Invasive Species Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission

NUMBER 8/1998

Changes a t the

Invasive Species Specialist Group

With the rise in global concerns over invasive species, the workload at the ISSG office has increased, and so we are now very glad to welcome a new staff member. Maj De Poorter will take over the running of the group, net- working, policy development and editorship of Aliens. Maj has a PhD in ecology (Brussels, Belgium) and experience in networking, advocacy and policy, through more than a decade of NGOinvolvement in Antarctic issues. She is currently a member of IUCN's Antarctic Advisory Committee, and has most recently worked at the University of Auckland's Research Office, on ex- ternal research funding. She should be contacted in future; for any of the above issues, on [email protected].

Sarah Lowe continues full-time,but fromJanuary she will work on the group's commitment to the Early Warning section of the Global Invasive Species Pro- gramme (GISP)-including the two regional (Pacific and Indian Ocean) databases-as well as on the "World's Worst 100 Invasive Species" pilot data- base. (Her e-mail remains the same: [email protected]). I am sure that all recipients of Aliens will join me in thanking Sarah for her efforts over the past four years as editor of the newsletter, which has become a useful and widely-cited information source.

Also now, at the end of 1998, we would like to express our appreciation to all those peqple who have already put so much energy into the group in the past few years, and also to encourage all other Aliens readers to contact us with ideas and contributions for coming issues. Next year's work will include fur., thei refinement of the Aliens mailout, so that it goes to more people who will really use and appreciate it. In this regard we wish also to thank part-time staff Sponsored by: member Tracey Lewis, who has worked extensively in the office and on Aliens distribution, and will be leaving for further study at the end of the year. She retains a strong interest in the group.

ISSG looks forward to being part of both the IUCN Invasive Species Initiative and the SCOPE Global Invasive Species Programme within the next few years.

Season'sgreetings, Manaaki Whenua Mick Clout Landcare Research ISSG Chair ISSN: 1173-5988 ~

~ ~ ~~ ,.. -- ?, Lake Ontario Brittany, Fr o~~ p .

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Saipan ,~awaii Guam

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~ (7 ? \L .~ew Zealand ~ c-S ~ ~ ~ c Maesopsis eminii ~ , 12 Arthropods in Hawaii , ..2 Unprocessed wood packaging legislation 14 NotesReviewBrownNorwayTropicalFrenchSpartina: treePolynesia's of rat woody invasive Balearicsnake and shrewinvasive update marineinvasiveinvasiyes ~ interactions plantsgrass plants ,.. .4 ..6 Early Warning conceptpaper J6 ..7 Caulerpa in the Mediterranean , 19

.;8 Cercopagis pengoi .-zooplankter , 20

10 AntiguanRacer recovery programme 21

11 White Cay iguana recovery programme., 22

12 Subscriptions , 23

Pittosporum undulatum 12

trouble in paradise

Hawaii's atthropod fauna is one of accelerated the process of evolution, primary concern because of the high nature' s fil lest treasures, boasting resulting in a dazzling array of numbers that have become 5,735 described native speciesto date, lineages that are closely related, yet established, and the severity of their with syst ematic studies only morphologically diverse. As a result, impact on the unique native fauna. For beginning c:>nlarge groups of taxa. over 97% of the native arthropod arthropods, the number of npn- Becauseof its isolation, a non-random species are endemic to the indigenous species totals 3,055 -or and small rlumber of founders were archipelago; 900/0.of these are insects. 35% of the total arthropod fauna. involved in the original colonization Species checklists have been of the islands. Not only a showcasefor evolution, the compiled by Lucius Eldredge and islands are in all senses a biological Scott Miller of the Hawaii Biological Yet a topologically diverse microcosm, inustrating a spectrum of Survey, Bishop Museum (http:11 environment and abundant ecological problems for native species www .bishop .ha waii .org/bishopl space greeted these colonists and conservation. Alien species are a RES).

2 The impacts of alien arthropods, while endemic Cydia tortricid caterpillars; with active management through less well publicized than that of their an important food sourcefor nestlings research, and increaSedvigilance. For vertebrate counterparts, appear to of the endangeredPalila honeycreeper ex~ple: baiting, particularly for the have been equally devastating, and (Loxioidesbailleui). The caterpillars, Argentine ant, shows some promise, have been implicated in large-scale which inhabit mamane (Sophora and it is possible that recent speciesextinctions, particularly at the chrysophylla} seedpods, were found restoration efforts for dry forest may lower elevations. Endemic specieson to be parasitized by four adventive or result in the recovery of some habitat, islands may be particularly vulnerable purposefully-introduced wasp including the native arthropods. In to these effects as a result of their species, at parasitism rates over 90% summary, the problems are acute; isol~tion from competition and at lower elevations. action is essential,but cannot be based predation during their more recent on complete information, and the evolutionary history, as well as their What are the prospects for the future? future of the native Hawaiian often localized distributions. Of all the Based on current projections, the arthropod fauna hangs in the balance. alien invertebrate predators, social outlook is grim. The arthropod fauna Hymenoptera seem to have been the at lower elevations (below 1000 feet) George Roderick most destructive in their effect as has largely disappeared, and Rosemary Gillespie predators on the native Hawaiian compounding the problem is the fact Center for Conservation Research biota, which evolved in the absence that thousandsof endemic arthropods & Training of any social insects. The most remain to be discovered and 3050 Maile Way, Gilmore 409 notorious .of these are ants and described. Fortunately, for reasons University of Hawaii Vespula wasps. Of the ants, the big;. that are not well understood, intact Honolulu, HI96822 USA headed ant, Pheidole megacephala, forests provide a partial barrier to the Fax: +1- 808-956-9812 has been implicated in the extirpation impacts of invasive arthropod species. roderick@ hawaii. edu of native arthropods even as early as Consequently, at middle and higher gillespi @ hawaii. edu the beginning of this century. Since elevations, there is still some hope that h(tp :/ Iwww 2. hawai i. edu/ -evolab then, two other aggressivespecies; the the existing fauna may be maintained Argentine ant, Linepithema humil~ and the long-Iegged ant, Anoplolepis longipes, have also been connected with native arthropod extinctions.

Another impact of aliens in Hawaii has been through the purposeful introduction of species for classical biological control. The value of this approach has been debated extensively in recent years. However; there has been a lack of rigorous ecological studies to examine effects of introduced species on endemic non-target organisms.The importance of such studies is now widely- recognized and no doubt more data will be forthcoming. For exalilple, at the Hawaii Conservation Biology meetings this past summer in Honolulu, Peter Oboyski, Greg Brenner, and Paul Banko (Biological Resources Division, USGS) reported on a long term study of parasitism in Terrestrial arthropod fauna of Hawaii

3 Lying in the centre of the Western FLORA Mediterranean basin, the Balearic Islands (or Caulerpa taxifolia: a tropical, seaweed,highly Balearics) include Mallorca (3,641 km2), invasive and toxic, which reached the Menorca (716 km2), Eivissa (573 km2), Mediterranean as a result of an escape from Formentera (83 km2), the tiny archipelago of an aquarium in Monaco in 1984. Since then, Cabrera (13 km2) and a number of islets it has spread along the coast of France and surrounding the larger islands. The B&earics northern Italy. It was first recorded in Mallorca are a continental archipelago, separatedfrom in 1992 and a plan to eradicate it is being the mainland by the flooding of the paSinsome carried out. (See also page 19). 5.35 million years ago. Asparagopsis taxiformis: :another tropical seaweed, found in Menorca in 1993. Human habitation dates back over more than Carpobrotus edulis: a South African species, nine thousand years and so many species of imported as a garden plant, which has now fauna and flora have been introduced from the spreadto some coastalloCalities. It has !ilready mainland. This is well-illustrated by the been eradicated from Cabrera, and plans to following data on terrestrial vertebrates: do the same in Mallorca and Menorca are underway. .Amphibians: Oxalis pes-caprae: originally also from South 3 of 4 species are introduced. Africa, had been imported by the end of the .Reptiles: 18th century. Thjs yellow-flowered grass is 10 of 12 species are introduced. now one of the commonest plants along paths .Marnmals (bats excluded): in cultivated land in Mallorca and Menorca. all of 15 wild species (plu~ two feral ones), Ailanthus altissima: a tree imported from are introduced. China, is now thriving along many water courses. Some of these introduced vertebrates were Opuntia ficus-indica: was imported from brought from southern Europe, the others from tropical America for its fruit; in some places, northern Africa. In so~e cases, they are it has escaped human control. believed to have had a dramatic impact on the local fauna and flora: weasels could have Apart from these, several garden plants have caused the decline of both the endemic become invasive species: Balearic lizards (Podarcis lilfordi), now Cortaderia selloana (from South America), restricted to a few islets, and the endemic Cotula coronopifolia (from South Africa), midwife toad, Alytes muletensis, which Kalanchoe daigre-montiana (from Asia), Aloe survives in some mountain streams in vera (from Africa and Asia), and others. Mallorca. But some local naturalists have grown to FAUNA accept the presence of aJl these early Ficopomatus enigmaticus: an Australian colonizers as inevitable. They prefer to polychaet, introduced into several wetlands. characterise -as truly exotic invaders -a Iridomyrmex humilis: this ant from South number of species originally from various America is now one of the commonest in the regions far away from the Mediterranean area Balearics. and that have been introduced to the Balearics Cacyreus marshalli: a South African butterfly, in recent times (mainly du:ring the last imported with the garden geraniums on which century). Here is a list of the main examples: it lives.

4 Gambusia affinis: a freshwater fish, introduced to S'Albufera by 1870 as a means of controlling the mosquitoes that were acting as vectors for malaria. Cyprinus carpio: the pre~enceof this fish has been recently recorded in S ' Albufera. Trachemys sf:ripta: a tortoise from Florida, now common in S ' Albufera marshland. Gyps bengalensis: three individuals of this Asiatic vulture escaped about 1970 from a "safari-park" and strongly interfered with the autochthonous black vulture (Aegypius monachus), until the invad~rs flew to a different island (Me~orca) and, after- a long period, disappeared. Phasianus colchicus: pheasants have been introduced as gamebirds in the three larger islands, but are relatively Iocalized. Pavo cristatus: a feral population of peacocks now lives in parts of Menorca, Myiopsitta monachus: a parrot from Argentina, imported as a pet. Groups of over 20 can now be seen flying free in Mallorca and Menorca, where it is currently breeding. Bubalus bubalis: a few Asian water buffaloes have been introduced to S ' Albufera to artificially increase the diversity of vegetation of this protected area. Capra hircus: feral goats are now a serious problem for the vegetation of Mallorca's mountain range, though they are the main food for the endangered black vulture (Aegypius monachus). Myiopsitta monachus Ovis aries: the presenceof 200 domestic sheep on the small island of Ca.brera (a National Thaulnetopoea pitycampa: ~he caterpillar of Park) is regarded as a problem. this moth constitutes the main pest affecting pinewoods; the first presence of this species France$c I. Av~lla in the Balearics was recorded in 1952. GOB procambarus clarkii: a North American cfVer;: 1, ~r freshwater crab, was introduced to S ' Albufera 07001 Palma de Mqllorca marshland about 1980. After a first explosion Spain of its population, numbers subsequently Fax: +34-971-711375 dropped, probably in part as a result of E-mail: [email protected] predation by night herons (Nycticorax (Thanks toI.A. Alcover: G. Aloma1; I.M. nycticorax) and other enemies. Gonztilez. F: Lillo and G. Pons).

5 Much has recently happened in the world of brown The fIrst session included reviews and reassessment of treesnake (BTS) research and control. Another snake trapping and movement patterns and reports on two new showed up, dead, ifi a plane arriving in Hawaii. The stUdies. First, radiotracking showed snakes may, in some government of the Federated States. of Micronesia situations, occupy distinct home ranges. Second, bobbin- requested that cargo arriving from Guam be certified tracking has for the fIrst time allowed a look at three- snake-free. And two important and highly successful dimensional spatial use of the ha~itat. It indicated snakes meetings occurred in Hawaii, one in March and the other ofall sizes use all levels of the forest. in July. Developing artificial attractants formed the theme of the second session. Several studies centered on use of The fIrst meeting informally assembled participants from pheromones, which appear far from an operational use. A the Brown Treesnake Control Committee and the model mechanical mouse that elicits strong reactions from interagency group concerned with brown treesnake captive snakesand development of carrion odor and mouse management. It was jointly chaired by Robert Smith of saliva as attractants all appear promising, but require the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and John Berry, additional work before they are ready for use. . Assistant Secretary of the U .S. Department of the Interior. Dispersal of BTS from Guam was the focus of the third The fIrst day was mostly devoted to updates from control session. A discussion of the sightings of non-BTS in and research agencies. Most alarming was a summary of Hawaii served to remind listeners that other species of BTS sightings on Saipan, Commonwealth of the Northern snakes could cause similar devastation in island Marianas (CNMI), which again suggestedthe island may ecosyst~ms, and must also be considered a threat, have an incipient snakepopulation. The rest of the meeting Session four was devoted to population biology on Guam. was devoted to establishing long-term priorities, discussing Snake populations appear to be fluctuating, but an resource allocations for the current fiscal year, and abundance of (mostly introduced) small vertebrate prey determining future funding needs. Attendees identified ensures snakeswill not starve themselves into extinction. three primary objectives: sanitizing the transpoftation Most alarming was molecular work suggesting Guam's network, developing tools for eradicating incipient BTS snakes may all be descended from a single female. populations, and .control of the Guam population. Three methods of small and mid-scale control were the Attendees pointed out that, despite an increase in 1998, topics of the next three sessions. There has been much funding for BTS research remains much lower than improvement in the availability of snake barriers. Several recommended in the BTS Control Plan. As a result, barriers have recently been deployed in control ;nd realization of all three goals, and especially the last, is conservation situations. Detector dog programs have unlikely to occur soon. expanded to the CNMI. Careful monitoring can improve Encouragingly, Mr. Berry indicated that a firm the efficacy of the dog-handler teams, but some aspects commitment existed within the current U.S. administration and several of the programs remain untested. Thermal and Congress to obtaining additional resources for FY 99 barriers are a promising area of study, and data from the and to implementation of new operational tools such as transport network indicate they may become potent tools snake barriers. in some, but not all, contexts. The second meeting was co-organized by the USDA's National Wildlife Research Center (NWRC) and the Large-scale control was the topic of the last research USGS' Biological Resources Division (BRD). session,and most talks concentrated on biological control. Conceived as a purely scientific meeting, it evolved into It quickly became clear that several avenuesexist, but none an innovative attempt to increase multi-lateral information would be quick or cheap to explore. During the roundtable exchange between operational and management entities. session, many speakers from the audience expressed Lasting three days, it featured over 60 presentations, most concern over the risks to 'non-target species. Similar led by teams from the USDA (NWRC and Wildlife concernswere commonly expressedduring the last session, Services), BRD, or Ohio State University. Significant devoted to the views of management agencies on what delegations represented the governments of the CNMI, new tools they would like to see developed in the next 3- Guam, and Hawaii. The U .S. military's Pest Management 5 years. Most speakers agreed that biological control was Board and academic institutions from the U.S. arid also politically difficult to implement and indicated this Australia were also well represented. was a low priority. There was also agreement that

6 development of artificial attractants and thermal barriers future meetings will put even more of an emphasis on should be high priorities. Both meetings served to integ;rating research and management. This will improve underscore the complexity of the BTS problem, and the the ability of various agencies to work together and help high future costs of failure to deal with it effectively. They provide a more unified plan of operations; made it clear a combined effort of both operational and research teams is needed, but also that the two sometimes Gad Perry, have divergent viewpoints. Ohio State University, Despite this, both research and management personnel Brown Tree Snake Project, indicated the July meeting was highly successful, and PO Box 8255, MOU-3 should be repeatedat annual or bi-annual intervals. I suspect Dededo, Guam 96912, USA.

September 1994: Three types of results appear: The brown rat (Rattus norvegicus) was eradi- cated by trapping and poisoning from 4 is- 1) On the island previously occupied by the lands and 3 islets of the Sept-tiesArchipelago, shrew, the density index of the insectivore was off the coast of Brittany (France) (seeAliens amplified by 10.4 to 16.4 (depending on the 3/1996). At this stage of the experiment, the computation). three islets and two of the islands under study were free of the insular form of the shrew 2) The shrew, initially restricted to the south- Crocidura suaveolens;The western European east comer of this island, now occupies the populations of this shrew are suspected to whole terrestriai area. The high density spots '1onstitute a:subspecies, or perhaps a species, were observed to change to0'--some of the as a 7% divergence of the DNAmt splits the new ones corresponding to previous rodent high density spots. , shrews of the east and the west of Europe. The continental populations of the western form are currently on the verge of extinction due to 3) Two of the islets previously free of shrews competition with C. russula, a natural inva- are now colonised by the species, and the two sive shrew species which moved into the islands initially free remain so. This last ob- pyrenees Mountains 4,000 years ago. So the servation suggestssome ideas about the physi- remaining healthy populations of the western cat and biological characteristicsof the islands' form of C. suaveolensare geographically con- connections, allowing a short term come-back centrated in the islands, and two documented of the species. cases of introduction of C. russula onto is- lands have resulted in the disappearanceof C. These results suggest there are strong inter- suaveolens. actions not yet clearly identified betweenR. norvegicus and C. suaveolens in the insular September 1998: ecosystems. With a view to testing the potential impact on the shrew populations of a lack of rodents, the Michel Pascal, Franr;ois Siorat, trapping quadrat used for eradication was re~ Fabrice Bernard set on one of the two islands with an initial shrew population, and on the islets and two pascal @ beaulieu. rennes. inra.fr of the islands free of shrews. resnat 7 iles @wanadoo. fr Center for Risk Assessment.Pest prediction 8:

New Center for Ecological population size of an introduced speci-es~ I Impacts are expressed in several indices Risk Assessment reflecting the potential for reproduction and/ or mortality .Climex expressesoverall climatic The University of Minnesota (Minneapolis/ suitability by combining indices to generate St. Paul, USA) recently awarded funds to an Ecoclimatic Index which has been used create the Midwest Ecological Risk subjectively as an indicator of the likelihood Assessment Center (MERAC). of establishment. The Center, involving academics and policymakers, will promote the integration of We have advanced the application of Climex research, education, and outreach efforts to in ecological risk assessments by applying improve systems management decisions, logistic regression techniques to Climex's including the management of exotic species. indices. .In general, logistic regression is Immediate activities will include: designed to provide the probability of an event I) development of instructional modules to given several independent predictor variables. explain the process of risk assessment, In our study of the invasion of pink bollworm 2) establishment of a clearinghouse for risk- (Pectinophora gossypiella; PBW) in North assessmentpublications and case studies, and America, we found that the probability of 3) creation of new tools to quantify ecological establishment was best predicted with a risks. combination of the Ecoclimatic Index and the Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum Temperature Index, a measure of the impact spicatum), pink bollworm (Pectinophora of temperature on population growth. The gossypiella), and alfalfa blotch leaf miner resulting model correctly classified 92% of (Agromyza frontella) are among the exotic 204 locations that were, prior to any statistical pests of concern. analyses, categorized as PBW-infested or PBW-free. Linking probabilities of Comments from people developing risk establishment at multiple locations in a assessmenttools for exotic pests are welcome. geographic information system (GIS) allowed for interpolatioI) of probabilities over geographic regions. Predicting establishment of exotic pests: new twist on an The use of logistic regression to objectively quantify the probability of establishment "'old" tool (basedon the numerous environmental indices from Climex} is unique to this study. Although Environmental conditions, particularly pink bollworm is an economic pest of cotton, temperature and moisture, affect the chances the method of risk assessmentis applicable to that an introduced species will maintain a exotic pestsin natural or managedecosystems. reproductive population in its new environment. Knowing the probability of Robert Venette establishment is a key factor in the assessment Postdoctoral Associate of risks associated with exotic species. The Department of Entomology climate matching software, Climex (Skarrat, 219 Hodson Hall Sutherst, and Maywald, 1995, Cooperative University of Minnesota Research Center for Tropical Pest St. Paul, MN 55108 USA Management, Brisbane), was developed to E-mail: [email protected] provide rapid assessments of the effect of Fax: +1-612-625-5299 prevailing environmental conditions at a given Tel: +1-612-624-3670 location on the likely growth rate and

R

~ Marine leafletc~ Formosan termite. B.ooks.

Marine Pest Leaflet Plant Invasions Book

New- Zealand's Cawthron Institute has As a result of the 4th International Conference prOduced a "Marine Pest Watch" leaflet on on the Ecology of Invasive AJien Plants held the European green crab and the northern in Berlin last October, Backhuys is publishing Pacific seastar. It consists of a brief the following book: Starfmger U, Edwards K, intrOduction to, and a colour photqgraph of, Kowarik I, and Williamson M (eds.): Plant each animal, followed by a brief description Invasions: Ecological Mechanisms and of what to look for, including particular Human Responses. The book will be diagnostic features of each illustrated with line published in 1998. draYlings. Leaflet format was chqsen as it is easy to put D7: Uwe Starfinger in a pocket or the log book of a boat and is Technische Universitiit Berlin, hence far more likely to be available when [nstitut fur Okologie und Biologie required. This will hopefully help raise public Schmidt-Ott-St7: 1,[2165 Berlin, Germany awareness of marine invaders. Tel: +49-30-314-711-94 Fax: +49-30-314-713-24 Tim Dodgshun, Cawthron Institute, E-mail: starfinger@ gp.tu-berlin.de Private Bag 2, Nelson, New Zealand Tel: +64-3-548-2319 Fax: +64-3-546-9464 Fonnosan tennite news E-mail:" timd@environment"cawthron"org"n; The U.S. newspaper Times-Picayune pub- lished a 5-part mid-year special report on "Life out of Bounds!r Formosan termite (Coptotermesformosanusj damage.Though mainly addressing social and economic costs, it is an excellent public aware- I highly recommend a new book on invasive ness tool with much additional information species by Chris Bright, entitled: Life Out of on invasives that threaten biodiversity. Bounds -Bioinvasion in a Borderless World ~ ~ ~\!( (NortonlWorldwatch Books, w. w. Norton and Co. New York and London, 1998; /""'-~ http://www. wwnorton.com). I know many ISSG members lielped Chris oil the book. It is an exhaustively researched and very useful and readable collection of global invasion horror stories, that seeks to be ~.- hopeful in the end. It is the best "popular" book I know of on the subject. rtiI ~ /1j ~ '~;-~ ~- ~~ Peter Jenkins, --,-~--.~ -""'~- :::-.::; ;::'-' . Biopolicy Consulting Inc. ~ -' -~ ~"::~- - ~ PO Box 772, Placitas, ~ ~ New Mexico 87043USA ~ ~;::..~~' Tel: +1-505-867-0641 ~ Fax: +1-505-771-0737 / E-mail: jenkinsbiopolicy@msn;com )-.,.. 11

~ The exotic grass, Spartina was fIrSt introduced to New Zealand in 1913. Since then, Spartina has been planted extensively throughout New Zealand, primarily to accelerate pasture reclamation and more recently to stop foreshore erosion in sheltered bays and estuaries. Three speciesare presentin New Zealand, Spartina anglica, S. altemiflora, and S. x townsendii. All three speciesare physically very similar and are commonly misidentified. Geographically, Spartina is widespread throughout New Zealand, occurring from Kaitaia, in the north, down to Invercargill, in the south. Spartina is an aggressive coastal marine invader, that spreads quickly. It is a robust grass with a high stem and root density that excludes burrowing fauna, such as cockles (Austrovenus stutchburyi)and other shellfish. The impenetrable nature of this grass reduces accessto food for birds and fish. Spartina's extraordinary ability to accumulate sediment can have far.reaching effects on the hydrology of harbours and channels. For these reasons, it is generally agreed that Spartina compromises the educational, recreational and aesthetic values of estuaries and bays, and should be eradicated before the problem becomes too large and expensive. In recent years, local authorities and the Department of Conservation, around New Zealand, have initiated Spartina eradication programs that have included cutting and burning, smothering or shading with black plastic, and many herbicides..The herbicide, Gallant@ has been the most successful method of control to date, becauseof its low toxicity to marine life, low application rate, low cost and high success rate. Gallant contains the active ingredient haloxyfop-ethoxyethyl (etotyl) ester. On application this ester breaks down to.its parent acid haloxyfop. Relatively little monitoring has been done on the effects of spraying on marine macroinvertebrate communities. This question is becoming increasingly important, as more control work is being done near populated areas and marine farms. Public concern and the little information available has prompted a monitoring programme of these invertebrate communities before and after spraying with Gallant@. Monitoring includes quantitative surveys of macroinv~rtebrates, and sediment analysis over one year. Hopefully, with this information, we can more accurately assessthe environmental effects of Gallant@.

Pip Nicholls School of Environmental and Marine Sciences University of Auckland (Tamaki Campus) , Private Bag 92019 Auckland New Zealand I~\ Tel: +64-9-3737-599 ext 8579 r Fax: +64-9-373-7042 E-mail: pnicholl @tmknov3.auckland.ac.nz

Generic Spartina plant, showing high root density

~

~ 10 In a first important step for French Polynesia's biological transportation between islands are all totally prohibited, invasion management program, 13 alien plant species and destruction is authorized. The distribution maps and .considered to be major invasive plants in native habitats managementrecommendations (major infestation sites and of the tropical oceanic islands of French Polyn~sia have satellites, strategy and control methods) are currently been legally declared "species that threaten biodiversity" unde~en by the Delegation a la Recherche (Research (decree 244 CM adopted by the Government of French Department, Government of French Polynesia) in Polynesia on February 12, 1998).These speciesare: Acacia collaboration with tbe Service du Developpement Rural farnesiana (Leguminosae), a thorny shrub colonizing dry (Agriculture Department), along with identification sheets habitats; Ardisia elliptica (Myrsinaceae), a small tree of each species for local authorities aI}d the public. forming dense covers in wet lowland areas; Cecropia Although this new regulatory text will certainly have a peltata (Cecropiaceae), a fast-growing pioneer tree in low immediate impact in efficaciously controlling these forest gaps and open areas; Lantana camara dominant invasive plants (which are widespread and/or (Verbenaceae), a thorny shrub forming impenetrable forming dense stands in some islands, especially in thickets in dry and mesic habitats; Leucaena leucocephala Tahiti, the largest island of French Polynesia), it will (Leguminosae), a medium-sized tree forming densestands certainly have an important psychological impact and in dry and mesic habitats; Melinis minutiflora (Graminae), contribute to public awarenessand information abeut the a mat grass forming dense colonies in mesic and wet conser:vation impacts of plant invaders. For instance, the habitats of middle and high elevation; Miconia calvescens single African tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata) planted (Melastomataceae), a tree already declared a "noxious several years ago in the small island of U a Huka species" in French Polynesia in 1990, which forms densely (Marquesas archipelago) was destroyed shortly after the shaded monotypic stands in mesic and wet habitats - regulatory text was adopted. including cloud-forests -and causes the extirpation of The second major step of the biological invasion endemic plant species; Psidium cattleianum (Myrtaceae), management program conducted in French Polynesia will a medium-sized tree forming dense thickets in mesic and be the early detection and control of potential/incipient wet habitats; Rubus rosifolius, a prickly shrub invading invasive plant species (known to be highly-invasive the understory of native forests, spreading up to the highest elsewhere in the tropics) which are already present but summit of Tahiti (2,241 m); Spathodea campanulata not naturalized, or are still sparingly naturalized. For (Bignoniaceae), a large tree forming dense standsin mesic instance, there are only two Brazilian pepper trees (Sohinus habitats; Tecoma stans (Bignoniaceae), a small tree terebinthifolius, Anacardi1iceae)-a tree known to be a forming dense thickets in mesic and wet habitats; and serious plant pest in South Africa, Florida, Hawaii and the Syzygiumcumini and SyzYgiumjambos (Myrtaceae)-both Mascarenes-growing as ornamental plants in Tahiti... trees forming dense cover, and shading out all the other This step seems far more difficult to achieve from both speciesin mesic and wet habitats. Most of these alien plant scientific and social/cultural points of view. How to predict species are known to be highly-invasiveelsewhere in the which introduced specieswill effectively become invasive? tropics, especially on oceanic islands (e.g. Cooks, Hawaii, How to convince local people and politicians to eradicate Fiji, Galapagos, Mascarenes; Pitcairn, Seychelles). The species which are considered as (beautiful and harmless) noxious Mimosa invisa (Leguminosae), a thorny shrub of garden ornamentals ? recent introduction (1950s), and Merremia peltata (Convolvulaceae), a light-Ioving vine of aboriginal Jean- YvesMeyer introduction, were not included in this list because they Delegation a la Recherche, are considered as "weeds" sensu stricto, i.e. found BoP.20981, Papeete, exclusively in human-disturbed areas. Tahiti, French Polynesia, New importation of these 13 alien species into French Tel: +689-46-00-89 Polynesia (all were introduced intentionally as Fax: +689-43-34-00 ornamentals, or for other purposes), cultivation, and E-mail: [email protected] Following cutting of Pittosporum, it has a high capacity t9 resprout; and even when its existing seedlings are uprooted, Pittosporum dominates the subsequent natural regeneration. We have found that the relatively benign herbicide glyphosate is effective at killing Pittosporum trees and seedlings, and we are continuing to search for effective non-chemical methods of control (including biological control). Experimental clearance has, however, shown that it would be very difficult and costly to remove Pittosporum from heavily-invaded forest {disturbance of sufficient severity to prevent Pittosporum regeneration inevitably leads to domination by non-woody invasive weed species).

A key management requirement is to reduce the extent to which Pittosporum in the already heavily-invaded forest is acting as a seed source for continuing invasion of the The Invasive Woody Plants in the Tropics research group, remaining natural forests of the Blue Mountains. An based at the University of Wales, Bangor, UK, has innovative combination of local community participation undertaken two major field studies in Jamaica and and direct management by the National Park authorities Tanzania, together with a global review of invasions will be most effective. For the heavily-invaded forest areas resulting in a comprehensive database, an analysis of (which are those most accessible to local people), we common characteristics and recommendations for advocate an approach of "conservation by utilisation": management and control, as summarised below. Pittosporum wood has good potential for use as timber and makes excellent/ firewood so local people could InvasiQn of Pittosporum undulatum into intensively harvest the species and gain resources and revenue through participation in this conservation activity. the Blue Mountains of Jamaica Control activities by National Park field staff should then concentrate on killing the satellite populations of TheAustralian tree Pittosporum undulatum was introduced Pittosporum that have become established within to Cinchona Botanic Garden in the Blue Mountains of otherwise uninvaded forest and are acting as secondary lamaicain 1883. Sixty-six years later this bird-dispersed foci for the invasion. species was reported as "perhaps the commonest tree" in surrounding forest.

Inyasion of Maesopsis eminii into the Recent research carried out by the University of Wales Bangor, in association with the University of the West East U sambara forests of Tanzania Indies and the University of Cambridge. has discovered that Pittosporum has a major suppressive'effect on native Maesopsis eminii is a large African forest tree introduced plants: veryfew speciescan survive within its densestands. to many parts of the tropics and grown in monoculture )t is also likely to have profound impacts on native animals. plantations as a fast-growing timber tree. Soon after the The frequency of Pittosporum seedlings in previously introduction of Maesopsis to the Amani Botanic Gardens uninvaded forest greatly increased following the severe in the East U sambaraMountains in north-eastern Tanzania disturbance of Hurricane Gilbert in i 988; the species has (which lies outside its native range), it started to spread now spread throughout at least 1.300 hectares of primary into the natural forest. The East Usambaraforests contain a large number of endemic species and are restricted to a . and secondary montane forest. The potential range of the species in the Blue Mountains <;ouldbe as high as 44,000 small mountain range. Much of the original forest has been hectares. severely threatening the survival of many of the converted or severely degraded as a result of agricultural 275 endemic flowering plant species. clearancesor forestry operations.Widespread reforestation

12 of logged forest with planted Maesopsis in the 1960s and to life-form and degree of invasiveness. Eighteen species 1970s, and unsustainable logging practices in the 1980s of particular concern selected from the category "highly resulted in extensive natural regeneration of Maesopsis in invasive" are investigated in greaterdetail and short species logged areas and natural forest gaps. accounts are "presented.

Our work on the ecology of the Maesopsis invasion The importance of historical and socio-economic factors includes a literature review, and field research on: (a) its in the introduction and subsequentspread of exotic species autecology; (b) the patterns Iof invasion into disturbed and is examined. The difficulty in identifying the taxonomic undisturbed forests; (c) its impact on the native forest nature of an introduced plant, ascertaining whether it is ecosystem and an assessmelIlt of management options. native or alien, and obtaining historical information, is stressed. The ecological profile of Maesopsis is characteristic of an intermediate "initially shade-tolerant but subsequently Invasive tendencies of woody species, and the light-requiring" species. It has: (a) large (up to 3 cm long) predictability of a speciesbecoming invasive, are reviewed single-seeded fruit dispersed mainly by hombills'; (b ) a in relation to species characteristics, disturbance regimes short-lived (less than one year) soil seed bank; (c) shade- and environmental factors. Time-lags between the tolerant seedlings (surviving up to ca. six months); but (d) introductions of woody plants a.nd their spread are shade,.intolerant (light-requiring) saplings and mature investigated in more detail. Published evidence shows that individuals. Thus, although Maesopsis can germinate and major changesin a biotic factor ( eg. populations of grazing, its seedlings survive under forest canopy, it requires full pollinating or seed-dispersinganimals) or an abiotic factor sunlight to grow to maturity and thus can only reach (eg. fire, wind, flooding or logging) detennine the duration canopy height when growing in large tree-fall gaps. The of the time lag. reduced disturbance regime of the past decade (with reduced levels of logging) has resulted in an apparent On the basis of the group's field experience and global slowing down of the rate of spread as fewer sites are being review, we have written an overview of the management cre~ted that are suitable for Maesopsis regeneration. The and control of alien woody plants in the tropics and sub- impactof Maesopsis on the regeneration of common native tropics. Recent research and practice on combating this species is no.tas important as originally thought, however growing problem is synthesised. The main emphasis is on no data is available on its effect on uncommon and rare "environmental" weeds in protected areas, rather than endemic species. those 'dffecting agricultw:-eor production forestry.

Maesopsis is only one of a number of the 900 species of Ecolog): woody plants introduced to the Amani Botanic Gardens An understanding of the biology of the alien specIes and which are spreading into natural forest. The incidence of the ecology of the invasion process is fundamental for invasions and their impact on endemic species in the successful management. Key data are: taxonomic identity; remaining East U sambara forests are also affected by the history and course of the invasion; susceptibility of the heavy human disturbance pr,essureand climate change of invader to different types of control; and subsequent the past few decades. Further careful investigation is dynamics of the vegetation. Ecological data can be costly required before final recommendations are made. to obtain, so an assessmenthas to be made of what level of information is necessary to meet objectives. A global review of invasive wood~ ~lants in the tro~ics Management A general objective of management of protected natural Databases and associated literature are used in this new areasis for the ecosystems ( and their key processes)to be targeted review which focuses on information not readily maintained in as close to their 'original state' as possible. available in the published overviews on biological However, experience has shown that all types of ecosystem invasions. Temporal, spatial, taxonomic and ecological can be vulnerable to invasion by alien species, even in the trends and patterns are described using data from 3,579 absenceof human disturbance.Therefore, managersshould bibliographical references relating to 653 invasive woody always be cautious about introducing alien plants into species. Data of invasions in tropical and sub-tropical protected or adjacent areas (eg. in forms of buffer-zone regions are compared to those of invasions world-wide. A management).An inventory of alien plants already present list of 235 woody species invasive in tropical and sub- should be carried out and followed by subsequent tropical regions is presented w!th species listed accor.ding monitoring so that potentially-irivasive speciesare detected as early as possible. Potential roles for remote sensing, ground survey, historical survey, local knowledge and public awarenessare identifiea:~

Ass~ssing effects All invasive species affect (though to a varying degree) the composition, structure and functioning of invaded ecosystems ~nd their economic/resource value. We summarise and classify potential ecological, economic and In September, the U .S. Government announced adoption cultural impacts. However, determination of the specific of an "interim rule"-requiring China to apply impacts of a particular invasion is difficult (often requiring phytosanitary treatments to crates, pallets, spools for wire, considerable time and resources). Furthermore, even if and other wood packing materials. The aim? To protect demonstrated, these impacts cannot simply be classified Ainerican forests from damage by alien insects that can as neutral, positive, or negative, because they will often be introduced on unprocessed wood articles. vary greatly between different stakeholders depending on their socio-economic, cultural, institutional or knowledge The u.s. Government has been urged by environmental status. We propose a scoring method and criteria for organizations to move rapidly to prohibit all imports of selecting which alien species should be controlled. packing materials made from "raw" or unprocessed wood becausethe chemical most likely to be used in fumigation, Control methyl bromide, is both higWy toxic to those who work The initial step in developing an effective control with it, and a significant ozone-depletor. programme should be the mapping of the current and potential range of the species, its density and size-class America's forests have been shown to be particularly distribution. We provide guidelines on selection of areas vulnerable to introduced insects from Europe. Insects from for control, including those which: have extant isolated Asia also pose significant threats; examples include the populations of scattered species; are heavily-invaded;are henllock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). otherwise priority target areas. Further guidance is provided on selecting which individuals (comprising what proportion and section of the alien species' population) to Insects ffom Eurasia -and other regions -are reaching America in large numbers by hitchhiking on craJ:es,pallets, control in these areas. The role and practice of the range spools for wire, and other wood packing materials. Since of different methods of control are reviewed. Issues 1985, the U.S. Department of Agriculture has detected considered include: effectiveness, cost, time-span, insects in wood packing materials more than 5,300 times. environmental impact, other risks and conflicts of interest. While a wide variety of insects have been found (54 Biological control is, at present, impractical for tackling many invasions in the tropics, but there are a wide variety families), numerically beetles (Coleoptera) predominated (found in 94% of all interceptions). They arrived in of effective physical and chemical control methods available from which the most appropriate one (or set) shipments from nearly 90 countries. Seventy-two percent can be selected for local cir<;umstances.In rich countries of the insect i~terceptions have been in wood packing the cost of the labour involved in most physical control material from Euro~. However, as imports from China methods is a major limiting factor, however in most have multiplied -by a factor of 12, so has the proportion developing countries this is less of a constraint (indeed it of insect interceptions from that country. In 1985, can offer a major benefit providing significant employment shipments from China accounted for only 1.2% of insect opportunities in conservation work for local people living interceptions; by 1996, they represented 21.2% of interceptions. Exports from China represented7% ofU .S. around protected areas). Removing dense infestations of imports in 1997. . woody plants can take over 30 person-days p~r hectare. America 's imports have grown enormously in recent years This work was funded primarily by the Forestry Research Programme -by 50% between 1990 and 1997. An unknown (but of the UK DFID; the Darwin Initiative for the Survival qf Species of the probably very high) proportion of the nearly 2 million UK DETR; FINNIDA; the British Ecological Society; and NORAD commercial shipments received each year is contained in John Healey, Tom Goodland, some form of packaging made of unprocessed wood. The Pierre Binggeli and John Hall U.S. Department of Agriculture now considers wood School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences packing material to be a major pathway for introductions. University of Wales, 8angor Gwynedd, LL57 2~ UK The USDA's action in September was prompted by the http: / /www.safs. bclngol:ac. uklIWPT second discovery in port city neighborhood trees of a

14 particular beetle from Asia, the Asian longhorned beetle In the American West, at least, existing aspen groves Anoplophora glabripennis. The Asian longhorned beetle consist of clones sprouting from root systems created in is native to Japan, Korea, and southern China. It feeds on earlier centuries -.even millenia. The resulting lack of many hardwood tree species, including inaples, willows, genetic diversity would seem to increase the threat posed elms, and poplars. Maples are co-dominant forests by any alien pest that may attack. covering approximately 48 million acres in the northeastern part of the United States and additional The Asian longhomed beetle was first detected in New acreage in southern Canada. In lower densities, maples York in 1996. In response, the USDA and Agriculture are found throughout the eastern deciduous forest. Canada began searching warehouses and tracking Widespread destructioQ of maples would probably result shipments. They have found the Asian longhomed beetle in the short tenn loss of nesting habitat for cavity-nesting in warehouses in 20 locations, including California, birds, in soil erosion and warming of stream temperatures. Michigan, New Jersey, North and South Carolina, Ohio, Over the longer term, there would be a major change in Texas, Washington State, British Columbia, and Ontario. forest composition: probably various invasive alien shrub Agriculture Canada officials also determined that 41% of and vine speciesalready present in the region would come certain types of wood packing material from China ~howed to dominate. (The co-dominant American beech (Fagus evidence of insect infestation. grandifolia) is already in decline due to the impacts of a fungus transported by an alien scale insect - Environmentalists are pressing the U.S. Government to Cryptococcusfagisuga. The most common i.nvasivealien keep the broader problem fmnly in mind while dealing tree species ill the region is also a maple -Acer with the crisis caused by the introductions of Asian platanoides, and highly susceptible to the beetle's attack.) longhorned beetle. Analysis of USDA's interception data Maples are also a very .important economic resource, shows not only that the threat is a global one, but also the producing maple sugar (U.S. maple syrup production is need for care in utilizing interception data to set priorities. valued at between $31 and $42 million annually) and For example, while the highest numbers of interceptions quality timber (valued at $120 million per year), and the occurred at Houston, Texas, with New York ranking sixth, most brilliant display of aut1,lmnfoliage that draws millions actual introductions have occurred in New York and at of "leaf peeper" tourists who contribute more than $1 ports on the Great Lakes. What could explain this billion annually to the economies of the northern states: discrepancy? Perhaps inspectors at Houston, Miami, and other "high-ranking" ports may be particularly vigilant. The Asian longhorned beetle also feeds on asp.ensand Or the pine forests of east Texas may be less hospitable to poplars (Populus genus). Eleven tree speciesin this genus insects from Eurasia than are the hardwood forests of the are found in North America; one-quaking aspen P. mid-Atlantic and Midwest. treinuloides-is the most widespread tree on the continent. Quaking aspen groves interspersed within the Haack and Cavey note that frequency of interception is predominantly coniferous forests of the Rocky Mountains not necessarily a good indicator of which insect species are very important to maintaining the biological diversity will become established in the U.S. Both the geographic of the region. and species data indicate the need for caution in using interception data in developing policy, since they do not According to various experts, the aspen groves are vitally tell the whole story. important to a number of migratory and resident bird species, including cavity nesters (for example, bluebirds Faith Campbell and woodpeckers), ruffed & blue grouse, and wild tUrkey. American Lands Alliance/Frontera Audubon Society Elk and mule deer utilize aspen heavily for browse Fax: +1-202-547-9213 (food)-soheavily, in fact, that overbrowsing is a major E-mai': [email protected] threat to the regeneration of aspen stands! Beavers also depend on aspen.

15 .Conce12t ~a12er .Ma~ 1998 Proposed national system for ea!ly detection, reporting, assessment and eradication ofnew invasive plants in the United States

Back2round and Obje~tives. Early detection and rapid response to new weeds have been recognized as national priorities under the ApmSWeed Policy Implementation Plan, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Strategic Plan for Weeds, the National Park Service Weed Plan, the Bureau of Land Management Weed Plan, .and the National Strategy for Invasive Plant Management. The system described here would help to fulfill ~ese goals by creating communication links between people who detect incipient infestations and agencies who are charged with addressing them. This document discussesthe establishment of a national early warning and rapid responsesystem for new invasive plants in the United States.

The USDA APHIS (American Plant Health Inspection Service) Pest Detection System now in operation is effective in early detection of new insects and diseasesin the United State~.The present syst~m would augment that effort by:

A. Enhancing the nation's capability of detecting new invasive plants. B. Focusing on invasive plants. c. Bringing into the reporting system a whole new range of cooperators (federal, state, local, and private interests}

The successof the proposed early warning system will depend heavily on the participation of agencies/institutions with personnel who come into contact with new plants or have management responsibilities for them. Information gained about new plants through the proposed early warning system would be provided to affected landowners, as well as appropriate county, state, and federal agencies and institutions. Infestations on public lands would become the responsibility of the affected land management agencies. Information about'infestations on private lands would be provided to appropriate state and local agencies, and through regul.archannels to the Apms New Pest Advisory Group as well as pertinent federal land t:nanagementagencies.

I. State Plant Detection and Reporting Networks.

In each state, the people who are likely to encounter and recognize introduced plants include: botanists, herbarium curators, horticulturalists, crop pest consultants,farmers, extension agents,weed scientists, Native Plant Society members, Nature Cunservancy personnel, State Plant Regulatory Inspectors, and USDA Apms PPQ Officers.

In order to create an early national detection and reporting network for new weeds, we need to:

1. Identify people who collect and subIilit plantsto herbaria fo(identification and curation, and -alert them to their role in early detection (through letters, e-mail, magazine articles, meeting presentations, etc.). Southeast).-keep them infonned about high-priority species. of concern they may encounter (such as.tropical soda apple in the

2. Create a State Weed Team in each state to determine what actions to take on a new infestation. Such a team would collaborate about new plants on both private and public lands. 3. Tell plant collectors to report new state and national plant records to the State Interagency Weed Team. The Weed Team Coordinator will forward this infonnation to appropriate state and federal officials. 4. Create financial incentives (a bounty) for reporting new plant species that are found to be national records, or state records. This has worked well in the cooperative State/Federal Witchweed Eradication Project in the Carolinas.

II. State WeedTeams.

Once a new or unknown plant is reported in a state (state or national record), an interagency committee needs to detennine a proper course of action. The functions of such a state interagency weed team would be to:

1. Confirnl or arrange for identification of the reporte~ plant. 2. Facilitate a field assessmentas well as detection and delimitation surveys.

16 3. Make recommendations for action to affected landowners (private and public) and to appropriate agencies (county, state, and federal). . Infestations on Private Lands. Forward information gathered to the appropriate state agency and to the APHIS PPQ New Pest Advisory Group for consideration. Infestations on Public Lands. Forward information gathered to the appropriate state. or federal land management agency. 4. Classify and prioritize needed actions. 5. Elect a State Weed Coordinator to coordinate the activities of the State Weed Team and to communicate with other groups regarding new weeds in the state.

The following agencies or institutions should be represented on a state weed team

State Weed Team Member Function USDA APHIS PPQ State Cooperate with-the PPQ Region and the APHIS Plant Health Director Weed Coordinator to determine the need for federal involvement.

State Pest Survey Coordinator facilitate/ Arrange for Weed Surveys (Land Grant University)

State or University Botanist Identify reported plants; maintain herbarium specimens.

State Weed Scientist (Integrated -Conduct or facilitate initial field assessment. Weed Management Specialist OR -Determine control options. State Extension Weed Specialist) -Cooperate with Apms or other agencies to determine feasibility of eradication.

State Weed CoordinatorAND!OR Ta;kelead in facilitating action on private lands State Weed Regulatory Official

State Land Management Agencies Facilitate action on state lands. -State Parks -State Forestry -State Fish & Game -State DOT

Representatives from Federal Land Facilitate/take action on federal lands Management/Research Agencies :-Agricultural Research Service -National Parks -U.S. Forest Service -U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service -Bureau of Land Management -Bureau of Reclamation -Bureau of Indian Affairs -Biological Resources Division -Corps. of Engineers -Department of Defense -Department of Energy -Federal Highway Administration

Representatives from Private Industry . Carry out invasive plant removal projects on -Chemical Industry private and public lands. Technology ~sfer -Invasive Plant Control Specialists to others in private industry.

17 Classification of Weed Control Efforts.

One valuable function of a state weed team would be early determination of the level of effort needed to deal with a new weed problem. Once the team determines a proper course of action, there will be less chancefor miscommunications and duplication of effort. 1\vo possible levels of action would be Eradication Actions and Eradication Projects.

Eradication Action. This would involve small infestations that can be eradicatedby the landowner, by APffiS. state efforts, or by an impacted land management agency with currently available funding.

Eradication Project. This would involve control/eradication of new weed infestations that will require additional funding that is not locally available. Such project proposals could be submitted to appropriate state or federal agencies for possible funding, OR submitted to the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation for possible funding under "Pulling Together", the National Challenge Grant Weed Management Program (a collaborative project between USDA, USDI, and the Fish & Wildlife Foundation).

Priorities for ImDlementation and FundinK. Priorities for funding and conducting weed eradication projects would begin at the local level and end with federal assistancewhere necessary,

A. Owner of Infested Property (Private or Public) B. County. C. State. D. Federal.

Weed Management Areas.

The weed management area concept originated in the western United States. It involves creation of a local, state, or regional partnership committee to deal with weeds that impact on public and private lands and multi-jurisdictions. Weed Management Areas would be fostered by state interagency weed teams to pennit affected groups to shareresources and expertise in dealing :with issues of common concern. Eradication projects that are multi-agency or multi-jurisdiction in impact could be proposed for funding under the National Challenge Grant Program for Weeds that is described above. ill. Federal Interagency Rapid Response Weed Team.

Team Scope. The Federal Interagency Rapid Response Weed Team would be a recognized cadre of federal weed control, regulatory, and research specialists.

Team Purpose. The purpose of the team would be to provide technical support upon request to local, stat~, and federal agencies that become involved in surveys, assessments,and eradication of new invasive plants in the United States.

Federal Interagency Weed Coordinator: RandyG. Westbrooks, USGS BRD/APmS PPQ, Whiteville, NC. Weed Ecologist: Bill Gregg, USGS BRD, Reston, V A. Research Agronomist: Robert Eplee, ResearchAgronomist and Center Director, Apms PPQ Oxford Plant Protection Center, Oxford, NC.

Support Personnel: Herbicide Specialist -Field Assessments/ControlTecliniques;Agriculturalist -Weed Survey and Greenhouse/Laboratory Research;Equipment Design and Development; Equipment Fabrication/Field Control Specialist; Herbicide Registration Specialists and Environmental Assessments; Biological Control Specialist.

Rt;zndyG. Westbrooks Invasive Plant Liaison, U.S. Department of the Interior -U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Weed Coordinatol; USDA APHIS, P.O. Box 279, Whiteville, North Carolina This concept paper is being continually Tel: + I -9 10-648-6762 updated. For the miJst recent version Fax: +1-910-648-6763 contact Randy Westbrooks on e-mail. E-mail: [email protected]

18 Earlier this year, UNEP's Mediterranean Action Plan rapidly in daylight conditions, in the presence of oxygen (MAP) convened a workshop on the green alga Caulerpa and chlorophylls or phaeophytins. . and its impacts in the Mediterranean Sea. An extract of .No caulerpenyne has been found to accumulate in sea the UNEP report is reproduced below: urchins which have consumed C. taxifolia. .No toxicity risk to humans has ever been observed. .C. taxifolia colonises all types of sea bottoms, such as Conclusions rock, sand, mud and dead Posidoniameadows. .c. taxifolia invades indigenous biocoenoses modifying a) There exist more than 70 speciesof the genus Caule1pa, biodiversity and ecodiversity. but only a handful of these are present in the Mediterra- nean Sea. d) Caulerpa racemosa has not been studied intensively, like Caulerpa taxifolia, Nevertheless, the following can b) Caule1pa taxifolia is a tropical species and was ob- be concluded based on the available literature on C. served for the first time in Monaco in 1984, Since then it racemosa inhabiting the Mediterranean. has expanded, covering large areas of the Western Medi~ terra,neanand Adriatic coastal region (> 3,000 ha. at the .c. racemosa, which is cunently colonising the Mediter- end of 1996). At the same time another Caule1pa species, ranean, may present different 'morphological characteris- Caule1pa racemosa, is expanding in many parts of the tics from one region to another and from the specimens Mediterranean. described in the same region at the beginning of the 20th century. c) c. taxifolia has been studied extensively in the Medi- .C. racemosa colonises all types of substrate such as rock, terranean and the following can be concluded based on sand, mud and dead Posidonia meadows down to 60 m. the results obtained: depth and interferes with marine coastal biocoenoses.Also, it develops equally well in both clean and polluted water. .c, taxifoliawhichcolonises the Mediterranean has some .The expansion of C. racemosa, according to preliminary unusual morphological and physiological characteristics research, may alter marine habitats. with respect to known c. taxifolia inhabiting the tropical seas. In view of the above, the Workshop agreed that the most .c. taxifolia can adapt itself to different light conditions serious risk from Caulerpa taxifolia and Caulerpa and is found in dense beds down to 50 m. depth- racemosa was the upsetting of the ecological balance. .The growth curves as a function of water temperature * show an adaptation:to a large range of temperatures and a resistance to cold winter temperatures (3 months survival The report goes on to make "recommendations to all Medi- at 10°C). terranean countries" and "recommendations to countries .There is no connection between the development of C. in which one or both of the two species are present" . taxifolia and water quality; it developsequally well in clean and polluted waters. Meeting report sent in by: Charles-Franfois Boudouresque .C. taxifolia synthesisesnine toxic substances,including Universite de la Mediterranee caulerpenyne, which is predominant. The percentage of Centre d'Oceanologie de Marseille toxins by dry weight in C. taxifolia is usually higher in UMR 6540, CNRS Dirnar the Mediterranean than in tropical Seas. Fax: +33-491-411265 .It has been shown that caulerpenyne in solution degrades boudour@ corn.univ-rnrs .fr

lQ A new exotic species-Cercopagis pengoi (Crustacea: density than Bythotrephes in Lake Ontario, but has a much Onychopoda: Cercopagidae)-has recently been reported smaller body size, so predicting its impact on zooplankton in Lake Ontario. This zooplankter is a predatory cladoceran is difficult. Baltic Searesearch suggeststhat planktivorous related to, and possibly derived from, Bythotrephes fishes positively select this species. Based on our work longimanus (called cederstroemi ("B.c.") in North with Bythotrephes, we believe that this positive selection America, though the two are genetically indistinguishable). will be limited to larger fish that would not be hindered B.c. is a major zooplankton predator introduced to the from eating Cercopagis by its long caudal appendage (tail Great Lakes during the 1980s, and has profound effects spine). This speciesis. likely to g~t into upper Great Lakes on zoOplankton(it eliminates small species,favouring large ( eg. Erie) and to inland lakes either through ballast water ones). discharges, on waterfowl plumage, 9r especially via sport fishermen who have it caked to their lines. The species First observed by scientists in Canadian waters during the reproduces primarily asexually (parthenogenetically). It week of August 3rd, Cercopagis has apparently been in produces males, and thereafter females, with resting eggs the lake for a while, as it is already a known nuisance, (which may be transported on fishing line) during the less fouling gill nets set for fish surveys and heavily fouling favourable periods. In Lake Ontario during August, about ("like wet insulation") sportfishing lines. Just as gobies, 2% of the animals examined were sexual females, 6% zebra mussels, B.c. and others hail from Eastern Europe, males, and 92% asexual females. Cercopagis is native to the Caspian, Azov and Aral Seas and to lakes adjacent to the Black Sea.It invaded the Baltic Hugh Mac Isaac, University of Windsor, has photos of Sea in 1992, and ~ay have reached Lake Ontario in either Baltic and Lake Ontario specimens on the Internet: http:/ 1997 or 98. Either way, it came in after mandatory ballast /www .c s .u windsor .c a/users/h/hughm/private/ water flushing was implemented, and is suspectedto have cercopagis.html survived due to its tolerance of brackish water. Hugh Maclsaa(:, Great Lakes Institute for Environmental We have little infonnation on Cercopagis becausethere is Research (GUER) virtually no literature on its ecology in Eastern Europe. hughm@uwindsol:ca However its body morphology shows it to be a predatory and John Gannon [email protected] ~ooplankter. It occurs at one order of magnitude higher (Note sent in by Randy Westbrooks)

Photograph (takenfrom website listed above) includes all types of animals present in the Lake Ontario population. N.B. the caUdal appendage was cut offbothfemalesforthe photograph. BodyJengths are 1.77,1.48 and 1.12 mm. respectively.

20 of Great Bird Island. From January to April 1998, rats were eradicated from four more nearby islands. As with the Great Bird eradication, Klerat low melt wax-block rodenticide was used, provided by Zeneca Agrochemicals, Great Bird Island, a small rugged island of oilly 0.083 and hermit crabs ( Coenobitasp. ) were the only non-target kIn2, less than 2 kIn from maiilland Antigua, is home to animals directly taking the bait, but were not found to be the oilly surviving population of the critically-endangered susceptible to the rodenticide. However, on Codrington Antiguan Racer snake (Alsophis antiguae). The Island, the closest of the four to the mainland, two dead introduction of small Asian mongooses (Herpestes mongooses were found during the chewstick monitoring. javanicus) to the main island early in the century led to They had either consumed the bilit or scavengedpoisoned the rapid extinction of the racer and mimy other endemic rats, an unexpected bonus of the eradication ! species on the main island. Studies by Fauna & Flora International (FF1) and Island ResourcesFoundation (lRF) Eradication took up to 2 weeks, using a system of bait in 1995 estimated that as few as 50 adults and subadult stations placed at 10 m. intervals across the islands. Bait snakesremained, with a 2: 1 ratio of females to males, and was checked daily and replenished when neGessary.The very few juveniles. small sizes of the islands involved, and lack of supplementary food (these islands were very seldom The refuse left by tourists supported an artificially high visited by tourists), meant that rat densities were low, and population ()f black rats (Rattus rattus ), which in turn had certainly much lower than on Great Bird Island. All signs a very negative impact on the island's wildlife. The rats of rat activity usually ceased within a week. A small were known to predate upon birds' eggs including those number of rat corpses were found, and these were of the endangered West Indian whistling duck incinerated. After 2 months wooden chewsticks, soaked {Dendrocygna arbQrea), as well as invertebratesand plants. in vegetable oil, were placed over the islands and checked Rat bites were also found on over half of captured snakes. five days later. None of these showed any signs of rat Thus rat eradication was determined to be the highest activity, although regular checks will continue. conservation priority and was completed in December 1995, by a team from the Antiguan Forestry Department, During 1999, the next stage of the project will begin the local Environmental Awareness Group, IRF and FF1 establishing additional racer populations on rodent-free with support from Zeneca Agrochemicals (see Aliens 3). islands, using the guidelines of the SSC Reintroduction Racer numbers increased to an estimated 113 adults and Specialist Group~ Further larger islands will also be . subadults, only 15 months after the rat eradication, and cleared. have stabilised at approximately 107 individuals as of March 1998, suggesting that the island may have already The JerseyWildlife Preservation Trust, the Environmental reached its carrying capacity. Additionally, the skew of Awareness Group and Fauna & Flora International the sex ratio is reducing each year and significant numbers supported this phase of the project. of juveniles and subadults are being located. Also, during 1998, West Indian whistling ducks successfully fledged Karen Varnham, Toby Ross, 13 young, whereas prior to rat eradication all located nests Dr Jennifer Daltry and Mark Day had been predated..Seabird breeding ~pulations are being Caribbean Programme monitored annually on Great Bird Island and surrounding Fauna & Flora International islands by IRF and the EAG to determine whether seabird Email: [email protected] populations have increased as a result of the rat eradications. Gillidn Coopel; Kevel Lindsay Environmental Awareness Group The second phase of the project was to identify and clear Island Resources Foundation nearby islands suitable for reintroducing Antiguan racer Email: [email protected] populations, as well as reducing the risk of reinfestation Email: klindsay@i1j:org

2t Therefore, the era~cation of rats from White Cay is an Rat eradication to protect important step in the conservation of the island in general, the White Ca I uana and the critically endangered iguana in particular.

Careful monitoring of the situation on White Cay will now White (or Sandy) Cay, a small island (14.9 ha.) on the be required, and additional cays need to be identified as southern tip of the Exuma Islands in The Bahamas was sites for further rat eradication projects, so that subject to a rat eradication campaign which successfully translocation of iguanas can be achieved in the future, as cleared invasive black rats (Rattu.s rattUs) during a four an integrated part of the species'recovery. Further support week project in April/May 1998. The eradication project and training of Bahamian conservationists will be required team was composed of staff from the Conservation Unit during the joint development of future invasive species (Minis~ of Agriculture, Government of The Bahamas) control projects, concentrating on risk assessment, and Department of Environmental Health (Minis~ of eradication and monitoring techniques. Consumer Welfare & Aviation, Government of The Bahamas); who worked with members of The Bahamas METHODS National Trust, World Conservation Union West Indian Invasive specieshave been identified as the secondgreatest Iguana Specialist Group and Fauna & Flora International, threat to biodiversity after habitat loss, and have the most with technical support from Zeneca Agrochemicals. profound effect on small islands. Rodents are amongst the most destructive, widespread and successful invasive White Cay is the home of the only remaining population animal species, with an enormous distribution range. of the critically endangerediguana, Cyclura rileyi cristata. Rodent control measures were developed because of the A recent dramatic decline in its numbers has left only an: impact of rodents on agriculture and human health, but estimated 200 individuals. Furthermore, research by Dr have more recently been adapted to assist in biodiversity William Hayes (Lorna Linda University) strongly suggests conservation efforts where rodents are impacting key that the sex ratio is highly skewed, and that there may be habitats and species. The control programme was carried as few as 10 surviving females. The main cause of the out using KleratTM rodenticide, supplied by Zen~ca population crash is believed to have been the presence of Agrochemicals, UK. This is a wax block formulation a raccoon (Procyon sp.), which killed a significant number containing 0.005% brodifacoum, a powerful anti-coagulant of iguanas before it was removed in 1997. The presence poison. The product is specifically designed for use as a of rats on the island, while not the primary cause of the rodenticide. iguana;s decline, could have led to their continuing decline, by continuing to predate both iguana eggs and younger An environmental risk assessment was completed and iguanas, as well as possibly by competing for food and approved by both Zeneca Agrochemicals and the burrowing sites. Removal of the rats should encourage Government of The Bahamas. The ri~k assessment the recovery of the iguana population, but additionally identified a number of non-target species that could birds, other reptiles, invertebrates, and plants will all potentially be at risk from the rodenticide, including some benefit, as black rats are omnivorous. resident and migratory bird species, and the White Cay

GENERAL DISCLAIMER

All material appearing in Aliens is the work of individual authors, whose names are listed at the foot of each article. Contributions are not refereed, as this is a newsletter and not an academic journal. Ideas and comments in Aliens are not intended in any way to represent the views of IUCN, SSCor the Invasive spe- cies Specialist Group, unless specifically stated to the contrary.

22 iguana itself. To avoid exposing these animals to the bait, CONCLUSIONS it was fixed inside bait stations consisting of 8" (20 cm) White Cay should be monitored over the next two years, lengths of rigid plastic tubing, which were fitted with wire ideally every six months, before it can be formally declared mesh end covers during the day. The stations were placed rat-free. Targetedpublic awarenesswill be neededto make in a 20 m. grid and checked daily for the duration of the every effort to ensure that boat operators going to White programme. During these daily checks the bait was Cay regularly check their ves~els for evidence of rats, to renewed if necessary and any crumbs of bait inside and reduce the potential of re-infestation. outside the stations were carefully removed. Arty signs of rat activity (teeth marks, droppings) were recorded, and The rat eradication project represents the first direct all droppings removed. Bait was also put out on four nearby intervention in the !ecovery of the White Cay iguana, and sand dunes connected to White Cay at 19wtide. The smell close observation of the population is still necessary.The of dead rats was detected after six days, but despite careful number of individuals and the demographic structure of searches only two carcassesw~re found, and these were the population must be carefully monitored over time in a incinerated to remove the risk of secondary poisoning of rigorous quantified manner, to assessthe benefits of the carrion eaters. The baiting programme continued until all removal of the rats and raccoons: While we were on the signs of rat activity had.ceased. island, both adult and juvenile iguanas were seen, suggesting that recruitment into the adult population is RESULTS still ongoing. Eggs and hatchling iguanas are the most The baiting programme operated in April and May 1998 vulnerable to rat predation, so the eradication should have for a total of 17 days. The only other animals observed a marked beneficial effect on their survival rate and assist consuming the bait were hermit crabs ( Coenobita sp.) and in the recovery to a healthy population size with expected ants. Neither of these animals is susceptible, and the risk demographic structure. Careful monitoring of iguanas and of them causing secondary poisoning in their predators is other components of Whi,te Cay's biodiversity will greatly considered negligible in this particular case. The iguana assist in assessing the value of this intervention for the population was monitored throughout the time on the benefit of other iguana conservation and for small cay island, and all iguana scats were collected. None of the ecosystems in general. scats showed any traces of blue wax that are typically seen in the droppings of animals that have eatenthe bait. Almost This pilot project has fulfilled two of the three aims of the all of the bait stations were active during the course of the Bahamian Cays Rat Eradication Programme- White Cay programme, but the most persistent activity :-vas Pilot Project. It has successfully cleared black , rats from concentrated in the silver thatch palm ( Coccothrinax White Cay, the first such attempt in the Bahamian cays. It argentata) forest at the west part of the island. A total of has raised awareness both of the general public and 19.22 kg of bait was used on White Cay and the four sand particularly within Bahamian conservation agenciesof the dunes. Signs of rat activity were found on two of these potential importance of invasive species control projects, dunes. It was unlikely that the dunes supported a large rat and one of the control techniques currently used. population, but it was obviously important to eradicate Furthermore, key Bahamian conservation staff have gained any possible sources ofre-invasion. practical experience of these techniques. The third

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23 objective, of clearing rats from a second island suitable PROJECT SUPPORT for establishing a second iguana:population, can now be This pilot project was conceived and developed as a planned as part of the development of a broader recovery collaborative and co-operative conservation partnership plan for the species. between Bahamian, British and American organizations, from which a series of invasive species control and other The enthusiastic response from Bahamian conservation activities could be developed. The project conservationists, especially from the staff from the was supported by a grant to the West Indian Iguana Departments of Agriculture and Environmental Health Specialist Group from the Chicago Zoological Society and who assistedin the project, but also The BahamasNational a core contribution from Fauna & Flora International. Trust, should help ensure the promotion of this effective Assistance in kind was provided by The BahamasNational suite of conservation techniques.The Bahamas, as a nation Trust, Department of Agriculture and Department of of over 700 islands containing a great diversity of native Environmental Health (Government of The Bahamas); species, is plagued in many casesby invasive species, and Zeneca Agrochemicals, andLoma Linda University. so could benefit enormously from further activities. The project was successfully and rapidly conducted in response to the PROJECT OUTPUTS emergency request for support from the Government of The Bahamas, through The Bahamas National Trust, to the World Conservation Union Two reports will be prepared as a result of this project, West Indian Iguana Specialist Group. The following staff were central along with supplementary publicity materials for to the development and completion of the project, however it is important promotion of the project activity. In addition to this interim to acknowledge many other individuals who assisted the project, both report, a full report is currently being drafted, which will within Nassau and the Exurna Islands. incorporate all of the project findings, along with the eradication methodology used and images or illustrations Mark l)ay, Projlfct Manager (Fauna & Flora of key techniques or species.Lastly recommendations will International); Dr William Hayes, Iguana Research be given for the next steps that could be taken to develop Coordinator (Lorna Linda University); Karen Vamham, and expand the rat eradication programme to benefit other Field executant ( Fauna & Flora International); Toby Ross, key species or important cays within The Bahamas. This Field executant ( F auna & Flora International ); Eric will be the main project output. Secondly, a slide pack Carey, Field team (Conservation Unit, Department of from the project will be provided to the Conservation Unit Agriculture ); Tanya Ferguson, Field team ( Conservation of the Department of Agriculture as a training and public Unit, Department of Agriculture); Juanita Monestine, information resource. Thirdly, with the agreement of the Exurna Co-ordinator (Department of Agriculture ); Sandin Bahamian project partners, at least three articles will be Smith, Field team (Department of Environmental Health); published in the newslettersof Fauna & Flora International, Craig Armstrong, Field team ( Department of the West Indian Iguana Specialist Group and the Invasive Environmental Health); Alqn Buckle, Technical Advisor S~ies Specialist Group, the latter both part of the World (Zeneca Agrochemicals); Allison Alberts, Technical Conservation Union. FUrthermore, it is hoped that The Advisor ( Co-Chair/West Indian Iguana Speciall~t Group ); Bahamas National Trust and the Conservation Unit may Sandra Bucknel; Technical Advisor (The Bahamas identify further ways to publicise theptoject results within National Trust and Co-Chair/West Indian Iguana The Bahamas. Specialist Group).

The following organisations are gratefully acknowledged for their support 01 the Invasive SpeciesSpecialist Group and in the production of Aliens:

New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade Manaaki Whenua-Landcare ResearchLtd National Fish and WIldlife Foundation TOTAL Foundation The World Conservation Union Global Environment Facility University of Auckland School of Environmental and Marine Sciences

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