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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Los Angeles Arabicizing, Privileges, and Liturgy in Medieval Castilian Toledo: The Problems and Mutations of Mozarab Identification (1085-1436) A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Aaron Michael Moreno 2012 © Copyright by Aaron Michael Moreno 2012 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Arabicizing, Privileges, and Liturgy in Medieval Castilian Toledo: The Problems and Mutations of Mozarab Identification (1085-1436) by Aaron Michael Moreno Doctor of Philosophy in History University of California, Los Angeles, 2012 Professor Teofilo F. Ruiz, Chair Most approaches to the history of Mozarabs (Christians with lineal roots in Muslim-ruled Iberia) in Castilian Toledo are framed within linear narratives of assimilation, treating the fates of their communal linguistic, legal, and liturgical traits—that is, the use of Arabic, the enjoyment of communal-specific juridical privileges, and the adherence to the traditional Spanish rite—as a metric for gauging the vitality of their identities. Having examined Arabic, Latin, and Romance documentary and narrative sources from the eleventh century through the fifteenth century, I argue against such teleological trajectories and ethnic marker assumptions and instead examine the shifting medieval concerns and contexts which shaped the fluid perceptions and definitions of Mozarabs during the centuries following Toledo’s sudden shift from Muslim to Latinate control. ii My conclusions are greatly strengthened by devoting substantial comparative analyses to native Christians in Norman through Aragonese Sicily and the Crusader States. This hitherto unexplored examination of the Arabic, Greek, Latin, and Romance sources related to medieval Christian communities in the formerly Islamic world not only moves beyond traditional historiographical insularity but also facilitates the reevaluation of ethnic identifications in the medieval Arabo-Latinate and Greco-Latinate frontiers under Latinate Christian rule. iii The dissertation of Aaron Michael Moreno is approved. Patrick Geary Michael G. Morony John C. Dagenais Teofilo F. Ruiz, Committee Chair University of California, Los Angeles 2012 iv DEDICATIONS This project would have been impossible without the support of many people to whom I am eternally grateful. I would like to thank John G. O’Brien and Jacoba Hurst for planting the notion that history could be more than a pastime, my parents for warming to the idea that I would become a doctor—of philosophy, and Amy Remensnyder for helping me plan how to achieve this goal. My dissertation committee has been instrumental in my formation as a scholar. As chair and advisor, Teo Ruiz not only guided my research but also taught me how to live as an academic. The probing questions and suggestions of Patrick Geary greatly honed my analytical approach. Michael Morony’s close reading of my work was invaluable, and his knowledge of the Islamic world greatly enhanced my research. John Dagenais’ secondary source reading suggestions was immensely helpful, and his flexibility during the writing process was greatly appreciated. I furthermore would like to thank Adeline Rucquoi for graciously allowing me to live in her beautiful Madrid home while conducting research abroad. Finally, I dedicate this work to Erin Cusack, my eternal soundboard for ideas large and small, my vicarious colleague in the academic world, and my greatest inspiration. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction 1 – 23 Chapter 1 24 – 56 Aliases and Immigrants: The Employment and Differentiation of Identities Chapter 2 58 – 98 Judges and Geography: The Legacy of Intra-Christian Parallel Judiciaries in Medieval Toledo Appendices (95 – 98) Chapter 3 99 – 147 Memories and Notaries of Arabic: Language and Mozarab Identity in a Romance World Chapter 4 148 – 194 Liturgy, Language and Goths: The Shifting Significance of the Spanish Rite in Medieval Toledo Appendices (190 – 194) Conclusions 195 – 202 Bibliography 203 – 217 vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This project also would have been impossible without the support of numerous organizations and institutions. I would like to thank the Fulbright Commission, the Lynn and Maude White Fellowship, and the Spanish Ministry of Culture’s Program for Cultural Cooperation for funding my research in Spain. The Fredi Chiappelli Research Travel Fellowship and the Hoxie Research Travel Stipend were essential for my comparative research in Sicily and Portugal. I am also indebted to the Foreign Language and Area Studies (FLAS) Program and the Center for European & Eurasian Studies, for without their support I would have been hard- pressed to read many of the documents which I encountered. I also am extremely grateful for the support and insight provided by Maribel Fierro and Mercedes García-Arenal at the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC) during my time in Madrid, in addition to the kind treatment which I received at the Biblioteca Nacional, Archivo Histórico Nacional and the Archivo de la Catedral de Toledo. Sincere thanks are also due to Mons. Gaetano Tulipano for allowing me access to the Archivio della Cappella Palatina in Palermo, and the very flexible and tech-savvy Riccardo Magistri for his flexibility in granting me access to documents from the Archivio Capitolare of Patti. vii VITA Aaron Michael Moreno graduated from Brown University in 2003 and taught English for a year in Japan as part of the Japanese Exchange and Teaching (JET) Programme. He matriculated at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) Department of History in 2004 and received a Master’s degree in history in 2007. He has received a number of awards and honors, including a Fulbright Fellowship, Foreign Language and Area Studies grant, and Spanish Ministry of Culture Program for Cultural Cooperation grant; has published several articles and translations in Parole de l’Orient , the International Encyclopaedia for the Middle Ages – Online , and the Fasti Ecclesiae Gallicanae series; and has presented papers in numerous conferences, such as those of the Medieval Academy of America, the American Historical Association, and the Congrès Arabe Chrétien. viii INTRODUCTION History and Historiography of the Mozarabs The historiography of Mozarabs—individuals who can be identified at a most basic level as Christians with lineal roots in al-Andalus—has always been a faithful indicator of contemporary concerns. Spain’s search for a historical identity in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century resulted in the Mozarabs being remembered alternately as the candle bearers of a timeless Catholic Spanish spirit unbroken by the Muslim conquest of Visigoth Hispania in 711 or as a symbol of a unique multi-cultured past which continued to differentiate Spain from the rest of Europe. 1 More recently, medieval history’s embracing of ethnic and identity studies has renewed scholarly interest in Mozarabs, a phenomenon no doubt related to current global concerns regarding immigration and minorities. Significantly, this phenomenon has been particularly represented in Spain by Moroccans, thereby resulting in the first substantial presence of Muslims—and the quotidian employment of Arabic—in Iberia since the early seventeenth century. 2 1 For the primary advocate of the former, see Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz, España: Un Enigma Histórico , 2nd ed. (Buenos Aires: Editorial Sudamericana, 1962). For the primary advocate of the latter, see Angel González Palencia, Los Mozárabes de Toledo en los Siglos XII y XIII. Volumen Preliminar: Estudio e Índices (Madrid: Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan, 1930). Simonet’s classic study of Mozarab history, mostly focusing on al-Andalus, as well, interpreted Mozarab assimilation with a tragic lens, the unavoidable result of an alluring culture. Francisco Javier Simonet, Historia de los Mozárabes de España Deducida de los Mejores y Más Auténticos Testimonios de los Escritores Cristianos y Árabes , 4 vols. (Madrid: Estab. tip. de la viuda e hijos de M. Tello, 1897-1903). For an excellent review of the nineteenth- and twentieth-century historiography of al-Andalus, see James T. Monroe, Islam and the Arabs in Spanish Scholarship : 16 th Century to the Present (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970). For two excellent reviews of Mozarab historiography, see Diego Olstein, La Era Mozárabe: Los Mozárabes de Toledo (Siglos XII y XIII) en la Historiografía, Las Fuentes y la Historia (Salamanca: Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca, 2006). 23- 50; Richard Hitchcock, Mozarabs in Medieval and Early Modern Spain: Identities and Influences (Burlington: Ashgate, 2008). 2 Modern Spain became a net immigration country in the 1980’s, but this phenomenon only began to receive serious scholarly attention in the mid-1990’s. Tellingly, an issue of the Spanish journal of medieval Andalusí history al- Qantara was devoted to Mozarabs precisely during this time (“Andalusí” is the adjectival form for al-Andalus. It does not refer to the modern-day region of Andalucía ). José Cazorla, "La Inmigración Marroquí en España. Datos, Opiniones y Previsiones," Revista Internacional de Sociología (ser. 3) 12 (1995); Graciela Sarrible, "El Mediterráneo. Expectativas de Migraciones," Revista Internacional de Sociología (ser. 3) 12 (1995); Al-Qantara , vol. 15 no. 2. (1994). 1 Another supportive undercurrent for increased attention to Mozarab studies can be found in a scholarly reaction against the narrative of a Clash of Civilizations between the “West” and the Muslim world, resulting in a re-packaging