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MODULAR (MSS) I An Architectural Thesis Program (0

Submitted to the Faculty of Architecture, Texas Tech University DC in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for a Degree of < J 3 BACHELOR OF ARCHITECTURE D 0 August 1976

by

Raymond R. Nikel and Fred D. Ballinger 7^^^y^7

K (r The writers wish to thank the staff of NASA, Lyndon B. , Houston, Texas, for their cooperation and guidance in the 01 preparation of this program. In particular, we extend special gratitude III to the following individuals: to Robert Gordon (Public Affairs Officer) IW^SA for coordinating our activities while visiting the Johnson Space Center; to Maynard Dalton (Habitability Systems Engineer) for personally accom­ \ panying us on private tours of the Johnson Space Center facilities and (0 spacecraft mockups, for providing use of the film library, and for procuring NASA technical manuals pertinent to our area of research; < to astronaut Dr. Joseph P. Kerwin (scientist- of the Skylab II J mission) and Col. William R. Pogue (astronaut of the Skylab IV mission) 3 for their candid remarks relative to their personal experiences aboard Q the Skylab missions; and for the contributions of Clark Covington (Sys­ 0 tems Design Engineer), James C. Jones (Preliminary Design Engineer), and John Poindexter (Educational Programs Officer).

We would also like to thank Professor Nolan E. Barrick (Chairman of the Division of Architecture, Texas Tech University) for granting us permission to investigate this thesis problem. Space architecture is a relatively new field and offers enormous opportunities for architectural consideration. DEDICATIOIM

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This program is dedicated to our wives, Margaret and Brenda, without whose sacrifice this document as well as our educational experience would not have been possible; and to our sons, Raymond and Brian, in whose generation deeper space exploration and colonization will be realized. We encourage their pursuit of this final frontier.

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PURPOSE OF PROGRAM (0

The purpose of this program is to determine the require­ 111 ments or needs for the design of a Modular Space Station (MSS). The space station's internal configuration and external config­ \ uration will be the focal points of design consideration. (0 Emphasis, however, will be focused directly on the habitability criteria surrounding crew living/working volumes. It should DC be noted that the designs of space station subsystems are the < responsibility of NASA contractors and as such are already J provided for. It is our intention, then, to concern ourselves 3 with the requirements for the habitability aspects of a space D station design. 0

V Men's conception of themselves and of each other has always depen­ ded on their notion of the Earth...to see the Earth as it truly is, small and blue and beautiful in that eternal silence where it floats, is to see ourselves as riders on the Earth together... (0 brothers who know now they are truly brothers. - Archibald MacLeish, during 8 flight, 1968. lU

The first movements into space, which culminated in Apollo, cata­ lyzed our imagination. Skylab gave direction to our imagination. The now gives license to our imagination. - Dr. Harrison Schmitt, Astronaut. t (0 The space effort is essentially a step in the evolution of man as a biological species and that the basic, usually unexpressed, long range objective of space exploration is the expansion of our DC species into yet another ecological niche, or series of niches, which happens to be estraterrestrial. - Dr. Ward J. Hess, Director < of the Space Sciences Center of the University of Missouri, Nov. 3, J 1965. 3 On attempting to reach the stars, Man may well be responding to a Q fundamental drive to explore and to adapt to a new environment. Space exploration may very well be the next and most logical step 0 in man's primeval urge to expand the ecological range of the human species. - Mitchell R. Sharpe, Author of the book. Living in Space, "The Astronaut and His Environment", 1969.

I feel personally that the general goals of the space program are a natural continuation of the human adventure. It is unthinkable that our society, particularly Western society, can ignore this challenge. - Dr. Frederick Seitz, President, National Academy of Sciences, in Congressional testimony, 1963.

...any nation, to remain great, must lead in exploration of the k unknown and the discovery of new worlds. - Richard M. Nixon, 1968, fT IMOI^<^

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TAKLE OF COUfTKllTS Page 0 1, 0 ACKMOWLEDOMEISITS ii 2.0 DEDICAflOM iii 3.0 PRELUDE. iv

4.0 TABLE; OF CONTKIMTS vi 5. 0 LIST OF FIGURES xi 6.0 LIST OF TABLES xiii 7.0 PREFACE xiv < 8 . 0 INTRODOCTIOM l J 8 .1 Opening Remarks 1 3 8.2 Program Objectives 1 0 8.3 Client 1 Q 8 . 4 Project Feasibility 1 9.0 SITE AKAL-YSIS 3 9.1 Location 3 9. 2 Environment 3 9.2.1 Earth' s Atmosphere 3 9.2.2 Radiations 9 9.2.3 Meteoroids 9 IMDI^^ 1®-® mismim: 1®,1 fflisitsaacy

Spac® .MiniiBiaLiStaraitieaDi ((BSiSa)) ... 13 lffi-1-3 imsa ©bjetelti^is^es 13 1®.1.4 ©rg-atnuLzaititaflBi . M 1®.1.5 FtQunjffliuag- attnd Btmtag-elt...... 15 1®-!-® Friogx-^ini Frissriities atEofffl Fiaumaiumg. ---...-..-....-...... IS l®-2 Itettiteia S-tates ISDaimmed Spa

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11.1 Introduction 48 11. 2 Space Lab Theme 48 (0 11.3 Operational Base Theme 48 11.3.1 Construction Base 49 Ul 11.3.2 Test Facility 49 11.3.3 Spacecraft Service Facility. 49 \ 11.3.4 Orbital Depot 49 (0 11.3.5 Cluster Support Base 49 12.0 HABITABILITY DEFINED 51 a < 13.0 MODULAR CONCEPT DEFINED 53 J 14.0 MODULAR SPACE STATION (MSS) 54 3 14.1 MSS Defined 54 D 14.2 Requirements Defined 54 0 14.3 MSS Internal Configuration Criteria. 55 14 . 3 .1 Program 55 14.3.2 Operations 55 14.3.3 Configuration 55

14.3.4 Subsystems 56 14.3.5 Safety 56 14.3.6 Reliability 61 V ^

14.3.7 Maintainability 61 14.3.8 Habitability 62 (0 14.3.9 Facilities 64 14.4 MSS External Configuration Criteria. 67 Ul 14 , 4 .1 Program 67

14.4.2 Operations 67 \ 14.4.3 Flight Modes 67 14. 4. 4 Subsystems 68 14.4.5 Safety 68 (I < 14.5 Internal and External Configuration Criteria - Expanded Issue 68 J 14.5.1 Station Assembly 68 3 14.5.2 Structural Arrangement 68 Q 14.5.3 Windows 72 0 15,0 APPENDIX I LESSONS LEARNED FROM SKYLAB,,. 76 16,0 APPENDIX II ANTHROPOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS FOR ZERO-GRAVITY 91 17.0 FOOTNOTES 119 17.1 Text 119 17.2 Figures and Tables 120 18 . 0 ACRONYMS 122 ik 19.0 BIBLIOGRAPHY 123 19.1 Books 123 (0 19.2 Film Highlights (NASA Johnson Space Center Films ) 123 III 19.3 Magazine Articles-Brochures 124 19.4 Personal Interviews (NASA Johnson t Space Center) 125 0) 19.5 Skylab Experience Bulletins 126 19.6 Technical Manuals, Reports and DC Studies 127 < 20.0 CONCLUSION 128 Part I: Team Design External Configura­ J tion 128 3 Part II: Individual Design Station Module One 139 D Part III: Individual Design Station 0 Module Four 148 h^ (T ^

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page (0 9.1.0.1 Space Station Location 4 9.2.1.1 Temperature Range of the Atmosphere 6 Ul 9.2.1.2 Chemical Structure of the Atmosphere.,.. 6 u 9.2.1.3 The Earth's Atmosphere, Temperature and Pressure 7 t 9.2.1.4 The Protective Atmosphere 8 9.2.2.1 The Van Allen Radiation Belts 10 DC 9.2.2.2 The Earth's Radiation Belts 11 < J 9.2.2.3 The Earth's Magnetic Field 11 3 10.1.4.1 NASA Personnel and Facilities 16 Q 10.2.3.2 Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo Spacecraft.. 23 0 10.2.4.2 U.S. Manned 27 10.2.4.3 Orbital Workshop 30 10.2,4,1 Skylab 31 10.2.4.4 Skylab Mission Sequence 32 10.2.4.5 CSM Docking and Skylab 34 10.2.6.1 Apollo/Soyuz Space Crafts 36 10.2.6.2 Mission Profile ASTP 37 ^ 10.3.1.1 Profile of Shuttle Mission 41 h 10.3.1.2 Space Shuttle Vehicle 42 (0 10.3.2.1 Spacelab 43 10.3.2.2 Spacelab 44 Ul 10.3.2.3 Spacelab Program Contributors 46 14,3.4.1 Modular Space Station Subsystem 57 \ 14.3.5.1 Common Hatch 60 CO 14.5.1.1 Payload Retention System 69

14.5.1.2 Manipulator/Payload Attachment.... 6 9 a 14.5.1.3 Payload Deployment/Retrieval Mechanism. 70 J 14.5.1.4 Typical Module Berthing 70 3 14.5.1.5 Shuttle Manipulator Reach Envelope 71 Q 14.5.1.6 Berthing Port Arrangement 71 0 14.5,2,1 Station Module Structural Arrangement,. 7 3 14.5.3.1 Cross Sectional View of MSC Window Assembly 74 14.5.3.2 Window Cover Deployment 75 rp ^ f^ au<2 CO Ul

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J) LIST OF TABLES Table Page CO 9.1.0.2 Orbital Requirements of Selected Ul Experiments 4 9.2.1.5 Gases by Percentage 6 10.1.5.1 Space Activities of the U.S. Government i 10 Year Siimmary 17 CO 10.1.5.2 Past U.S. Space Budgets 17 DC 10.1.5.3 Budget Summary FY 1976 19 < 10.1.5.4 Research and Development Programs J (Budget Plan FY 1976) 19 10.1.5.5 Manned Space Flight (Budget Plan FY 3 1976) 19 Q 10.1.5.6 Space Science (Budget Plan FY 1976) 19 0 10.1.5.7 Applications (Budget Plan FY 1976) 20 10.1.5.8 Aeronautics and Space Technology (Budget Plan FY 1976) 20 10.1.5.9 Other Budget Activities (Budget Plan FY 1976) 20 10,2.3,1 Summary of U.S, Manned Missions Through 25, 26 k (T ^ (T^ou< 2 CO Ul u

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Sir Isaac Newton, in a letter to Nathaniel Man is a vital link in the processes of Hawes in 1694 A,D,, illustrated the ability of space exploration. His necessity is exhibited CO men, specialized in an occupation, to perform a by the remarks of Dr, Werner Von Braun (pioneer given task in spacecraft designs): Ul If instead of sending the observa­ I am often asked what reason there is for tions of seamen to able mathematicians man's going to space. It seems the at land, if the land would send able notion is popular in this age of elec­ \ mathematicians to sea, it would sig­ tronics and mechanical miracles that man nify much more to the improvement of is rapidly becoming obsolete. Computers, CO navigation and safety of men's lives for example, are much faster, and other and estates on that element. instruments are much more sensative to physical phenomena about us. Man in The necessity of man in space has been space, some people say, is a liability and nuisance. Well, men like Glenn, demonstrated time and again over the past Carpenter, Cooper, Grissom, and Young < proved that this simply isn't true. J decade. Unlike the machine, man possesses the When equipment in the spacecraft malfunc­ tioned it was man in the loop, the astro­ 3 ability to reason creatively; to adapt to any naut, who saved the day. Equipment can be designed to react to many known and a D new environment and/or circumstance, Everytime few anticipated situations or events, but man can observe and correlate facts. He 0 he enters a spacecraft he carries with him a is not merely going along for the ride. Man is the necessary element.^ background of experience that he can apply to Man is firmly committed to exploration and the many skills demanded of him. Furthermore, exploitation of the universe. man can detect many kinds of errors in the As a result, man-related professional operation of complex machinery and can effect fields must increase their scope of application to meet the challenge of the procedures necessary to correct the the man/environment that exist today and will continue to expand with complexity situation. in the future.2

8.1 OPENING REMARKS action control, data processing, structural, "...future space missions will include and life support subsystems, are the responsi­ CO longer durations than those previously achieved, bility of NASA contractors and as such are larger crews than before, and other crew- already provided for. This program is only Ul selection factors that will set these missions concerned with the habitability aspect of space apart from previous Soviet or American space station design. t 3 The secondary objectives of this program CO missions." Situations will exist where vol­ are to encourage continued research into space umes are constricted, variations are limited, architecture and to underscore the career DC exterior environments are hostile, and where potential of this new field. < habitability will directly affect human 8.3 CLIENT J behavior and attitudes. 3 8.2 PROGRAM OBJECTIVES NASA, a civilian agency of the United D The primary purpose of this document is to States government, exercises control over all 0 space activities sponsored by the U.S. In outline requirements for the design of a keeping with space program objectives, NASA Modular Space Station; then, from interpretive contractors are in the process of comprehensive decisions, a design solution will follow. studies of Modular Space Station designs, with Emphasis will be focused on the habitability emphasis on crew habitability. criteria surrounding crew living/working vol­ 8.4 PROJECT FEASIBILITY umes. It should be noted that the designs of Space stations orbiting Earth offer a electrical power, guidance and control, re­ V NOI^^ unique opportunity for man to expand his under­ power stations to beam energy via low den­ h standing of both his planet and its relation to sity microwaves to collecting stations on CO the family of the cosmos. From a platform in Earth. space he can make an unlimited number of obser­ 5. Assembling and servicing of Earth Ul vations. For this reason NASA has initiated satellites, facilitating the final check­ programs to make the concept of space stations outs and launches of deep space probes, i more feasible. Some of these programs are as manned and unmanned. CO follows:

1. Continuous manned observations of DC < the Earth's surface and its atmosphere; J manned systems to complement the hundreds 3 of unmanned satellites currently monitor­ D ing the Earth. 0 2. Continuous manned celestial observa­ tions unencumbered by atmospheric inter­ ference. 3. Utilization of the unique character­ istics of zero-gravity and vacuum in the development of new manufacturing techniques,

4. Construction of large satellite solar SITE ANALYSIS

\> 9.1 LOCATION composed of gases intermixed with water vapor, A Modular Space Station is to be placed dust and man's own waste particles. By vol­ into an Earth orbit of 55° inclination at an ume, nitrogen and oxygen (essential for life altitude of 276-310 miles with an orbital ve­ as we know it), account for 99% of the gaseous Ul locity of approximately 17,000 mph (see Table mixture; the other 1% is a combination of u 9.1.0.2 and Figure 9.1.0.1). Access to the carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen, and other site will be provided by the space shuttle gases (see Table 9.2.1.5 and Figure 9.2.1.2). CO vehicle. This thin envelope of air is held together by 9.2 ENVIRONMENT the strong gravitational fields of Earth. DC < "Space as a physical environment is The atmosphere, which extends upward from J essentially a radiation environment with very the ground to approximately 5000 miles, is 3 thinly dispersed matter. In contrast, the divided into four distinct layers. There are Q atmosphere is essentially a material environ­ no sharp boundaries between these layers, and 0 ment with attenuated radiation. Emptiness it is virtually impossible to define an upper permeated by radiations of a broad intensity limit to the atmosphere. Radical changes in range and temporal fluctuations and spiced by temperature, pressure, and composition, with meteoric pepper is the environment with which increasing height, is characteristic of each an astronaut is faced unless he is protected. „4 region of the atmosphere (see Figure 9,2,1,3), 9.2.1 EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE The region extending from the ground to a The atmosphere surrounding the Earth is height of ten miles is the troposphere. This k (T

CO i = 550 h = 200-SOON Ml i = 970 & i = 900 PREFERRED TITLE ALTITUDE, N Ml INCLINATION, DEG h = 200NMI POINTING DIRECTION i = 28.50 200 250 300 20 40 60 80 100 Ul h = 200 • 300 N Ml GRAZING INCID, TELESCOPE STELLAR ADVANCED STELLAR ASTRONOMY STELLAR ADVANCED SOLAR ASTRONOMY SOLAR UV STELLAR ASTRON., TELESCOPE CELESTIAL SPHERE \ HIGH ENERGY STELLAR ASTRONOMY STELLAR SPACE PHYSICS AIRLOCK EARTH,CELESTIAL SPHERE CO PLASMA PHYSICS, WAKE SUBSATELLITE COSMIC RAY PHYSICS CELESTIAL SPHERE EARTH SURVEYS EARTH NADIR+450 CONTAMINATION MEASUREMENTS SOLAR, STATION EXPOSURE EXPERIMENTS EARTH, ZENITH DC IRSTELLAR SURVEY STELLAR < COMPONENTS & SENSOR CALIB EARTH,DEEP SPACE

200 250 300^ 20 40 60 80 100 J ALTITUDE, NMI INCLINATION, DEG • ACCEPTABLE REGION 3 D Figure 9.1.0.2 Orbital Requirements 34 0

Figure 9.1.0.1 Space Station Location

k relaiti'rel^ dense air maass is cliaracterized by forms. It shields Earth from excess uiltraviolet air trarbMlemce Cim ithis layer ocxnars all cloeds, radiation prodmced by the Sum. MSssorptlms- of natmiial weather, amd sepports for life) . The these radiations also acts as a catalyst to heat inass of tlie entire atmospSiere is calcmlated to the higher regions of the atmosphere {see Figimre .15 S s: 1® toms- However, ie 9-2.1.11. reg'ioniLS the gases are so rarif ied that laalf of The ionosphere, the third distijuct layer tlais weight is withim the first 3 1/2 Miles of atiraosphere, occttrs at an altitude rangieg abo^e sea lewel- Pressure at sea level is from 45 to 4(0)0 miles. Here, the atoms of gas 14.7 poiuurnds per sqaiare imch aed rapidly de­ are heavily toonniijarded by solar energy, resnult— a < creases with heights above 5 miiles (see Figiare img in ionization ([electrically cSaarged 9.2,1-3K particles S . TBse excitement and interaction of 3 The secomd layer of gases are located at these charged particles contribnte to increased 0 a height of 10 miles amd reach iiipward to Siffiat bimiMimp |see Figure 9.2-1-lJ. A Moduular 0 apprcsKimately 45 ainiles- Within this area, the Space Station, orbiting at an altittode of 27S- stratosphere, the STLILIII''S imteiBse energy, excites 31(D) miles, woniM be located within the iono­ the atoanDs of oxygem- M. chemical change results, sphere and adeqciate protection from the hostile caTiisiimg the atoms of ojsygee to separate, them environment is dictated- All previous moanned to rejoim, creatimg a poisomouis fona of osygem, earth orbiting vehicles have been restricted to ozome. iLethal to hmmauis, Im comcemtrated this region, and mo ill effects have been noted qinamtities, ozome is essemtial to all life by crews orbiting uap to S4 days at a time. - Temperature "F / -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

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80 120 SYMIiOL OR Ul GAS I'ORMULA I>KR CENT (BY VOLUME) lonos Jhere

100 Nitrogen N. 78.1 Oxygen 02 20.9 Argon Ar .934 \ Carbon dioxide CO2 .03 (km ) (miles ) Neon Ne .001818 (0 Heigh t Heliiiin He .000524 Heigh t

o Methane CH, .0002 60 Kry])ion Kr .000114 Hydrogen H., .00005 DC Nitrous oxide N,0 .00005 40 - .0000087 Stral Dsphere Xenon Xc < 20 25 Table 9.2.1.5 Gases by Percentage J 20 D Tro osphere

0 1 1 1 ^ 1 1 I 1 1 Q -80 40 0 40 80 Temper ature, °C 0 Figure 9.2.1.1 Temperature Range of Atmosphere

Key to Diagrams Nitrogen N2 (molecular), N (atomic), Oxygen O2 (molecular O3 (ozone), 0 (atomic); Argon A; oj ol IHI Carbon Dioxide CO2; Hydrogen Exosphere H2 (molecular), H (atomic); Troposphere Stratosphere Ionosphere Helium He; Water vapour H2O. V Figure 9.2.1.2 Chemical Structure of the Atmosphere' ilMICf'^^ w m tmw MM

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'tJ-il* \ V \s = There is no sharp boundary separating the shield the Earth from much of the lethal radia­ ionosphere and the fourth layer of gases, the tions discharged by the Sun. Located between (0 exosphere. Between 400 and 5000 miles altitude, 500 and 10,000 miles altitude, these donut- the gases become so rareified as to be negligi­ shaped belts are affected by the solar winds, 111 ble. Here true space begins; the merging with extending deeper into space on the side of interplanetary medium. Earth opposite the Sun (see Figure 9.2.2.2). For all practical purposes man's liveable The belts consist of permanently trapped Ul environment exists for only the first five electrical particles. The donut shape conforms miles above sea level. From this point upward to the configuration of the Earth's magnetic DC < the temperatures vary drastically (see Figure field, resembling a bar magnet with north and J 9.2.1.1) the air pressure decreases suddenly south poles, a dipole field. Within this field 3 (see Figure 9.2.1.3), and the chemical composi­ particles travel from pole to pole on a tor­ Q tion becomes hostile to man (see Figure 9.2.1.2). turous twisted path (see Figure 9.2.2.3). The 0 In space man finds himself physiologically Van Allen Radiation Belts constitute a hazard incapable of survival without protection from of undetermined danger to moving extreme radiation and temperatures and an through them for long periods of time. artificial atmosphere. 9.2.3 METEOROIDS

9.2.2 RADIATIONS All matter traveling near the Earth is The Van Allen Radiation Belts (see Figure affected by its strong gravitational forces.

9.2.2.1), discovered by early satellite surveys, These particles of matter, meteoroids, large

Radiation belts right These great rings of high- energy radiation girtdle the globe. They are in fact distorted by the solar wind (see main illustration below) l->ut have a theoretical form as shown here, the plan view being a toroidal ring when viewed from above either magnetic pole. The immediate effect of the belts extends out to at least six Earth radii above the equator (scale of figures). Although the Earth's axis of rotation passes through the geographic poles (axisX-X) the radiation belts are positioned in space by the magnetic field which is displaced (axis N-S, the position of which varies).

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Figure 9.2.2.3 The Earth's Magnetic Field I >^ ^

as mountains or small as molecules, hurl at high velocities into the Earth's protective (0 covering. As the density of air increases toward the surface, meteoroids are deflected back into space or air friction will vaporize the particles before they have an opportunity to reach the ground. Vehicles, alone in (0 space, with no more than man's technology standing between him and infinity, must encounter and defeat the hostile environment of space. (T

HISTORY /p 10.1 HISTORY OF CLIENT dominance of NACA by the military, in the late h 10.1.1 NATIONAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR 1950's, prompted Congress to create a civilian AERONAUTICS (NACA) 0) space agency, devoted to a concentrated effort Twelve years after the Wright Brothers had to maintain the U.S. posture as world leaders 111 successfully flown their Kitty Hawk craft. in quest of the New Frontier. President Woodrow Wilson signed the Naval Ap­ 10.1.2 NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINIS­ propriations Act of March 3, 1915, establishing TRATION (NASA) \ a National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, The National Aeronautics and Space Admin­ 0) NACA. The committee was charged with the istration (NASA) was created by the United IE responsibilities of supervision and direction States Congress through the National Aeronau­ < of the study of the principles of flight. The tics and Space Act of 1958 (12 Stat. 426; J committee was not, however, limited to flight 42 U.S.C. 2451 et. seq.) Replacing NACA, this 3 within the atmosphere of Earth; thus, in years agency of the Federal Government was estab­ D to come, space flight research developed. lished to administer programs in space activity 0 From its conception in 1915 to its re­ "...for peaceful purposes for the benefit of 5 organization in 1958, NACA concentrated its all mankind." attentions to flight problems relative to the 10.1.3 NASA OBJECTIVES Earth's atmosphere. Then, with the first The primary objectives of the National successful launch of an artificial satellite by Aeronautics and Space Administration are as the in 1957, the follows: entered into the . Conservatism and 1) Conduct research for the solution of f^ ^

problems of flight within and outside Four offices are responsible for planning Earth's atmosphere and develop, con­ struct, test, and operate aeronautical and directing NASA's research and development and space vehicles. (0 programs. 2) Conduct activities required for the exploration of space with manned and 1) Office of Manned Space Flight - to III unmanned vehicles. develop and apply the manned space flights - 3) Arrange for the most effective utili­ zation of the scientific and engine­ includes launch vehicles, spacecraft, life- ering resources of the U.S. with \ other nations engaged in aeronautical support systems, and other related space (0 and space activities for peaceful purposes. missions.

4) Provide for the widest practical and 2) Office of Space Science and Applications - DC appropriate dissimination of informa­ tion concerning NASA's activities scientific explorations of space, the plan­ < and their results. ^ ets, the Moon, and communications and J 10.1.4 NASA ORGANIZATION D meteorology. Planning, coordination, and control of Q 3) Office of Advanced Research and Tech­ NASA programs are the responsibility of the 0 nology - to provide the technological know­ headquarters directors of NASA's field centers. ledge for future aeronautic and space Research and development activities are the flights. concern of government-employed scientists, 4) Office of Tracking and Data Acquisitions - engineers, and technicians. These research development and operation of tracking and teams evaluate new concepts and phenomena, and data acquisition, facilities, systems, and insure the integrity of work contracted to equipment - to acquire, record, process, and private corporations. V (T transmit technical and scientific data committee on International Cooperation in for NASA programs (see NASA Personnel Space and Science. (0 and Facilities Organization Chart, 10.1.5 FUNDING AND BUDGET Figure 10.1.4.1). Within the complicated workings of Con­ 111 NASA is assisted and supported by civilian gress, contractors and NASA itself lobby for government agencies. Department of Defense, funds. In the early years of the space pro­ \ industry, universities, and other nations of gram, the excitement generated by the dawn of (0 the free world. NASA is a creation of the a Space Age compelled Congress to grant large Congress, not the Executive Branch. As such, NASA budgetary requests (see Table 10.1.5.1). DC congressional committees oversee the workings However, starting in 1968 NASA's days of "high J< of this agency. roller" as an agency began to decline (see 3 All NASA manned operations are reviewed by Table 10.1.5.2). The Vietnam War, disenchant­ Q the Subcommittee on Manned Space Flight. Legis­ ment and a loss of interest in the space 0 lation pertinent to unmanned flights and useful programs following the Lunar landing, marked applications of space information in general subsequent cuts in the NASA budget. Neverthe­ are handled by the Subcommittee on Space Sci­ less, NASA continues its research and develop­ ence and Applications. Other such committees ment programs with a revised emphasis on space include the Subcommittee on Aeronautics and priorities to flex with the ever-changing mood Space Technology, Subcommittee on Science, of Congress (see Tables 10.1.5.3-10.1.5.9). Subcommittee on NASA Oversight, and the Sub­ NASA, as a government-sponsored agency.

\. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION h ADMINISTRATOR DEPUTY ADMINISTRATOR

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ASSOCIATE ADMINISTRATOR Ul OFFICE OF DCfUTTASSOCIATE ADMIN1ST«AT0« OFFICE OF OFFICE OF AEROSPACE FERSONNEl NAT'l GENEDAL (PLANNINS) EXECUTIVE MANAGEMENT SAFETY MANAGEMENT ACADEMIES POLICY COUNSEL ASSISTANT ADMINISTtATOI FOI DEVEIO^MENI ADVISORY SECRETARIAT REVIEW BtommMO GENCtAl COUNUL PLANNINO ASS'T AOMlNisnukro. lASS'T ADMINISItAlO* f ANH. COMMITTEE i (0 OFFICE OF ASSOCIATE ORGANIZATION DEPUTY AND MANAGEMENT ADMINISTRATOR ASSOCIAft AOMi-^rSnATO* a. < 1 J OFFICE OF OFFICE OF OFFICE OF OFFICE OF OFFICE OF OFFICE OF OFFICE OF DOO A INOUlTir AFFAIIIA UNIVERSITY MTEINATIONAl LEGISLATIVE PUIUC ADMIMSntATION INIERACfNCT TfCH. UIIIIZATION AFFAIRS AFFAIUS AFFAIIS AFFAItS ASS'T AOMINiSrHAIQg ASST ADMINlSr«ATOK A&S'I AOMfNlSIHAIOt ASS'T AOMINISHArO* ASST

OFFICE OF OFFICE OF OFFICE OF OFFICE OF MANNED SPACE SCIENCE TRACKING AND ADVANCED RESEARCH SPACE FLIGHT AND APPLICATIONS DATA ACQUISITION AND TECHNOLOGY ASSOCIATE AOMJNlSltATGI ASSOCIArt ADMlNISItAIOt ASSOCIArt ADMlHiiTUkTCX AiSCClAlt ».£>»*lMlSl»*TO*

JET PIOPUISION FLIOHI QEDIOf C.MAISHAIL MANNED aOOOARD AMES lAIOIATOtT ttsEAtcH atmt nSEAtCH CENni Sf ACI fUOHT aWTlR SrACECXAFT aNTW SPACE FUCHT aNTER (ConToclor Oparalad) Moffarf Flald, Calif. [dx^RH, Calif.

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k 10.2 UNITED STATES MANNED SPACE PROGRAMS 3200 pounds. Shaped bell like, the craft was 10.2.1 INTRODUCTION 74.5 inches in diameter at the base and 9 feet 0) Emphasis on manned space exploration was tall (see Figure 10.2.3.2). This craft was a national decision voiced by President John utilized for a total of 2 suborbital and 4 or­ Ul

F. Kennedy in 1961 bital missions and developed the basic space

...this Nation should commit itself to technology and hardware for future space flights. achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the and 10.2.3 GEMINI PROGRAM (0 returning him safely to Earth. (Apr. 8, 1964-Nov. 15, 1966) NASA's manned space programs fulfilled the took up where Mercury left off. The Gemini DC commitment through the accomplishments of four project had three mission objectives: < successive spacecraft. J 1) to concentrate on orbital rendevous and 10.2.2 MERCURY PROGRAM 3 docking America entered into manned space explora­ D 2) to extend manned missions for periods of 0 tion with (Nov. 26, 1958-May 16, up to two weeks 1963). The project objectives were threefold: 3) to perform a spacewalk outside of the 1) to orbit a manned spacecraft around Earth spacecraft environment 2) to investigate man's ability to function To save time and engineering efforts the in space basic Mercury "capsule" design was retained for 3) to recover both man and spacecraft safely the Gemini series. However, the two-man craft The one-man Mercury spacecraft was was wider (120 inches), taller (19 feet), and designed with a maximum orbiting weight of weighed approximately 8 300 pounds (see Figure carrying two astronauts to the Lunar surface I- 10.2.3.2). Experience gained from Mercury and back to the Command Module (see Figure proved equipment could be placed outside the 10.2.3.2). 01 pressureized cabin, and so the Gemini space­ The Command Module was 10 feet 7 inches Ul craft incorporated a , to be left tall, 154 inches in diameter, and retained the in space upon reentry into the Earth's atmos­ Gemini concept of adjacent Service Module. The phere. Command Module was provided with a docking i The Gemini Program validated new life hatch by which the crew boarded and unboraded Ul support techniques and suggested man could the Lunar Module. DC endure operations in space for as long as < The Lunar Module (LM) was designed only J thirty days. for operation outside of the Earth atmosphere. 3 10.2.4 APOLLO PROGRAM The LM was 22 feet 11 inches tall with legs Q Project Apollo (Oct. 11, 1968-Dec. 19, extended and some 31 feet in diameter. This 0 1972) realized the U.S. goal of putting a man vehicle fulfilled the task of carrying and on the Moon when touched down on housing two astronauts, a variety of scientific July 16, 1969. experiments and a Moon roving vehicle. The

The Apollo Program required development Lunar Module served as crew habitat for periods of two new spacecraft, one a Command Module to of days on the harsh Lunar environment. The carry three astronauts to the Moon and return ascent stage then returned the crew and its them to Earth, the other a craft capable of samples back to the orbiting Command Module for k (T Mercury set the trend for U.S. spacecraft design in the first decade. The one-man capsule was 6 feet 10 inches long (26 feet with its launch escape tower) and 6 feet 2-1/2 inches in diameter. It weighed about 2990 pounds in orbit. The blunt end was covered with an ablative heat shield to protect against 3000-degree reentry heat. The capsule was built by McDonnell Douglas Corp.

Gemini also was built by McDonnell Douglas. The two-man craft was an enlargement of the Mercury vehicle, but experience had shown that much equipment oould be placed outside the pressurized cabin and left behind at reentry. Gemini propulsion systems allowed changes in orbit, as well as reentry maneuvers for pinpoint landings. The spacecraft was 19 feet long, 10 feet in diameter, and weighed about 8400 pounds. Mercury Apollo command and service modules bridge the first decade of American manned space flight with the second; they served both Skylab and Apollo/Soyuz Test Project planners. The service module extends the Gemini concept of locating in a separate package the equipment and supplies not needed for reentry, and the three-man command module retains the ablative heat shield of Mercury and Gemini. The command module is 10 feet 7 inches high (to top of apex cover) and 12 feet 10 inches in diameter; its 33-foot launch escape tower is jettisoned before orbital insertion. The service module is 24 feet 9 Gemini inches by 12 feet 10 inches. Both modules are built by Rockwell International.

Figures 10.2.3.2 (LM) operated only outside the Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo atmosphere. Its shape therefore was dictated by its job of Spacecraft taking two men safety to and from the Moon's surface. The LM was 22 feet 11 inches high with legs extended,,31 feet in diameter (measured diagonally across extended landing gear). Nominal Earth orbit weight of the three ApoUo modules was 100,600 pounds. Grumman Aero­ space Corp. built the lunar module.

Drawings indicate relative sizes of spacecraft the return to Earth. as well as on Earth there is no substitute for A total of eleven Apollo missions were 9 I" performed, one eleven-day Earth orbital mission, man's adaptability and resourcefulness." three Lunar orbital missions, and six Lunar The Skylab Program objectives were as landings, with one mission aborted due to mal­ follows: functions. No other program of technological 1. to enrich man' s knowledge o^f the Earth, and scientific exploration to date has yielded Sun, stars, and space the results that were obtained through the 2. to document the effects of prolonged Apollo Program. on man DC 3. tO' develop new methods of materials < Project Apollo bridged the first two manufacturing in the vaciium and zero- J decades of man in space, its vehicles and 3 gravity of space spacecraft being key elements in planning D 4. to investigate means observation and the 1973 Skylab and 1975 Apollo-Soyuz Test of 0 monitoring of the Earth's surface Project (see Table 10.2.3.1). 5- to evaluate the capabilities, limita­ 10.2.5 SKYLAB PROGRAM tions, and usefulness of man in space. Skylab marked the opening of a new era in Skylab served as a true orbiting research space flight, transition from exploration to facility. This space station enabled astro­ utilization/ from single purpose spacecraft to nauts to carry out a wide variety of scientific, multipurpose space station (see Figure 10.2.4.2). engineering, and biomedical studies. Skylab, The Skylab Program emphasized "...that in space the first U.S. space statio^n, and the most V (T NOI><^ Duration Mission Crew Date Remarks hr:min".sec

Mercury-Redstone 3 Shepard May 5, 1961 00:15:22 Suborbital flight — first American in space. USS Champlain, Atlantic recovery (A). Spacecraft call sign 0) Freedom?. Mercury-Redstone 4 Grissom July 21.1961 00:15:37 Also suborbital; successful flight but spacecraft sank, astronaut rescued. USS Randolph (A). Liberty Bell 7. Ul Mercury- 6 Glenn Feb. 20. 1962 04:55:23 Three-orbit flight; first American in orbit; retropack retained when erroneous signal indicated heat shield possibly loose; capsule landed 40 miles uprange. USS Noa, (A). Friendship 7.

Mercury-Atlas 7 Carpenter May 24. 1962 04:56:05 Also three-orbit mfesiian; yaw error at manual retrofire caused 250-mile landing overshoot. USS Pierce (A). Aurora 7. \ Mercury-Atlas 8 Schirra Oct. 3, 1962 09:13:11 Six-orbit flight; capsule landed 4-1/2 miles from recovery ship USS Kearsarge, Pacific (P). Sigma 7. (0 Mercury-Atlas 9 Cooper May 15 and 16 34:19:49 Twenty-two orbits to evaluate effects on man of 1 day in space; landed 4-1/2 miles from USS Kearsarge (P). 1963 Faith 7.

Gemini-Titan III Grissom, March 23, 1965 04:53:00 Three-orbit demonstration of the spacecraft; maneuver over Texas on first pass changed orbital path of a a Young manned spacecraft for first time; landed about 50 miles uprange. USS Intrepid (A). Molly Brown (only < Gemini named). J Gemini-Titan IV McDivitt, June 3 to 7, 97:56:11 Four-day flight with White first American to walk in space in 20-minute (hatch open White 1965 36 minutes); after 62 revolutions of Earth, landed 50 miles uprange from USS Wasp (A). 3 Gemini-Titan V Cooper, Aug. 21 to 29, 190:55:14 First use of fuel cells for electric power; evaluated guidance and navigation system for future rendezvous Conrad 1965 missions; incorrect navigation coordinates from ground control resulted in landing 90 miles short; 120 Q revolutions. USS Lake Champlain (A). 0 Gemini-Titan VII Borman, Dec. 4 to 18, 330:35:31 Longest-duration Gemini flight; provided rendezvous target for Gemini VIA; crew flew portions of mission Lovell 1965 in shirtsleeves for first time; 206 revolutions; landed 6.4 miles from target. USS Wasp (A).

Gemini-Titan Vl-A Schirra, Dec. 15 and 16, 25:51:24 Rescheduled to rendezvous with Gemini VII after original target Agena failed to orbit; Vl-A launch Stafford 1965 postponed 3 days when engines automatically shut down 1.2 seconds after ignition; completed first ; after 16 revolutions, landed within 7 miles of target to initiate series of pinpoint landings by Gemini spacecraft. USS Wasp (A).

Gemini-Titan VIII Armstrong, March 16, 1966 10:41:26 First clocking of one space vehicle with another; about 27 minutes after docking, Gemini-Agena combination Scott began to yaw and roll at increasing rates; emergency procedures included undocking, deactivation of malfunctioning spacecraft control system, activation of reentry control system; mission was terminated and, midway through 7th revolution, spacecraft landed 1.1 miles from planned landing point in secondary recovery area in western Pacific; destroyer USS Mason picked up crew 3 hours later.

Gemini-Titan IX-A Stafford, June 3 to 6, 72:21:00 Rescheduled to rendezvous and dock with augmented target docking adapter after original target Agena Cernan 1966 failed to orbit; ATDA shroud did not completely separate, making docking impossible; three different types of rendezvous were completed; Cernan carried out 2 hours 7 minutes of EVA; 44 revolutions: 0.38 miles from target. USS Wasp (A). V Table 10.2.3.1 Summary of U.S. Manned Missions thru Apollo Gemini-Titan X Young, July 18 to 21, 70:46:39 First use of Agena target vehicle's propulsion systems; spacecraft also rendezvoused with Gemini VIII target Collins 1966 vehicle; Collins had 49 minutes of EVA standing in hatch, 39-minute EVA to retrieve experiment from Agena VIII; 43 revs; 3.4 miles, USS Guadalcanal (A). Gemini-Titan XI Conrad. Sept. 12 to 15, 71:17.08 Gemini record altitude (739.2 miles) reached using Agena propulsion after first-revolution rendezvous and in Gordon 1966 docking; Gordon fastened Agena-anchored tether to Gemini docking bar, and spacecraft later made two revolutions of Earth in tethered configuration; Gordon 33-minute EVA and 2-hour 5-minute standup EVA; 44 rejs; 1.5 miles, USS Guam (A). Ul Gemini-Titan XII Lovell, Nov. 11 to 15, 94:34:31 Final Gemini flight; Aldrin logged 2-hour 29-minute standup EVA, 55-minute standup EVA, and 2-hour Aldrin 1966 6-minute EVA for Gemini record total of 5 hours 30 minutes of extravehicular activity; 59 revs, 2.6 miles, USS Wasp (A).

Apollo- 7 Schirra, Oct. 11 to 22, 260:09:03 First manned flight of Apollo spacecraft command-service module only, 163 revolutions; USS Essex (A) — all Eisele, 1968 Apollo spacecraft splashed down within 10 miles of predicted landing point. Cunningham i Apollo-Saturn 8 Borman, Dec. 21 to 27, 147:00:42 First flight to the Moon (command-service module only); views of lunar surface televised to Earth; 10 Lovell, 1968 revolutions of the Moon; USS Yorktown (P). Ul Anders Apollo-Saturn 9 McDivitt, March 3 to 13, 241:00:54 First manned flight of lunar module; spacecraft call signs for communications identification when Scott, 1969 undocked: CSM "Gumdrop" and LM "Spider"; Schweikart 37-minute EVA from LM; 151 revs; USS DC Schweickart Guadalcanal (A). < Apollo-Saturn 10 Stafford, May 18 to 26, 192:03:23 First lunar module orbit of Moon; call signs Charlie Brown and Snoopy; 31 revs of Moon (4 revs by undocked Young, 1969 LM); USS Princeton (P). J Cernan Apollo-Saturn 11 Armstrong, July 16 to 24, 195:18:35 First lunar landing; call signs Columbia and Eagle; lunar stay time 21 hours 36 minutes 21 seconds. 3 Collins, 1969 Armstrong and Aldrin EVA (hatch open to hatch close) 2 hours 31 minutes 40 seconds, lunar surface samples a. • Aldrin 48.5 pounds; 30 revs; USS Hornet (P). Q Apollo-Saturn 12 Conrad, Nov. 14 to 24, 244:36:25 Yankee Clipper and Intrepid; stay time 31 hours 31 minutes, Conrad and Bean EVAs 3 hours 56 minutes and Gordon, 1969 3 hours 49 minutes, lunar samples 74.7 pounds plus parts from 3 unmanned spacecraft; 45 revs; 0 Bean USS Hornet (P>.

Apollo-Saturn 13 Lovell, Apr. 11 to 17, 142:54:41 Odyssey and Aquarius; mission aborted after service module oxygen tank ruptured; using lunar module Swigert, 1970 oxygen and power until iust before reentry, crew returned safely to Earth; USS Iwo Jima (P). Haise Apollo-Saturn 14 Shepard, Jan 31 to 216:01:57 Kitty Hawk and Antares; stay time 33:31, Shepard and Mitchell EVAs 4:48 and 4:35, samples 96 pounds; 34 Roosa, Feb 9, 1971 revs; USS New Orleans (P). Mitchell Apollo-Saturn 15 Scott, July 26 to 295:11:53 Endeavour and Falcon; first use of ; stay time 66:55; Scott standup EVA 33 minutes. Worden Aug 7,1971 Scott and Irwin EVAs 6:33, 7:12 and 4:50, Warden trans-Earth EVA 38 minutes, samples 170 pounds; 74 Irwin revs; USS Okinawa (P).

Apollo-Saturn 16 Young, April 16 to 265:51:05 Casper and ; stay time 71:02; Young and Duke EVAs 7:11, 7:23 and 5:40, Mattingly trans-Earth EVA Mattingly April 27, 1972 1:24, samples 213 pounds: 64 revs; USS Ticonderoga (P). Duke Apollo-Saturn 17" Cernan, Dec. 7 to 301.51:59 America and Challenger; stay time 75:00; Cernan and Schmitt EVAs 7:12, 7:37 and 7:15, Evans trans-Earth Evans, Dec. 19, 1972 EVA 1:06, samples 243 pounds; 75 revs; USS Ticonderoga (P). Schmitt V. Table 10.2.3.1 continued 0)

15 000 111 U.S. MANNED SPACE-FLIGHT OVERVIEW HOURS 10 000 5 000 - I 1 - APOLLO> PROGRAM MERCURY GEMINI APOLLO SKYLAB i PROGRAM MAN-HOURS 54 1 940 7 506 12 351 Ul IN SPACE LUNAR LANDING AND EXPLORATION APOLLO/SOYUZ NUMBER OF a MANNED 6 10 11 3 GEMINI FLIGHTS •INTERNATIONAL < PROGRAMS CREW SIZE 1 2 3 3 J

• EVA 3 • RENDEZVOUS AND DOCK CUMULATIVE MAN HOURS IN SPACE kACOri IDV •CONTROLLED ENTRY SKYLAB 21851 HOURS 24 MINUTES 41 SECONDS Q MtKUJKT •WORK IN SPACE • HABITABILITY AND LIFE SUPPORT • VEHICLE SYSTEMS • EXPERIMENTS 0 • ORBITAL FLIGHT' • FLIGHT EXTENSION 1960S 1970'S E SHUTTLE ANSPORTATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT 1980^ PHASE OPERATIONAI PHASE it'""'itiliitifl«ii''^ -''^'•J^'—^^jMJX'JjL^.. Figure 10.2.4.2 U.S, Manned Spaceflight 12 NOI^^ ambitious and long-used mission to date, experiments. evaluated man's ability to work and live in C. Airlock Module (AM) - the airlock for (0 space for long periods of time. This facility extra vehicular experiments; also con­ (118.6 feet long and 21 feet in diameter) tained main communication/data trans­ Ul utilized hardware and techniques developed mittal environmental/thermal systems, and during the Apollo Program. electric power control system. i A Saturn IB second stage (see Figure D. Instrument Unit - None. Ul 10.2.4.3) was modified to house 270 different E. Orbital Workshop (OWS) - major experi­ scientific investigations using 54 different ment area, structural support for solar DC < pieces of experimental hardware. Habitability array, major storage, crew compartments, J requirements to sustain 3 astronauts for and system. 3 periods of up to 84 days were also included. F. (ATM) - solar 0 The entire spacecraft (Saturn Workshop) experiments, control moment Gyros, and 0 consisted of 5 major components: solar array (see Skylab Figure 10.2.4.1). A. Command and Service Module (CSM) - On May 14, 1973, the unmanned Saturn a modified Apollo (CSM) for transportation Workshop (Skylab I) was launched into a 269 of crew and logistics to the workshop. mile, 50 inclined orbit (see Figure 10.2.4.4). B. Multiple Docking Adapter (MDA) - Minutes into the launch, data indicated a the docking port for the (CSM) containing damaged meteoroid shield, which also protects controls for the (ATM) and other against solar heat, and only partial deployment V Ul »««!^^53^i-*""-^5g«*;'.-!" Ul i Ul a < J D Q 0

Launch of Skylab I Orbital Workshop

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lU INSTRUMENT UNIT I METEOROID SHIELD < J -OWS ORBITAL TAGS SPHERE WORKSHOP RADIATOR D IMODIFIED S-IVB STAGE! ILAUNCH VEHICLE D 0 WASTE TANK (LOX TANK)

Figure 10.2.4.3 Orbital Workshop 13

k A. COIVIMAND& SERVICE MODULE E. ORBITAL WORKSHOP 1, SPSEngInt 1. OWS Hatch 2, Running Lightt (8 piteet) 2. Nonpropulsive Vent Line 3, Sclmltir Antenna 3. VCS Mining Chamber and Filter 4. Docking Light 4. Stowage Ring Containers (24 places) 5. Pitch Control Engines 5. Light Assembly e. Crew Hatch 6. Water Storage Tanks (10 places) 7. Pitch Control Enginci 7. T013 Force Measuring Unit 8. RtndMvous Window 8. VCS Fan Cluster (3 places) 9. EVA Hindholds 9. VCS Duct (3 places) 10. EVA Light 10. Scientific Airlock (2 places) 11. Sid« Window 11. WMC Ventiation Unit 12. Roll Enginss (2 placai 12. Emergency Egress Opening (2 places) 13. EPS Radiator PaniU 13. M509 Nitrogen Bottle Stowage 14. SM RCS Module (4 plieei) 14. S019 Optics Stowage Container 15. ECS Radiator 15. S149 Particle Collection Container 16. S019 Optics Stowage Container B. MULTIPLE DOCKING ADAPTER 17. Sleep Compartment Privacy Curtains (3 places) 18. M131 Stowa ge Con ta i ner 1. Axial Docking Port Accan Hatch 19. VCS Duct Heater (2 places) 2. Docking Target 20. M131 Rotating Chair Control Console 3. Exothermio Experiment 21. Power and Display Console 4. Infrared Spectrometer Viewflnder 22. Ml 31 Rotating Chair 6. Atmoiphere Interchsnga Duct 23. WMC Drying Area 6. Area Fan 24. Trash Disposal Airlock 7. Window Cover 25. OWS C&D Console 8. Cable Trayi 26. Food Freezers (2 places) 9. Invertor Lighting Control Attambly 27. Food Preparation Table 10, L*Bind Anttnni 28. M171 Ergometer 11, Proton Spectrometer 29. M092 Lower-Body Negative Pressure 12, Running Lights (4 placet) 30. Stowage Lockers 13, Infrared Spectrometer 31. Experiment Support System Panel 14, Film Vault 4 32. Biomedical Stowage Cabinet 16. Film Vault 1 33. Ml 71 Gas Analyzer 16. S082 (A&B) Canisters 34. Biomedical Stowage Cabinet 17. M612/M479 Experiment 35. Meteoroid Shield IR Araa Fan 36. Nonpropulsive Vent (2 places) 19. Compoiiti Casting 37. TACS Module (2 places) 20. Film Vault 2 38. Waste Tank Separation Screens 21. TV Camera Input Station 39. TACS Spheres (22), Pneumatic Sphere 22. Utility Outlet 40. Refrigeration System Radiator 23. Mies STS Misceiianeous Stowage Container 41. Acquisition Light (2 places) 24. Redundant Tape Recorder 42. Solar Array Wing (2 places) 26, Radial Docking Port 26. 10-Band Multispectral Scanner 27, TV Camera Input Station 2& Temperature Thermostat 1. Command Antenna 21. S082-A Experiment Aperture Door 29, Radio Noiie Burst Monitor 2. Telemetry Antenna 22. S054 Experiment Aperture Door 30, ATM C&D Console 3. Solar Array Wing 1 23. Fine Sun Sensor Aperture Door 4. Solar Array Wing 2 24. S056 Experiment Aperture Door C. AIRLOCK MODULE 5. Solar Array Wing 3 25. S052 Experiment Aperture Door 1. Deployment Assembly Raali and Cablet 16. Airlock Instrumentation Panel D. INSTRUMENT UNIT 6. Solar Array Wing 4 26. Ha-1 Experiment Aperture Door 2. Solar Radio Noise Burst Monitor Antenna 17. Command Antenna 27. S055A Experiment Aperture Door Molecular Sieve None 7. 3. Handraili ia STS C&D Console 8. Telemetry Antenna 28. S082-B2 Experiment Aperture Door 4. D021/D024 Sample Panels 9. Sun-End Work Station Foot Restraint 29. S082-B Film Retrieval Door 19. ATM Deployment Assembly B, (Removed) 10. Temporary Camera Storage 30. Canister Solar Shield 20. Battery Module (2 places) 6. Clothesline (EVA use) 11. Quartz Crystal Microbatance (2 placet) 31. Canister 21. EVA Panel 7. Permanent Stowage Container 12. Acquisition Sun Sensor Assembly 32. Canister Radiator 22. Airlock Internal Hatches (2 places) 8. STA IVA Station 13. ATM Solar Shield 33. Rack 23. SI 93 Microwave Scatterometer Antenna 9. Nitrogen Tanks (6 placai) 14. Clothesline Attach Boom 34. Charger-Battery-Reguiator Modules (18 places) 24. Running Lights (4 places) 15. EVA Lights (8 places) 35. 10. Oxygen Tanks (8 placet) 25, Handraili Handrail 16. Sun-End Film Tree Stowage 36. CMC Inverter Assembly (3 places) 11. Molecular Sieve 26. Stub Antennas (2 placet) 17. Handrail 37. Control Moment Gyro (3 places) 12. Condaniats Module 27. Thermal Blanket 18. S082-B Experiment Aperture Door 38. Solar Wing Support Stmcture (3 places) 13. Electrical Feedthru Cover 2& Ditcone Antenna (2 placet) 14. Electronics Module 1 19. Ha-2 Experiment Aperture Door 39. ATM Outriggers (3 places) IB, EVA Hatch 20. S082-A Film Retrieval Door

Figure 1-1 - Skybb

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Figure 10.2.4.4 Skylab Mission Sequence 14 of one of two solar arrays (one solar array workshop. During the 59 days aloft the crew h ripped off when the Meteoroid shield failed). exceeded the planned workload by 80% and Ul Ten days later technicians on the ground doubled the duration spent in weightlessness designed a parasol-type thermal shield of with no ill effects. Ul reflective cloth (to be carried onboard the The third and final manned mission, Skylab Skylab II craft) to protect the workshop's IV, got underway November 16, 197 3. With i exposed area from direct sunlight. experience gained from the two preceeding Ul Skylab II, the first manned mission, was crews, Skylab IV remained aloft for a record launched on May 25, 1973. All repairs to the total of 8 4 days, nearly as long as the two < workshop were affected by the crew during their previous missions combined. J first week aloft. In spite of problems The crew of this third mission experienced 3 encountered, the first manned mission accom­ two kinds of growth, spiritual and physical. Q plished most objectives established for it. During an interview, space to Earth news con­ 0 After 28 days and 50 minutes the crew returned ference, the 3 astronauts spoke of changes of to Earth, dispelling fears that the human body a spiritual nature in their attitudes toward could not endure 4 weeks of weightlessness in themselves and fellow human beings. Astronaut space. Pogue reported

On July 28, 1973, one month after term­ I now have a new orientation...of almost a spiritual nature. My atti­ ination of Skylab II, the Skylab III crew tude toward life is going to change ...when I see people, I try to see blasted off for rendevous with the orbital them as operating human beings and

(T try to fit myself into a human situa­ normal several days after return to Earth. tion instead of trying to operate like h a machine. The silenced Skylab Space Station remains (11 Astronaut Gibson related in orbit today 28 0 miles high with a life Ul Being up here and being able to see expectency of ten years. the stars and look back at the Earth and see your own Sun as a star makes We have, as never before, extended our you...realize the Universe is quite powers of scientific observation and big, and just the number of possible operation in space. The manned Skylab \ combinations...which can create life missions concluded early in 1974 with enters your mind and makes it seem an 84 day flight that proved the utility 0) much more likely. of man in space. Besides qualifying man for long-duration space flight, the Sky­ Their views reflect those of others who have lab missions dramatized the feasibility- of using large, permanent space stations flown in space. for observing the Sun, the weather. < Earth resources monitoring, and to Though unnoticed by previous crews, each produce, under zero-gravity, materials J that could not be duplicated on Earth. •'-'^ D man gained 1 to 2 inches in height. The (Note: Due to the extremely important documen­ Q increased height was accompanied by loss of tation of each of the Skylab missions, especial­ 0 muscle mass as the body adjusted to zero ly the observation of the crewmembers as con­ gravity. cerns the habitatibility aspects of our first In weightlessness, the body's calves and space station, a special appendix is included thighs reduce in size as body fluids are re­ in this paper entitled Lessons Learned on the distributed throughout the torso. The spinal Skylab Program.) column stretches and the chest and abdomen are 10.2.6 APOLLO/SOYUZ TEST PROJECT reduced. The physical changes were only tem­ Apollo/Soyuz opens the way to an inter­ porary, as the body readjusted and returned to national. Earth-orbit rescue capability (r

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Apollo 1. Launcli. (0 2. Separation of Saturn IB first stage. 3. Second-stage separation. Ul 4. Apollo turnaround. 5. Apollo extracts Docking Module from second stage. 6. Apollo turnaround. \ 7. Apollo orbit circularization. 8. (F) Rendezvous. Ul 9. (G ) Joint activities. 10. Apollo jettisons Docking Module. 11. Turnaround and firing for deorbit. < 12. Service Module jettison. 13; Descent and landing near Hawaii. J Soyuz D A. Launch. D B. Soyuz—launcti veiiicie separation. D C. Solar panels, that generate electricity from sunlight, unfold. D. Soyuz turnaround. E. Soyuz continues to final orbit. F. (8) Rendezvous. 7 ^ G.(9) Joint activities. H. Deorbit. I. Separations of Orbital, Descent, and 18 Instrument Modules. Figure 10.2.6.2 Apollo/Soyuz Mission Profile J. Descent and landing of Descent Module in Kazakhstan. U.S.S.R. k tp

and to future international manned used a compatible docking system designed by missions that would eliminate dup­ lications of effort and thereby NASA and Soviet engineers (see Figure 10.2.6.1). contribute to economies and pro­ (0 gress in space operations.12 This system will be employed on future Soviet The Apollo/Soyuz Test Project was the and U.S. Space Shuttle vehicles, thus providing Ul result of the U.S./U.S.S.R. agreement concern­ international rescue capabilities. ing cooperation in the exploration and uses of During the mission (see Figure 10.2.6.2) \ outer space. The primary mission objectives the 3 astronauts and 2 cosmonauts tested the 0) were: Docking Module, exchanged visits to each other's 1) to test compatible rendevous and craft and conducted joint scientific experi­ DC < docking systems for international rescue ments . J missions 10.3 FUTURE UNITED STATES MANNED PROGRAMS D 2) to enhance international cooperation 10.3,1 SPACE SHUTTLE D through mutual confidence and trust The future of manned space flights and 0 built up in space efforts operations will hinge upon the success of the

3) to close the gap in American space next generation of spacecraft, the Space flights between Skylab and the Space Shuttle. Shuttle, keeping together the capable The primary objectives of the Shuttle manned space flight team established program are as follows: 1) to send most un­ for Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo. manned spacecraft into orbit or return dis­ The Docking Module and Soyuz spacecraft abled satellites to Earth for repair, 2) to V /^ lNiou2 Ul Ul i Ul DC < J D D 0 e make operations less complex and costly, 3) to allow non-astronaut scientists, engineers, and encourage greater participation in space technicians to conduct space experiments re­ 0) flight. quiring in-orbit supervisions. Ultimately The Shuttle is a reuseable space trans­ Space Shuttle will be utilized in the trans­ Ul portation system designed to carry out missions portation of materials, components, freight, in Earth orbits (see profile of Shuttle mission and crews to orbiting space stations. \ Figure 10.3.1.1) This system is composed of 10.3.2 SPACE LABS (0 two vehicles, a booster stage for launch from The Shuttle development is one of the great technological undertakings of Earth, and an airplane-like manned and reuse­ this decade, indeed this century... DC this is a challenge to be shared by able orbiter (see Figure 10.3.1.2). NASA and private industry. This < joint challenge is to demonstrate J The delta-winged Orbiter is comparable in and use the Shuttle and particularly the Spacelab in the 1980's to produce D size to a DC-9 airliner. Its cargo compartment valuable new products and techniques... Q can accomodate experiments and passengers Spacelab is a pressurized orbital labora­ 0 within an area of 16 feet by 60 feet. Each tory to be used in conjunction with the Space Shuttle will be capable of completing at least Shuttle (see Figure 10 , 3. 2.land 10. 3 . 2. 2) . This 100 missions and carry as much as 65,000 pounds laboratory module will be a frequent payload of cargo, up to 4 crew members and 6 passengers, for the Shuttle and will rely upon the Shuttle and return to Earth with some 32,000 pounds of life support systems. The European Space Re­ cargo. search Organization (ESPO), a group of ten

Development of the Space Shuttle will European nations, has committed $4 00 million to Ol z U) o I- < in 00 CO O inS: LLl > o D- < Ul O o M _l < o t3 S I- CTi .8? < O >" c 3 cn o o So t^^ Q: in o o Ul

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SOLID-ROCKET BOOSTERS T/iiokof EXTERNAL TANK Martin Maricdit

Figure 10.3.1.2 Space Shuttle Vehicle 20

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AIR CONDITIONING OUTLETS INVERTERS^ SYSTEM MONITOR UNIT STORAGE TANKS i FREON PIPES TO/FROM PALLET Ul a BATTERIES BATTERY CHARGER < J 0P€RATOR CONSOLE INTERFACE UNITS 3 AIR CONDITIONING INLETS CDMS-EQUIPMENT D SM(P-ORBITER, *TERFACE UNIT

• GROUND DISCONNECT PANEL 0 FREON PUMPS •RECORDER RACK Team has 15 members including Hawker Siddelcy Dynamics. -CONDENSING H McDonnell Douglas and TRW are retained as U.S. consultants. ORBITER DISCONNECT^ ^ WATER PUMPS For more complete lists of contractors to both ERNO VFW- PANEL •^SENSIBLE Hx ^TWIN FANS Fokker and M-B-B studies, .see "Evolution of the Space Shuttle", Spaceflight, September 1973, pp. 351-352.

Support and life support system of Space Lab, from the ERNO VFW-Fokker study.

Figure 10.3.2.1 Space Lab 21 k •MMIIIHI Wiiiai design and deliver one space lab unit to the h U.S. for Earth resources surveys (see Figure Ul 10.3.2.3.

Spacelab can be flown as many as 50 times Ul over a ten-year period. It will increase the effectiveness of space research at a reduced i cost and will encourage international partici­ Ul pation in the quest of space. DC < J 3 Q 0 (r h (0 lUtOHAN PlWf AND SUt COHmiACTOIS BELGiilli (4.2%) NETMERIANDS |2.1%| SPAIW |Z.S%| iMAmGEMtm SYSTEM.IWTtSHiifl BEWMARK (1.5%| EINO/VfW-fOKKEB-GEIIIANT SWITZERIAND {1.%| Ul

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JJ (T 11.1 INTRODUCTION which this "lab" theme was exploited. The h The concept of space stations is not new astronauts conducted experiments, performed for NASA. Studies of space stations, their maintenance, and managed all activity. Empha­ 0) requirements, mission options, and transporta­ sis was placed on long-duration flight and Ul tion systems have been conducted for several studies of the unique environment of zero-g u years. space. While these "lab" uses were of great 11.2 SPACE LAB THEME importance, recent studies of NASA indicate i The space "lab" theme accommodates a that equal emphasis should be placed on an (0 14 variety of primary science and applications "operational base" theme. a < missions. Among these missions are the proces­ ...to provide the multi-purpose, func­ tional operational base capabilities J sing of materials and commercial manufacturing, fundamentally needed to optimally exploit man's presence in supporting 3 life sciences, basic and applied physical sci­ a wide range of low-earth orbit and Q geosynchronous orbit activities.!^ ences, earth observations/applications, space 0 11.3 OPERATIONAL BASE THEME physics and astronomy, and engineering lab This "operational base" theme involves the facilities. use of several smaller themes. These subor­ The earliest space station studies empha­ dinate themes include the use of the space sized the theme of a "laboratory in orbit" station as a construction base, test facility, wherein a collection of experiments or appli­ spacecraft-servicing facility, orbital depot, cations were brought together within a space and cluster support base. station. Skylab was one such installation in V (r 11.3.1 CONSTRUCTION BASE spacecraft could be retrieved and maintained h As a construction base the space station or repair performed upon them at the station. (0 would manufacture, fabricate, or assemble a 11.3.4 ORBITAL DEPOT variety of space structures. Large structures The orbital depot theme simply means that Ul such as antennas, radio astronomy telescopes, other spacecraft could be launched from the or solar collectors/reflectors could be bene­ station and the assembly and refueling of \ ficial to Earth by the transmission of electri­ spacecraft could occur at the base. This re­ 0) cal, microwave, and radiation power to Earth. fueling or propellant transfer would support 11.3.2 TEST FACILITY Orbital Transfer System (OTS) Operations from DC The space station should serve as a test to high orbit/escape orbit. < J facility for the aforementioned structures and 11.3.5 CLUSTER SUPPORT BASE 3 these structures could be constantly evaluated While this space station remains in a low a while deployed in space. Particular emphasis Earth orbit (LEO) it could become a support Q would be given to the involvement of man and base for a high Earth orbit (HEO) Cluster Space his associated productivity in the processes Station, thereby becoming a midway stopping needed for erection, maintenance, and operation point for spacecraft approaching the Cluster of a prototype satellite power system. Space Station.

11.3.3 SPACECRAFT SERVICE FACILITY Space stations of the future will incor­ A space station should also serve as a porate the themes "operational base" and "lab". servicing facility for spacecraft. Automated These space stations shall be conceived so as tr to permit orderly growth both in multi-dis­ ciplinary capability as well as orbital loca­ (0 tion over a several-year period while support­ ing the two major themes. Ul

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When space flight durations are measured refer to the volume required by the crew for in terms of months and years rather than days their essential activities. These activities U) and weeks, the success of these missions will are work, sleep, personal grooming, exercise, depend to a great extent on the ability of man locomotion, and other crew functions. The Ul to operate in a confined, closed system for volume required for life support consummables, extended periods of time. He must also operate crew furnishings, other equipment, and the un­ \ at a high level of performance while on these filled volume lost in corners and narrow (0 missions, so it is critical that certain spaces is not a part of the term "volume." factors should be established concerning man Unfilled volumes in corners and passageways, DC etc., should be included in the term "volume" < and his habitability. J Habitability is defined as: "Reasonably because these volumes, though they may never 3 fit for occupancy by a tenant of the class for be used, still add to the spaciousness of a a which it was let or of the class ordinarily "volume" just as a window in a room makes the 0 17 occupying such a dwelling." space seem much larger. While there are many habitability factors Man's perception of space is a synthesis to be considered, perhaps the single most of many sensory inputs: visual, auditory, important factor affecting the habitability of kinesthetic, olfactory, and thermal. A better

a spacecraft on an extended mission is the knowledge of these types of perception enables amount of free volume provided. The terms us to create a sensually rich and varied envi­ "volume," "crew volume," or "functional volume" ronment which may counteract some of the harmful V (r effects of long confinement. use of these characteristics to perform this Each space in which we live or work has function^ ^- . 19 (0 characteristics of its own which enable us to distinguish it from other spaces. The differ­ Ul ence may be as subtle as the personal items dis­ played on a dresser or it can be very distinct. \ Some of the characteristics we recognize are Ul volume, dimensions, surface textures (interior materials and finishes), color, illumination, DC < and acoustics. J These characteristics overlap many times 3 since any volume must have three dimensions and 0 any material must have both texture and color. 0 They can be used individually or as a whole to give each space its own personality; for American culture teaches us to associate functions with spaces and to provide clear separation between work, rest, and recreational environments. Since the spacecraft volume will be so limited, it is necessary to make optimum

with the end of the Skylab missions, h attention was turned to studies being conducted 0) on the design and configuration of a space station. Several proposals were made concern­ Ul ing what type of vehicle would be best suited to carry a space station or the component parts i of a space station aloft. Since the Space Shut­ Ul tle was to be used as the logistics vehicle in a proposal for Saturn Launched Space Station, < it was further determined that a system totally J dependent on the Shuttle as a launch vehicle 3 should be developed. This approach requires D that the space station be built of separate 0 modules that can be individually placed in Earth orbit and configured to provide an essentially permanent facility. Long term objectives for a Modular Space Station program require that the station be built up over a specified number of years.

\. (r ^ MODULAR STATION -MSS

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V 14.1 MSS DEFINED Internal configuration criteria are A Modular Space Station should be a semi­ defined as the parameters and habitability permanent cluster of modules, each of Ul which can be transported to and from needs pertaining to the internal design of orbit internally via a Space Shuttle. The space station therefore must provide individual modules for a MSS. External con­ Ul all hardware required for operations and utilities to experiment interfaces figuration criteria are best defined as para­ and must satisfy the following sets of design meters governing the entire composition of a i requirements. MSS that can be transported into Earth orbit Ul 14.2 REQUIREMENTS DEFINED via the Space Shuttle vehicle. In the internal As stated previously the primary objective and external configuration criteria which are DC < of this program is to outline the requirements listed shortly, it will be noted that there are J for the design of a Modular Space Station areas of subject which overlap. These areas of 3 (initial plateau-6 man). It will be necessary, overlap indicate the fact that both the internal D however, to keep in perspective the design and external configuration criteria are depen­ 0 requirements for the growth station (12 man dent on one another. It will be necessary then plateau) while achieving this objective. to achieve a delicate balance between parameters Growth station needs are a pertinent part of and hiiman needs in order to find a workable the design for the initial station plateau. design solution for man and his machine. The design requirements for a MSS (both pla­ The following is a list of the internal teaus) include both internal and external con­ configuration criteria, including some pertinent figuration criteria. criteria of those subsystems already assumed (r designed (environmental control, power, RCS, schedule resupply h etc.) which have some direct relationship with 3. Shuttle launch frequency - not more 0) architectural design requirements of the MSS. than one every 3 0 days 14.3 MSS INTERNAL CONFIGURATION CRITERIA 4. Emergency crew return - 48 hours via Ul 14.3.1 PROGRAM Shuttle 1. Initial station operational state 5. Initial station experiments - must \ A. Six-man level accommodate a variety of experimental Ul B. Fully configured subsystems packages C. General purpose laboratory 6. Growth station experiments - must ac­ a capability commodate additional experimental J D. Operable for 5 to 6 years packages 3 2. Growth station operational capability 7. Module launches - all modules except D A. Twelve-man level cargo module launched unmanned 0 B. Integral laboratory facilities 8. Independent operation - 120 days with C. Research support provisions full crew (cargo modules included) D. Operable for an additional 5 years 9. Crew skills - nominally two scientific

14.3.2 OPERATIONS skills per crewman are assumed 1. Orbit profile - 55 degree inclination/ 10. Long-term zero-g

240 to 27 0 nm 14.3.3 CONFIGURATION 2. Consumable reserve - one month beyond 1. Individual modules (launch configuration) nSR

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1.0 - 1 4.0 6.0 -1 STRUCTURAL ENVIRONMENTAL GUIDANCE CREW AND AND CONTROL LIFE AND INFORMATION HABITABILITY I MECHANICAL SUPPORT CONTROL SUBSYSTEM SUBSYSTEM SUBSYSTEM SUBSYSTEM SUBSYSTEM Ul 1.1 PRIMARY STRUCTURE 2.1 GASEOUS 4 1 INERTIAL 6 .1 DATA PROCESSING 'M PERSONAL 1.2 SECONDARY STORAGEi(02N2H2) REFERENCE 6.2 COMMAND/ EQUIPMENT STRUCTURE 2.2 CO2 MANAGEMENT 4.2 OPTICAL CONTROL 7.2 GENERAL/ DC 1.3 ENVIRONMENTAL 2.3 ATMOSPHERIC REFERENCE 6.3 EXTERNAL EMERGENCY SHIELD CONTROL 4.3 RCS ELECTRONICS COMMUNICA- EQUIPMENT < 1.4 BERTHING 2.4 THERMAL CONTROL 4.4 MOMENTUM TIONS 7.3 FURNISHINGS 1.5 GENERAL PURPOSE 2.5 WATER MtGMT EXCHANGE 6.4 INTERNAL 7.4 RECREATION/ J LAB FURNISHINGS 2.6 WASTE MiGMT 4.5 COMPUTATION COMMUNICA- EXERCISE/ 2.7 HYGIENE TIONS ^"^EW CARE 3 2.8 SPECIAL LIFE 6.5 SOFTWARE 7.5 FOOD SUPPORT 1 MANAGEMENT Q 3.0 5.0 1 0 ELECTRICAL REACTION POWER CONTROL SUBSYSTEM SUBSYSTEM

3.1 PRIMARY POWER 5. 1 PROPELLANT GENERATION ACCUMULATORS 3 2 SECONDARY POWER 5.2 PROPELLANT FEED GENERATION CONTROLS 3.3 ENERGY STORAGE 5.3 ENGINES 3.4 POWER CONDITIONING 3.5 DISTRIBUTION CONTROL AND WIRING 3.6 LIGHTING O A Figure 14.3.4.1 Modular Space Station Subsystems following cases: pressure isolatable compartment A. With any one pressure isolatable or other area with restricted Ul module inactivated, isolated, and access. The two paths shall be vacated due to an accident separated by air-tight partitions Ul B. With any credible combination of or shall be at least 10 feet apart a subsystem inactivated as a and shall each lead to an area in i result of an accident and a por­ which the crew can survive until tion of a redundant or backup Shuttle rescue or resupply. Ul subsystem inactive for maintenance Provision shall be made for the pro­

At least two egress paths shall be tection and survival of the whole OC < available from each module for emer­ crew at an emergency level during J gency egress of personnel during solar storms. 3 manned ground operations. A margin of consumables shall be D Potentially dangerous explosive provided on board sufficient for 0 containers such as high-pressure performing critical functions at a vessels or volatile gas storage reduced level for a minimum of 48 containers shall be remotely iso­ hours following any credible acci­ lated and protected from personnel. dent that renders any one module Two or more entry and egress paths unavailable. shall be provided to and from every All EVA shall be conducted either using the buddy system or within crewman in a pressurized suit. visual range of a suited crewman 12. High energy release equipment, such ready to exit. as pressurized tanks, propellants, 8. Provision shall be made for the etc., shall be located or protected return of a crewman incapacitated so that failure of one piece of while performing EVA. equipment will not propagate to 9. Provision shall be made for the others.

containment or disposal of toxic 13, The space station shall be designed contaminants. and operated to assure crew survival DC 10. Provision shall be made for contain­ following the accidents or situations < ing (confining) and controlling identified as such: fire, mechanical J (restoring to a safe condition) 3 damage, explosion, loss of pressuri­ Q emergencies, such as fires, toxic zation, fluid leakage, collision, 0 contamination, depressurization, personnel loss, food or water con­ structural damage, etc. tamination, accident in a hatch, 11. All walls, bulkheads, hatches (see incapacitated EVA or IVA crewman, Figure 14.3.5.1) and seals requir­ meteoroid penetration, loss of ing pressurization for manned electrical power, atmospheric con­ entry shall be readily accessible tamination, electrical shock, mod­ for inspection and repair by a ule abandonment, and station (r I 4.0 r-3.8 ro.6 •SEAL FACE 66.0 DIA (REP) PROTECTION LIP Ul

69.2 DIA (REP) ifT^ )<^^ Ul 2.4^>|1,61.0^ "z^B^m SEALS-o.d -2.0-J LATCH MECHANISM \ 0.1 1-2.4H 4.0- Ul DETAIL A a J 3 c. D 0

IH

WINDOW BERTHING AL1G^>IMENT

/'•• TARGLT LINES HATCH LATCHES 24 REQD \vA 11.6R(TYP) Figure 14.3.5.1 Common Hatch abandonment. not propagate sequentially; 14.3.6 RELIABILITY equipment shall be designed to Ul 1. Capability shall be provided for fail safe. performing critical functions at a 4. Redundant paths, such as fluid Ul nominal level lines, electrical wiring, and con­ A. With any single component failed nectors, shall be located so that i B. With any portion of the subsystem an event which damages one line is Ul inactive for maintenance not likely to damage the other. 2. Capability shall be provided for per­ 5. Conservative factors of safety shall DC forming critical functions at a be provided where critical single < J reduced level failure point modes of operation 3 A. With any credible combination of cannot be eliminated (pressure 0 two component failures vessels, valves, etc.) 0 B. With any credible combination of 14.3.7 MAINTAINABILITY a portion of the subsystem 1. The MSS shall be 100-percent main­ inactive for maintenance and a tainable to mitigate the effects of failure of a component in the failures, accidents, and obsolescence. remaining subsystem functional 2. Equipment determined to be critical element(s) for crew life support requires on­ 3. Subsystem or component failure shall board spares. Replaceable units shall be de­ 6. Primary module themal i»»iijla.-tl©is signed to permit direct visual should be d&sxgwed and i»gtall®i and physical access by the crew in panels that c&u h& rgffiotfgd in a shirtsleeve environment, and replaced, with critical components acces­ 7. Scheduled ma-lnhmtmncm sJssll m&t sible in shirtsleeve, IVA, or EVA result in tlie loms ©f ss©rffl«-l sp-s©® environments. station operatiosis, Provision shall be made for adjust­ 8. iFRD's shall not exceed €•& f

Diet HD.. ai^gi]]srrsitaiiP2*-3iOj tci> SQ^Ssc^ A. 300 k calories per mam

B. 1.68 Ib/HBam—day food imtake dry C- 45 percemt dried and freeze dried;

30 percemt frozem; 20 percemt -iHht

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Cl Qy mask and O^ suipply-2 per mam, came per man In each prassiare liu. Ssart^laife dStagiiostxc; instaaimejitr- il.. IfefrJjgjBCHtrar/ ScB&sassx ro, Portable lights-1 per jtoodiale j;.. Earrta&lg: XHc^-' CTmyfr-lhi-iittig amd llnens 65.. .Sccfciitsctiirsl ^rrdl QimeiTgioira^I- &.. 2-7 Ib/BoaBa-day ^ A. Ceiling height-82 inches minimum 1. Private stateroom-1/2 of all state­ I- B. Aisles/passageways-32 to 3 6 inches rooms must be located in separate (width) minimum pressure volumes Ul C. Tunnels-41 to 48 inches diameter A. Sleeping restraints/bunks Ul minimum B. Television, 2-way radio

D. Air locks-must accommodate a C. Book shelves. Desk, seat, \ minimum of two suited, pressurized restraints Ul crewmen D. Storage E. Primary access routes-accommodate 2. Office a < 40 by 40 by 50 inch packages A. Conference table-3 seat restraints J F. EVA airlock-to accommodate two B. Display console 3 suite•^ d^ crewmen 21 C. Book shelves/cases (2) Q 7, Acoustics D. 2-way radio Q A. 50 decibels maximum in the SIL 3. Personal hygiene equipment A. Dry toilet (600 to 4800 H z) B. Urinal B. 70 decibels maximum at frequen­ C. Shower cies below SIL D. Sink C. 50 decibels maximum at frequencies 4. Primary Control Center (PCC) below SIL A. Command console 14.3.9 FACILITIES (initial space station) B. Terminal unit D. GoHipacrtor C. Processors 8. Oining

D. Camera (TV) A. Tables E. TV monitor B. Seats/restraints

Backup control center-must be located 9. Mecreafcion ((passive)) in separate pressure volume from PCC

A. Command console B. Audio ^ideo Taaniit. B. Processors C. Seafc/restraiimts

Primary Galley (PG) 10. Becreatiom {[acti'^e)) A. Freezer, refrigerator &. fable/smrfaces ((2)) B. Oven (resistance) B- Seat/restraiQits ((©))

C. Oven (microwave) 11. E¥A airlock D. Reconstitution unit A. Control display uindlt E. Compactor 12. IWA aiirlock; F. Sink/washer A- Control/display uiBrit Backup Galley-must be located in 13. Ebcercise separate pressure volume from PG A. Bicycle ergometer A. Freezer/refrigerator B. BuiEoci'ee TiTiiniii-H-ss B. Oven (microwave) 14, Crew medical aisd beEna^ioral C. Reconstitution unit cations A. Bio-console C. Processors B. Mass measurement unit 20. Backup Experimental Control Center- Ul C. Negative press unit must be located in a separate D. Lab analyzing equipment pressure volume other than ECC Ul E. Behavioral console A. Command console 15. Cargo handling B. Processors i A. Cargo transporter 21. Labs Ul B. Table/surface (2) A. Physics - must have access to C. Inventory management console exper. airlock DC < 16. Cargo storage B. Materials processing - must have J A. Cargo transporter access to exper. airlock 3 17. Laundry C. Photo Q A. Clothes washer D. Data analysis 0 B. Clothes dryer E. Fluid-mech. lab 18. Housekeeping F. Optics A. Vacuum cleaner G. Electronics B. Compactor H. Aerospace medical/behavioral 19. Experimental Control Center (ECC) 22. Experiment airlock-must be able to A. Command console orientate sensores to or away from 22 B. Terminal unit Earth 14.4 MSS EXTERNAL CONFIGURATION CRITERIA 23 The following external configuration Operational costs. Ul criteria are necessary for the total design of 14.4.1 PROGRAM a space station. The station is to be assem­ 1. Module commonality Ul bled on-orbit into an initial configuration that 2. Cost provides accommodations for six crewmen and 3. Manufacturing ease i 4. Utility during buildup general purpose laboratory facilities (GPL) that Ul 5. Launch sequence flexibility will provide a base for scientific investiga­ 6. Ground checkout and support DC tions. This initial configuration will also 14.4.2 OPERATIONS < have the capability for expansion to a growth 1. Quiescence J configuration that will accommodate 12 crewmen 3 2. Assembly sequence and increased experiment facilities. The Q 3. Module clearance following is a list of major configuration 0 4. Assembly alignment criteria and certain subsystem criteria which 5. Cargo overlap constitute the complete list of needs for the 6. Module repositioning external configuration of a MSS. 7. Shuttle berthing Buildup to the MSS capability may occur over a longer period of time 14.4.3 FLIGHT MODES with lower yearly funding. Systems concepts for the modular approach 1. Heat rejection offer program flexibility by provid­ ing a series of capability plateaus 2. RCS impulse that achieve useful benefits but allow deferment of development and 3. CMG momentum ^ MteniJgniDcatiiar.. 'Bite SSlBitiiguiO^itffiff ((^^ ffji^tiB^ NOI^ M..«..^ fflQIBaSSK3]fflfiK IL44..5..]1.E„ E#..5..IL.2„ ^nS ll^..S..iL..3)) iJ^ css^^a]* W H.. (EfeiiitiiaTI ii '//rattiigim csff a®iiB3Mit^ liitse iwss&altoa: (SismBpsM^nt (SseuBii^fi ^m 2.. ffin!iEliSi®<%rK!awttSi 3.. HGS si^iitrffi IfflBzsitnfflrn

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' MANIPULATOR SOCKETS

Figure 14.5.1.2 Manipulator/Payload Attachments^ MANIPULATOR (OPTIONA TELEVISIO MODULE PLACEMENT MONITORS

WRIST Figure 14.5.1.4 Typical Module Berthing' DEPLOYMENT MECHANISM MANIPULATOR JETTISON SLB5YSTEM I—LOWER AR"/ DEPLOYMENT MECHANISM

ELBOW PITCH ACTUATOR MANIPULATOR RETENTION LATCH 3 PLACES: MANIPULATOR JETTISON SUBSYSTEM UPPER ARM DEPLOYMENT MECHANISM

— SHOULDER PITCH -SHOULDER YAW ACTUATOR -MANIPULATOR JETTISON SUBSYSTEM -MANIPULATOR DEPLOYMENT MECHANISM 17 259.3 mm (679.5 IN.) 27 Figure 14.5.1.3 Payload Deployment/Retrieval Mechanism Ul

MODULE TO CORE BERTHING Ul

\ PASSIVE P(Mr ACTIVE PORT • SEAL U I ID • SEALS • lJi,TCHI -K:; RING • LATCHES Ul • ALIGN /\fNT RAMP • ALIGNMENT WEDGES DC

M)D„LE TO MODULE BERTHING < 4\ (NEUTRAL) J 3 a 0 Figure 14.5.1.6 Berthing Port Arrangement 30

29 Figure 14.5.1.5 Shuttle Manipulator Reach Envelope operational conditions, and will Earth and celestial viewing, to allow visual demonstrate the factors of safety required.25 contact with an EVA astronaut, and to observe UI The structural subsystem (see Figure the motion of the solar array panels. 14.5.2.1) provides for the mounting of associ­ The windows are provided protection Ul ated subsystem components, general purpose lab­ against thermal and environment oratory provisions, and storage facilities. by moveable covers (see Figures 14.5.3.1 and i The structure also provides the necessary 14.5.3.2). The cover assembly normally remains berthing ports and mechanisms for station closed and is only opened when in use. Windows Ul assembly and crew and equipment transfer. should be designed to open manually by a crew- DC ii'H The floor structure is considered to be man m a shirtsleev^,• ^ 1 e environment• ^2. 6 < J secondary structure and shall be designed to 3 carry conventional loads of the architectural a design and the equipment installed on them. 0 It will not be part of the primary structure. 14.5.3 WINDOWS The space station should have adequate windows arranged to allow the crew to control the attitude of the vehicle by reference to the external surroundings, to enable visual contact with the Shuttle during rendezvous, to provide 7IN. EXTERNAL FRAME DEPTH BONDED j^ (CONSTRUCTION) Ul Ul

DRAG i LONGERON (EACH SIDE) Ul

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Figure 14.5.3.2 Window Cover Deployment 33 In

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Ul APPENDIX 1 Ul

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.H»iii II ("III ill I < jiJ': J 'ir a3 0

J) FOREWORD are not necessarily the only or the best ap­ h The lessons learned in the Skylab Program proaches, but they reflect Skylab experience Ul are described in five basic documents prepared that must be tailored to other situations and by and representing the experience of NASA should be accepted by the reader as one input Ul Headquarters, the Lyndon B, Johnson Space Cen­ to the management decisionmaking process. As ter, the John F. , and the such, these recommendations, which are based on i Skylab and Saturn Program Offices at the George approaches that were found to be effective in Ul C. Marshall Space Flight Center. The documents the Skylab Program, should be used to help are intended primarily for use by persons who identify potential problems of future space DC are familiar with the disciplines covered and programs. Many of the lessons are subjective < J who are involved in other programs. Thus, the and represent individual opinions and should 3 individual lessons are brief rather than not be interpreted as official statements of Q detailed. NASA positions or policies. 0 Authors of the lessons have been encour­ In addition to the Skylab Lessons Learned aged to be candid. The reader may detect documents, Skylab Mission Evaluation Reports apparent differences in approach in some areas, are being issued by the previously mentioned illustrating that equally effective management NASA agencies to provide detailed evaluation action in a particular area frequently can be results. The results of the scientific experi­ accomplished by several approaches. ments will be disseminated by the Principal The recommendations and actions described Investigators. TITLE; TRASH COLLECTION AND DISPOSAL spacecraft. h LESSON LEARNED: Trash should be separated into TITLE: WINDOWS IN SPACECRAFT Ul biologically active and inactive material. LESSON LEARNED: A large, simple window in the Daily disposal of active material is necessary, Skylab wardroom out of which the crew could Ul whereas less frequent disposal of inactive ma­ observe the Earth and cosmos provided one of terial is satisfactory. Stowage of collected the more important means of relaxation. Much i trash "external" to the habitable volume of the of the value of this type window would have spacecraft is highly desirable. Food containers been lost if it had not been located in the Ul make up the bulk of the trash and should be crew quarters. designed to consume minimum volume when expended. BACKGROUND: The Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo OC < A compactor seems like a desirable feature. missions all demonstrated the value of adequate J Backups and contingency plans are necessary. viewing windows. Although there was appreciable 3 BACKGROUND: Considerable crew time was spent opposition when the wardroom window was proposed D in Skylab managing the trash situation. Addi­ for Skylab, this window proved to be invaluable. 0 tional temporary collection sites were needed TITLE: INTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY AND EXTRAVEHI- CULAR ACTIVITY RESTRAINTS to allow trash to be easily and conveniently LESSON LEARNED: Intravehicular activity (IVA) stowed during the rush of the workday and and extravehicular activity (EVA) foot and body collected and disposed of when time allowed. restraints are required to accomplish useful A failure of the trash airlock would have been work in zero g in large volume spacecraft. The a significant impact on the habitability of the triangle shoes used for foot restraints with "fence them in." The limiting factor in h the orbital workshop (OWS) grid floor worked handling large masses is the cross-sectional Ul very well at the workstations. Based on Skylab area, which tends to block the crewman's view experience, future shoes of this design should of the transfer path and the terminal site if Ul be made more durable and should have zippers more than approximately 20 by 25 inches. Energy rather than laces to facilitate donning and inputs used to initiate transfer much be removed t removing. at termination, and care must be taken not to Ul "overdo it." BACKGROUND; Restraints should be uniform through­ i"i' nil out the spacecraft and should be attached to the TITLE: STANDARDIZATION OF HARDWARE ];ji' I'll! < spacecraft and not the crewman. Once engaged, LESSON LEARNED: Crew-use hardware such as J they should require no further conscious con­ fasteners, electrical and plumbing connectors, 3 sideration until the crewman is ready to disen­ switches, circuit breakers, and screws, etc., Q gage. The triangle grid-floor shoes and thigh should be standardized as much as possible to 0 restraint provided excellent restraints for use facilitate crew operations, reduce crew errors, in the OWS for IVA work, while a "universal" and reduce crew training requirements. Each foot restraint is required for EVA work. common usage also reduces total sparing levels. This approach will simplify design, documenta­ TITLE: MASS HANDLING AND TRANSFER IN THE SPACECRAFT tion, sparing, and actual in-orbit usage. LESSON LEARNED: Large masses are easily manage­ BACKGROUND: With many different types of able in zero g. The real problem is in handling devices to manipulate, the crew will require multiple small items without a container to more extensive training and is more likely to use on the later Skylab missions. make errors. These errors could result in lost TITLE: EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY AND SPACE VEHI­ CLE DESIGN COMPATIBILITY Ul data, damaged equipment, or in the worst case, LESSON LEARNED: Space vehicle design, from crew hazards. Minimizing the number of dif­ Ul mission conception, should accommodate extra­ ferent types of devices will reduce the chance vehicular activity (EVA) as a planned normal of error and may result in cost savings by operation; that is: i limiting inventory requirements. 1. The airlock should not be located in the Ul TITLE; CAPABILITY FOR EXTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY ACCESS, PATHS, AND HANDHOLDS center of the vehicle between habitable DC LESSON LEARNED: Extravehicular activity (EVA) areas. < access should allow the crew to go to any point 2. The airlock should be large enough to accom­ J on the exterior of the spacecraft. Paths modate two suited crewmen and an assortment 3 should be established and handholds provided of hardware. Q such that the crew can traverse to any point on 3. Electrical and television outlets should be 0 the exterior of the spacecraft. If fixed re­ provided external to the vehicle. straints are not feasible, alternate design 4. Adequate restraints, handholds, etc., should concepts should be considered. be provided inside the airlock. BACKGROUND: Skylab EVA paths were limited by BACKGROUND: The location of the airlock module the 60-foot length of the EVA umbilicals and, precluded access to the orbital workshop (OWS) in some cases, by the lack of handholds. Uni­ during Skylab EVA. This situation was not a versal EVA foot restraints were designed for major problem for Skylab, but it was recognized as a basic design limitation. The equipment an umbilical system (i.e., unstowing, stowing, needed for EVA had to be moved into the air­ untangling from structure and EVA crewman, Ul lock module or multiple docking adapter (MDA) managing for a transferring crewman, keeping out before EVA. As early as 1967, the basic Skylab of work area, preventing damage to experiments, Ul design with the airlock in the center was recog­ etc.), a small amount of overhead must always nized as undesirable. However, because of other be added to an umbilical-supported EVA which, i program constraints, no action was taken to re­ if not a constraint, is at least a nuisance Ul locate the EVA airlock. that distracts from the EVA task. This is in TITLE: EXTRAVEHICULAR MOBILITY UNIT/EXTRAVEHI­ addition to the limited radius of operation DC CULAR ACTIVITY LIFE-SUPPORT HARDWARE < DESIGN afforded by a fixed-length umbilical system. J LESSON LEARNED: Future extravehicular mobility TITLE; WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM DESIGN FEATURES 3 unit (EMU)/extravehicular activity (EVA) life- LESSON LEARNED: The airflow system for col­ Q support hardware should stress small self-con­ lecting feces and urine worked well for Skylab; 0 tained modular rechargeable units as opposed to thus, this concept is recommended for future umbilical designs. spacecraft. For fecal collection, higher air­

BACKGROUND; Numerous instances of umbilical flow than that used on the Skylab system would management problems occurred during each Sky­ be desirable. The seat should be fabricated lab EVA, especially those for which the crew of a softer material, and the outside diameter should be widened to provide a better airflow had received minimal or no one-g training. seal. The lap belt and handholds were abso- Because of the required handling associated with lutely required. The urine collection system desirable. should provide for a volume of at least 4000 TITLE: ONBOARD STOWAGE DESIGN Ul ml/man/day. The urine separator should not be LESSON LEARNED; Designers of onboard stowage as noisy as the one used on Skylab. The cuff facilities for future spacecraft should con­ Ul system for collecting urine was satisfactory sider the following; as a contingency mode. The urine collector 1. Individual food stowage items should be should be refrigerated or stored in a sealed located conveniently near the crewman's Ul condition to prevent odor buildup. The waste place in the wardroom. management compartment should be located suffi­ 2. Spacecraft control panel numbers and stow­ a. < ciently far from the sleep compartment to age location numbers were often confusing J minimize noise disturbance to sleeping crew- because they were similar (both used from 3 members. The same blower design was used for such as F586). Control panel identifica­ a the fecal collector, the shower, and the vacuum tion numbers should be created in a format 0 ^1 ti cleaner on Skylab. This commonality simplified different from that used for stowage loca­ design and maintenance and reduced costs. The tion numbers. in-orbit hand washer that consisted of a water 3. Standard stowage lockers and locker doors dispenser and cloth squeezer was satisfactory. should be used wherever possible. A An enclosed design permitting the crewman to standard hole pattern for attaching hard­ actually wash with the water rather than having ware on the door was very useful. to soak up everything in a washcloth would be 4. To provide two-hand access to the inside of the lockers, locker doors should have man seated in front of the pantry had to move sufficient friction in the hingers to hold out of the way while the other crewmembers Ul the doors in the open position. unstowed their food from the pantry. Stowage of 5. Specialized stowage restraints, cushions, each crewman's food directly behind his position Ul filler material, and separators were at the wardroom table would have alleviated this found not to be required. Clothing items, problem. t towels, and other compressible soft goods Weight and volume were very much in demand in Ul were substituted for packing material with the , 3, and 4 command modules. Sub­ substantial cost and weight saving. stantial stowed equipment was added to the DC < 6. The capability for rapid assessment of spacecraft when towels and clothing were used J additions, deletions, and changes in for padding instead of customized cushions and 3 equipment stowage should be provided, using restraint straps. Frequent last-minute changes D mockups, trainers, and simulated lockers. to the stowage configuration dictated a quick 0 7. Stowage interface control documents and in­ response method for docimienting the configura­ stallation drawings should be required only tion. Photography served this purpose well. when there are critical interfaces. TITLE: INTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY COMMUNICATION 8. Stowage configuration was documented quickly LESSON LEARNED: Designers of future spacecraft and effectively in photographs, communications systems should consider the BACKGROUND: With the Skylab wardroom design, following: when all three crewman were eating, the crew­ 1. Speaker box palcement and acoustical design should minimize speaker-to-microphone without being susceptible to audio feedback coupling. oscillation when a microphone was keyed for Ul 2. Electronic gain changes resulting from spacecraft-to-ground communication. For Skylab signal level changes (automatic gain 4, a plug-in attenuator network was provided to Ul control (AGO action) should be minimized. optimize the intercom system electronic gain 3. Provision should be made for circuitry to and to limit the AGC action. i disable speakers that could couple into a TITLE: UNUSABLE VOLUME CLOSEOUTS Ul microphone whenever the microphone is LESSON LEARNED: Closeouts around permanently keyed. installed hardware eliminated nooks and cran­ a. < BACKGROUND: Skylab crewmen could not communicate nies into which loose items could disappear. J effectively in the 5 psia atmosphere for dis­ BACKGROUND: Skylab crewmen reported that the 3 tances exceeding 15 or 20 feet. The intercom closeouts in the multiple docking adapter were D box squeal and feedback problem kept crewmen helpful in keeping equipment from floating under 0 busy adjusting boxes; some were finally turned equipment racks or behind control panels. These off. The Skylab workshop audio system had 13 closeouts appear desirable when they can be speaker intercom boxes. Only the speaker in the provided without major impact. box with a keyed microphone was muted. TITLE: ACCUMULATION OF LOOSE ITEMS ON RETURN AIR VENTS The Skylab 2 and 3 crews complained of extreme LESSON LEARNED: Virtually all loose debris sensitivity to feedback and inability to adjust (solid or liquid) in the orbital workshop for an adequate uplink (received), volume level migrated to the air mixing chamber screens in excursions are inherent at these junctures, h the dome. This phenomenon should be exploited and the lower extremities are constantly Ul in future designs by strategically locating the bumped on thresholds and hardware protruding environmental return air vents and planning to around doorways. A buffer zone to minimize Ul collect loose items there. They should be bumping should be used adjacent to all openings, easily cleanable or should have replaceable and the immediate areas should be kept clear of i filters. protruding hardware. Ul BACKGROUND: Skylab crewmen reported numerous In smaller compartments, like the crew quarters, instances in which lost items were found ad­ the crew tended to position themselves perpen­ DC dicular to the floor for normal activities and < hering to the screens. Conceivably, this J feature could also be used for securing small translation. This made the conventional ar­ 3 items at workstations. rangement of floor, ceiling, and lights useful. Q TITLE: INTRAVEHICULAR ACTIVITY MOBILITY IN In large compartments, like the forward orbital SPACECRAFT 0 workshop (OWS) dome area, the crew tended to LESSON LEARNED: Intravehicular activity archi­ translate headfirst, because the walls and floor tectural layout should ensure that normal trans­ were not an influence. lation routes do not interfere with the working, BACKGROUND: The pilot's position at the ward­ eating, sleeping, or relaxing crewmen. The room table was such that to exit the wardroom critical point along a crewman's translation he had to translate over the table or have path is where he either changes direction or another crewman move from his position to allow negotiates an opening such as a hatch. Attitude passage. Both methods were inconvenient, but TITLE; HABITABLE ENVIRONMENT passage over the table was also a hazard from the LESSON LEARNED: The Skylab "comfort box" was Ul "foot-in-the-food-tray" point of view. Skylab acceptable. Temperature was comfortable, crewmen impacted the OWS dome sufficiently en humidity was a bit low, acoustic environment Ul route to the dome hatch to leave dents in the was pleasant, and odors were virtually non­ ceiling. The crewmembers often bruised their existent. Portable fans are desirable. Indi­ i legs as a result of multiple hatch negotiations vidual thermal controls for sleep and waste Ul and immediate attitude reorientations during the management compartments would also be desirable. day. BACKGROUND: Chapped lips, dry skin, and nasal DC < In the crew quarters, the location of lighting discomfort were attributed to the low humidity J on the ceiling and most equipment on the floor experienced by the Skylab crews. Portable fans 3 caused the crew to use a position perpendicular helped to relieve heat layers created by exer­ D to the floor for translation and most activities. cise and not dispersed by convection. Separate 0 This tendency was reinforced by the availability thermal controls for the waste management com­ of foot restraints on the floor. In the larger partment would have allowed more comfortable compartment, the crew did not adhere to the po­ bathing. sition perpendicular to the floor as much. TITLE; HABITABILITY ILLUMINATION

They generally chose to move headfirst from one LESSON LEARNED: The general lighting levels wall to another. Hence the compartment size and provided throughout the Skylab orbital assembly were marginally low but acceptable. layout governed the preferred body orientation. BACKGROUND: Subjective evaluations of the restraint only, the design eyepoint should be lighting levels provided in Skylab varied con­ an area with its center higher than the accepted Ul siderably among the crews of Skylab 2, 3, and 4. one-g counterpart. Likewise, reach envelopes Skylab 2 and 3 crewmen frequently complained of for zero-g workstations should be expanded from Ul insifficient illumination. Frequent use of a the seated one-g standard to a foot restrained flashlight for supplemental lighting was effec­ zero-g standard. i tive but inefficient and time consuming. Fur­ BACKGROUND: The Skylab Apollo telescope mount Ul ther, the waste management compartment overhead (ATM) console became much more available to the lighting made it difficult to obtain sufficient crewman in zero gravity than it had been during DC facial illumination for grooming and hygiene seated one-g training sessions. Most Skylab < J chores. The Skylab 4 crew felt that lighting crewmembers used foot restraints only when 3 throughout the cluster was adequate and did not working at the ATM console. Q present a problem, with one possible exception: TITLE: VISUAL GRAVITY VECTOR 0 they agreed with Skylab 2 and 3 crewmen that LESSON LEARNED; In weightless conditions, directional desk-type lamps would be desirable architectural adherence to an up-and-down con­ in sleep compartments, the wardroom, or any vention was found to be desirable as a conveni­ area where one would read or write. ence but not as a constraint. TITLE: DESIGN "EYE" AND "REACH" ENVELOPES BACKGROUND; The architecture of the Skylab LESSON LEARNED: If zero-g operation of a con­ orbital workshop was gravity oriented. This sole or control panel is to be with foot orientation permitted ease of ground testing nd crew training. In flight, this convention were bumped inadvertently or because the crew provided the crew with a familiar coordinate used existing panel guards as fingerhold Ul system permitting easy orientation, location mobility or restraint aids. recognition, and equipment identification. The TITLE: CREW HANDWASHER DESIGN Ul majority of crewmembers favored this architec­ LESSON LEARNED: Future design should have an u tural arrangement. enclosed handwasher that would allow hand inser­ i TITLE; CONTROL CONSOLE PROTECTION tion for working directly with the water, Ul LESSON LEARNED: Control consoles should not BACKGROUND: Skylab's handwasher was not enclosed normally be located along major intravehicular and consequently was used mostly to dampen a rag, DC activity crew traffic routes. When control which was then used "sponge fashion" to wash. < J panels are located in high traffic areas, bump- After soap contacted the rinse rag, it was use­ 3 proof switch guards should be incorporated to less for further rinsing. Q preclude inadvertent switch actuations, TITLE: SHOWER DESIGN 0 BACKGROUND; The airlock module/multiple docking LESSON LEARNED: The shower bath concept of adapter area of Skylab was a highpuse passage­ using a portable spray head in Skylab was satis­ way, yet the major spacecraft environmental factory, but the method of water removal after control system and electrical power system use was not. The time and effort required to controls and displays were located there. In­ set up and take down the shower was inconveni­ stances of inadvertent switch or circuit break­ ently long. er actuation occurred frequently because switches BACKGROUND: The Skylab 2 crew showered as ^

scheduled but complained about the mechanical satisfactory; however, there should be more inconvenience. They had favorable remarks to restraint against the firm back than just the Ul offer on the stimulating and pleasant experience straps provided for Skylab. The straps were that a weekly shower represented. The strong enough but did not cover a sufficient Ul crew retreated to sponge baths with washcloths amount of body area.

in lieu of using the time required to erect, BACKGROUND: Skylab crews slept satisfactorily \ use, clean, and disassemble the shower. Had it in the erect against-the-wall orientation, and Ul in, 1 II.. 1 been more convenient, they would have used it. the only relocation of sleep facilities was || iir However, the washcloth sponge bath was deemed attributable to environmental rather than a "adequate" by the Skylab crewmen. psychological factors. Both temperature and < 1 :!! J J } TITLE: SLEEP STATION DESIGN airflow triggered sleep restraint reorientations 3 LESSON LEARNED: Sleeping against the wall was or relocations. Skylab crews were extremely D acceptable in zero gravity. Sleep stations sensitive to auditory disturbance while attempt­ 0 should be insulated from outside light and ing to sleep. Illumination stimuli were more noise as much as possible. Sleep compartment controllable than noise. ventilation should flow in a head-to-foot pat­ TITLE: SPACECRAFT GLASS WINDOW DESIGN tern, not "up the nose." Flexibility in blanket LESSON LEARNED; Fracture mechanics should be

arrangements should also be provided to accom­ used as the principal method of evaluating modate varying thermal conditions. spacecraft glass structural designs and of The sleep restraint concept was basically specifying the proof tests required to verify the safety of the design. Proof tests should be sider the possible degradation effects of ex­ conducted in an inert environment, particularly posure to space radiation on both the optical Ul one free from moisture, to ensure that the glass and structural properties of the windows. In flaws do not grow during the proof testing. Test addition, the glass should not transmit into Ul evaluation criteria must also include infrared the crew habitation area either UV or IR radia­ (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) radiation considerations, tion, which might affect the crew's health or i The pressure seal backup capability for single- actuate UV fire sensors. Ul pane windows should be verified as adequate for REFERENCE: Apollo Experience Report - Space­ I III I" crew protection in the event of rapid decompres­ a "I craft Structural Windows, NASA TN D-7439. ii III < 1' .i| sion due to window failure. TITLE: IN-ORBIT CREW STAY TIME J :• ;i BACKGROUND; Glass strength degrades with time LESSON LEARNED: Psychological and physiological 3 because of a combination of stresses in certain conditions of the flightcrew resulting from the D environments, of which moisture is recognized 84-day visit indicated no constraints for long- Q as the most detrimental. Some flaws are always duration flights. For example, the food and created during the manufacturing process but are sleep requirements were about the same as on the generally not detectable by any known method ground; but to maintain reasonable physical con­ other than proof testing based on fracture dition of the muscles, 1 to 1.5 hours of deli­ mechanics analyses. This method was used to berate daily exercise were required by each evaluate both the command and lunar module win­ crewman. dows. Structural design requirements must con­ TITLE; PRESLEEP ACTIVITY PERIOD IMOI^^ LESSON LEARNED: A presleep period of 1 hour of mentally nondemanding activity should be plan­ h ned in the crew's time line. Ul BACKGROUND; In the early phases of the missions, Skylab crewmen complained that too often they Ul were seheduled to perform operational or experi­ mental activities right up until the beginning i of their sleep period and that it was quite Ul difficult to relax abruptly and go to sleep. DC The 1 hour of uninterrupted presleep activity < J was observed as a constraint during Skylab 4 44 3 Q 0

ANTHROPOMETRIC REQUIREMENTS Utilizing the neutral zero-g body pos­ All anthropometric requirements are based ture for the largest and smallest size crew Ul on 95th percentile male and 5th percentile members. Figures 7 through 10 were generated female data. For zero-g operation, a weight­ to define the height and clearance require­ Ul less posture has been assumed as the normal ments for crew positions at an eating/work position of a crew member when at an activity table having a conventional horizontal i location for any length of time. Figures 1, 2, orientation with respect to the floor. Ul and 3 present views of this posture for the Figures 11 and 12 present the table surface location requirements for a tilted orienta­ DC iir various size crew members based on Skylab till < experience. tion. J Figures 4, 5, and 6 were generated in Figures 13, 14, and 15 for a 95th per­ 3 order to establish anthropometric requirements centile male and Figures 16 and 17 for a Q based on various body positions that must be 5th percentile female were developed to 0 considered for activities within a sleep determine activity envelope dimensions based on personal hygiene activities. For waste station (i.e., don/doff clothing and stretch management compartment use. Figures 18 and 19 to full stature) and while using a sleep re­ provide the envelope dimensions required for straint. As indicated on these figures, a a conventional posture on a horizontally ori­ minimum peripheral envelope about the 95th ented commode seat. Figure 20 presents the percentile male body defines the shape for a envelope dimensional aspects of a tilted sleep restraint frame.

i3-^J^=S?;^i^^=r^=ir^;i:=~';^:?^-^^^ (r commode seat. Figures 21 and 22 were included to define the envelope dimensions required for h male crew members use of the urinal from Ul standing positions. Ul Reach envelopes for the 95th percentile male and the 5th percentile female are pre­ \ sented in Figures 23 through 26.4 5 Ul

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iL'iiji r 17.1 TEXT II Space Shuttle. NASA. Lyndon B. Johnson Mitchell R. Sharpe, Living in Space, Space Center, Houston, Texas. Feb. 1975. 14. 12. "The Astronaut and His Environment". New York: Mew Horizons. Ibid. 28. Doubleday and Co. Inc. 1969. 18. 13 2 Robert E. Hitchcock, Jr., Interior Design NASA. Space Station Systems Analysis. Statement of Work, November 24, 1975. 15. of an Intermediate Earth Orbiting Space Station. 14 "A Preliminary Study". University of Florida, Ibid. 17. Department of Architecture, May 1970. 1. 15 3 Ibid. 18. Rxchard F. Haines, Space Station Interior 16 Design: Results of the NASA/AIA Space Station Ibid. 22. Interior National Design Competition. NASA Technical Note TN D-8018. NASA, Washington, 17,Williait t B. Johnson, Factors Affecting the D.C., July 1975. 2. Interior Design of Crew Compartments for Long 4 Duratiop Space Flight. MSC Internal Note Dr. Hubertus Strughold, Man in Space. eS-ET~16, September, 1967. MSC, Houston, Texas, 1967. Section 4.1. NASA Factbook. "Guide to NASA Programs 18 and Activities". Ed, Alvin Renetzky, Ph.D. Ibid, Section 4.1.1. and Barbara J. Flynn, M.L.S. Orange, New 19 Jersey: Academic Media, 1971. 5. Sec- Hitchcock, Interior Design, Ibid. 'Ibid- tion 7.0. 20 NASA. Outlook for Space. Report to the Anderson, Neil R-, Baker, Wxlliam E-, NASA Administrator by the Outlook for Space Space Station Engineering et al. Shuttle Study Group. NASA, Scientific and Technical Launched Modular Space Station. "Space Information Office, Washington, D.C. NASA Station Program Phase B Definition". Volume SP-386, January, 1976. 8. I Concept Definition- Prepared by Program Engineering, Space Division North American Q Hitchcock, Interior Design, Ibid., 11- Rockwell. Contract no. NAS9-9953 MSC 02646, documen21t no. SD70-546-1, January 1971. 2-1. . Produced by the Office of Ibid. 2-1-2-10. Public Affairs National Aeronautics and Space ^^G.J- Goble and A.J. Stefan, Modular Administration, Washington, D.C. 33. Space Station Phase B Extension, "Preliminary 10 System Design". Volume V: Configuration An­ Ibid. alysis. Prepared by the Program Engineering

ji„ Space Division, North American Rockwell. Contract no. NAS9-99 53 MSC 02471, document no and Activities." Ed., Alvin Renetzky, Ph.D,, SD71-217-5, January 1972. and Barbara J, Flynn, M.L.S, Orange, New Jersey: Academic Media, 1971, 231, 23 Anderson, Shuttle Launched, Ibid. 1-1, Ul NASA Facts. "Manned Space-Flight-First 24 Ibid. 1-22. Decade." NF-4818-73. Ul 25 Skylab. "News Reference." NASA, Office Goble, Modular Space, Ibid. 1-24. of Public Affairs, Washington, D.C, March, 1973. 1-3. 26 Ibid. 1-12, 12 Space Shuttle, NASA, U.S. Government t 17.2 FIGURES AND TABLES Printing Office: 1975. 671-2-2/2447. 58, 13 Ul Brand Norman Griffin, Cities in the Sky. Skylab. Ibid. 1-5 "A Design Proposal for an Earth Orbiting 14 Space Station." Rice University. 45. Ibid. iii-6. DC 2 15 < Morris Neiburger, Understanding our Ibid, VIII-8 Atmospheric Environment. San Francisco: W.H. 16 IV-28. J Freeman and Co., 1973. 30. Ibid. 3 17, 3 Rand McNally Cosmopolitan World Atlas. Apollo/Soyuz Space Division Rockwell New York: Rand McNally Co., 1971. XV. International Pub. 3540-2.2, B-74. D 18 0 Ibid. XIV. NASA Facts. "Apollo/Soyuz Text Pro­ 5 ject." U.S. Government Printing Office: Ibid. XV. NF-52/5-75. 2. c Space Shuttle. Ibid. 4, Arthur Beiser, The Earth. Ed. Time-Life Books, New York: Time-Life Books, 1970, 20 ... Space Shuttle. Space Division, Rock­ The Earth and Man, Ed., Tony Loftas. well International. Pub, #2547-v-3. Rev. 7-74 New York: Rand McNally and Co., 1972. 17. 6. 8 ^•^Spaceflight. Vol. 16, No. 4. April John Gabriel Navarra, et al.. Earth Sci­ 1974. 125. ence. New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1971. 137. ^^Space Shuttle. NASA. Ibid \ASA Factbook. "Guide to NASA Programs 23 Spaceflight. 124. 37 Ibid. 24 38 G.J. Goble and A.J. Stefan. Modular Ibid. Ul Space Station Phase B Extension. "Preliminary 39 System Design." Voliame V: Configuration Ibid. Analysis. Prepared by the Program Engineering 40 Space Division, North American Rockwell, Con­ Ibid. Ul tract no. NAS9-9953 MSC 02471, document no. 41 SD71-217-5, January 1972. 2-34. Ibid. 25 42 Ibid. 1-24. Ibid. 26 i Ibid. 1-12, 43 NASA Facts. "Manned Space-Flight-First 27, Ul Space Shuttle. NASA. U.S, Government Decade." NF-4818-73. Printing Office: 1975, 671-2-2/2447, 43, APPENDIXES DC 28 Goble. Modular Space. Ibid. 1-7, 44 Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center. Lessons < 29 Learned on the Skylab Program, NASA Johnson Ibid. 1-10. Space Center, Houston, Texas, JSC-09096, J 30 July 18, 1974. 3 Ibid. 1-7. 45 31 Nelson and Johnson Engineering, Inc. D Ibid. 1-17. Concept Design and Alternate Arrangements of 32 Orbitor Mid-Deck Habitability Features, Pre­ 0 Ibid. 1-28. pared for NASA-Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, 33 January 30, 197 6. Ibid. 1-29. 46 Griffin, Brand Norman. Cities in the Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension, Sky. "A Design Proposal for an Earth Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Co., Inc., Orbiting Space Station." Rice University. 45. 169. 3 5 Navarra, John Gabriel et al. Earth Science1971. , New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc., '126. 36^NAS. A Activities. U.S. Government Print­ ing Office, Washington, D.C, Vol. 7, No. 3, March 1976, 4 and 5.

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J) (r AM - Airlock Module MSC - Multiple Seal Casement Window ATM - Apollo Telescope Mount MSS - Modular Space Station h CMG - Control Moment Gyros NASA - National Aeronautics and Space Ul Adminis tration CSM - Command and Service Module OTS - Orbital Transfer System ECC - Experiment Control Center Ul OWS • - Orbital Work Shop ELSS - Environmental Control and Life Support Subsystem PCC - Primary Control Center \ EOS - Earth Orbit Shuttle PG - Primary Gallery Ul EPS - Electrical Power System RCS - Reaction Control System DC EVA - Extravehicular Activity SIL - Speech Interference Level < FPE - Function Program Elements/individual TBD - To Be Determined experiments w/mutaally supportive J areas of research or investigation 3 GCS - Guidance end Control System D GPL - General Purpose Lab 0

HEO - High Earth Orbit IFRU - Interference Rejection Unit ISS - Information Subsystsir. IVA - Intervehicular Activity

JSC - Johnson Space Center LEO - Lo\/ Earth Orbit MDA - Multiple Docking Adaptor

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-- # __:^_ :_TZ=T:I:- -7^-—=— „„=-: „^;:^- - --;„:: ^- r 19.1 BOOKS Physiology of Man in Space. Ed. J.H.V. Brown. Baker, Robert H. and Laurence W. Frederick. An New York: Academic Press, 1963. Introduction to Astronomy. 7th Edition.— n New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand Co. Inc., 1968. Planning Challenges of the 70's in Space. Vol. 26. Advances in the Astronautical Sciences. Ed, George W. Morgenthaler Beiser, Arthur. The Earth. Ed. Time-Life Books. and Robert Morra. Tarzana, California: Ul New York: Time-Life Books, 1970. AAS Publications, 197 0.

Bio-Engineering and Cabin Ecology. Ed., W.B. Rand McNally Cosmopolitan World Atlas. New York: Cassidy. AAS Science and Technology Series. Rand McNally Co., 1971. Tarzana, California: AAS Publications, \ 1969. Sharpe, Mitchell R. Living in Space, "The Ul Astronaut and His Environment." New York: Manned Spacecraft. "Engineering Design and Doubleday and Co. Inc., 1969. Operation". Ed. Paul E. Purser, Maxine A. Faget, and Norman F. Smith. New York: Spaceflight Today. Ed. K.W. Gatland. Los a. Fairchild Publications, Inc. Second Print­ Angeles: Aero Publishers, Inc., 1963. ing, 1965. < Space Stations. Vol. 27 of Advances in the J NASA Factbook. "Guide to NASA Programs and Astronautical Sciences. Ed. L. Larmore Activities". Ed. Alvin Renetzky, Ph.D., and R.L. Gervais. Tarzana, California: 3 and Barbara J. Flynn, M.L.S. Orange, AAS Publications, 1970. Q New Jersey: Academic Media, 1971. The Earth and Man. Ed. Tony Loftas. New York: 0 Navarra, John Gabriel, et al. Earth Science. Rand McNally and Co., 1972. New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc., 1971. 19.2 FILM HIGHLIGHTS (NASA JOHNSON SPACE Neiburger, Morris. Understanding our Atmos­ CENTER FILMS) pheric Environment. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Co., 197 3. 1985. MSC-576 (18min.). NASA, 1972. Osgood, Carl C. Spacecraft Structures. Engle- Skylab: Space Station I. JSC-651 (28 min.). wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall NASA, 1974. Inc., 1966. Skylab-The Second Manned Mission-A Scientific g_hysiology in the Space Environment. Vol. I Harvest. JSC-627 (36.5 min.). NASA, and II. Washington, D.C. : National 1974. Academy of Sciences, 1968. Skylab-the Problem-the Fix. JSC-622 (10 min.). NASA, 1973. Dooling, Jr., David. "Closed Loop Life Sup­ port Systems," Spaceflight, Vol, 14, No. h 4, April, 1972, pp. 134-138. Skylab Recreational Activities. JSC-73616 (4 min.). NASA, 1973. "Europe's Space Laboratory," Spaceflight, Vol. Ul 16, no. 4, April, 1974, pp. 124-125. Skylab Food Management. JSC-73619 (6.5 min.). NASA, 1973. "Europe's Space Laboratory," Spaceflight, Vol. Ul 16, no. 10, October, 1974, pp. 366-368. Skylab an Investigation in Space. JSC-73625 u (22 min.). NASA, 1970. Haines, Richard F. and Michael A. Bond. "Sci­ ence Fiction Becomes Fact," AIA Journal, Manned Spaceflight-New Goals-New Ideas. JSC- July, 1972, pp. 28-29. i 70538R (19 min.). NASA, 1970. In This Decade...Mission to the Moon. Produced Ul Skylab Man-Machine Data Film Catalog Index. by the Office of Public Affairs, National Contract NAS9-14210, Amendment IS, Item 2, Aeronautics and Space Administration, DC Exhibit B. August 197 5. Prepared by Washington, D.C. < Nelson and Johnson Engineering, Inc. , Boulder, Colorado. NASA Activities. Vol. 7, No. 3, U.S. Govern­ J ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Space in the 70's: Man in Space: The Second March, 1976. 3 Decade. JSC-71556 (28 min.). NASA, 1971. D NASA Facts. "Earth Resources." JSC-097 61. 19.3 MAGAZINE ARTICLES-BROCHURES 0 NASA Facts. "Food for Space." JSC-10630. Applications of Skylab Earth Resources Data, "Manned Space-Flight-First JSC-09201 (Feb., 1975). NASA Facts. Decade. ' NF-4818-73. Baker, David. "Implications of the 1975 NASA NASA Facts. "Manned Spaceflight: Projects Budget," Spaceflight, Vol. 16, no. 10, Mercury and Gemini." NF-9/vol. 11, No. 8, Oct., 1974, pp. 362-365. NASA Facts. "Skylab-1973-1974." JSC-08826. Baker, David. "The Problem of Space Station Longevity," Spaceflight, Vol. 16, no. 8, NASA Facts. "Space Benefits." U.S. Govern- Aug. 1974, pp. 303-304. ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1973-799-478/3916. Chernow, Don. "Colonies in Space May Turn Out to be Nice Places to Live." Smithsonian. NASA Facts. "Waste Management." JSC-09696. Vol. 6, No. 11. (Feb., 1976), PP. 62-64. NASA Facts is an Educational Publication of "Spaces in Space," Progressive Architecture, NASA's Office of Public Affairs, Educa­ Nov., 1969, pp. 133-144. tional Program's Division, U.S. Govern­ ment Printing Office, Washington D.C. Space Division Rockwell International. Apollo/ & Soyuz. Pub. 3540-2-2, 8-74. NASA Fact Sheet #291. (Feb., 1965). "Gemini Program." 19.4 PERSONAL INTERVIEWS (NASA JOHNSON SPACE Ul CENTER New Horizons. Produced by the Office of Public Affairs National Aeronautics and Covington, Clarke. Systems Design Engineer. Space Administration, Washington D.C NASA, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. Interview, March 23, 1976. i NASA Facts. "Apollo/Soyuz Test Project." U.S. Government Printing Office, Washing­ Dalton, Maynard. Habitability Systems Engineer. Ul ton D.C, NF-52/5-75. NASA, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. Interview, March 23, 1976. O'Neill, Gerald K., Ph.D. "Space Colonies DC and Energy Supply to the Earth." Vol. Gordon, Bob. Public Affairs Officer. NASA, 190, (Dec, 1975), pp. 943-947. Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. < Interview, March 22-23, 1976. J O'Neill, Gerald K. , Ph.D. "The Colonization of Space." Physics Today, (Sept., 1974). Jones, James C Preliminary Design Engineer. 3 pp. 32-40. NASA, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. Interview, March 23, 1976. a Parker, P.J. "Modular Space Station Facilities." Kerwin, Dr. Joseph P. Astronaut. (Scientist- 0 Spaceflight, Vol. 15, No. 2, Feb., 1973, Astronaut of crew of Skylab II, mission pp. 82-86. duration May 25-June 22, 1973). NASA, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. Space Shuttle. NASA. U.S. Government Printing Interview, March 22, 19 76. Office: 1972. 0-456-744. Pogue, William R. Retired astronaut. (Astro­ Space Shuttle. NASA. U.S. Government Printing naut of crew of Skylab IV, mission dura­ Office: #3300-0386. tion Nov. 16, 1973-Feb. 8, 1974). NASA, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas. Space Shuttle. Space Division, Rockwell Inter­ Interview, March 22, 1976. national. Pub. #2547-v-3. Rev. 7-74. Poindexter, John. Educational Programs Direc­ Space Shuttle. NASA. U.S. Government Printing tor. NASA, Johnson Space Center, Houston, Office: 1975. 671-202/2447. Texas. Interview, March 23, 19 76. fr

19.5 SKYLAB EXPERIENCE BULLETINS Dalton, Maynard, Skylab Experience Bulletin, no. 9: Foot Restraint Systems. Houston Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, Johnson Space Center, 1974. no. 1: Translation Modes and Bump Protec­ tion. Houston: Johnson Space Center, Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, 1974. no. 10. Body Restraint Systems. Houston: Johnson Space Center, 1974. Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, no. 2: Architectural Evaluation for Air­ Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, lock. Houston: Johnson Space Center, 1974. no. 11: Personal Mobility Aids. Houston: Johnson Space Center, 1975. Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, no 3: Architectural Evaluation for Sleep­ Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, ing Quarters. Houston: Johnson Space nO' 12: Temporary Equipment Restraints. Center, 1974. Houston: Johnson Space Center, 1975.

Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, Gunderson, Robert T. Skylab Experience B,ul- no 4: Design Characteristics of the Sleep letin, no. 13: Tools, Text Equipment, Restraint. Houston: Johnson Space and Consumables Required to^ Support In- Johnson Center, 1974. flight Maintenance. Houston: Space Center, 1975. Gunderson, Robert T. Skylab Experience Bulletin, no. 5: Inflight Maintenance As a Viable Johnson, Malcolm L. Skylab Experience Bul- letin, no. 14: Personal Hygiene Equip- Program Element. Houston: Johnson Space Johnson Space Center, Center, 1974. ment. Houston: 1975. Brown, Jeri W. Skylab Experience Bulletin, no. Sova, V, Skylab Experience Bulletin, no, 6: Space Garments for IVA Wear. Houston: 15: Cable Management in Zero-G, Johnson Space Center, 1974. Houston: Johnson Space Center, 1975.

Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, Bond, Robert, Robert Gimderson, and John no 7: An Overview of IVA Personal Jackson. Skylab Experience Bulletin, Restraint Systems. Houston: Johnson no. 17: Neutral Body Posture in Zero-G. Space Center, 1974. Houston: Johnson Space Center, 1975. Johnson, Malcolm L. Skylab Experience Bulletin, Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, no 8: Cleansing Provisions Within the no. 18. Evaluation of Skylab IVA Waste Management Compartment. Houston: Architecture. Houston: Johnson Space Johnson Space Center, 1974. Center, 1975. NOU^ 1971. Johnson, Malcolm L. Skylab Experience Bulle­ h tin, no. 19: Food System. Houston: ff (S^iJ, astti S-tefam, A.J. Modular Space Johnson Space Center, 1975. Statikaaa Whas^ © Eixtemsion"^ "Preliminary Ul VolTniiiiie ¥: Configuration Bond, Robert L. Skylab Experience Bulletin, aanalTsAa. PBrepared toy the Program no. 26: The Methods and Importance of Esa^inseerimg Space Dimsican, Morth American Ul BofflikM®!!. (Osimtract; mo. liaS9-9953 MSC 02471, Man-Machine Engineering Evaluations in . S]n)71-21I-5, JamaaxY 1972. u Zero-G. Houston: Johnson Space Center, 1976. QrjLffim, Braimd Mointiam- Ciities in the Sky. "A Besigm Fisipnjsal for am Earth Orbiting i Dalton, Maynard. Skylab Experience Bulletin, " "" " Kice W]mi"¥ersity. no. 2 7: Personnel and Equipment Res­ Ul traint and Mobility Aids (EVA). ftmrnter^smi™ Btatoerfc T. -.g Space-Base Houston: Johnson Space Center, 1976. Gcew SkJLlls affiffles.iii^i.-^ •.Z'Zzt mo. IM X- 13ffi2„ ^ril mi®, nasa, WasMingtom, B.C., 19.6 TECHNICAL MANUALS, REPORTS AND STUDIES M7fiD. < Anderson, Neil R. , Baker, William E. , Space laBsitaBsiliLtg' UtectaKulo^y SectdLcBiDi. amaljsis of J Station Engineering et al. Shuttle Launched Modular Space Station. "Space ii±£.::ili.-.^ I;: • ii.r :j3TiH^imt £ 3 Station Program Phase B Definition." fflSE iMt^snmJL Mote 72-l»-l. Volume I Concept Definition. Prepared oraft: Cfenirifcffiiir„ ffiaJBnsitsnasij,ttesas ^ iGTasaisaxy 1972. D by Program Engineering, Space Division 0 North American Rockwell. Contract no. NAS9-9953 MSC 02464, document no. :^ssBaiiILtffl off tlie WBS.^-'./JhZ:?^. 'Fr^^ce SD70-546-1, January 1971. Sttaitigam JDmifc^gAgsg: ISlatiLganial. Z

Council, Clarence D. Documentation of Crew ISfflS^,, flfe&wuuw^sjttsMi,, D3),C;-„ JmJLs? 1S75- Compartment Study and Analysis for Shut­ tle-Launched Modular Space Stations. Spacecraft Design Division, MSC, Texas, January 1972. iHtedLw^itrsi-tt^ ®£ FlfflarMa,, ffi^ffictntiffiimit off Dalton, Maynard. Wardroom Galley Concept for a Shuttle-Launched Modular Space Station. MSC Internal Note uir< 71-EW-l, MSC, Houston, Texas, February Titn offDoGumeBts?,UVS5.GSvernmeat-Printingg Of fiee^, Washington.-, ,DvGC, ,1^733.

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"^ fP Nai^<^' h Ul EXTERNAL CONFIGURATIQ In space flights of the past, the man-fac­ be sustained in the hostile environment of space tor of the astronaut was minimized as much as that offers the framework for arriving at an possible. The total time that astronauts spent adequate solution to the problems of a space in space was functional and programmed. We are station design. now entering an era of extensive time spent in A design solution for a Modular Space space. As the length of future manned space Station (MSS) includes the external configura­ U flights increases, prime importance must be tion design and the internal configuration given to man, as an objective human factor, and design. The external configuration design was to his environment with other men. Therefore, brought about through a team effort and inter­ man's ability to adapt and associate himself nal configuration designs for individual team with the new surroundings has become an impor­ members will be discussed later. The following tant aspect of feasibility. Architecture may be information will be devoted to the discussion of viewed as the creation of a way of life through those design factors which contribute to the design solutions that are capable of meeting the external configuration. increasing needs of mankind. This is a way of The shape of station modules is dictated life meaning a complementary co-existence that by a number of independent factors. For exam­ will enable man and his environment to evolve ple, the maximum carrying envelope of the space in a compatible relationship to each other. It Shuttle orbiter is 15' in width and 60' in length. Therefore, the station module must not is tHis central theme of man and his ability to exceed these dimensional requirements^ee^i.iCB'ltTlj The shuttle craft is launched in a ver­ Ul The near perfect vacuum of space estab­ tical attitude. During liftoff, and in particu­ lishes another design consideration. A shape lar at the end booster burn, a 3g force must be Ul must be selected that will serve as a good sustained by the station module. Again, the pressure vessel. The sphere is the perfect cylinder, by its very nature, proves most ad­ i pressure vessel yet is limited in its utility. vantageous in its ability, as a homogeneous Since the cargo bay of the shuttle is 60' long, structure, to resist severe compressive buck­ Ul it would require 4 spheres 15' in diameter, ing forces. (A more detailed discussion of DC placed one behind the other, to occupy the structure will be presented in the individual < J cargo bay volume. Empty space between aligned module analysis). 3 spheres would create wasteful voids and the Another factor, favoring the use of a Q cargo bay would not be used to its maximiim cylindrical form for station modules, is 0 extent. economy. The commonality of modules will re­ An elongation of the sphere would create duce the cost of construction. Assembly-line construction techniques can be adopted to pro­ a new shape, a cylinder. This form would re­ duce the required number of modules, with tain the integrity of a pressure vessel and at savings in both dollars and time. the same time eliminate all wasted spaces Based upon all the reasons previously within the cargo bay. These wasted areas are stated, the cylinder was selected by this now a part of the volume of the cylinder. Lgm team as the typical shape for all statiom the anchor for all additional moiitiles (all station nnodniles will be 15" in •odiiles; it houses all subsystems 0 diameter amd 60' in length}. necessary for life supportj. and Having established that station HBodiailes it contains the reaction control will be cylindrical in shape, we can mow pro—- (RCS) engines for orbital maneuvers eed with our solution for an eKtemtal configu­ and the control inoveiient gyros t ration of the MSS Csix-mian buildiiip). M.1 mod- (OiG} necessary to maimtain station nles will be placed in orbit utilizing the stability in flight. In addition, E Space SlMittle. Once in orbit, the shuttle the core iBodule provides for two < craft will asserable the space station. independent pressure volumes in the 3 The Space Shuttle is capable of carrying event one part of the station meed a only one module at a tiine. This necessitates be isolated. All other imodTmles will 0 a mDiiiber of trips to assemble and activate the be attached to the core modimle. complete space station. The assenobly sequence Step 2: The second niodule to be carried aloft is the power boomi. 'Ihis is as follows :^^ 4»UEe*'^^/T"*jT4jprS»J module contains tsso solar arrays Step 1: The first module to be placed capable of mioving to track the into earth orbit is the core sun- The solar collectors provide module, the very heart of the energy foir the core module, whose space station. It serves as //

subsystems supply the entire tion modules are in position, the h space station. The power boom is six-man crew is transported to the Ul attached to the core module on space station aboard a cargo mod­ the longitudinal plane or x-axis. ule. It is positioned like other Ul Additional^ Subsequent shuttle missions will Steps' modules to complete the external carry station modules one, two, configuration. i three and four. The station mod­ The modular system will accommo­ Ul ules contain crew living, working, date larger crews, by coupling a DC and recreational areas. These new core module to the existing < modules dock to the core on per­ core (on the x-axis) in a chain J 3 pendicular planes to the core, or effect. Supplementary station D on the y and z axes. The order modules can then be configured to 0 in which these modules are assem­ meet increased mission objectives

bled is not pertinent. For the (12-man buildup).

six-man station, the four station (For graphic reference to the

modules are configured on the z external configuration see slides

axis only. Additional modules T1,T3,TLP) The space station will be utilized for a will be added to the y-axis as variety of scientific studies. Observation of the need arises. When the sta­ earth and of celestial phenomena is required. y-axis: The y-axis is an imaginary line In order to perform these observations, the design Ul parallel to the surface of the team determined a precise axial orientation for earth and perpendicular to the Ul a cruxiform configuration. The orientation of X-axis. Along this axis on either the space station is as follows: side of the core module, addition­ X-axis: The x-axis is an imaginary line al modules may be attached. i parallel to the surface of the z-axis: The z-axis is an imaginary line Ul earth. This axis is the orbital perpendicular to the surface of

axis with the x+ being the lead­ the earth and perpendicular to < J ing edge of the station and the the X and y axes. Along this 3 x- being the trailing edge of the axis, station modules one, two, Q station. The core module is three, and four are arranged. 0 oriented longitudinally on the x- Station modules one and two are

axis with the power boom attached oriented in the z+ (nadir or earth pointed) direction. Sta­ to the leading edge. The trail­ tion modules three and four are ing edge of the core module is oriented in the z- (zenith or for shuttle craft docking and for heaven pointed) direction. the addition of extra core mod­ (For graphic reference to station ules during station build-up. orientation see slide #T7 ) suited crewman to effect repairs. For these The effect of assembling modules in this reasons, it is necessary to provide a minimum Ul manner results in a cruxiform external configu­ 5' separation between modules. Ul ration. This arrangement proves advantageous Each station module is a duplicate of the u for several reasons. other. Proper orientation of modules prior to The station modules are oriented on the assembly must be considered (4 in all for the i y and z axes. A perpendicular configuration six-man). Which end joins the core module and Ul affords maximum heat rejection bv each module. which end points? This may confuse shuttle a. During station assembly the cruxiform arrange­ crews during the assembly sequence. In order to < ment allows adequate clearance for the shuttle minimize crew confusion during assembly, the fol­ J craft manipulator arm to operate. The manipu­ lowing scheme was devised: 3 Q lator arm can then attach additional modules 1) All active ports will be indicated by a 0 without interference and with greater ease. color band at the end of the module. As Two modules will always be adjacent one an illustration, we have coded all module- another on the same axis. For example, sta­ to-core connections with the color blue (see slide # TU? ) , tion modules one and two are oriented on the z+ axis. Modules one and two must have ade­ 2) All passive ports will be indicated by a different color band. As illustrated, quate separation to permit heat rejection, we have coded all pointing ends of modules manipulator arm movement, and passage of a

.,^MSM with the color red (see slide # T& ). attitude of the entire MSS, Precise attitude This results in immediate identification Ul control is dictated by the very colose toler­ by the crew of active and passive berth­ ances established for pointing requirements of Ul ing mechanisms. certain telescopes and other experimental 3) Each station module will bear a numeric apparatus on board the MSS General Purpose Lab designation. This will further aid the Modules, These pointing requirements also rely Ul crew in proper station assembly {see on the control moment gyros (CMG) located within slide #Te> ) . the core module stabilize and keep the entire a The external configuration design is depen­ MSS on its dcisired course. Any changes in the < J dent on the ability of the entire MSS to assume course or attitude of the MSS must be made with 3 and control certain modes or positions which in the combined effort of the HZS and CMG sub­ D flight. The MSS cuxiform external configuration systems . 0 makes excellent use of its central core arrange­ Stiffness is another important aspect of de­ ment in holding these flight modes. This is sign which affects the pointing requirements and accomplished by placing the reaction control ease of assembly for the MSS. The cruxiform con­ figuration adequately copes with these two prob­ subsystem (R::S) within the core module of the lems. By the use of a central core, to which all configured space station. By positioning other modules are attached, and by minimizing the these RCS engines in the core, the astronauts number of berthing ports or reducing the number inhabiting the MSS can effectively control the of modules necessary for the design of the MSS, a problem of this nature could be initiated we have produced an external configuration stiff Ul while not affecting normal operation of the MSS. enough to satisfy the pointing requirements of All subsystems should have a central point Ul the MSS. This external configuration is also of operation. The core module is so designed capable of sustaining impacts of the shuttle to act as a central or coiranon space for the vehicle while docking or impacts of other storage of the majority of all subsystem equip­ t modules while being configured. ment necessary for environmental control. Each Ul The design of the MSS must provide for the module, therefore, must rely upon its utilities, DC placement of potentially dangerous pressurized except in special instances, to be provided < J gas containers. These containers should be through the interfaces of the berthing ports 3 stored in areas that are least inhabited. between core and station modules. Q Therefore, an excellent place for these contain­ Certain station modules, such as number 0 ers is provided within the power boom attached one and number 4, must satisfy pointing require­ to the x+ end of the core module. In the event ments for antenna packages associated with their respective modules. Pointing requirements for of some catastrophe such as an explosion of one module number 1 are that its antenna packages of these containers which might cause a rupture should be oriented in the Z+ (nadir) direction, and the consequent depressurization of the MSS, toward earth, in order that constant contact be the power boom could be sealed off from the kept with ground control during the extent of core and the remainder of the MSS. Itepairs for the mission. Module number four and its antenna tion about the end of the power boom. The power packages are oriented in the z- (zenith) direc­ boom has 360° rotation capabilities with respect Ul tion, away from earth, and are used for experi­ to the core module. This design enables the Ul mental purposes as well as providing redundant solar array to constantly track the position of capabilities in the event that the other anten­ the sun, while the MSS remains in a fixed flight na package should fail. Both antenna packages mode. I will be contained within their respective mod­ Safety of the crew is, of course, an impor­ Ul ules in a collapsed state. Upon configuration tant aspect of the design for the MSS. The ex­ DC these packages will be extended for use by the ternal configuration design, cruxiform plan, of < MSS. (Amore detailed explanation will follow in the MSS provides that dual shirtsleeve egress J 3 individual module designs.) be accomplished by auxiliary passages between a The solar array which provides the power station modules. These auxiliary passages (see 0 for the station should be configured with the slide # T& ) , which connect neighboring modules entire MSS in a position that allows it to with one another together with the exit/entry receive the maximum allowable sunlight. The provided by the core, allow all crew men two MSS, because of its cruxiform configuration, means of egress from each module in the event reduces the amount of solar array shadowing that any emergency should arise. These auxil­ encountered by other configurations. The solar iary passages are located directly between sta­ arrays are so designed that they have 360 rota­ tion modules one and two, and three and four. The auxiliary passages will be carried aloft discussed further in the internal configuration Ul within station modules two and three. Upon design statements to follow. completion of the entire station assembly (six- The external configuration design previously Ul man buildup) the passages shall be extended from described represents an involvement by both team their collapsed state within modules two and members. Each team member will now proceed with i three and connected to modules one and four for his individual design solution for a station station operation. module. The design of station module one will Ul The entire external configuration design be discussed by Mr, Raymond Nikel and station < also provides redundant pressurized volumes for module four will be presented by Mr, Fred D, J the safety of the crew. This is accomplished Ballinger. 3 by positioning an airlock in the middle of the D core module. By placing an airlock in this 0 position, it is possible for one half of the entire station to be sealed off in case of de­ pressurization or rupture of any module. This type of redundancy is carried throughout the design of the MSS as backup or secondary support facilities are present in the various modules' internal configuration. These points will be r

STATION MODULE ^ This report contains the documentation of lection on man-machine relationships and the the crew living area for station module one of Ul crew's ability to perform work in weightlessness the Modular Space Station. In this module, a on long duration missions. Analysis of the re­ Ul group of three men will live under zero-gravity sults of these studies form the basis for my conditions for periods of 6 to 12 months. design decisions. With the exception of the Skylab Missions t Subsystems, including structural, life sup­ Ul (flown by three separate crews, 1973-1974), past port, electrical power, guidance and control, space missions were of relatively short dura­ etc., are assumed to be provided for, as such a tion. Little time was provided for crews to < technology already exists. However, a brief J evaluate the human factors involved in living mention of these items will follow. 3 in a zero gravity environment. Skylab paved The structure of station module one must 0 the way for such investigations. perform three major functions : thermal protec­ 0 Two very important experiments were incor­ tion, meteoroid protection and radiation protec­ porated into the Skylab Program. Skylab Experi­ tion. Such a structure has been developed and ment M487, "Habitability/Crew Quarters," was documented for NASA by the Space Division, North designed to evaluate and report on the habit­ American Rockwell, "1972 Modular Space Station, Phase B Extension, Preliminary System Design" ability features of the crew quarters and work and is the skin design selected for use on areas, Skylab Experiment M516, "Crew Activities/ station module one. Maintenance Study," was concerned with data col­ The thermal shield of the structure must fragmentation of particles piercing the alumi­ Ul prevent condensation on all interior walls as num structure. Passage of meteoroid granules well as prevent heat buildup within the station through 60 successive layers of aluminized Mylar Ul module. This protection is afforded by an outer reduce the capability of the meteoroid fragments wall thickness of 0.030 aluminum, a blanket of from ever penetrating the structural pressure insulation (1" thick) composed of 60 layers of shell of 0,145 thickness of 5052 aluminum. Re­ i aluminized Mylar, a 1" cavity containing radia­ sults of extensive analysis indicate that there Ul tors, and a pressure vessel of 0.145 thickness is a probability of only 0.10 meteoroid penetra­ DC of 5052 aluminum. Radiators are a necessary tion of a crew compartment over a ten-year < element of the thermal shield. They extend the period. J 3 length of the module and encompass its full Shielding due to the mass of the structure, Q diameter (see slide #^=M1). furnishings and equipment is utilized to provide 0 Meteoroid protection is provided by a crew protection against earth-trapped and double-bumper configuration which offers maximum galactic cosmic radiation. All utilities (atmospheric pressure of 14.7 efficiency against meteoroid penetration. The psi, air and water distribution, electrical outer bumper of 0.03 0 aluminum is a structural power, data buses, fluid and gas lines) are element capable of fragmenting a meteoroid pplied by the core module (see slide # T7 ). particle. The second bumper, consisting of 60 su n docking and berthing of station mod- layers of aluminized Mylar, causes additional Whe ule one to the core module is complete, all located adjacent to the core module, services between modules become functional. Ul A favorite past time of the Skylab astro­ The internal configuration of station nauts was gazing out their one and only 32" dia­ Ul module one is dictated by several independent meter window. Eight portholes 18" in diameter u factors. For example, a number of activities were provided in level one. These windows were occur within the 15' x 60' cylinder and a i equally spaced around the Cassinian curvature Ul hierarchy of spaces takes precedence. forming the end of the station module (see Spaces are arranged in order of activity, slide #6.M^) . a from most active, near the core, to the most Leaving the passive recreation area one < J passive, at the far end of the module. Five enters the work station, level two, a space 3 levels are arranged transversely to attain this 8'-0" deep and 14'-8" in diameter. Contained Q transition from active to passive. within this volume are the general purpose lab, 0 The most active area of station module one photo processing lab, and data analysis/storage

occurs at its junction with the core module. lab. Here a crewman may conduct minor experi­

Designated as level one, this 20'-6" deep x ments and perform light work tasks (see slide #

14'-8" in diameter volume is allocated for crew S>M2)' Level three occupies a volume 8'-0" deep x 14'-8" in diameter, and is home for the sta­ interaction. In this space the crew can imple­ tion command control center, a library/confer­ ment new games utilizing the uniqueness of zero • ence room, and a nook for storage and food 9- It is the most active region and so is vending. The command center is part of the state­ Ul up. Used water is stored in a waste collection room, as here all earth to station communica­ tank where it is processed for re-use. Ul tions take place. A sleeping berth with person­ Adjacent to the hygiene compartment is u al entertainment console is furnished and per­ the shower and wet room. The shower has been sonal storage lockers are provided. i designed as a cylinder with water nozzles encom­ A library, equipped to store tape cassettes, passing the height and circumference of the Ul tape reels, video tapes, books and other reading stall. The crewman enters the stall and attaches DC material, is assigned to level three. A small a water-tight collar around his neck. Water is < J niche in the vicinity is alloted for food vend­ sprayed from all directions and is confined by 3 ing machines. This allows crewmen to snack at the walls and collar apparatus, A grille, lo­ D their discretion without having to transverse cated on the floor, draws moisture away from the 0 the modules to obtain food from the dining mod­ crewman (by means of a fan driven suction unit), ule (see slide ftsMS) . Upon exiting the shower stall, the crewman dries The fourth level, 7'-0" deep x 14'-8" in (an additional floor suction unit is located in the wet area to withdraw any remaining moisture) diameter, provides several compartments set and dresses in the area specified. aside for personal hygiene needs. Storage drawers, cabinets and closets A private quarter has been allocated for occupy the remaining space on level three. Here urine/fecal collection and wash basin to clean are stored hygiene utensils, towels, articles of ceiling are eight portholes (similar to the ones clothing and the like (see slide i-SM^). in the passive recreation area) for crew leisure Ul The remaining deck of station module one observation. The windows are lowered to allow Ul occupies the far end of the module. Level five partial or full light penetration, and can be (12'-10" deep xy 14'-8" in diameter) serves as shuttered from the inside of the cabin to shut the crew staterooms, capable of sleeping two out light completely (see slide #£M4) . Ul men at a time. Sleeping berths are arranged to Access to all cabins in station module one conform to the neutral body posture. Sleeping is achieved by means of a pedestrian tunnel. DC bags are affixed to the sidewalls and act as a The tunnel penetrates levels two through five, < sleeping restraint for the unconscious crewman. running along the z-axis. It has been positioned J 3 Below the sleeping berth is a private nook dis­ against the outer module wall that faces station D playing audio/video console, table top for module two. This allows crew unencumbered travel 0 writing or reading, book shelves and storage from one end of the module to the other, on a drawers for personal effects. Along the walls side that receives additional protection from of this compartment are arranged storage bins the proximity of another module, and that inter­ for all clothing, space suits, and additional sects the secondary passage between these two modules. In order to accommodate two suited personal belongings. The Cassinian curvature crewmen, the minimum floor penetration for the of the end of the module forms the ceiling for tunnel is 42 inches (see slide #SM£>) . the premises. Set at equal intervals along the This concludes the arrangements of spaces A sense of vertical is acquired by locating within station module one. A justification Ul the access tunnel along the z axis. The z+ di­ for the orientation of spaces will now be dis­ rection always indicates up or head first, Ul cussed. while the z- direction always specified down or Orientation in weightlessness was a prob­ feet first. As a crewman moves from the core lem experienced by the Skylab crews. In zero. module to the end of the station module, he is i g the body can assume an infinite number of at all times properly oriented for entry onto Ul attitudes about an x, y, z axis (see slide #'^lp) . any level. DC Man, a gravity-bound creature of earth, relies All crew activities will be influenced by < upon a strong sense of vertical/horizontal. J zero.g. In weightlessness, tasks considered 3 In order to minimize the possibility of trivial on earth will take on new perspectives D disorientation while moving through the module, of freedom and complexity. Consideration, there­ 0 the floors are arranged transversely on the x and fore, must be made for restraining men, equip­ y axis. A horizontal reference is thus estab­ ment, and all items not secured permanently. lished. All equipment and furnishings are For man, only a few activities require secured to the floors of each level reinforcing restraints. When sleeping, a berth is con­ the sense of familiarity. The one.g arrangement figured to conform to the neutral body posture eliminates the necessity for changing attitude (see slide frSH?). A sleeping bag, secured to and becoming confused (see slide fr5'M5>) . the berth, prevents the crewman's floating away IMOI<^ during periods of sleep. In addition, equipment will be covered by hinged For standing or sitting tasks (chairs are doors that remain closed when equipment is Ul unnecessary in weightlessness) a simple loop dormant. into which a man can insert his foot is all that Ul As documented by the crews of Skylab, is required to remain stationary. Occasionally, monotony resulted from the absence of color and a hand hold may be all that is necessary to se­ texture. Careful selection of interior materials, i cure a stable attitude. color and texture are necessary to round out the Ul Equipment is restrained by use of Velcro interior design of station module one. Color a pads, magnets, or pegs. Equipment receptacles, and materials must also link the crew with earth. < in like manner, are devised to mate with these Color is used to provide a separation of J various schemes. spaces. For instance, the work area could be a 3 Q Free soaring through the spaces within the light gray in order to provide contrast between 0 module present unique problems. Projection of panels and instruinents. Shades of gray would not surfaces, furnishings and equipment may be distract a crewnian from his %'ork. Similarly, hazardous. Therefore, there is to be no sharp crew quarters can appear cool and restful by corners or projections. All edges are to be utilizing the colors green and blue (see slide rounded and control devices must be protected from accidental activation. Control consoles Social/recreational areas of high activity "ill be shielded by insetting of equipment. can appear as exciting and stimulating by use of

E}aa?SS4<=3H' jnautrastiiJiBS oxDlasir amranBg'ranffiniilts- to loag-texm confinement. Onilajar cam fflffff©crt -ttaoe apjEffiremlt siaie amd Appendix 2, '"Anttaropametric MegpiLreneaHrtfas^' pusitima asff aiflDjecctts- ffliLgBn artononna csolors give the illustrate the body configioratiom assinm^a ium a LllmsiaMis asS. laofgiffiansss wfinille (fiort (anil®rs give the zero-g environment. Based mpon tlais (iaita msM iUmsidiiiiBS (Djff anaULnnffiffiS- (DDISMCS ffiffffect each irofli— froini observations and caranemts of tEiie S^laifls niinal ium (iiLffffeiremrtt wag^- Oolcnar selectiom by crews, the following antSuropoinietxic onunifflideira— eacfc iar&mwB„ Itas Brdis psBoribiLoinlaF liLkiLnng^ is em- tions were made. o[jgiiaig-©ffl_ lEBne ffltoiLILiLity lb© cftaai^e colcnar schemes at The hunnan torso assunMes a someRiiiat slamic imtEinTfflls will ernifflnnBrnxpe aaai pinoxiraicse aim ever-chang­ attitiutde in weightlessness Csee fignmre 1„ page ing p^nrffyn TrpfnTnig'Tmfr _ iTBinis cEaM fise a(Dtnxnin5>]lJLsliied 11'™ the 93) . The slight bow of the lead results im a fom of BTmmfflTWTrg; coar ipxDJSttears selected toy each cressf- 14-7 difference in one-g and zero-g lime off

m tiQ Ms mmn personoLlL ttaste. sight.

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Rafjcnwadd Midedl

The world today represents the perpetual Everything man is and does is associ­ ated with space. His patterned frames 0) product of man's evolution and, for centuries of of reference relate to this perceptual experience as a function of associa­ time, man has searched for an understanding of tion, activity, and emotion linked with spaces.46 u his universal existence. The primitive stone It is in this sense that man's psychological/ wheels that once aided locomotion, have been re­ space oriented mind must be given careful con­ placed by spacecraft which can carry man beyond sideration in all aspects of the design for a Ul our planet's atmosphere. It is relatively easy Modular Space Station (MSS). The psychological to observe man's technological advancements, yet OC problems of adaptation and orientation, combined so little attention is given to the observation < with the characteristic elements of space and J of man himself and his increasing need for com­ time, become the basic areas of concern for a 3 patibility with the surrounding habitats he design solution. It should be evident at this Q creates. A lack of such knowledge has resulted point that space flights of the future will pro­ 0 in the fact that man and his environment are duce stringent conditions under which men or fast becoming two closely associated elements women will be required to live and perform tasks in opposition to one another. Therefore, man for extended periods of time. A limitation will must develop new organized patterns of reference be placed on weight, and consequently volume, relating to the changing environmental elements because of the shuttle booster capacity. This of space around him, if he is to remain in touch physical constraint will produce interior vol­ with his surroundings. umes which will be near what is considered minimal for the successful completion of the space station designs where these missions fell mission. However, the elements of interior Ul short of the necessary design criteria. These design are variable, and my design proposal will past missions cannot compare with the vast Ul examine these elements of interior configuration amount of knowledge gathered about man and and show how one might increase the tolerance and habitability aboard the Skylab Space Station. successful adaptation for crew members confined Later, much reference will be made about the i within this enclosure. Skylab, concerning certain issues for a MSS Ul The experiences of crew members aboard the module design. It is important to note, at this DC Skylab Space Station have been documented in point, that the design of all subsystems neces­ < J detail through the M487 and M516 Man/Machine sary for environmental control and life support 3 Habitability Experiments conducted during those have been provided by NASA contractors. There­ D Skylab missions. It is through these actual fore, no statements of their design shall be 0 experiences of man in long-term zero-g that much made in this document and only adequate spaces of my design for a MSS is based upon. As a shall be provided for these subsystems in the designer for a MSS, I was fortunate to have this module design. The MSS is composed of several different documentation to rely upon. Past designs for modular components. These components shall be space stations relied upon a limited amount of configured in space in a manner which was pre­ experience derived from short-term missions such viously described in the team's solution for an as the Apollo series. Much was assumed for past NOK^ external configuration design of the MSS (six- accomplished by structuring the station module man plateau). in a manner which can resist the forces of Ul Functional allocations must be understood launching, maintain a pressurized volume, pro­ before any design solution can be rendered. Sta­ vide the necessary shielding required to retard tion module four is primarily a crew quarters the penetration of harmful radiation and meteor­ living module with a partial volxime being con­ ites, and minimize thermal heat loss or gain. Ul sumed by various pieces of equipment pertinent The structuring system designed for station to the mission. Station module four will provide module four is a structure based on an Archi- the crew quarters for three crewmen, hygiene median polyhedral form, the icosahedron. It was facilities, a secondary backup control console, my intention, while searching for an adequate and all primary medical facilities. This module's structure, to provide a structuring system which interior configuration must integrate with the would be completely free from any interior par­ external configuration if a design solution is titions for the necessary support of the struc­ to be found, A great amount of design rests in ture. Interior partitions should be placed one's ability to provide a habitable environment transverse or longitudinal with respect to the for these functions associated with station mod­ module as the interior design evolves without ule four. dictation from the structuring system. The structure used for station module four (see Providing an adequate environment for the slide #«3M^) is an icosahedral rotation consist- inhabitants of the MSS is no easy task. It is ing of one hundred and twenty members and 40 station module four can now be extended the full joints. The members are of H-38/5052 type ex­ 60' shuttle cargo bay length capacity and not Ul truded aluminum alloy tubes having an 0. D. of exceed target weight limitations of the shuttle Ul 1^ inches and a length of 8'5'". Type 5052 craft. aluminum was chosen for use as the structural Several additional factors are required to members because of its excellent welding and assist the structure in providing a habitable i high-strength properties. After having perform­ volume for the crew members. These factors Ull ed an extensive computer analysis on the space include environmental shielding, a pressure ves­ DC frame structure, with the assistance of Mr. Bob sel, and radiators. < Osborne, structural consultant, it was determined The environmental shield consists of an J that this structure could resist the compressive outer layer of type 5052 aluminum (.030" thick). 3 buckling forces (3 g's) of an end burn booster This environmental shield (by North American Q condition. Therefore, the space frame was an Rockwell) will be sufficient to retard the pene­ 0 ideal structure for use in the station module tration of harmful radiation. design. The weight of the total structure, The pressure vessel must be able to maintain including equipment, was reduced 50 percent as a constant 14,7 psi atmosphere. Therefore, the compared to other structural systems designed by pressure vessel consists of type 5052 aliominum various NASA contractors. Having reduced the (.145" thick) and becomes part of the structure weight of the structure, the total length of by connecting, at the joints, all structural l\IOI<^ frame members to this cylindrical shell. interior configuration of station module four is Radiators (by North American RDckwell) arranged by a heirarchy of spaces. The spaces surround the cylindrical exterior of station are arranged from most public (the core entrance) module four. Radiator shielding maintains a to most private, the passive recreation area constant temperature level within the module (see slide«4. ^'^'^ AHD "e^Htc} thereby making the module habitable. The space directly off the core module (area n The radiators, environmental shield, and F and G, see slide # ) is devoted to the pri­ pressure vessel provide the necessary shielding mary medical facilities. This area contains crew E against meteoroid impacts. The radiators and qualification equipment, isolatable medical < J environmental shield serve as a primary bumper equipment and storage, writing surface and stor­ 3 by fragmenting the meteorite as it strikes their age for the medical officer, secondary command Q surface. The 60 layers of mylar further frag­ control console, fire extinguisher, and smoke 0 ment the entering meteorite. The secondary detector. Access to the miscellaneous equipment shield, the pressure vessel, allows none of the area (area E, see slide |*Mio) is provided by a fragments to enter the interior of the module. penetration in the partition separating the two Having described the structure, environ­ areas. The miscellaneous equipment area con­ tains all the equipment necessary for the support mental shielding, radiators, and pressure ves­ of certain subsystems within station module four. sels, attention may now be turned to the interi­ The equipment is mounted on the partition in such or configuration of station module four. The a manner so as to have direct access across the provided by the tunnel. There is a folding partition to the sybsystem it serves. At least partition through the center of this area to three sided access to equipment is made avail­ provide the two crewmen with individual privacy. UI able by mounting these equipment assemblies in This area contains four sleeping berths (two for such a manner. Movement from the miscellaneous the crew members and two for emergency usage) , equipment room to the hygiene area (area D, see two writing surfaces, clothes and miscellaneous i slide #"SHVD) is facilitated by a tunnel which storage areas. Ul follows an exterior spiral trough through the The passive recreation area is the final a structure. The hygiene area contains the fecal/ interior area within station module four (see < urine collector, urinal, hand wash globe, mylar slide fSM«?) . This area will be devoid of any J 3 mirrors, and storage. An executive quarters equipment except for a fire extinguisher, smoke Q area (area C, see slide #$M1C^ is next, and ac­ detector, and antenna package. The antenna D cess is provided by the tunnel. This area con­ package in its collapsed state is extended from tains two sleeping berths (one for the executive this passive recreational area into its fixed officer and one for emergency usage) , writing position. Skylab documentation noted that the surface, table surface (for group meetings), favorite pastime of the crew members was celes- and clothes and miscellaneous storage areas. trial/earth viewing. Therefore, a multitude of windows has been provided for just this purpose. Area B (see slide #<+1'l) serves as the crew Quiet meditation, reading, or celestial/earth quarters area for two crewmen. Access is again viewing should be a few of the activities asso­ h 2) Audio/visual units (AVU) are provided for U) ciated with this area. in the crew quarters, passive recreation Inadequate orientation must not alienate area, and the medical facilities areas. Ul the crew members to interior spaces. Therefore, Those AVU s mounted into crew quarters a common direction (up/down orientation) must areas are capable of rotating 3 60 to i be established. With all equipment mounted on accommodate the crew member whether he or ID internal partitions the down orientation is she is at a work station or in their established as anywhere to the exterior to the sleeping berth. exterior of the module. All equipment is arranged 3) Sleeping berths are adjustable to conform to zero-g or whatever body position is so around these partitions so that this down orien­ desired. Restraint bands are provided to tation is firmly established. The fluctuating induce the gravity pressure astronauts are surfaces provided by the structure enhance the accustomed to. zero-g foot configuration by providing a 17 4) Additional restraint devices (see slide # incline to meet the foot at all work stations. St^^) are sewn into both sides of a crew Additional design statements relating to member's garment at the height of work specific areas are as follows: stations. This spring loaded retractable/ 1) Secondary egress from enclosed areas is locking device contains 15' of thin, high- provided by means of emergency panels strength cord, with a Velcro (hook) sur- u (see slide tt-eMid • face pad attached to the end of its cord. m all areas of the station module four. At all work stations, the Velcro (cloth) Interchangeable pads are to be used when Ul surface is attached to the top leading the hook surface becomes worn. edge, thereby enabling a crewman to 5) The auxiliary passage is located directly approach a work station, extend each pad, across from the executive officer's and firmly affix him or herself to that quarters. This position will facilitate station. Ul a quick exit from the station module for Foot restraints are a must in zero-g, crew members in the event of an emergency. Skylab experience has shown that no 6) Handrails allow the crew members to direct seating devices are needed in zero-g their motion through the tunnel. since the natural body stature of zero-g Organizing patterns of reference in a new provides the best working position for environment for the inhabitants of station mod­ crew members, A Velcro (hook) surface ule four requires that color, sound, odors, mounted to a circular pad which will light, and taste definitely be included in its rotate 360 will be used by all crew design. Color schemes shall remain the choice members. Therefore, the interior down of the crew members inhabiting the module. oriented surfaces are to be of the Their selections are made prior to construc­

Velcro (cloth) surface thus providing tion of the module and the interior spaces will

a soft texture for all of these surfaces be so decorated before launch of the module. fr Nai<^ Provisions have been made to allow crew members personal items shall have an odor associated Ul to exchange, say berth restraints, or colored with them by each crew member's approval. panels (of storage bins) with each other in The sensation of taste will be provided Ul order that interior color schemes could vary. for primarily at meal time. Still another Sound and odor are two extremely important taste will be provided through the toothpaste \ sensory stimuli that must be incorporated in the used in the hygiene area. Criticism of the station module four design. To reduce the lack of taste for the toothpaste utilized in Ul alienation of the space environment, "white" the Skylab missions has also been documented. sound is introduced by the AVUs and provides The lighting used in various areas of OC < noises that crew members find familiar with station module four conforms to the use of the J earth. Sounds of birds singing, rain falling, space. The crew quarters and passive recrea­ 3 Q surf crashing, or trees rustling in the tion areas use a subdued, low-brightness level 0 breeze shall serve to counteract any alienated to achieve a restful atmosphere. Hi-intensity feelings by crew members. Familiar odors shall lamps are provided in the crew quarters for be introduced also to achieve a similar effect additional light if needed. The lighting level for the hygiene and medical facilities area is as the "white" sound. Skylab astronauts were a high-level of illumination. These are areas documented as expressing their concern about a of increased activity and require this amount lack of odor onboard the Skylab Space Station, of lighting in order that the work associated therefore, all soaps, antiperspirants and other with these areas be accomplished effectively and efficiently. Ul An effective design for station module Ul four has been aimed at providing the inhabitants

of the module with a habitable environment in which to live. Objectives were to increase the iUl efficiency of the structural system, reduce the •J impact of alienation of crew members, and to DC develop new organized frames of reference to < J relate the crew members to their new environ­ 3 ment. I feel that my efforts have produced a Q workable solution for the design of a MSS and 0 its component station module.

Fred D. Ballinger tX)D

I