122 Performance of Chuckrasia in the Northern Territory

Provenance performance of Chukrasia in a five-year-old field trial in the Northern Territory, Australia

B.V. Gunn1,2, K. Aken1 and K. Pinyopusarerk1

1Ensis, PO Box E4008, Kingston, ACT 2604, Australia (Ensis is a joint venture of CSIRO and Scion) 2Email: [email protected]

Revised manuscript received 9 February 2006

Summary eastern Asia; major uses include fine furniture, turnery, doors, windows, light flooring and plywood (Ho and Noshiro 1995). In an experimental planting using seedlots from a range of provenances of Chukrasia tabularis and C. velutina established Chukrasia is deciduous and typically 20–25 m in height, but it can at Berry Springs near Darwin in the Northern Territory, Australia, grow to 40 m tall and over 120 cm in diameter at breast height (dbh) C. velutina had significantly faster growth. The trial consisted of (Kalinganire and Pinyopusarerk 2000). Boles are generally straight 16 seed sources from natural stands in China, , , with large convex buttresses up to 150 cm above the ground. , , and seed from a stand already planted in Chukrasia velutina is reported to be the smaller of the two species, Darwin. The early performance and variability of species and with a fissured rough and corky bark in drier deciduous forests. By seedlots were assessed at 5.3 y of age for height and diameter contrast, C. tabularis occurs in moist evergreen rainforest and is growth, axis persistence associated with apical dominance and readily distinguished by its smooth bark (Gardner et al. 2000). single-stem growth, stem straightness, bark character, incidence The Chukrasia has a wide natural distribution in southern of suckering and damage by termites or shoot borers. There were Asia (Kalinganire and Pinyopusarerk 2000) (Fig. 1). The significant differences between seed sources for most growth latitudinal range is from about 27°N to the equator, and the traits. of the rough corky-barked C. velutina, originating altitudinal range is 20–1450 m. The mean annual temperature is from deciduous forests, grew faster than those of the smooth- 14–27°C with an absolute minimum temperature of 3–10°C. The barked C. tabularis, which occurs naturally in moister environ- natural habitat of Chukrasia is lowland evergreen rainforest, ments. The landrace from Darwin was intermediate in bark texture moist-evergreen forest or deciduous forest (Ho and Noshiro between the two species and had poor growth. The best 1995). Over most of its natural distribution, Chukrasia occurs in provenance of C. velutina had a mean height of 7.6 m and diameter areas with a mean rainfall of 1100–3800 mm and a dry season of of 10.6 cm at age 5.3 y, a growth rate showing potential as a 1–4 mo annually (Mabberley and Pannell 1989; Ho and Noshiro plantation species for the wet–dry tropics of northern Australia. 1995; Wasuwanich 1999). More and longer-term trials are needed to predict the performance and between-seed-source variation in growth, wood traits, Chukrasia is regarded as a potential choice for high-value timber silvicultural characteristics and resistance to shoot-tip borer plantations in many countries, including China, Laos, , () across a range of environmental conditions. Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam (Kalinganire and Pinyopusarerk 2000), with tropical environments matching that of the natural Keywords: forest plantations; provenance trials; survival; growth; height; diameter; suckering; insect resistance; stem form; bark; Chukrasia; occurrence. However, no significant plantation areas are known. Australia Chukrasia has been trialled in countries including , and in Africa and Puerto Rico and Costa Introduction Rica in Central America (Streets 1962; Ho and Noshiro 1995). In Australia, it has been tested at the species level in the Atherton The genus Chukrasia A.Juss. belongs to the family . It region of northern Queensland and in the Northern Territory (NT) is a member of the subfamily Swietenioideae within the tribe between Darwin and Katherine, without regard for the potential Swietenieae, which includes other important genera such as differences between C. velutina and C. tabularis. An unpublished Entandrophragma, Khaya, Lovoa and Swietenia (Kalinganire et report on a species trial established at Howard Springs near al. 2002). There is uncertainty in the literature whether Chukrasia Darwin in 1969 indicated the need to further test Chukrasia. consists of one or two species, namely C. tabularis and C. velutina. For the purpose of this paper two species of Chukrasia Preliminary results are available of a domestication strategy to are recognised. Both species are potentially important multi- identify superior germplasm of Chukrasia, involving scientists in purpose trees in southern and south-eastern Asia. The wood from Australia, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam (Pinyopusarerk the natural forest fetches high market prices, especially in south- and Kalinganire 2003). The straightness of the bole and self-

Australian Forestry 2006 Vol. 69 No. 2 pp. 122–127 B.V. Gunn, K. Aken and K. Pinyopusarerk 123

70°E 80°E 90°E 100°E 110°E 120°E 130°E 30°N NEPAL PAKISTAN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

BANGLADESH 3 5 7 6 MYANMAR 8 4 TAIWAN 13 12 LAOS 20°N 10 2 11 PHILIPPINES 1 INDIA 15 THAILAND 16 14

VIETNAM ANDAMAN ISLANDS 10°N

MALAYSIA 9

AUSTRALIA 0°

Figure 1. Natural distribution of Chukrasia and sources of seedlots used in the trial at Berry Springs, Northern Territory, Australia

pruning habit was confirmed, making the suitable for closest meteorological station, is 1935 mm, and this falls mainly plantation forestry. Repeated damage by the shoot tip borer between November and March. Annual temperatures range from Hypsipyla robusta resulted in loss of bole growth, proliferation a monthly mean maximum of 32°C to a monthly mean minimum of branching and loss of apical dominance. of 23°C, with an absolute minimum of 12°C. No frosts are recorded. Annual rainfall at the trial site over the 5 y of the trial Our objective was to assess the potential of Chukrasia as a was 1378–2453 mm, averaging 1900 mm. The soil is a medium- commercial species in Australia and to determine the extent of textured clay loam with a pH of 6.0 derived from a ferric, genetic variation between provenances. We report survival, mesotrophic, red Kandosol. The site is flat with a slight depression growth, stem form, bark characteristics, suckering and insect on the northern edge, which is subject to seasonal flooding due damage to trees from different seed sources at 5.3 y of age in the to a hard clay pan that impedes tree growth and survival. The first comprehensive provenance trial in this country. The work experimental site had previously been cleared of native trees. was undertaken in an area of the NT where the climate matches that in the natural occurrence. Experimental design Method The experiment used a randomised complete block design, with four replicates each containing 16 plots arranged in 2 rows of 8 Planting material columns. There were 25 (5 × 5) trees in each plot spaced at 3 m × 3 m. Two boundary rows of the same species were planted A field trial was established at Berry Springs near Darwin in 1999 surrounding the experiment. Planting holes were dug by hand using seedlots collected from a range of natural provenances. using a mattock and seedlings were planted in April to May 1999, The planting stock comprised 15 natural provenances from China, the end of the wet season. Laos, Myanmar, Thailand and Vietnam, represented by bulked seedlots comprising 6–30 parent trees, and one landrace from Tree management Darwin (Table 1 and Fig. 1). Records suggest the Darwin landrace Trees were irrigated with button drippers during the first two dry originated from Sri Lanka and was probably collected as seed seasons. After the first dry season, dead trees were replaced with from a single parent tree. Seedlings were raised in a nursery as seedlings of Pterocarpus. Trees were pruned to the base of the containerised seedlings. crown to facilitate access by a tractor to mow the grass. Experimental site Assessment The experimental site is located at the Kietells Homestead, Berry At age 5.3 y all living trees were measured for height and diameter Springs, south of Darwin (latitude 12°43' S, longitude 131°02' E, at 1.3 m above ground; survival was derived from these data. altitude 40 m asl). Mean annual rainfall for Howard Springs, the

Australian Forestry 2006 Vol. 69 No. 2 pp. 122–127 124 Performance of Chuckrasia in the Northern Territory

Table 1. Origins of provenances of Chukrasia established at Berry Springs, Northern Territory, Australia

Species and map CSIRO No. of Latitude Longitude Altitude Rainfall Provenance location Country reference no. seedlot no. parents (° ' N) (° ' E) (m asl) (mm) C. tabularis 01 20030 Shanya, Hainan I. China 10 19 10 109 30 045 1700 02 20031 Jianfengling, Hainan I. China 10 18 42 108 49 065 1800 03 19660 Hoa Binh Province Vietnam ? 21 00 105 20 (400) (2000) 04 20033 Hoa Binh Vietnam 10 20 25 105 28 100 2200 05 20034 Son La Vietnam 06 20 50 104 45 900 2000 06 20035 Thanh Hoa Vietnam 10 20 21 105 08 050 1800 07 20036 Tuyen Quang Vietnam 09 22 00 105 10 075 1900 08 20105 Pak Baeng Oudomxay Laos 08 20 45 101 53 750 09 Darwin Landrace (ex Sri Lanka) 0(1) C. velutina 10 20099 Moeswe Pyinmana Myanmar 10 19 57 095 58 209 1200 11 20100 Ledagyi Leway Myanmar 10 19 50 095 57 220 1200 12 20101 Popa Kyaukpadaung Myanmar 10 20 53 095 10 180 0660 13 20102 Khin Aye Pale Myanmar 10 21 56 094 53 155 0710 14 20117 Khao Bin, Ratchaburi Thailand 30 13 35 099 40 230 0900 15 20118 Mae Phrik, Lampang Thailand 12 17 29 099 17 180 (1000) 16 20119 Kamphaengphet Thailand 10 16 20 090 16 180 1100

( ) = estimated

Table 2. Characteristics assessed on the Chukrasia provenance trial at Berry Springs, Northern Territory, Australia

Characteristic Unit Explanation Survival Living trees per plot Height (ht) m Height of the tallest stem Diameter (dbh) cm Measured over bark at 1.3 m above ground Apical dominance Score, 1–6 Ability of tree to sustain its primary stem axis 1 = Multiple stems from ground level 2 = Forking in first (lowest) quarter of stem 3 = Forking in second quarter 4 = Forking in third quarter 5 = Forking in fourth quarter 6 = No forking

Stem straightness Score, 1–4 1 = Very crooked: >.2 serious bends

2 = Slightly crooked: >.2 small bends or <.2 serious bends 3 = Almost straight: 1–2 small bends 4 = Completely straight Bark character Score, 1–3 1 = Smooth 2 = Intermediate 3 = Rough Suckering Number Number of trees per plot with suckers Shoot tip borer and termites Number Number of trees per plot with signs of borer or termite attack

In addition, each tree was scored for three morphological Analysis characteristics: apical dominance, stem straightness and bark character. Apical dominance was categorised in one of six classes The software package DataPlus (Williams et al. 2000) was used following Pinyopusarerk et al. (2004), and straightness of the to pre-process the data and screen for outlying values. Analyses bole in one of four classes. The number of trees in each plot that were carried out on plot means for surviving trees (Williams et produced root suckers within 1 m of their bole was recorded. al. 2002). Visual observations were made to determine whether termites Although the trial was laid out as a randomised complete block (Mastotermes darwiniensis) had invaded the stems, or shoot tip design, the rectangular layout enabled row and column effects to borers (Hypsipyla robusta) had eaten shoots in the living crown. be assessed within the replicates. More details are in Table 2.

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Plot means were analysed using Genstat and the following linear Chukrasia velutina seedlots had a mean tree height of 6.1 to 7.6 m model: compared with 3.5 to 4.9 m for C. tabularis. The Darwin landrace was 4.2 m high. Diameter of the best seedlot, Lampang (Thailand), µ Y ijkl = + Ri + Bj(i) + Ck(i) + Pl + eijkl , was 10.6 cm; equivalent to an average increment of about 2 cm y–1. where: Y is the plot mean of provenance l in row j and column k of ijkl Stem form replicate i; µ represents the overall mean; All seedlots displayed strong apical dominance. The Darwin seedlot had the greatest incidence of forking. Where trees were Bj(i) represents the effect of row j within replicate i; growing vigorously, large branches with a diameter similar to C represents the effect of column k within replicate i; k(i) that of the main trunk tended to grow vertically, thus competing Pl represents the effect of provenance l; for apical dominance. In other instances where branches had been eijkl represents the residual error with a mean of zero. pruned, new shoots developed around the wound and vigorous individual shoots grew almost vertically, potentially causing stem Results defects.

A summary of the results of the trial assessment at 5.3 y is There were no significant differences in stem straightness across presented in Table 3. seedlots; most seedlots were assessed as almost straight (one or two small bends) or slightly crooked (two small bends) (Table 2). Survival Bark Survival amongst seedlots of C. velutina was 90–96%, while among those of C. tabularis it was 72–95%. Overall, survival Most seedlots fell into either the smooth-barked or rough-barked ranged from 72% for the seedlot from Hainan Island (China) to categories (Table 3). The Darwin landrace was clearly inter- 96% for the seedlot from Kamphaengphet, northern Thailand. mediate, and the Ratchaburi seedlot showed variation but with a Most deaths occurred in the dry season in the first year of the strong tendency towards bark of an intermediate type. Myanmar trial, May to September 1999. and most of the Thailand seedlots had rough corky bark associated with C. velutina, whereas seedlots from China, Laos and Vietnam had smooth bark associated with C. tabularis. Growth

Seedlots of C. velutina from Myanmar and Thailand grew faster than C. tabularis from China, Laos and Vietnam (Table 3).

Table 3. Mean values for seven growth characteristics of a Chukrasia provenance trial aged 5.3 y in the Northern Territory, Australia. *, ** and *** indicate significant differences at P ≤ 0.05, P ≤ 0.01 and P ≤ 0.001 respectively; ns indicates non-significance.

Species and Survival Ht Dbh Apical dominance Stem straightness Bark char. Suckers CSIRO Locality Country (%) (m) (cm) score (1–6) score (1–4) score (1–3) (%) seedlot no. C. tabularis 19660 Hoa Binh Vietnam 87 4.0 04.3 5.4 2.6 1.3 03.4 20033 Hoa Binh Vietnam 91 4.3 05.2 4.8 2.3 1.2 04.2 20034 Son La Vietnam 92 4.4 04.7 5.3 2.6 1.0 02.1 20035 Thanh Hoa Vietnam 95 4.6 05.1 4.8 2.4 1.4 09.3 20036 Tuyen Quang Vietnam 94 4.7 04.9 5.1 2.6 1.1 06.3 20105 Pak Baeng, Oudomxay Laos 87 4.9 04.9 5.5 2.8 1.0 05.4 20030 Shanya, Hainan Island China 72 3.5 04.1 5.4 2.6 1.0 01.5 20031 Hainan Island China 79 3.9 04.4 5.2 2.6 1.3 04.5 Darwin Howard Springs Australia 92 4.2 05.7 4.6 2.6 2.0 24.8 C. velutina 20117 Khao Bin, Ratachburi Thailand 93 6.5 08.1 5.4 2.3 2.3 12.2 20118 Mae Phrik, Lampang Thailand 95 7.6 10.6 5.1 2.5 3.0 13.3 20119 Kamphaengphet Thailand 96 7.4 09.7 5.2 2.5 3.0 22.2 20099 Moeswe Pyinmana Myanmar 95 6.1 09.0 5.2 2.7 3.0 16.0 20100 Ledagyi Leway Myanmar 92 6.7 09.1 5.4 2.6 3.0 02.0 20101 Popa Kyaukpadaung Myanmar 90 6.5 09.5 5.3 2.4 3.0 11.2 20102 Khin Aye Pale Myanmar 94 7.3 09.8 4.5 2.4 3.0 09.1

Significant level ns *** *** ** ns *** *** Standard error of difference 07 0.4 00.6 0.3 0.1 0.2 05.3

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Root suckers (Hyland and Whiffin 1993). The more vigorous seedlots, except the Darwin landrace, had a higher incidence of suckering. Hyland The incidence of root suckering varied between seedlots, the more and Whiffin (1993) report that Chukrasia is an aggressive species vigorous seedlots tending to produce more suckers except for tending to form pure stands in disturbed rainforest habitats on the Darwin landrace (Table 3). Suckering ranged from 1.5% of the Atherton Tableland. A species introduction trial established trees in the Hainan Island seedlot, the seedlot with the lowest at Howard Springs Forest Reserve, south of Darwin, NT, 1969– growth rate, to 25% in the Darwin landrace. The experimental 1970, contained three seedlots of Chukrasia from Sri Lanka. In site had been mown to control weed growth, perhaps stimulating 2004 one of the plots contained a few remaining mature Chukrasia the growth of the suckers through damage to large surface roots. trees. Beneath the 34-y-old trees was a thicket of Chukrasia saplings (1–2 cm dbh) mostly derived from suckers. There was Insect attack also seedling regeneration near the trees.

There was no termite attack by Mastotermes darwiniensis. The Berry Springs trial reported in this paper can continue to yield valuable information on growth and cultural management Shoot tip borer (Hypsipyla robusta) damaged four trees from the including spacing, crown management and wood quality, Darwin landrace in replicate 1. particularly if it is maintained until expected rotation age, 15–20 y. The trial could also provide improved germplasm for establishing Discussion new plantings by using it as a seed stand or through vegetative propagation of superior phenotypes. This Chukrasia trial showed marked variation, mainly between species. Seedlots of C. velutina from Myanmar and Thailand Conclusion grew significantly faster than those of C. tabularis from China, Laos, Vietnam and the Darwin landrace. (The same Myanmar The experiment showed that Chukrasia has potential as a C. velutina seedlot also grew well when planted on good soil at plantation tree for seasonally-dry tropical environments. In Meehan, south of Katherine, NT: for example, after 4.5 y, mean particular, C. velutina seedlots from Myanmar and Thailand height was 8.2 m and diameter 11.6 cm, with good stem form.) demonstrated good growth. The results show the great importance of comparing seedlots from across the natural distribution of The hard clay pan located on the northern boundary of the trial Chukrasia. Further trials are required to determine more precisely impeded root development of the trees, stunting growth and the environmental range within which economically-satisfactory causing deaths in plots in replicates one, two and three. Similar growth might be expected. results were found in Hawaii, where an impenetrable layer 30 cm below ground level caused the failure of Chukrasia (Ho and Noshiro 1995). Acknowledgements

All seedlots of Chukrasia had good apical dominance. There is Without the foresight of a number of people this paper would a tendency for vigorous lateral branch growth to compete with have not been possible. Kurt Neitzel (Farm Forestry Co-ordinator the main leader. Pruning of vigorous trees with large branches of the Farm Forestry Program funded by the Natural Heritage resulted in growth of epicormic shoots associated with the Trust) was instrumental in getting the trial established. Beau wounds. For this reason and because Chukrasia is reported to be Robertson and Don Reilly, from the NT Department of Business, self-pruning (CAB International 2000), we recommend that Industry and Resource Development, provided support in pruning not be undertaken. establishing, monitoring and measuring the trial, and valuable comments. We thank the owners of Berry Springs, Mr and Mrs Until recently, shoot tip borer damage by Hypsipyla robusta, a Keitell, for offering to have the trial planted on their property major pest associated with species of Meliaceae, had not been and for assisting with its maintenance. Antoine Kalinganire, recorded in the Northern Territory. However, this pest has recently formerly of CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, through his been observed on trees of Khaya senegalensis near Darwin involvement in ACIAR forestry project FST/1996/005, ‘Develop- (D. Reilly, NT Department of Business, Industry and Resource ment of domestication strategies for commercially important Development, pers. comm. 2004). Evidence of damage to the species of Meliaceae’, coordinated the seed collections as part tree crowns at the experimental site emphasises the need to of a series of international provenance trials of Chukrasia. carefully monitor any future plantings of Meliaceae. We also thank J.C. Doran, R. Arnold, I. Bevege, L. Thomson The leaves of Chukrasia appear to be highly toxic to farm animals. and S. Nambiar for reviewing the draft manuscript and providing The pruned branches from trees at the experimental site were valuable input. fed to goats. Within days the goats showed signs of severe distress and had to be put down. The farmer was confident that the distress had been caused by eating the Chukrasia leaves rather than References other food. CAB International (2000) Forestry Compendium, Global Module. CD- ROMs. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, UK. The propensity for Chukrasia to sucker readily and produce large Gardner, S., Sidisunthorn, P. and Anusarnsunthorn, V. (2000) A Field quantities of wind-dispersed seed makes it a potential weed, as Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand. Kobfai Publishing has been found in the Atherton Tableland of northern Queensland Project, Bangkok, 560 pp.

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Ho, K.S. and Noshiro, S. (1995) Chukrasia AHL Juss. In: Lemmens, Pinyopusarerk, K. and Kalinganire, A. (2003) Domestication of R.H.M.J., Soerianegara, I. and Wong, W.C. (eds) Resources Chukrasia. Monograph No. 98, ACIAR, Canberra, 76 pp. of South-East Asia Timber Trees: Minor Commercial Timbers. Pinyopusarerk, K., Kalinganire, A., Williams, E.R. and Aken, K.M. Backhuys Publishers, Leiden, 5(2), 127–130. (2004) Evaluation of international provenance trials of Casuarina Hyland, B.P.M. and Whiffin, T. (1993) Australian Tropical Rainforest equisetifolia. Technical Report No. 58, ACIAR, Canberra, 106 pp. Trees: An Interactive Identification System. Vol. 2. CSIRO, Streets, R.J. (1962) Exotic Forest Trees in the British Commonwealth. Melbourne, 564 pp. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 765 pp. Kalinganire, A. and Pinyopusarerk, K. (2000) Chukrasia: Biology, Wasuwanich, P. (1999) Chukrasia velutina in Thailand. Silvicultural Cultivation and Utilisation. Technical Report No. 49, ACIAR. Research Division, Royal Forest Dept, Thailand, 11 pp. Canberra, 35 pp. Williams, E.R., Heng, S., Aken, K.M., Nguyen, A. and Harwood, C.E. Kalinganire, A., Pinyopusarerk, K. and Williams, E.R. (2002) (2000) DataPlus Version 3: Productivity Software for Experimenters. Geographic variation in seedling morphology of Chukrasia CSIRO, Canberra, Australia. species. Australian Journal of Botany 50, 319–330. Williams, E.R., Matheson, A.C. and Harwood, C.E. (2002) Mabberley, D.J. and Pannell, C.M. (1989) Meliaceae. In: Ng, F.S.P. Experimental Design and Analysis for Use in Tree Improvement. (ed.) Tree Flora of Malaysia: A Manual for Foresters. Vol. 4. 2nd edn, CSIRO, Melbourne, 214 pp. Malaysian Forest Records No. 26, Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Ministry of Primary Industries. Longman, Malaysia, pp. 199-261.

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