TENSE, ATTITUDES, and SCOPE Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy

TENSE, ATTITUDES, AND SCOPE Studies in Linguistics and Philosophy

Volume 58

Managing Editors GENNARO CHIERCHIA, University ofMilan PAULINE JACOBSON, Brown University FRANCIS J. PELLETIER, University ofAlberta

Editorial Board

JOHAN V AN BENTHEM, University ofAmsterdam GREGORY N. CARLSON, University ofRochester DAVID DOWTY, Ohio State University, Columbus GERALD GAZDAR, University of Sussex, Brighton IRENE HElM, MLT., Cambridge EWAN KLEIN, University of Edinburgh BILL LADUSAW, University of California at Santa Cruz TERRENCE PARSONS, University of California, Irvine

The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume. TENSE, ATTITUDES, AND SCOPE

TOSHIYUKI OGIHARA Department ofLinguistics, University ofWashington, Seattle, Washington 98195, U.S.A.

SPRINGER-SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, B.V. A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN 978-90-481-4640-6 ISBN 978-94-015-8609-2 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-94-015-8609-2

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved © 1996 by Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 1996 Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1996 No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. To my parents Shozo and Shizue Ogihara TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xi

PREFACE xiii

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. A Preview: A Relative Tense Theory 1 1.2. The Basic Tense Forms and the Main Issues 2 1.3. The Distinction between Tense and Aspect 10 1.4. The Overall Organization of the Book 17

CHAPTER TWO: TENSE AND TEMPORAL ADVERBIALS IN SIMPLE SENTENCES 20 2.1. Tense as a Quantifier Over Intervals 20 2.2. The Choice of a Logical Representation Language: Sentential Tense Operators vs. Object Language Quantification Over Times 26 2.3. Context Dependency of Tense Interpretation 29 2.4. The Interaction of Tense and Time Adverbials 41 2.5. The Structure of the Auxiliary and "Compositionality" 49 2.6. A Compositional Theory for Tense Morphemes 56 2.6.1. The Model-Theoretic Definitions 56 2.6.2. The Syntax and Interpretation of IL 57 2.6.3. English Fragment 59 2.6.4. Japanese Fragment 64

CHAPTER THREE: PREVIOUS ANALYSES OF TENSES IN EMBEDDED CLAUSES 68 3.1. The Plan for this Chapter 68 3.2. Sequence-of-Tense Phenomena and Traditional Grammar 68 3.3. Ladusaw (1977) on NP Scope and Tenses 79

Vll Vlll TABLE OF CONTENTS

3.4. Ene; (1987) on a Referential Analysis of the SOT Phenomena 85 3.5. Abusch (1988) on Tense, Scope, and Intensionality 94

CHAPTER FOUR: SEQUENCE-OF-TENSE PHENOMENA IN COMPLEMENT CLAUSES 101 4.1. A Tense Deletion Rule and a De Se Analysis of Attitudes 101 4.2. The Future Tense 123 4.3. The SOT Phenomena in Various Types of Complement Clauses 124 4.3.1. Adjective Complement Clauses 124 4.3.2. Sentential Subjects 125 4.3.3. Verb Complements that Are Infinitives 128 4.4. Triggers of the SOT Phenomena 130 4.4.1. The Perfect 131 4.4.2. Noun Complements 131 4.5. A New Analysis of the SOT Phenomena and Some Sample Derivations 134 4.6. De Re Attitudes as a Special Case of De Se Attitudes 142

CHAPTER FIVE: SEQUENCE-OF-TENSE PHENOMENA IN ADJUNCT CLAUSES 151 5.1. The Plan for this Chapter 151 5.2. Sequence-of-Tense Phenomena with No "Direct Discourse Sources" 151 5.3. Relative Clauses 153 5.4. Intensionality, NP Scope, and Tense Scope 167 5.5. Temporal Adverbial Clauses 180

CHAPTER SIX: TENSE AND DE RE ATTITUDES 190 6.1. Preliminaries 190 6.2. Simple-Present-Under-Past Cases Involving Verb Complement Clauses 193 6.2.1. Four Preliminary Hypotheses 194 6.2.2. De Re Attitudes About Intervals 204 6.2.3. De Re Attitudes About States 207 6.3. Other Types of Simple-Present-Under-Past Sentences 219 6.4. Future-Under-Past Sentences 223 6.5. The Remaining Possibilities 234 TABLE OF CONTENTS IX

6.6. Past-Under-Past Simultaneous Readings as Pseudo- Double-Access Readings 237 6.7. Double-Access Sentences in Japanese 240 6.8. The Big Picture: Toward a Typology of Tenses 242

APPENDIX: THE SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS OF TENSES IN ENGLISH AND JAPANESE 247

REFERENCES 267

INDEX 273 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

SYMBOL NON- ABBREVIATED FORM USED ASlIN

ACC accusative case gloss Adv adverb syntactic category AdvP adverb phrase syntactic category Adj adjective syntactic category Aux auxiliary syntactic category C/Comp complementizer syntactic category CP comp(lementizer) syntactic category phrase (= S') CRT clauses that are N/A required to be true DAT dative case gloss Det determiner syntactic category fin finite feature fut future feature GB government and binding N/A GEN genitive case gloss IL Intensional Logic N/A Infl inflection syntactic category IP inflection phrase syntactic category or !NFL phrase (= S) LF Logical Form N/A M modal syntactic category MP modal phrase syntactic category N noun syntactic category N' (pronounced) N-bar syntactic category NEG negation gloss NML nominalizer gloss NOM nominative case gloss

Xl xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

NP noun phrase syntactic category PASS passive gloss Past past tense morpheme PAST past tense gloss Perf perfect syntactic category PerfP perfect phrase syntactic category PF phonetic form N/A Poss possessive morpheme PP prepositional phrase syntactic category Pres present tense morpheme PRES present tense gloss pres present tense feature Pro pronoun syntactic category PRO "big PRO" empty category PROG progressive gloss QR quantifier raising rule RS result state gloss S sentence syntactic category S' (pronounced) S-bar (= CP) syntactic category SOT sequence-of-tense( s) N/A S-str. S-structure N/A T tense syntactic category TAC temporal adverbial clause syntactic category TAdj temporal adjective syntactic category TC temporal conjunction syntactic category TOP topic gloss 1P tense phrase syntactic category V verb syntactic category VP verb phrase syntactic category #!Adv adverbs of the form syntactic category "exactly n times" #!AdvP #!adverb phrase syntactic category 0 null tense morpheme PREFACE

This book is an inquiry into the semantics of tense in natural language. The center of focus will be the behavior of tense morphemes in various embedded constructions, and the data will be drawn from English and Japanese. I will employ a relatively conservative Chomskyan framework for syntax and a truth-conditional model-theoretic approach for semantics. In writing this book, I have tried to make the material covered accessible to people with a variety of backgrounds: formal semanticists, theoretical linguists who are interested in tense• related natural language phenomena, linguists who specialize in Japanese, and philosophers of language with interest in tense and attitude reports. Faced with the difficult and demanding task of addressing a diverse audience, I have done my best to present the ideas in a theory-neutral way. I have tried to make clear the intuitive content of a proposal before presenting a formal version. Efforts have been made to make my proposals translatable into different frameworks. I have also tried not to presuppose extensive training on the part of the reader either in syntax or in semantics. However, I do assume some familiarity with the rudiments of syntactic theory and model-theoretic semantics. To be equipped with the necessary background knowledge, the reader should refer to such introductory textbooks as Haegeman (1994) for syntax and Chierchia and McConnell-Ginet (1990) for semantics. This work grew out of my doctoral dissertation (Ogihara,1989). But it has been radically revised, and a great deal of new material has been incorporated into the current version. There are many individuals to thank, but I will be brief. I am grateful to Irene Heim and Hans Kamp, who taught me not only by exploiting their pedagogical skills but by being exemplars of real scholars. I also want to thank Dorit Abusch and Miirvet Ene; for their work on tense, which inspired me to work on the same topic, and for the personal contacts that I have had with them.

X111 xiv PREFACE

I also benefited from comments by (and encouragement from) Carl Lee Baker, Maria Bittner, Angelika Kratzer, Manfred Krifka, Mats Rooth, Arnim von Stechow, Corey Washington, Ede Zimmermann, and two anonymous reviewers. I also want to thank my teachers from the earlier stages of my linguistic training: Clifford Abbott, who introduced me to linguistics, and my sensei 'teachers' in Japan, Professors Akira Ikeya, Haruhiko Kindaichi, and Akira Ota. I would like to thank my former, current and future colleagues in the department of linguistics at the University of Washington for their encouragement: Michael Brame, Heles Contreras, Ellen Kaisse, Soowon Kim, Cecile McKee, Frederick Newmeyer, and Karen Zagona. I also thank James Lyle, Satomi Honda, and Soohee Kim for editing, proofreading, and other miscellaneous tasks related to the preparation of the camera-ready copy of the manuscript. Thanks are also due to our staff members David Miles and Ruth Honour. I am also grateful to the technical support offered by Stacy Waters at the Center for Advanced Research Technology in the Arts and Humanities. The research that has culminated in this book was partially supported by a graduate school fund granted to the author by the graduate school of the University of Washington, which is hereby gratefully acknowl• edged. Lastly, I shall add some personal notes on the topic of this book. In my opinion, natural language phenomena that concern tense provide one of the ideal research areas for formal semanticists. There is a rich philosophical and logical tradition that concerns tense, and the syntax of so-called "functional categories," which include tense morphemes, attracts a lot of attention nowadays. It is an exciting task to bring together the two traditions and produce something new. I also feel that time has a very robust ontological status, despite the popular belief that because we cannot see time, it is not there or is elusive. To those skeptics who do not think that time is formally tractable, I would like to ask: how can you know what time it is if you do not have any idea what time is? I think it is time for me to stop.

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