The superpower, the bridge-builder and the hesitant ally : how defense transformation divided NATO (1991-2008) Korteweg, A.R. Citation Korteweg, A. R. (2011, September 15). The superpower, the bridge- builder and the hesitant ally : how defense transformation divided NATO (1991-2008). LUP Dissertations. Leiden University Press, Leiden. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/17837 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) Licence agreement concerning inclusion of License: doctoral thesis in the Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/17837 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). The Superpower, the Bridge- Builder and the Hesitant Ally How Defense Transformation Divided NATO (1991-2008) Cover illustration: Dust storm at Forward Operating Base Kushamond, Afghanistan, July 17, 2009. U.S. Army’s Office of the Chief of Public Affairs. Cover Design: Maedium, Utrecht Layout: Richard Podkolinski ISBN 978 90 8728 147 2 e-ISBN 978 94 0060 065 2 NUR 697 © A.R. Korteweg / Leiden University Press 2011 All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, no part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise) without the written permission of both the copyright owner and the author of the book. The Superpower, the Bridge- Builder and the Hesitant Ally How Defense Transformation Divided NATO (1991-2008) PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van Rector Magnificus prof.mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op donderdag 15 september 2011 klokke 16:15 uur door Arie Rem Korteweg geboren te ’s-Gravenhage, in 1980 Promotiecommissie Promotor: Prof. dr. R. de Wijk (Universiteit Leiden) Copromotor: Dr. N.J.G. van Willigen (Universiteit Leiden) Overige Leden: Prof. dr. H. Binnendijk (National Defense University, Washington DC) Prof. dr. J.S. van der Meulen (Universiteit Leiden) CDRE prof. dr. F.P.B. Osinga (Nederlandse Defensie Academie) Dr. H. Pelikaan (Universiteit Leiden) Contents Prologue ..............................................................................................11 Introduction ........................................................................................13 1 Introduction ....................................................................................13 1.1 What is Transformation? ............................................................................. 13 1.2 Transformation and Revolutions in Military Affairs ............................ 15 1.3 Transformation and Change in the Function of the Military ............. 17 1.4 Two Types of Transformation .................................................................... 19 1.5 The Contemporary Period of Transformation ....................................... 21 2 Transformation in NATO ............................................................22 3 Between Mars and Venus .............................................................25 4 Problem Statement .........................................................................31 5 Theoretical Framework .................................................................32 5.1 System and Domestic–Level Theories of International Relations..... 33 5.2 Neoclassical Realism .................................................................................... 37 5.3 Strategic Culture: National Character of States in Security ................ 45 6 Research Design: Transformation and Neoclassical Realism ...............................55 7 The Organization of this Study ...................................................57 7.1 Case studies .................................................................................................... 57 7.2 Methodology .................................................................................................. 59 7.3 A Word on Notes ........................................................................................... 62 Part 1 – Transformation in the United States............................63 Climbing the Ladder of Primacy .........................................................65 8 Introduction ....................................................................................65 9 US Transformation Defined ........................................................66 10 System Level Factors that Triggered US Transformation .....70 10.1 Collapse of the Soviet Union ...................................................................... 70 10.2 Guided Munitions Warfare: From Vietnam to Desert Storm ............ 71 10.3 Pax Americana ............................................................................................... 81 10.4 Making War Obsolete .................................................................................. 89 10.5 Technological War ......................................................................................103 11 Strategic Culture and US Transformation ............................. 111 11.1 A Symbol of Strategic Culture ..................................................................111 11.2 Watchmen of Freedom ..............................................................................112 11.3 Expressions of US Strategic Culture .......................................................121 11.4 The Ball of Liberty .......................................................................................137 11.5 Strategic Culture and its impact on Transformation ..........................144 12 US expressions of transformation ........................................... 146 12.1 9/11 and Prevention ...................................................................................147 12.2 SOF-ing the Army .......................................................................................152 12.3 Air Force Transformation ........................................................................160 12.4 Naval Transformation ................................................................................161 12.5 The Hey-Day of Transformation: Towards the QDR 2006 ...............163 13 The Impact of Changes in the Security Environment ....... 166 13.1 A Struggle towards Strategic Transformation ......................................167 13.2 Translating Irregular Warfare into a new Adaptive Strategy .............178 13.3 Back to the Default ......................................................................................195 14 Conclusion of US Case Study................................................... 205 14.1 Transformation Hubris ..............................................................................208 14.2 A Transformation Bubble..........................................................................210 Part 2 – Transformation in Europe: The Netherlands & Germany ........................................ 213 The Netherlands: Between Relevance and Stability ..........................215 15 Introduction ................................................................................. 215 16 Dutch Transformation Defined ............................................... 218 17 System-Level Factors that Triggered Dutch Transformation .................................... 218 17.1 Sustaining Western Power after the Cold War .....................................219 17.2 European Integration .................................................................................221 17.3 Towards Expeditionary Operations .......................................................224 18 Strategic Culture and Dutch Transformation ....................... 233 18.1 Stability Projection ......................................................................................234 18.2 Being Relevant .............................................................................................244 19 Expressions of Dutch Transformation ................................... 257 19.1 Ambition-based Planning: 1991 & 1993 ...............................................257 19.2 Srebrenica and the Framework of Evaluation ......................................261 19.3 Adding a high-intensity comfort zone ...................................................263 19.4 Capabilities for the A-Team ......................................................................268 19.5 Network-centric emulation ......................................................................271 19.6 Financial Constraints on the Extractive Capacity ...............................272 20 The Impact of Changes in the Security Environment: Clashes of Culture ............................ 276 20.1 Allied Force: Identity in Friction .............................................................276 20.2 Iraq: The Demand for Stability is larger than its Supply ....................279 20.3 Left-Right Tensions over Defense Procurement .................................281 20.4 Uruzgan .........................................................................................................283 21 Conclusion: Torn between Relevance and Stability ............ 299 Germany: A Slow, Strategic Awakening ............................................305 22 Introduction ................................................................................. 305 23 German Transformation Defined ........................................... 306 24 System Level