Dress and Identity in Old Babylonian Texts By Terri-lynn Wai Ping Hong Tanaka A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Near Eastern Studies in the Graduate Division of the University of California, Berkeley Committee in charge: Professor Niek Veldhuis, Chair Doctor Laurie Pearce Professor Gary Holland Fall 2013 © 2013 by Terri-lynn W.P.H. Tanaka Abstract Dress and Identity in Old Babylonian Texts by Terri-lynn Wai Ping Hong Tanaka Doctor of Philosophy in Near Eastern Studies University of California, Berkeley Professor Niek Veldhuis, Chair The present study argues that using dress theory is a productive means of reading cuneiform texts from ancient Mesopotamia. Although anthropological studies on dress have flourished in recent years, and despite the economic and social importance of dress in ancient Mesopotamia, previous research has focused on either archaeological remains or pictorial representations of dress; however, anthropological theories on dress have not yet been applied to ancient Mesopotamian cuneiform texts written in Sumerian and Akkadian. This is surprising, given that the rich and varied cuneiform textual tradition provides a unique perspective on these cultural phenomena. Three major anthropological theories on dress have been identified: the semiotic approach, in which an item of dress functions as a symbol, representing not the item of dress itself, but an abstract idea or concept; the dress as material object approach, in which the focus is on the item of dress itself as an object that can communicate aspects of identity; and the use of dress in the construction of identity approach, which emphasizes the surface of the body, and looks at the body as a medium on which identity can be constructed using dress. It builds off of the second approach in that it requires understanding what aspects of identity an item of dress is communicating, in order to understand how the individual is using dress to actively construct identity. This study starts with a philological analysis of items of dress that appear in texts to discern what aspects of identity are expressed through the item (dress as material object approach) in order to examine what identity the individual is constructing (or having constructed for him or her) by the use of various items of dress (dress used in the active construction of identity approach). Since dress plays an important role in a wide variety of texts (from legal to administrative to epistolary) throughout all of Mesopotamian history, it would be beyond the scope of this study to examine every text in which dress appears. The purpose of this study is to apply these methods to a selected group of texts from the Old Babylonian period, to demonstrate both the use and the usefulness of these methods in reading ancient Mesopotamian texts. This study examines selected texts in three different contexts: literary, legal, and ritual. 1 The chapter on literary contexts focuses on the composition “Inana’s Descent to the Netherworld,” and argues that identity, as expressed through dress, plays a key role in understanding various aspects of the text, including the significance of Inana’s dressing and undressing, why Inana was judged for her attempt to take over the Netherworld, and why she handed over Dumuzi as a substitute for herself. The chapter on legal contexts focuses on the use of the hem of the garment in legal contexts. It argues that the hem of the garment is equivalent to a cylinder seal in expressing an individual’s legal identity, which carries with it both rights and responsibilities. As a result, it can be used to bring about a change of identity for the woman in both marriage and divorce. The chapter on ritual contexts focuses on the use of dress to bring about a change of identity through a rite of passage at various points in the life cycle: at birth, and at death. At birth, dress is used to start constructing the newborn’s gender identity (as opposed to its biological sex). At death, dress is used to transfer the deceased from being a living member of the community to being among the dead. Thus, looking at dress as a material object that can communicate identity, in order to understand how the individual involved is constructing his or her identity (or having his or her identity constructed) is a valuable way of reading (or re-reading) ancient Mesopotamian cuneiform texts. Not only does it make it possible to investigate the idea of identity, which might otherwise not be directly accessible, but it also illuminates aspects of the texts that might be puzzling or else overlooked, if items of dress are treated not as items of dress, per se, but as symbols that represent something else. 2 To the one who has done immeasurably more than all I could have asked or imagined i TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION . i TABLE OF CONTENTS . ii LIST OF TABLES . iv LIST OF FIGURES . v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . vi Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION . 1 1.1 Dress . 1 1.2 Identity in Mesopotamia . 10 1.2.1 Identity in Literary Contexts . 13 1.2.2 Identity in Legal Contexts . 16 1.2.3 Identity in Ritual Contexts . 18 1.3 Goals of the Study . 18 2. DRESS AND IDENTITY IN LITERARY CONTEXTS: “INANA’S DESCENT TO THE NETHERWORLD” . 20 2.1 Introduction . 20 2.2 Inana’s Dress: Putting on Her Identity . 27 tug 2.2.1 2šu-gur-ra (turban) . 27 2.2.2 hi-li (ornament) . 29 tug na 2.2.3 2pala3 (pala-garment), šembi (kohl), 4za-gin3 di4-di4-la2 (small lapis lazuli beads), and har kug-sig17 (gold ring) 36 na 2.2.4 4nunuz tab-ba (segmented bead) . 47 2.2.5 tu-di-tum (toggle pin) . 48 2.3 Inana’s Dress vs. Her Stated Identity and Intention . 52 2.4 Ereškigal’s Trick: Remove Inana’s Identity . 55 2.5 Transgressing the Boundaries of Identity: An Explanation for Other Aspects of the Text . 58 2.6 Conclusion . 65 3. DRESS AND IDENTITY IN LEGAL CONTEXTS: THE HEM OF THE GARMENT . 66 3.1 Introduction . 66 3.2 Hem as a Marker of Legal Identity . 68 3.2.1 Hem as More than a Symbol for the Person . 68 ii 3.2.2 The Use of the Hem in Lieu of a Seal . 72 3.2.2.1 Sealing . 72 3.2.2.2 Hem in Lieu of a Seal: The Evidence . 73 3.2.2.3 Why can a hem be used in lieu of a seal? . 78 3.3 Hems and Change in Identity . 81 3.3.1 Marriage . 82 3.3.1.1 Marriage in Old Babylonian Mesopotamia . 82 3.3.1.2 Tying the terhatum in the Bride’s Hem . 83 3.3.1.3 Familial Affiliation and Identity of the Woman 84 3.3.1.4 Familial Identity of the Bride’s Children . 89 3.3.1.5 Tying the terhatum in the Woman’s Hem: The Initiation of the Change in Identity . 93 3.3.2 Cutting the Wife’s Hem in Divorce . 98 3.3.2.1 The Effect of Cutting the Hem on the Woman’s Identity . 99 3.3.2.2 The Effect of the Cutting of the Hem on the Man’s Obligation to the Woman . 99 3.3.2.3 The Effect of Cutting the Hem on the Marital Property . 100 3.4 Conclusion: Why use the hem in changing identity? . 105 4. DRESS AND IDENTITY IN RITUAL CONTEXTS . 107 4.1 Introduction . 107 4.2 Gender Identity at Birth . 109 4.3 Change of Identity in Death and Burial Rituals . 123 CONCLUSION . 138 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 143 APPENDIX A: SOURCES FOR “INANA’S DESCENT TO THE NETHERWORLD” . 169 APPENDIX B: VAS 17 33 (VAT 8381) . 171 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Classification system for dress . 2 Table 2: Summary of anthropological approaches to dress . 9 Table 3: Order of items of dress that Inana puts on . 23 Table 4: Order of items of dress that Inana puts on (as reported to Ereškigal) 24 Table 5: Order of items of dress that are removed from Inana . 25 Table 6: Summary of aspects of identity as expressed by Inana’s dress . 52 Table 7: Inana vs. Dumuzi: Dress and sitting on a throne . 60 Table 8: Evidence for hem in lieu of a seal . 75 Table 9: Value of the terhatum . 88 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: BM 91075 . 32 Figure 2: Hem impression (BM 81023) . 74 Figure 3: Stages in marriage . 82 Figure 4: HMA 9-708 . 120 Figure 5: HMA 9-722 . 121 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of a dissertation cannot happen without the support and encouragement of others, and it is a pleasure to acknowledge those who have made it possible for me to do so. First, I would like to thank my dissertation committee. My advisor, Professor Niek Veldhuis, tirelessly supported both my work and my professional development. His generosity in sharing his impressive breadth of knowledge with me has played a key role in shaping this dissertation. Dr. Laurie Pearce, through her exemplary teaching, mentoring, and editing, has helped me to find my scholarly voice. Professor Gary Holland has been a source of encouragement since the beginning, and it is because of his prompting that I presented my first paper at a professional conference. I would also like to thank a number of other scholars who have freely shared with me their insights on various topics: Professor Jerry Cooper, Professor Francesca Rochberg, Dr. John Hayes, Dr. Carol Bier, and Professor Bob Coote.