Unit 10: Gunpowder Empires
Name: ______Teacher: ______IB/AP World History 9 Commack High School
Please Note: You are responsible for all information in this packet, supplemental handouts provided in class as well as your homework, class webpage and class discussions.
Introduction to Gunpowder Empires
The Mongol invasions of the 13th and 14th centuries destroyed the Muslim unity of the Abbasids and the power of many regional dynasties. Three new Muslim dynasties arose to bring a new flowering to Islamic civilization. The greatest, the Ottoman Empire, reached its peak in the 17th century; to the east the Safavids ruled in Persia and Afghanistan, and the Mughals ruled much of India. Together the three empires possessed great military and political power; they also produced an artistic and cultural renaissance within Islam. All three dynasties originated from Turkic nomadic cultures; each possessed religious fervor and zeal for conversion. They built empires through military conquest based upon the effective use of firearms. Each was ruled by an absolute monarch and drew revenues from taxation of agrarian populations. There were differences. The Mughals ruled mostly non-Muslim peoples, the Safavids mostly Muslims, and the Ottomans a mixture of Muslims and Christians. The Safavids were Shi'a Muslims; the others were Sunni.
The Ottomans:
The Turkic peoples entered Anatolia after the Mongols defeated the Seljuks of eastern Anatolia in the mid- 13th century. After a period of turmoil a tribe led by Osman secured dominance establishing the Ottomans. Under Mehmed II they captured Constantinople in 1453 and ended the Byzantine Empire. They spread into Syria, Egypt, North Africa, and even temporarily laid siege to the city of Vienna in Austria. Their navy dominated the eastern Mediterranean. Military leaders had a dominant role in the Ottoman state, a society geared to war and expansion. The Turkic horsemen became a warrior aristocracy supported by control of conquered land and peasants. When their power shrank before that of an expanding central bureaucracy, they built up regional power bases. From mid- 15th century imperial armies were dominated by Janissary infantry divisions composed of conscripted youths from conquered lands. Their control of artillery and firearms gave them great power. Ottoman rulers survived challenges to their authority by playing off the competing factions within their state. Muslim, Christian, and Jewish merchants were important. The latter two were "peoples of the book" who often were satisfied with the sound administration of their Muslim rulers. A large bureaucracy headed by a vizier had great power in the state. Early rulers and their sons participated in the administration. Unfortunately, there were no rules for dynastic secession, which led to heated struggles for the position of the Sultan and often the execution of rivals. The imperial capital at Constantinople combined the disparate cultures under Ottoman rule. The new rulers restored the city after 1453; the church of Hagia Sophia became one of Islam's grandest mosques. Adding to the city's splendor, Suleyman the Magnificent built the great Suleymaniye mosque in the 16th century. Constantinople became the commercial center dealing in products from Asia, Africa, and Europe. Many urban inhabitants belonged to merchant and artisan classes. The government closely regulated both activities. Handicrafts were encouraged. Imperial workshops produced numerous products, and public works employed many artisans. By the 17th century the Turkish language became the preferred vehicle for literature and the government. The Ottomans left a significant artistic legacy in poetry, ceramics, carpet manufacturing, and architecture. Women were subordinate to fathers and husbands and had few outlets, especially among the elite, for expression outside of the household.
What was the geographic and historical context for the founding of the Ottoman Empire? Objective: Describe the geographic context for founding of the Ottoman Empire.
➡ Directions: Examine the images below, then complete the questions that follow.
Think Like a Geographer
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Greece#/media/File:Territorial_changes_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_1566.jpg See Think Wonder List three things you see in the maps Based on your observations, what do you think caused the changes in the maps Write two questions you have about the maps above. above. above.
At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman (1520-1566) controlled large territory in three continents:
______, ______, and ______. Based on your knowledge of previous empires, how do you predict the Ottoman empire was able to gain control of large territories across three continents?
The Rise of the Ottoman Empire ➡ Directions: Examine the timeline and images below, then respond to the questions.
Contextualize
The Ottomans were a Muslim Turkish-speaking nomadic people who migrated from Central Asia in northwestern Asia Minor. They quickly conquered other societies and expanded their empire.
1096-1290s: The Crusades were fought between Muslims and Christians.
1. Using your prior knowledge, what sparked the Crusades?
2. How did the Crusades affect the relationship between Christians and Muslims?
The Battle of Ager Sanguinis, medieval miniature
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ager_Sanguinis#/media/File:Battle-of-Ager- Sanguinis.jpg 1326: A leader named Osman and his Turkish warriors (Ottomans) took over areas of Asia Minor and the Balkan Peninsula in Eastern Europe near the Byzantine Empire. 3. How might Christian leaders of the Byzantine Empire feel about the Muslim Ottomans taking over territory so close to the Byzantine Empire? Explain.
An imagined portrait of Osman I. Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osman_I#/media/File:Osman_Gazi2.jpg 1453: Under the leader, Mehmet II, the Ottomans continue to expand and capture the capital of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople. Constantinople was renamed Istanbul and became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. Hagia Sophia, a church, was turned into a mosque. After a 54 day siege and using a 27-foot cannon hauled by oxen and an advanced army with muskets [guns], Constantinople fell to the Ottomans. 4. What message do you think the conquest of the Byzantine Empire sent to the rest of Europe?
5. Why did the Ottomans convert the Hagia Sophia into a mosque?
6. Why was this conquest a turning point in global history? The entry of Sultan Mehmed II into Constantinople Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror#/media/File:Zonaro_GatesofConst.jpg
7. Based on this map to your right, why was Constantinople so important to the Ottomans?
Source: Farah and Karls, World History, The Human Experience, Glencoe/McGraw-Hill (adapted) from the NYS Global History and Geography Regents Examination, August 2007. 1520-1566: The Ottoman Empire had a golden age under the sultan named Suleiman. The Ottomans called Suleiman “The Lawgiver” and Europeans called him “The Magnificent.” Suleiman also developed laws and enforced the Islamic law of sharia. Suleiman had several accomplishments:
Took on bold military campaigns that increased the amount of territory controlled by the Ottomans Increased naval strength which allowed them to conquer parts of North Africa Oversaw achievements of Ottoman civilization in the fields of law, literature, art, and architecture Built strong fortresses to defend his territories Adorned and modernized the cities of the Islamic world (including Mecca, Damascus, and Baghdad) with mosques, bridges, aqueducts, and other public works 8. What are common characteristics of golden ages?
Suleiman I 9. What were some of Suleiman’s achievements? Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent#/media/File:EmperorSuleiman.jpg
10. Based on the information provided, could Suleiman’s rule of the Ottoman Empire be considered a Golden Age? Why or why not?
1529: Suleiman’s army attacked the city of Vienna, which at the time was located in the Holy Roman Empire and today is located in modern-day Austria . This sent fear throughout Europe 11. How might the siege of Vienna because it demonstrated how strong the Ottoman Empire had become and showed that they were affect how Europe viewed the Ottoman a threat to European states. The Ottomans were unsuccessful in conquering Vienna, but they Empire? continued to be seen as a threatening empire seeking to conquer Europe.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/28/OttomanEmpire1683.png
As the Ottoman Empire grew, new people, particularly non-Muslims, became part of the empire. The Ottoman Empire was diverse and composed of three major religious and ethnic groups:
Flashback: What is one similarity between Muslims, Christians and Jews?______. Although conversion to Islam was not demanded of the conquered, many Christians and a few Jews voluntarily converted to have full rights in the empire. Those who did not convert continued to practice their old religions without restriction.
For centuries, the Ottoman Empire was the refuge of the Jewish people of Europe, who did not have the freedom of religion in Europe that the citizens of the Ottoman Empire did. Jews expelled from Spain in 1492 found refuge in the Balkans and elsewhere in Ottoman territory, where the sultan decreed they should be welcomed. Source: http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Ottoman_Empire
How were non-Muslims treated in the Ottoman Empire?
For centuries, why did Jewish people migrate to the Ottoman Empire?
What was the ethnic and religious composition of the Ottoman Empire? ➡ Directions: Using evidence from the documents above, respond to the task below in the space FA provided.
How did the Ottoman Empire, as led by Suleiman the Magnificent, gain, consolidate, and maintain power? Describe how the Ottoman Empire, as led by Suleiman the Magnificent, gained, consolidated, and maintained power.
At the height of its power, the Ottoman Empire under Suleiman (1520-1566) controlled large territory in Europe, Africa, and Asia.
Make a Prediction: How do you think Suleiman was able to gain control of large territories across three continents?
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Greece#/media/File:Territorial_changes_of_the_ Ottoman_Empire_1566.jpg
What do primary sources reveal about how outsiders Objective viewed the Ottomans? Explain how outsiders viewed the Ottomans.
The Turkish Letters (1589) ➡ Directions: Respond to the questions below using the text and images provided. Sourcing
Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq was a writer and diplomat. Ferdinand I of Austria named Busbecq an ambassador to the Ottoman Empire during their golden age under the rule of Suleiman the Magnificent from 1555 until 1562.
His task was to negotiate a border treaty between with the Sultan Suleiman over a disputed territory.
During his time in the Ottoman Empire, he wrote The Turkish Letters, a collection of personal correspondence to his friend about his observations of life in the Ottoman Empire.
When he returned from the Ottoman Empire, he readied his letters for publication and they were published together in 1589.
Note: Ottoman Empire is also referred to as the Turkish state. People within the Ottoman Empire are referred to as Turkish.
Source for The Turkish Letter excerpt: C. T. Forster and F. H. B. Daniel, eds., The Life and Letters of Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq, vol. I (London: Kegan Paul, 1881), pp, 86-88, 153-155, 219-222, 287-290, 293. (http://legacy.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1555busbecq.asp) Ogier Ghiselin de Busbecq Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Busbec q.jpg
1. Who wrote The Turkish 2. Who was the audience for The 3. When were The Turkish Letters? Turkish Letters? Letters published?
4. What type of source are The 5. Why did the author write The Turkish Letters? Turkish Letters?
What do primary sources reveal about how outsiders viewed the Ottomans?
Section 1: Description of the Janissaries
1 [...] I made my first acquaintance with the Janissaries; 2 this is the name by which the Turks call the infantry 3 [foot soldiers] of the royal guard. The Turkish state 4 has 12,000 of these troops [...] They are scattered 5 through every part of the empire [...] to protect the 6 Christians and Jews from the violence of the mob. [...]
1. Who are the “Janissaries”?
2. Lines 2-6 read, "They are scattered through every part of the empire, either to garrison the forts against the enemy, or to protect the Christians and Jews from the violence of the mob". What does this excerpt reveal about the treatment of non-Muslims in the Muslim Ottoman empire?
Section 2: The Difference Between Janissaries and Christian Soldiers
7 The Turkish monarch going to war takes with him over 400 8 camels and nearly as many baggage mules, of which a great 9 part are loaded with rice and other kinds of grain. [...] On 10 such occasions they take out a few spoonfuls of flour and 11 put them into water, adding some butter, and seasoning the 12 mess with salt and spices; these ingredients are boiled, and 13 a large bowl of gruel is thus obtained. Of this they eat once 14 or twice a day [...] 15 16 From this you will see that it is the patience, self-denial and 17 thrift of the Turkish soldier that enable him to face the most 18 trying circumstances and come safely out of the dangers 19 that surround him. What a contrast to our men! 20 21 Christian soldiers on a [military] campaign refuse to put up 22 with their ordinary food [...] On the [Turkish] side is the 23 vast wealth of their empire [...],an uninterrupted series of 24 victories, readiness to endure hardships, union, order, 25 discipline, thrift and watchfulness. On ours [European 26 Christian] are found [...] luxurious habits, exhausted 27 resources, broken spirits, a raw and insubordinate soldiery, 28 and greedy quarrels [...] [T]here is no regard for discipline 29 [and] the men indulge in drunkenness….
3. How does Busbecq describe janissaries in lines 7-19?
4. According to this excerpt above, what does Busbecq admire about the janissaries? In contrast, what does he dislike about his “Christian soldiers” back home?
5. The Turkish Letters were published for a European audience in 1589. Why would Busbecq’s write extensively about the Ottoman Empire’s military in comparison to the European Christians?
6. How might European Christian leaders feel toward the Ottoman Empire upon reading Busbecq’s account?
Section 3: The Difference Between Social Hierarchy in the Ottoman Empire and in Europe
29 No distinction is attached to birth among the Turks; 30 the deference to be paid to a man is measured by the 31 position he holds in the public service. [...] In making 32 his appointments the Sultan [does not take] into 33 consideration recommendations or popularity. [H]e 34 considers each case on its own merits, and examines 35 carefully into the character [and] ability of the man [...] 36 Among the Turks, therefore, honours, high posts, and 37 judgeships are the rewards of great ability and good 38 service. If a man be dishonest, or lazy, or careless, he 39 remains at the bottom of the ladder, an object of 40 contempt; for such qualities there are no honours in 41 Turkey! 42 43 This is the reason that they are successful in their 44 undertakings, that they lord it over others, and are 45 daily extending the bounds of their empire. These are 46 not our [European] ideas, with us there is no opening 47 left for merit; birth is the standard for everything.
7. On line 29, Busbecq writes, “No distinction is attached to birth among the Turks.” What does this phrase mean?
8. According to lines 30-41, how do people in the Ottoman Empire attain high positions? What does this reveal about social mobility in the Ottoman Empire?
9. According to the excerpt above, does Busbecq favor the Ottoman social structure or the European social structure? Explain.
10. The Turkish Letters were published for a European audience in 1589. Why would Busbecq’s write extensively about the Ottoman Empire’s social structure in comparison to the European Christians?
11. How might European Christian leaders feel toward the Ottoman Empire upon reading Busbecq’s account?
THE MUGHALS
Turkic invaders, led by Babur, invaded India in 1526 after being driven from Afghanistan by the Uzbeks. Babur's forces, using military tactics, technology and a strong cavalry, crushed the Muslim Lodi dynasty and defeated a Hindu confederation by 1527. The first Mughal ruler, Babur, was a talented warrior who also possessed a taste for art and music. Since he was a poor administrator, his sudden death in 1530 brought invasion from surrounding enemies. After a period of chaos, Babur’s grandson Akbar was able to succeed to the throne and became a ruler with outstanding military and administrative talent. His armies consolidated Mughal conquests in north and central India. Akbar advanced a policy of reconciliation with his Hindu subjects; he encouraged intermarriage, abolished onerous taxes, and respected Hindu religious customs. Hindus rose to high ranks in the administration. Akbar invented a new faith, Din-I llahi or Divine Faith, which incorporated components of various religions to unify his subjects and ultimately made himself God’s representative on Earth. The Hindu and Muslim warrior aristocracy were granted land and labor for their loyalty. Socially, he regulated the consumption of alcohol, strove to improve the position of women and encouraged widow remarriage and discouraged child marriages. The 17th century rulers Jahangir and Shah Jahan continued the policy of tolerance toward Hindus along with most other elements of Akbar's administration. Both preferred the good life over military adventures. They were important patrons of the arts; they expanded painting workshops for miniatures and built great architectural works, including Shah Jahan’s Taj Mahal, often blending the best in Persian and Hindu traditions. Jahangir and Shah Jehan left the details of daily administration to subordinates, thus allowing their wives to win influence. Nur Jahan, Jahangir's wife, dominated the empire for a time through her faction. Mumtaz Mahal, wife of Shah Jahan also amassed power. While the life of court women improved, the position of women elsewhere in society declined. Child marriage grew more popular, widow remarriage died out, and seclusion for both Muslim and Hindus increased. Sati, the former Hindu practice of a widow throwing herself on a funeral pyre, spread among the upper classes.
Graphic Organizer Worksheet - Babur and the Beginnings of the Mughal Empire
Directions: Use the website http://www.mughalindia.co.uk/room.html to complete the Graphic Organizer.
ERA: 1450 – 1750 Ottoman Empire Safavid Empire Mughal Empire
POLITICAL Turkic group called the Challenged the Ottomans for Founders were displaced Ottomans dominated other leadership of the Islamic world princes in search of a new Leaders/groups nomadic groups Sail al-Din began a militant kingdom Forms of government Led by Osman campaign to purify and reform Babur struggled for control (he Empires Built empire through Asia Islam and spread Muslim lost his original kingdom) State building/expansion Minor and parts of Europe teachings among the Turkic Akbar – one of the greatest Political structures Mehmed II conquered the tribes and the region. leaders of all of history – had a Courts/laws Byzantine Empire Isma’il led Turkic followers to vision of empire and mission to victory; proclaimed shah unite India under his rule. Nationalism/nations Extended the empire into Syria, Egypt, and North Africa Later shahs fought to bring Built a military and Revolts/revolutions Turkic chiefs under their administrative system (Arabs) Janissaries helped choose control; became warrior Problems with corruption & sultans using military and nobility ineffectiveness in the political power. Abbas the Great – made use of bureaucracy and military (and Extensive bureaucracy the youths who were captured lack of funding for both) Grand vizier in Russia (educated and factored into the decline Problems with corruption & converted them to Islam); Reversal of Akbar’s policies bribery in decline became backbone of military towards Hindus led to conflicts Monarchs not as prepared forces between Muslims and Hindus. Called “sick man of Europe” Extensive bureaucracy Civil conflict and internal but lasted for 600 years padishah dissent = factor of decline Force in European politics until Fear of succession of rulers led Centralized political power the late 1800s to violence & oppression broke down; left openings in Confinement of rulers led to many parts of India for foreign unprepared princes intervention Isfahan fell to the Afghanis; bloody struggle for power ensued; battle-ground for neighbors and nomadic raiders ECONOMIC Economy geared for warfare Network of roads and Cotton textiles = great demand and expansion guarantees of safety for foreign by Europeans (started by the Agricultural, pastoral Peasants - food source for merchants and travelers British) Economic systems empire Encouraged trade with India, Major overseas destination for Labor systems/ European spice trade cut into China, and Portuguese (later Asian products in return for organizations Ottoman profits. Dutch & English) Indian cotton textiles Industrialization Merchants and tax collectors Encouraged the growth of Head taxes on non-believers Technology/industry lost critical profits. handicraft production and trade fell on poor Hindus, who could Capital/money Economy – constricted (less not afford them & caused Business organizations market oriented and more resistance. backward even to the Breakdown of the central Ottomans) government led to economic Did not keep up with European exploitation of Indian artisans technology (trade & crafts) and peasants by local lords and foreign and local merchants (namely the British)
RELIGIOUS Protectors of the Islamic One of the most enduring Policy of reconciliation and heartland; scourge of Christian centers of Shiites within the cooperation with Hindu princes Belief systems/ teachings Europe Islamic world and population pursued by Philosophy Subjects largely Christian Origins with Sufi mystics and Akbar (policies below) Holy books initially, then became a minority religious preachers Abolished the jizyab (head tax) Conversion later Highly militant strain of Islam Promoted Hindus to the highest Key figures Empire founded and extended to Red Heads ranks of government Deities spread Islam through jihads Mullahs Ended ban on the building of Religious leaders and legal All religious leaders were new Hindu temples scholars part of bureaucracy required to curse the first three Ordered Muslims to respect the Had to deal with the Sunni-Shiite caliphs and mention the Safavid cow (viewed as sacred by the split (Ottomans supported the ruler in the Friday sermon. Hindus) Sunnis) Teaching in the mosque schools Attempted to promote his new – planned & directed by state faith, Din-i-Ilahi, but it religious officials ultimately failed. Rise of Sikhism; followers initially tried to bridge gaps between Muslims and Hindus but were persecuted SOCIAL Extensive bureaucracy Warrior nobles were assigned Ruled mostly non-Muslim Religious leaders and legal villages, whose peasants were population Family/ kinship scholars required to supply them and Muslim and Hindu aristocrats Gender roles/relations Janissaries grew in political their troops with food and were granted peasant villages Social and economic classes power, displaced the aristocrats labor. for their support in return for Racial/ ethnic factors Peasants and laborers used and Most powerful warrior leaders cavalry and responding to Entertainment abused for additional taxes and part of the imperial (empire) emperor demands. crops. administration Lifestyles Merchant and artisan class Army slave boys captured in Local leaders left alone in “Haves” & “have nots” Ottoman sultans grew distant Russia (similar to the Ottoman return for loyalty and taxes from needs of subjects as the janissaries) Established living quarters for empire increased in size and Elaborate court rituals the homeless wealth. Etiquette and decorum Tried to regulate he Patriarchal society governed social interactions consumption of alcohol Restrictive practices for women Civil strife and breakdown of Encouraged widows to remarry (seclusion and veiling) services hurt the peasantry. Ended child marriage Wives of rulers had more Artisan or skilled class of Prohibited sati power and influence. workers (engineers, Eased purdah restrictions Ordinary women could trade, stonemasons, & carpenters) Wives of rulers had more lend money, and invoke Patriarchal society power and influence. protections in Islamic law. Restrictive practices for women Power of women at court (seclusion and veiling) increased; ordinary women Wives of rulers had more decreased. power and influence. Reversals of Akbar’s policies Ordinary women could trade, on women (4 above) lend money, and invoke Restrictive practices for women protections in Islamic law. (seclusion and veiling) Female babies not wanted (dowry costs) Civil strife and breakdown of services hurt the peasantry. Polo matches Ox and tiger matches Games of pachisi (life-sized boars with palace dancers as chips) INTERACTIONS Defeated the Byzantines and Battle of Chaldiran between Babur crushed the last ruler of captured Constantinople using Shiite and Sunnis (Ottoman the Muslim Lodi dynasty of War/conflict gunpowder & siege warfare Sunnis won with the use of Northern India while severely Diplomacy/treaties Naval power grew gunpowder) outnumbered (12,000 to their Alliances Golden Horn Used European advisors and 100,000). Exchanges between Coffeehouses weaponry (cannons, training, & Used gun carts, moveable individuals, groups, & Defeated at the Battle of muskets) artillery, and cavalry tactics empires/nations Lepanto, rebuilds fleet quick Abbas I established the empire Babur defeated Hindu warrior- Trade/commerce as a major center of kings at Khanua and eventually Globalization Blocked Western style ideas and international trade; built a large portions of the Indus and innovations as empire declined network of roads and rest Ganges plains. houses; provided safety for Major overseas destination for merchants & travelers. Asian products in return for Encouraged trade with India, Indian cotton textiles China, and Portuguese (later India fell behind the West in the Dutch & English too) areas of science & inventions. Foreign threats from nomadic raiders and Ottoman and Mughal armies led to decline of territory ARTS Converted Saint Sophia Persian language Babur wrote one of the greatest cathedral into a grand mosque Isfahan (square-like with histories of India, was a fine Art Applied knowledge of shops, mosques, government musician, and designed gardens Music Byzantines into architecture offices, arches, and gardens); for his new capital at Delhi. Writing/literature Aqueducts styled with vivid ceramic tiles, Cotton textiles Philosophy Suleymaniye mosque built by geometric designs, floral Expanded painting workshops Math Suleyman the Magnificent patterns, and versus from the Taj Mahal Quran, gardens, and reflecting Science Minarets Fed Fort at Delhi pools Education Built mansions rest houses, Mughal architecture – blend of religious schools, hospitals, & Persian, Hindu, and Islamic Architecture Technology gardens traditions (Islamic domes, arches, and minarets and their Innovations Guild standards balance with Hindu love or Transportation Persian & Arabic languages, ornament of white marble, but later Turkish language used Poetry semi-precious stones, and floral Ceramics and geometric patterns) Carpets Avoided Western knowledge ENVIRONMENTAL Anatolia (Turkey) Iran & Afghanistan India Origins with the Turkic Origins with the Turkic Delhi region of the Ganges Location nomadic cultures of the central nomadic cultures of the central plains Physical Asia steppe Asia steppe Origins with the Turkic Human/environment Constantinople (Byzantine Tabriz (city captured by nomadic cultures of the central Migration/movement Empire) Isma’il) Asia steppe Region Built empire through Asia Conquered most of Persia Expanded into northern and Demography Minor and parts of Europe Isfahan (capital city) central India Neighborhood Extended the empire into Syria, Delhi (new capital city for Urbanization Egypt, and North Africa (bulk Babur) Settlement patterns of Arab territory) Delhi, Agra and Lahore (chief Disease Mughal cities) Cities (2 major ones) Calicut (city known for cotton)
https://slaviccenter.osu.edu/sites/slaviccenter.osu.edu/files/Outreach-teacher-training-neh-ca-safavid-empire-brian-desmond.pdf