Christian Understandings of Proselytism David A. Kerr

ike the chameleon, proselytism displays itself in many who had themselves been strangers (gerim) in Egypt (Deut. L shades of color. The word has different nuances in 10:19). The bulk of Talmudic literature welcomes the proselyte individual languages and among languages. Importantly from into the full fellowship of Israel, subject to the requirements of the point of view of this article, it is used variously among circumcision, baptism, and the offering of sacrifice. Jesus criti­ different sectors of the Christian church. It refers both to the cized what he deemed the Pharisaic tendency of making the transfer of allegiance from one religion to another and to the proselyte a slave to the law (Matt. 23:15). From this it may be transfer of allegiancebetweenchurches. Attitudes to proselytism inferred that the matter of how a proselyte should be incorpo­ are conditioned by political, social, and cultural considerations, rated into Israel was a matter of controversy in Jesus' time. New and responses vary from one church to another, from one culture Testament references to Jewish proselytes among the first Chris­ to another. I attempt here to clarify some of the issues, particu­ tians indicate that they were welcome members of the early larly as they have emerged in Christian thinking through the church (Acts 2:10; 6:5; 13:43).6 The postbiblical histories of both second half of the twentieth century. I argue tha t the hard-sought Judaism and Christianity continued to honor the proselyte until consensus that has emerged within the ecumenical movement more recent times, when, roughly speaking from the eighteenth needs to extend itself further to include new global realities of century, the term came to have the negative connotations we Christianity.1 have noted in English literary usage. The present writer would To begin with English linguistic definitions, the Shorter speculate that the roots of the negative interpretation of Oxford English Dictionary considers "proselytism" simply as a proselytism as the overzealous or coercive expression of religion synonym of "conversion." Derived from the Latin proselytus and lie contextually both in post-Enlightenment ideas of freedom of the Greek proselytos, the proselyte is "one who has come to a conscience and in secular reactions to the rise of the modern place"-thatis, a newcomer or convert. Use of the termin English Western Christian missionary movement in the colonial era. The literature displays both positive and negative characteristics. For Bible, however, shows that the proselyte was not viewed nega­ Shakespeare, the proselyte's power of attraction was an evoca­ tively in Scripture and thatJesus defended the proselytefrom the tive metaphor of female beauty; thus, of Perdita, he wrote: legalistic tendency of institutional religion. This is a creature, Would she begin a sect, might quench the zeal Current Definitions: Roman Catholic Of all professors else; make proselytes The Second Vatican Council's "Constitution on the Sacred Lit­ Of who she but bid follow.' urgy" (1963) affirms that the call to conversion is one of the By the eighteenth century, however, Enlightenment literature fundamental tasks of the church. To this end "the Church an­ identified proselytism withintolerance. The leading philosopher nounces the good news of salvation to those who do not believe, of the Enlightenment in Scotland, David Hume, criticized an so that all men may know the true God and Jesus Christ whom opponent for "his zeal for proselytism that he stopped not at He has sent, and may repent and mend their ways." Equally, "to toleration or equality."? Edmund Burke vented his dislike of the believers also the Church must ever preach faith and repen­ French Revolution in the carping criticism that "the spirit of tance."" Conversion is therefore understood as a process: it proselytism attends this spirit of fana ticism.":' begins with an initial turning in faith to God in Christ and Reflecting this negative nuancing of meaning, Webster's continues throughout a believer's Christian life. Conversion in Dictionary ofSynonymsdraws a plain distinctionbetweenconver­ this sense is "a spiritual journey.:" In relation to this journey, "the sion and proselytism: the former denotes "a sincere and volun­ Church strictly forbids forcing anyone to embrace the faith, or tary change of belief," whereas the latter implies "an act or alluring or enticing people by unworthy techniques.?" process of inducing someone to convert to another faith." In With sensitivity to the ambiguities of the word, the Second current ecumenical usage, this American English meaning pre­ Vatican Council's documents do not use the term "proselytism." vails, coercive inducementbeing the attribute of proselytism that But the distinction between conversion as a sincere act of faith differentiates it from conversion," and as a result of coercive manipulation is clearly maintained. Moreover, it is given substantial theological and philosophical Biblical Perspectives exposition in the "Declaration on Religious Freedom" (1965), which propounds the case for religious freedom on grounds of The proselyte is a familiar figure in both the Hebrew Scriptures divine intent, human right, and civic duty. The case against and the New Testament. The Greek proselytos was used in the coercive proselytism is equally clear: "the human person has the Septuagint to translate the Hebrew ger, the "stranger" who right to religious freedom. This freedom means that all men are sojourned in the land of Israel. The Deuteronomist taught that to be immune from coercion on the partof individuals or of social the proselyte-stranger (ger) was to be honored among the Jews, groups or of any human power, in such wise as in matters of religion no one is to be forced to act in a manner contrary to his own beliefs, whether privately or publicly, whether alone or in DavidA. Kerr, a contributingeditor, is Professor of Christianity in the Non­association with others/"? Western World at theUniversityof Edinburgh andDirector ofthecenterofthe In affirming sincere conversion as a right of religious free­ samename. He was formerly a proiessor in Hartford Seminary, Connecticut, dom, and in rejecting proselytism as the infringement of such where hedirected theMacdonald Center forthe Study ofIslamand Christian­freedom, the Second Vatican Council mainly addresses the Muslim Relations. church's relations with other religions. These are addressed in

8 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH the "Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non­ missions, led initially by the Franciscans and later by the Jesuits, Christian Religions," more commonly referred to by its Latin persuaded groups within these churches to declare their union title, Nostra aetate. In this document the church states that "[it] withRome as EasternCatholicChurches. The persuasivepowers rejects nothingwhichis trueand holyin these religions" and calls of these Catholic missions was backed by the educational and for "dialogue and co-operation" with them "to acknowledge, economic opportunities they offered and by the diplomatic preserve and promote the spiritual and moral goods found patronage of the emerging European states. As a result, to each among these men, as well as the values of their society and Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Church a Catholic equivalent culture."11 was created." They are known collectively as Eastern Catholic Conversion and dialogue are thus placed side by side. If the Churches, their rites of origin (liturgy and canon law) being inherent tension is not resolved theologically, a modus vivendi formally upheld within their obedience to the Holy See, albeit is at least implied: conversion as an inalienable expression of historically with a heavy dose of Latinization-a trend that has religious freedom should be understood as ongoing spiritual been reversed since the Second Vatican Council. Rome claimed journey; interreligious dialogue is an important part of this them as the firstfruits of a reunited church and referred to them journey in which partners affirm their common spiritual and in the Second Vatican Council as part of "the divinely revealed human values. In both respects proselytism is rejected. and undivided heritage of the universal Church."? What Rome celebrated as reunion by way of conversion, the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches view disparagingly as "Uniatism," which for them was coterminous with Catholic Among the Eastern12 and Oriental" Orthodox Churches, proselytizing incursions into their canonical territories. Rome proselytism refers primarily to interchurch relations-that is, relations between non-Orthodox and Orthodox churches. This view is based on their self-understanding as churches that exer­ The early Franciscan and cise their ecclesiastical authority within the geographic domain of the people, or nation, whoseevangelizationwas and continues Jesuit missions were backed to be the responsibility of the national church. Each Orthodox by education and economic Church is autocephalous, or self-governing, within its own ca­ nonical territory. Recalling the earliest mode of Christian evan­ opportunities and diplomatic gelization, whereby an apostle-missionary preached the Gospel patronageofEuropeanstates. among his own people and initiated a process by which the whole nation was Christianized through its leaders, its people, and its culture, the concept of canonical territory denotes the stood accused of treating Orthodox landsas terra missionis-Iand inseparable identity of people, culture, land, and church. This is open for mission. what it means for the church to be local, or indigenized, in the Only in the present decade has this problem beeneffectively national life of a people. addressed." In 1990 a joint Catholic-Orthodox commission on Within this strongly ethnic identity of people and church, theologicaldialoguepublished Statement ontheSubject ofUniatism, the Orthodoxregardas illegitimateanyattemptby otherchurches which agrees that Uniatism no longer provides a model or or religious groups to convert members of an Orthodox church method for Catholic-Orthodox rapprochement. Further delib­ awayfromOrthodoxy. This is tantamountto proselytism,whether erations resulted in the Balamand Statement (Lebanon) of 1993, the means are foul or fair. The Russian Orthodox Church thus "Uniatism, Method of Union of the Past, and the Present Search defines proselytism as the active or passive encouraging of for Full Communion."19 members of a given ethnic or national group to join a religion, Accepting that the Eastern Catholic Churches may remain denomination, or sect that is not historically rooted in that ethnic part of the Catholic communion, with "the right to exist and act group or nationality. in response to the spiritual needs of their faithful," the Balamand Orthodox sensitivities regarding this understanding of Statement sets out ecclesiological principles for a new relation­ proselytism arise from their historical experience of being the ship between the Catholic and Orthodox churches. Henceforth object of Catholic and Protestant strategies of conversion. A they commit themselves to recognizing each other as "sister statement by the Armenian catholicos Karekin" in respect of the churches." They agree that neither church can claim exclusively Oriental Orthodox applies equally to the Eastern Orthodox: to profess the full apostolic faith and therefore join in shared "they underwent the hard experience of being exposed to the responsibility, as sisters, "for maintaining the Church of God in proselytising policies of the Roman Church and, later, the Prot­ fidelity to the divine purpose, most especially in what concerns estant Missionary Societies of various kinds.v" unity." Rome agrees to end its "missionary apostolate" toward the Orthodoxchurchesanddeclaresthatits "pastoralactivity ...no Catholic-Orthodox Relations longer aims at having the faithful of one Church pass over to the other; that is to say, it no longer aims at proselytising anlong the In order to understand Orthodox sensitivity to proselytism, it is Orthodox." While recognizing that the EasternCatholics havean necessary to introduce a brief historical excursus in explanation integral role to playin preparingfor eventualCatholic-Orthodox of problems to which Catholicos Karekin refers. The historical reunion, it was agreed that such reunion would not be modeled problem goes back to the rift between Rome and Constantinople on the institution of Uniatism. in 1054 and the subsequent failure of the fifteenth-century Coun­ The Eastern Catholic Churches will continue to exist under cil of Ferrara-Florence (1437-39) to reunite the church. Rome the canonical jurisdictions of their respective patriarchs, while thereafter developed an alternative strategy for reunion that accepting the spiritual primacy of the patriarch of Rome; at the aimed at the conversion of both the Eastern and the Oriental same time, they will continue to follow the liturgical, theological, Orthodox to Roman doctrine and allegiance. Medieval Catholic and spiritual traditions of their Orthodox "sister" churches.

January 1999 9 But-to quote a recent Orthodox-Catholic consultation in the have integrated themselves culturally and to a degree politically United States-"in the negative sense of the term, 'Uniatism,' in the Middle East. This has facilitated far-reaching discussion which in the spiritof the Orthodoxis identified withproselytism, about ways of resolving the historical legacy of proselytism is rejected by the Balamand Statement ... as a method for the within the Middle East Council of Churches (MECC)-the most conversion of Orthodox Christians and making them members inclusive regional ecumenical council in the world, with Ortho­ of the Catholic Church.r?" dox (Eastern and Oriental), Catholic (Latin and Eastern), and Protestant members. In an MECC study document entitled Protestant-Orthodox Relations Proselytism, Sects, and Pastoral Challenges (1989), representatives of these churches agreed in defining proselytism as "a practice Nineteenth-century Protestant encounter with Orthodoxy that involves attempts aimed at attracting Christians from a largely replicated the medieval Catholic pattern, although with particular church or religious group, leading to their alienation a very different understanding of the nature of Christian faith from their church of origin." Criticized for being at variance with and the church. With their emphases on the authority of the biblical teaching and human rights, proselytism is seen to be Bible over ecclesiastical institution, on direct personal faith in rooted psychologically in "individual and group egotism," so­ Jesus Christ mediated through Scripture, and on the priesthood cially in "feelings of cultural, political and economic superior­ of all believers replacing the clerical authority of a centralized ity," and institutionally in "an overtrust in one's own methods church, Protestant missions inevitably clashed with the Ortho­ and programmes."24 The document is particularly insightful in dox churches." From the perspective of their evangelical faith, identifying "unconscious" forms of proselytism: for example, Protestants tended to regard Orthodox as "nominal" Christians withinmixed marriages and in religious education. In its conclu­ whom they wished to convert into "Christians of the heart." sion it calls for "a pastoral agreement" among MECC members Taking the example of the American Board of Commission­ for the resolution of historical and contemporary problems of ers for Foreign Missions (ABCFM), which began sending evan­ proselytism, the way to such agreement being through "a dia­ gelical missionaries from New England to the Middle East in the logue of love." 1820s, a clear transition of policy is evident. The initial aim was The then MECC general secretary, Gabriel Habib (Eastern to inject a biblically based evangelical spirit into the Orthodox Orthodox), wrote an open letter to North American evangelicals churches: "not to subvert them; not to pull them down and build in which he argued that it is only through such dialogue of love anew. It is to reform them; to revive among them ... the that Christians of different traditions can learn to listen to one knowledge and spirit of the Gospel. ... It is not part of our object another in mutual openness to mutual correction and mutual to introduceCongregationalismor Presbyterianismamongthem. enrichment."Themostconstructiveresponse to this letteris to be ... We are content that their present ecclesiastical organization seen in the development of a group known as Evangelicals for should remain, provided the knowledge and spirit of the Gospel Middle East Understanding (EMEU), which provided a forum can be revived under it." In the face of strong resistance from the for renewed discussion between Western evangelical missions indigenous churches (Orthodox and Eastern Catholic) and at the and the MECC member churches. The EMEU director, Donald urging of its own missionaries and their early converts, ABCFM Wagner, has called this "a new day in mission ... [in which] we revised its policy. There was no alternative, it argued, but "the [North American evangelicals] must strive to become authentic partners with the churches in the Middle East."?" Protestant mission to the The Ecumenical Consensus Orthodox in the nineteenth These specific examples of bilateral agreements to end intra­ centurylargelyreplicatedthe Christian proselytism need to be seen withina wider framework of discussions that have taken place between the World Council medieval Catholic pattern. of Churches (WCC) and the Vatican. As a result of intra-Protes­ tant tensions in the early years of the WCC, a working party was established after the Evanston General Assembly (1954), which restoration of pre-Constantinian and primitive (Pauline) Chris­ wrote "ChristianWitness, Proselytism, and Religious Liberty.'?" tianity ... [by] the formation not only of exemplary individuals This was perhaps the first document to draw the distinction in their midst [i.e., among Orthodox/Eastern Catholics] but of between authentic Christian witness and proselytism. The New exemplary communities as well." Rufus Anderson acknowl­ Delhi General Assembly (1961) affirmed the distinction, in so edged that "this admission of converts into a church, without doing, paving the way for Orthodox participation in the WCC. regard to their previous ecclesiastical relations, was a practical The 1960s saw a further widening of the discussion to include ignoring of the old church organizations in that region. It was so Roman Catholics, and a definitive agreement was reached by the understood, and the spirit of opposition and persecution was Joint Working Group between the Roman Catholic Church and roused to the utmost.r" the WCC in 1970, entitled "CommonWitness and Proselytism­ This is but a particular instance of the general practice of a Study Document.v" Anglican, Lutheran, and Reformed churches in nineteenth­ Its discussion of proselytism includes both interreligious century Turkey, Syria-Palestine, and Egypt. Evangelical attitudes and intra-Christian dimensions. "Christian witness, to those to the Orthodox churches varied from Anglican appreciation of who have not yet received or responded to the announcement of episcopal succession to Reformed impatience with perceived the Gospel or to those who are already Christians, should have liturgical atrophy. But the result of their missions was the same: certain qualities, in orderto avoid being corrupted in its exercise, the creation of new evangelical churches throughout the Middle thus becoming proselytism." The document outlines the New East." Testament qualities that mark genuinely Christian witness: love Western implants as they originally were, these churches of one's neighbor; seeking the glory of God rather than the

10 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH prestige of one's own community; empowerment by the Holy and the free exercise of missionary activity was permitted, sub­ Spirit; respect for the free will and dignity of all, including the ject only to basic principles of constitutional order. This whole­ right to refuse the Gospel; freedom from any form of coercion sale removal of former barriers against religious activity opened that impedes people from witnessing to their own convictions. the door to an avalanche of foreign missionary activity, predomi­ Specific forms of coercion to be avoided include physical coer­ nantly by North American evangelical (nonconciliar) groups cion, moral constraint, or psychological pressure; temporal or and new religious movements." material benefits offered in exchange for religious adherence; The ensuing confrontation between these groups and the exploitationof theweakand uneducated; legal, social, economic, Russian Orthodox Church exposed the clash of values that the or political pressure, especially when aimed to prevent members ecumenical consensus had sought to reconcile." the individual of a religious minority from exercising their right of religious right to propagate one's faith, and a church's collective right to freedom; and unjust and uncharitable characterization of the preserve and extend the faith among its people, within its cul­ beliefs and practices of another religion. ture. The Moscow Patriarchate's perception of the problem was On the issue of specifically intra-Christian relations, the candidlyexpressed in the following terms: "ManyProtestantsdo document urges that missionary action should always be carried notevenconsider the OrthodoxChurchto be a properchurchbut out in an ecumenical spirit of cooperation between churches. regard it as a dangerous phenomenon in religious life."33 While affirming that one church has legitimate freedom to exer­ In consort with Communist and nationalist groupings, the cise its missionary effort where another church is already estab­ lished, it encourages cooperation, common witness, and frater­ nal assistance and rejects the competitive spirit that seeks to Russia's 1997 law represents enhance the power and privilege of one church over another. In terms of missionary encounter with other religions, the the most restrictive legal WCC has repeatedly affirmed that the Church has a mission, and response to intra-Christian it cannot be otherwise. At the same time, it accepts self-critically that Christian witness has often been distorted by coercive proselytizing activity. proselytism-conscious and unconscious, overt and subtle. Two later WCC documents deal with this aspect in greater detail. The first, dealing with Christian-Jewish relations, states: "Such rejec­ church pressed for a new law on religion." Amid much internal tionof proselytism, and suchadvocacy of respectfor theintegrity controversyandinternationalcriticism, theRussian Dumapassed and the identity of all persons and all communities of faith are the Law of Freedom of Conscience and Religious Organizations urgent in relation to the Jews, especially those who live as in September 1997. The preamble acknowledges "the special minorities among Christians. Steps toward assuring non-coer­ contribution of Orthodoxy to the history of Russia and the cive practicesare of highestimportance. In dialogueways should development of Russia's spirituality and culture," thereby dis­ be found for the exchange of concerns, perceptions, and safe­ tinguishing Orthodoxy's status in relation to the Russian state guards in these matters.t?? The second, dealing with Christian­ from that of other religions-e-Christianity." Islam, Buddhism, Muslim relations, affirms that "missionary activity is integral to and Judaism-which are associated with Russian peoples. The Christian discipleship" but recommends that "Christians ex­ law requires the legal registration of all religious organizations. plore new ways of witnessing to Christ in words and deeds, for To qualify as Russian, a religious organization must have been instance, through living Christ-like lives and by demonstrating established in Russia for more than fifty years at the time of that Christianity is, like Islam, concerned with the whole of registration; all others are by definition foreign and subject to a life." 30 gradation of restrictions depending on whether they have been in Russia for less than fifty or less than fifteen years at the time of Political Dimensions registration. While the law makes no reference to proselytism, its catalog of forbidden activities effectively proscribes any form of The ecumenical consensus treats proselytism as a religious ques­ religious propaganda that would impinge on the Orthodox tion that needs to be addressed through dialogue-(l) between Church. churches and other religions in terms of interreligious aspects of The 1997 Russian law represents the most restrictive legal/ proselytism,and (2)betweenchurchesin termsof intra-Christian politicalresponse to whatis perceived as intra-Christianprosely­ dimensionsof the problem.Significantas theecumenicalachieve­ tizing missionary activity. In terms of interreligious proselytism, ment has been, the consensus is limited to the conciliar groups it is well known that several Islamic states have taken legal that give it consent. It cannot and does not bind nonconciliar measures to prohibit or severely restrict foreign (specifically groups, Christian or other, who continue to exercise their own Christian) missionary activity within their borders. As early as understanding of missionary activity, irrespective of potential 1977 Israel also introduced what is commonly known as an proselytizing consequences. The right freely to propagate one's antimission law that makes any inducement to change religion religion is given priority over all else. an offense punishable by five years' imprisonment. This law has The missionary activity of such nonconciliar groups has never yet been enforced, but pressure has recently increased for been nowhere more evident than in the Russian Federation and legislation to prohibit any form of preaching or writing that other post-Communist eastern European states during much of could be deemed to solicit a person to change his or her religion. the 1990s. As part of the perestroika reform of the former Soviet A private member's bill to this effect was brought before the Union, the 1990 Law on Freedom of Worship marked a radical Knesset in 1996 by two members, Gafni and Zvili. Faced with departure from traditional Soviet restrictions on religion: free­ domestic and international criticism, the bill's promoters report­ dom of religion and belief was guaranteed; all religious commu­ edlymetwithrepresentatives of Christian organizationsin Israel nities in the USSR were placed on an equal footing; foreign and agreed to drop the bill in return for a cessation of missionary religious groups were accorded equal protection under the law; activities in Israel."

January 1999 11 International Law enon of African Independent Churches, which he likewise con­ demned at the opening of the Conference of African Bishops for The examples given in the previous section illustrate that where being "unyieldingfundamentalist or aggressive proselytizing."43 the ecumenical consensus on proselytism is disregarded, states These examples are not merely incidental to the concluding are resorting to national law to stem the tide of what they argument of this study. They represent regions where, in many perceive as illegitimate missionary activity. The Russian law and respects, Christianity is showing its greatest vitality at the close similar legislation invite criticism that they contravene the 1948 of the twentieth century. Research into both African Indepen­ UniversalDeclarationof HumanRights, which affirms "theright dent Churches and Latin American neo-Pentecostalism illus­ to freedom of thought, conscience and religion," adding that trates their significance as indigenizing movements that are "this right includes freedom to change [one's] religion or be­ lief"? Those who support legal constraints onmissionary activ­ ity, however, appeal to the 1966 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which reaffirms the right of religious free­ Today's radically indigenized dom but significantly reinterprets the 1948 declaration's right to transformations of the change religion by stating that "this right shall include freedom Christian faith predict new to have or to adopt a religion or belief of [one's] choice." At the same time, the covenant specifically prohibits coercion: "No one global trends that historic shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to churches cannotdismisswith have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice.?" A third instrument of international law, the 1981 Declaration on the the charge of "proselytism." Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief, makes no reference to the right to change or adopt a religion, simply stating that one has the right sowing the seeds of the Gospel in new cultural soils. The new "to have a religion or whateverbeliefof one's choice," reiterating plants are proving hugely attractive to peoples who are es­ that this choice must not be impaired by any form of coercion." tranged by the alien culture of most historic mission churches in The force of these statements seems to indicate that "the non-Western societies. As Shakespearesaid of Perdita, the indig­ focus of international law has shifted from an emphasis on the enous movements have the power to "quench the zeal of all freedom to change a religion to an emphasis on the freedom to professorselse." If,as seems probable, these radicallyindigenized retain a religion.v" Freedom to change a religion remains a right transformations of the Christian faith predict important new in international law but needs to be set in balance with the trends in global Christianity of the twenty-first century, historic freedom to maintaina religion-a principle thathasbeenstrongly churches cannot simply dismiss them with the charge of argued by Muslim member states of the United Nations." "proselytism." The understandings of proselytism discussed in this article Conclusion amount to the assault by one religious group against the territo­ rial, ecclesiological, or faith integrity of another-an unethical The value of the ecumenical consensus that has been outlined in way of engaging in interreligious relations, and particularly this article is precisely that it seeks to mediate between the two hurtfulin terms of intra-Christian relations. But progress toward competing freedoms guaranteed in international law. Its com­ resolving this problem so far reflects a status quo, the product of mitment to the right of witness/mission entails, as a corollary, centuries of Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant hegemony over the right to changeone's religion. In rejectingunethical (coercive) Christianity in its historic forms. The challenge for the future is forms of witness as proselytism, it calls for discernment regard­ for the current ecumenical consensus to open itself to the possi­ ing the integrity of other churches, and indeed other religions, bility that the Spirit of God, which Christians believe brings within God's purposes for humankind and human society. It human communities into ever-new understandings of the pres­ appeals to dialogue rather than legislation as the way of discern­ ence and action of God in Christ, is moving in transformative ment and encourages partners from different traditions to be ways among Christians who have little or no stake in traditional willing to listen to one another in mutual openness, ready to forms of Westernecclesiology. "Newcomers" they maybe, butin accept mutual correction as well as receive mutual enrichment. giving honor to the proselyte, the early church showed its capac­ To continue to be effective, however, this dialogue must ity to embrace new experience. To require non-Western Chris­ extend to include as partners those movements of Christian tians to conform to Western criteria of what it is to be "church," growth that established churches are inclined to rebuke as pros­ and to condemn as proselytism what may be faith-renewing elytizers. This must embrace, for example, the charismatic and workings of the Holy Spirit, is to imitate the ancient Danish king neo-Pentecostal churches in Latin America, which the pope of England, Canute, who vainly tried to set his throne against a caricatured as "rapacious wolves" in his opening address to the rising tide. 1992 Conference of Latin American Bishops," and the phenom­ Notes------­ 1. This articleis adapted from a lecture givenat the TanturInternational 4. From Reflections on the Revolution in France, ibid. Conferenceon ReligionandCulture(May 31-]une4,1998),]erusalem. 5. This is not to suggestthatinternationalEnglishalways uses the word The conference theme was "Religious Freedom and Proselytism." negatively. International lawyers at the Tantur Conference used 2. The Winter's Tale, act 5, scene 1. "proselytism" as a neutral term meaning "conversion." A study of 3. From History of England, quoted in Murray's English Dictionary the use of the term in other languages would be instructive. (Oxford, 1909), p. 1490. 6. For fuller discussion of the biblical material, see Eugene Heideman,

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800.992.4652 Schoolof l tuercultural Studies Fax: 310.903.4851 E-Mail: [email protected] 13800 BiolaAven ue LaMirada, California 90639-0001 "Proselytism, Mission, and the Bible," International Bulletin of Lutheran) bishopric of Jerusalem (1841), the Union of Armenian Missionary Research 20, no. 1 (January 1996): 10-12. EvangelicalChurchesin the NearEast (1846),the CopticEvangelical 7. From "Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy"/ Sacrosanctum concilium, Church(1853),the EvangelicalChurchof Iran(1855),the Evangelical in The Documents of the Second Vatican Council, ed. Walter Abbott Church of Sudan (1900), and the Presbyterian Church in the Sudan (New York: Guild Press, 1966), p. 142. (1902). 8. From "Decree of the Missionary Activity of the Church"/ Ad gentes, 24. Middle East Council of Churches, Proselytism, Sects, and Pastoral in Documents, p. 600. Challenges: A Study Document, paragraphs 6-11. For further 9. Ibid. elaboration, see George Sabra, "Proselytism, Evangelism, and 10. From "Declaration on Religious Freedom" / Dignitatis humanae Ecumenism," Theological Review: NearEastSchool of Theology 9, no. 2 personae, in Documents, pp. 678-79. (1988): 23-36. 11. From "Declaration on the Relationship of the Church to Non­ 25. Evangelical Missions Quarterly26 (July 1990): 256-62. Christian Religions" / Nostraaetate, in Documents, pp. 662-63. 26. Donald Wagner, Anxious for Armageddon: A Call to Partnership for 12. That is, the autocephalous, "national" Orthodox Churches that Middle Eastern and Western Christians (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald Press, acceptthe credaldefinitionsof the sevenecumenicalcouncils (Nicaea 1994), pp. 181-82. I [325]to Nicaea II [787])and recognize the Ecumenical Patriarchate 27. World Council of Churches, Ecumenical Review 9, no. 1 (October of Constantinople as their primus inter pares. 1956): 48-56. 13. That is, the churches that accept the credal definitions of the first 28. Ibid. 23,no. 1 (1971):15-19. See also Kinnamon andCope, Ecumenical three ecumenical councils (Nicaea I to Ephesus [431]) but that Movement, pp. 351-53. developed separatelyfrom the Councilof Chalcedon (451).Theyare 29. From Ecumenical Considerations onJewish-Christian Dialogue (Geneva: the Armenian Apostolic Church, the Coptic Orthodox Church, the WCC Publications, 1982), sec. 4, "Authentic Christian Witness." Ethiopian Orthodox Church, the Syrian Orthodox Church, and the 30. FromEcumenical Considerations onChristian-Muslim Relations (Geneva: Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (India). WCC Publications, 1991), sec. 2, "On Understanding Islam and 14. SupremePatriarch-Catholicosof All Armenians, and spiritualleader Muslims." of the Armenian Apostolic Church. 31. For the latter, the author is indebted to Vladimir Federov, "New 15. Karekin Sarkissian, The Witness of the Oriental Orthodox Churches Religious Movements: An Orthodox Perspective" (paper presented (Beirut: Mesrob Press, 1968), p. 41. to the Tantur Conference on Religious Freedom and Proselytism). 16. From the Assyrian Church of the East was created the Chaldean 32. Harold Berman, "ReligiousRights in Russia at a Time of Tumultuous (Assyrian) Catholic Church (1553) and the Syro-Malabar Catholic Change," in Religious Human Rights in Global Perspective, ed. Johan Church (1599); from the Oriental Orthodox Church-the Syrian van der Vyver and John Witte (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1996),pp. 301-3. Catholic Church (1663), the Coptic Catholic Church (1741), the 33. Metropolitan Kirill of Kaliningrad and Smolensk, head of foreign ArmenianCatholicChurch(1742),andthe EthiopianCatholicChurch affairs, Moscow Patriarchate, quoted in Nezavisimaya Gazeta, (1839);from the EasternOrthodoxChurches-theRuthenian (Polish) November 28, 1996. For reference and translation the author is and Hungarian Catholic Churches (1595), the Romanian Catholic indebted to Otto Luchterhandt, "Religous Freedomand Proselytism Church (1701), the Melkite (Greek) Catholic Church (1724), the in Russia and Eastern Europe" (paper presented to the Tantur Greek Catholic Church (1860), and the Ukrainian Catholic Church Conference on Religious Freedom and Proselytism). (1596). 34. See Jane Ellis, The Russian Orthodox Church (Oxford: Oxford Univ. 17. From "Decree on Eastern Catholic Churches" /Orientalium Press, 1996), p. 157ff. ecclesiarum, in Documents, p. 373. 35. Here "Christianity" refers to non-Orthodox churches. 18. Rapprochement between the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox 36. Ha'aretz,March31, 1998.The authoris indebted for the reference and Churches began at the Second VaticanCouncil and was symbolized translation to Moshe Hirsch, "The Freedom of Proselytism under by the historic meeting of Pope Paul VI and Ecumenical Patriarch International and Israeli Law" (paper presented to the Tantur Athenagoras (Constantinople) in Jerusalem (1965), where they Conference on Religious Freedom and Proselytism). committed themselves in mutual forgiveness to search for 37. Article 18. For the full text, see American Journal ofInternational Law, reconciliation between their two churches. See "The Common Supplement 127 (1949). Professor [ohan van der Vyver, for example, Declaration of Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras, 1965," in makes the following criticism: "Values that are upheld by virtue of The Ecumenical Movement: An Anthologyof Key Texts and Voices, ed. state-imposed coercion instead of personal conviction or individual MichaelKinnamonand Brian Cope (Grand Rapids,Mich.: Eerdmans, persuasion forfeit their ethical quality" ("Religious Freedom and 1997), pp. 145-46. Proselytism: Ethical, Political, and Legal Aspects" [paper presented 19. Eastern Churches Journal 1, no. 1 (1994): 17-27. to the Tantur Conference on Religious Freedom and Proselytism]). 20. "Rapport de Balamand: Questions and Responses," Le Courrier 38. Brian Dickson, "The United Nations and the Freedom of Religion," Oecumenique du Moyen Orient 33, no. 3 (1997): 5-12. International and Comparative LawQuarterly, 1995. 21. The same was trueof the Protestant-EasternCatholicencounter.The 39. Natan Lerner, "The Final Text of the UN Declaration Against nineteenth-century conflict was most intense between Protestant Intolerance and Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief," Israel missionaries and the Maronite Church (the largest Eastern Catholic Yearbook on Human Rights, 1982. Church, for which there is no Orthodox equivalent) in Lebanon. The 40. Quoted from Hirsch, "Freedom of Proselytism." first Maronite convert to Protestantism, As'ad Shidyaq, was 41. Ann Mayer, Islam and Human Rights (Boulder, Colo.: Westview, imprisoned by the Maronite patriarch and died in jail (ca. 1823). 1995). For differing Muslim views, see the contributions of Roger 22. Rufus Anderson, History of the Missions of the American Board of Garaudy and Abdallahi Ahmed An-Na'im in The Ethics of World Commissioners for Foreign Missions to the Oriental Churches 2 vols. Religions and Human Rights, ed. Hans Kiing and Jiirgen Moltmann (Boston: Congregational Publishing Society, 1872), 1:47. For a full (London: SCM Press, 1990), pp. 46-69. accountof the ABCFM missionin Lebanon,see HabibBadr, "Mission 42. John Paul II, "Opening Address to the Fourth General Conference of to INominal Christians': The Policy and Practice of the American the Latin American Episcopate," Origins 22, no. 19 (October 1992): Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions and Its Missionaries" 326. (Ph.D. diss., Princeton Univ., 1992; UMI #9229015). 43. "Evangelizing Mission of the Church in Africa," Origins 22, no. 39 23. These churches included the National Evangelical Synod of Syria (March 1993): 665-84. and Lebanon (from 1823), the Anglican (originally Anglican-

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