders would produce On March 21, when the first great far greater military results and be far German offensive of 1918 started, there more depressing to the morale of the were approximately 300,000 American German Armies and civil population than troops in France. Of these the 1st, 2d the presence of small American units and 42d Divisions were in the trenches and under foreign officers the 26th was ready in Allied regiments. for service. The 32d The policy of em- and41st Divisions had ploying the American arrived in France but units as a single force, had been designated steadfastly main- as replacement units, tained by General although later, in Pershing in the face April, the 32d was of tremendous oppo- redesignated as a sition from the Allies, combat division. unquestionably pro- The German on- duced decisive results slaught of March 21 that could not have struck the British in been obtained oth.er- Picardy between the wise.1 Because of this Oise and the Scarpe policy, the American Rivers along a front Army, welded into of about 50 miles, one powerful body, part of which had inspired by the tra- been recently taken ditions of its own over from the French. country, confident in Within eight days the its leaders, and sure attacking troops, of its ability in the sweeping all before offensive, was finally them, practically de- enabled to deliver stroyed the British the terrific blows at Fifth Army and pene- St. Mihiel, in the trated to a maximum Argonne and along depth of about 37 the Meuse which miles. The situation made possible the was serious and defeat of Germany. many French Divi- sions were rushed to The Commander- Marshal aid the British. in-Chief speeded up Allied Commander-in-Chief to the utmost the During this period use of American units in the front the Allies were still further annoyed and line. As a consequence, the 1st Division troubled when on March 23 the shelling relieved a French division in a sector of Paris by a large German gun from a north of Toul in January; the 26th distance of 7 5 miles was begun. entered the line with the French north- General Pershing, knowing the gravity of the Allied position, deferred the execu- 1 Marshal Petain declared in a J>Ublic address de- livered in Versailles, France, in October 1937 that tion of his plan to form an American army General Pershing was right in opposing the amal- gamation of American troops with the Allied forces. and went to General Foch and said: 26 THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918

American Soldiers Advancing to Attack at Cantigny

"I have corne to tell you that the upon French morale. Its confident opti- American people would consider it a mism is an indication of the splendid great honor for our troops to be engaged spirit of cooperation which characterized in the present battle. I ask you for this the personnel of the entire American in their name and my own. Army in France throughout the war. "At this moment there are no other On March 26 General Foch was charged questions but of fighting. with coordinating the actions of the "Infantry, artillery, , all that French and British Armies, and soon we have are yours; use them as you wish. afterwards on was given strategic More will corne, in numbers equal to direction of the French, British and requirements. American Armies on the Western Front. "I have corne especially to tell you that Fortunately the Germans were stopped the American people will be proud to take before capturing , the loss of part in the greatest battle of history." which would have separated the French This message had a stimulating effect and British Armies and enabled the Germans to operate against each of them Cantigny After Its Capture, M ay 28, 1918. separately. In this event the British Army would probably have had to hurry out of northern France or else run the risk of almost certain destruction. The Germans succeeded in cutting one railroad into Amiens from the south and in seriously impeding traffic on the others, they increased the frontage which the Allies were forced to hold with diminished numbers, they proved that their forces could break through the highly organized defenses of the Western Front, they enormously increased the morale of their own troops and very seriously lowered that of the British and French units. The fighting near Amiens had scarcely died down when, on , the Germans broke through the British lines in Flan- ders on a 12-mile front along the Lys THE WORLD WAR TO MAY 28, 1918 27

River south of Ypres. Their initial ad- prevent their being sent later to aid the vantage was not well exploited but British, the Germans decided to make an operations were continued there until attack against the French Army first. when the German troops suc- Immediately following the battle in ceeded in capturing Mont Kemmel, which Flanders the American 1st Division, which at the time was defended by French units had been in sector near Seicheprey, in serving with the British Army. the St. Mihiel region, took over an ex- A number of American medical, engi- ceedingly active portion of the line west neer and air service units with the of Montdidier. It captured Cantigny on British Army took part in the operations May 28 in a well-planned operation and near Amiens and along the Lys River. held that place in spite of violent and

Ground Gained by German Offensives of March and April, 1918

Mons 0

~ March 21- ~ April 9-29

The German High Command believed sustained counterattacks. This fighting that one more major attack against the again demonstrated the superb caliber British Army would destroy it. How- of the American soldier in offensive and ever, since elaborate preparations had defensive combat and since troops from already been made to strike the French, the United States were at that time ar- an offensive against them could be riving in France in increasingly large launched much quicker. As such an numbers, the Allied Armies and the Allied attack would use up French reserves, and people could still hope for final victory. German Infantry Advancing at the Chemin des Dames, . @ G