Epilegomenon

The Question of Linguistic Change

The goal of this book is the explanation of social variation in language, otherwise the meaning and motivation of language change in its social aspect. It is directly concerned with the rational explication of linguistic variety as evidenced by spontaneous innovations in present-day American English. For the most part, I examine the ascription of social value to novel linguistic entities, as one of the areas in which the effects of spontaneous innovations are most notable. A special feature of the data is the plethora of examples drawn from media and colloquial language. In fact, what I present here is an exploration of the ideological value of a whole list of changes-in-progress in American English. To a certain extent, I am contin- uing the older tradition of books like Mencken (1957), Pyles (1952), and Marckwardt (1980), while also investigating an important area of contemporary sociolinguistics not illuminated by books like Wolfram (1974), McDavid (1980), Dillard (1992), Wolfram and Schilling-Estes (1998), or even Labov (1973). The theoretical question posed here (following Andersen 1989) is informed by the idea of linguistic change as a form of communication—the title of a study by Labov, who concluded that members of a speech community use innovations to signal a variety of messages, such as “stronger meaning,”“group solidarity,” “greater intimacy,” or their opposites (1974: 253 ff.). Labov’s study clarifies some of the reasons why innovations are adopted and is significant for its key assumption alone that any novel expression, apart from the content invested in it by grammar and pragmatics, has a specific value by virtue of being different from a traditional expression with the same grammatical and pragmatic content. It is this “connotative content” (Hjelmslev 1960: 114 ff.) of novel linguistic expressions that is the object here. But whereas, for instance, Labov’s study refers the specific values carried by the innovations to such established categories of connotative content as those mentioned above, my investigation concentrates on uncovering the purport of innovations before their definite, collectively understood connotative content has been widely adopted; and before the stage of consolidation of their values has been reached.

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 417 M. Shapiro, The Speaking Self: Language Lore and English Usage, Springer Texts in Education, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51682-0 418 Epilegomenon

The supposed dichotomy between language and society is non-existent in two respects. For one thing, language is an entirely social phenomenon and cannot be separated from its social functions. For another, when linguistic rules make refer- ence to social categories such as age, gender, or class, these categories are also themselves linguistic categories. They can and should be strictly distinguished from such parameters as chronological age, biological sex, or socioeconomic status, which can be defined prior to—and without regard to—the investigation of any language. What linguistic expressions index are culture-specific categories such as ‘youthfulness’, ‘femininity’,or‘upper class’, not as defined in universal, natural- istic terms, but as conventionally encoded and understood by speakers of the lan- guage in question at the given time. Far from being “sociological factors” or “social factors bear[ing] upon linguistic features” (Weinreich et al. 1968: 186), these are in fact linguistic features. They are language-particular categories of content, indexed by linguistic elements of expression, that are selected for expression in discourse by speakers in accordance with their communicative intentions and with the same degree of freedom (and responsibility) as other categories of linguistic content. While it is a commonplace that language is totally embedded in society (linguistic facts are social facts), what is important to understand is that through the soci- olinguistic categories of content indexed by linguistic expressions, the categories of a society are embedded in its language “unevenly” (Weinreich et al.: 185)—that is, selectively. Any theory of language that wishes to explain language use must come to grips with the phenomenon of change and its causes. All linguistic variety, including social and dialectal differentiation within a given language, is necessarily the pro- duct of historical changes, some of which are still in progress at a given point in that language’s development. Representative of much modern theorizing about the causes of language change is Coseriu’s position (1958), according to which change in a language, as well as the absence of change, is produced by its speakers as part of that exercise of their free will which speaking constitutes. In speaking, they may be motivated by the diverse circumstances under which to speak is to deviate from the usage that is traditional in their community. But such a motivation is not a cause in the sense in which linguists (like Bloomfield 1935) understand the word, for individual speakers are free to let themselves be moved—or not moved—by the given circumstance(s). In Coseriu’s view, the only true “cause” of change are the speakers, who use their language, and in doing so observe or neglect their linguistic traditions as they see fit. This way of looking at language is fairly realistic, not only because it assumes that any change may be conditioned by a number of coexisting circumstances, but also because it acknowledges the intentional character of speaking, whether it follows or breaks with tradition, and hence, by implication, an element of intention in both stability and change. In accordance with this latter aspect of Coseriu’s theory, the language historian’s task is not one of causal explanation but of rational explication. What gives my approach its special stamp is a method whose main assumption is that linguistic change has a directionality defined by a parallelism between form and Epilegomenon 419 meaning. A simple example: “knowledges”—‘knowledge’ used in what would be considered a deviant, if not outright ungrammatical, plural form. Why? Because it bears a contemporary ideological message that cannot easily be sustained in straightforward argument, the message, namely, that there are incompatible modes of thought that are equally valid. Thus “Western” science is only one (type of) knowledge to which such alternatives as Pawnee creation myths, “Wicca” witch- craft, etc., are just as valid—so many distinct “knowledges.” In many of the essays in this book, there are series of examples like the one just given that are analyzed in terms of the parallelism between the relational value of linguistic forms and the cultural (ideological) content they signify. American English, like all national languages, abounds in variety. Differences in age, sex, education, and psychosocial habits are typically correlated with differences in language use, so that there are always some discontinuities between the gram- mars of individual speakers. At the same time, similarities in speech and writing also tend to be mirrored by similarities in personalia. One way to understand what these correlations mean is to adopt a historical perspective on both the differences and the similarities of speech/writing. When analyzed with respect to their positions on a continuum, in terms of both the immediately preceding system from which they are departures and the new system of which they are manifestations, linguistic innovations can provide clues to the meaning of social and cultural changes in contemporary American society. General usage in America is understandably far from monolithic. Beside the variety in language use associated with geographical and social dialects, there are numerous linguistic variants that are part of American English in the round, so to speak. Differences in pronunciation such as that of broad and flat /a/ in words like rather or aunt can cross dialectal lines and constitute indicators of speakers’ atti- tudes, i.e., as linguistic clues to their value systems. This kind of evidence can differ from the features that are traditionally labeled as stylistic or social. When applied to individuals that cannot otherwise easily be grouped socioeconomically, a micro- analysis of linguistic habits shifts the focus productively from describing sociolects along traditional lines to identifying nascent groups of speakers by the value sys- tems that account for their departures from received patterns. There is a set of dialectally and socially unlocalized innovations in contemporary American English that are correlated with cultural changes. For instance, failure to apply the traditional laxing rule in forming the plural of house can be seen not merely as the imposition of regularity on the paradigm but as a sign of the speaker’s evidently unconscious rejection of the received pattern and adherence to the spreading new one. When phonological and morphological variants such as this occur in clusters in the language of a growing group of speakers, they can provide evidence of new attitudes not only toward what constitutes acceptable general usage but toward aspects of the “ideological” make-up of such groups. Syntax and semantics represent relatively higher nodes of ascent along the lin- guistic hierarchy from constraint to freedom but are still areas of language structure that provide evidence of variation that can be correlated with “ideological” differences. 420 Epilegomenon

In the last thirty years, for instance, there has been a change in the government of the verb commit whereby the reflexive complement tends to be omitted. This syntactic innovation can be analyzed as an indicator of a change in the core meaning of the verb from that of ‘bind/pledge oneself’ to something more equiv- ocal (‘non-binding/non-committal’). Speakers who habitually use the verb without the reflexive may be said to have a different attitude—and therefore, a different value system—from those speakers of American English who follow the older norm. Semantics is the most fluid of linguistic subsystems and furnishes the richest evidence of the correlation between language use and value systems. An example is that of pleonasm or redundancy. Locutions like equally as (for equally) or also … as well abound in contemporary American speech (and even in writing). In some cases pleonasms become part of general usage (past experience, advance warning, safe haven, etc.), but there are many others that arise spontaneously. An “ideological” analysis of pleonastic constructions—and of redundancy in general—will seek to explore how such usage coheres with a particular attitudinal set toward the relation between form and content that crosses strictly linguistic boundaries to embrace modes of cognition correlated with beliefs and the predispositions toward action they account for. “Wherever the human mind has worked collectively and unconsciously, it has striven for and attained unique form. The important point is that the evolution of form has a drift in one direction, that it seeks poise, and that it rests, relatively speaking, when it has found this poise.” This is how Sapir (1949: 382) famously characterizes the principle of final causation in language. Present possibilities with greater or lesser powers of actualization exist at any given historical stage of a language. Innovations that come to be full-fledged social facts, i.e., changes, must have something about their form that enables them to survive. The ensemble of such innovations-become-changes is what constitutes the drift of a language.

References

Andersen, H. (1989). Understanding linguistic innovations. In L. E. Breivik & E. H. Jahr (Eds.), Language change: Contributions to the study of its causes (pp. 5–28). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Bloomfield, L. (1935). Language. New York: Holt. Coseriu, E. (1958). Sincronía, diacronía e historia: el problema del cambio lingüístico. Montevideo: Universidad. Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias. Dillard, J. L. (1992). A history of American English. London: Longman. Hjelmslev, L. (1960). Prolegomena to a theory of language (F. Whitfield, Trans.). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. Labov, W. (1973). Sociolinguistic patterns. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Labov, W. (1974). Linguistic change as a form of communication. In A. Silverstein (Ed.), Human communication: Theoretical explorations (pp. 221–256). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Marckwardt, A. H. (1980). American English (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford UP. Epilegomenon 421

McDavid, R. I. (1980). Dialects in culture: Essays in general dialectology. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. Mencken, H. L. (1957). The American Language: An inquiry into the development of english in the United States (4th ed.). New York: Knopf. Pyles, T. (1952). Words and ways of American English. New York: Random House. Sapir, E. (1949). Selected writings in language, culture and personality. In D. G. Mandelbaum (Ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. Weinreich, U., Labov, W., & Herzog, M. (1968). Empirical foundations for a theory of language change. In W. Lehmann & Y. Malkiel (Eds.), Directions for historical linguistics (pp. 95–188). Austin: University of Texas Press. Wolfram, W. A. (1974). The study of social dialects in American English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Wolfram, W. A., & Schilling-Estes, N. (1998). American English: Dialects and variation. Oxford: Blackwell. Master Glossary

abduce,v.Latin and other Indo-European languages); the ablative case; a form in this case ablaut,n. vowel change, characteristic of Indo-European languages, that accom- panies a change in grammatical function; for example, i, a, u in sing, sang, sung; also called gradation (German) aborning, adv. while being born or produced; at the moment of birth; before coming to completion competence absolute, adj. of a clause, construction, case, etc., not syntactically dependent on another part of the sentence; of a word: used without a (customary) syntactic dependant; spec. (a) (of a transitive verb) used without an expressed object; (b) (of an adjective or possessive pronoun) used alone without a modified noun abstracta, n. [pl] abstract words (Latin) abut,v. to bring (two things) together accoutrement,n.an identifying but usually extraneous characteristic; a nonessential but usual accompaniment accusative, adj. of, relating to, or being the grammatical case that is the direct object of a verb or the object of certain prepositions acronym,n.a word formed from the initial letters of a name, such as WAC for Women’s Army Corps, or by combining initial letters or parts of a series of words, such as radar for radio detecting and ranging

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 423 M. Shapiro, The Speaking Self: Language Lore and English Usage, Springer Texts in Education, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51682-0 424 Master Glossary actualization,n.affricate,n. a complex speech sound consisting of a stop consonant followed by a fricative; for example, the initial sounds of child and joy agency,n. the capacity, condition, or state of acting or of exerting power agentive,adj. of or relating to a linguistic form or construction that indicates an agent or agency, as the suffix-er in singer agrammatistically, adv. < agrammatistic, adj. < agrammatism,n.loss of the ability to use correct grammar; a form of aphasia characterized by this à la française ‘in the French style’ (French) alas and alack idiomatic phrase used to express regret or sadness aleatory, adj. dependent on chance, luck, or an uncertain outcome Master Glossary 425 allegro, adj. in a quick, lively tempo (Italian) alliterative,adj.syllables allomorph,n. any of the variant forms of a morpheme. For example, the phonetic [s] of cats, [z] of pigs, and [iz] horses are allomorphs of the English plural morpheme {s} allophonic,adj.phoneme, e.g., the aspirated t of top, the unaspirated t of stop, and the tt (pronounced as a flap) of batter—all allophones of the English phoneme /t/ a lokh n kop [like] ‘a hole in the head’ (Yiddish) alveolar, adj. of or relating to the alveolus, i.e., the socket of a tooth, or to the part of a jawbone which contains the tooth sockets; a speech sound, esp. a consonant: articulated by placing the tongue against or near to the alveolar ridge alveolar flap a sound produced by briefly tapping the alveolar ridge with the tongue alveoli, pl. n. < alveolus,n. a tooth socket in the jawbone ambience,n. a surrounding or pervading atmosphere; environment, milieu ameliorative, adj. < ameliorate,v. to make better; to better, improve Americanism,n. a word, phrase, or idiom characteristic of English as it is spoken in the United States amicus,n. friend (Latin), as in amicus curiae ‘friend of the court’ anacrusis,n. one or more unstressed syllables at the beginning of a line of verse, before the reckoning of the normal meter begins anadiplosis,n.rhetorical repetition at the beginning of a phrase of the word or words with which the previous phrase ended; e.g., He is a man of loyalty, loyalty always firm anamnesis,n. the complete history recalled and recounted by a patient anapestic, adj. < anapest,n.a metrical foot composed of two short syllables followed by one long one, as in the word seventeen anaphoric, adj. < anaphora,n. the deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several successive verses, clauses, or paragraphs; for example; the use of a linguistic unit, such as a pronoun, to refer back to another unit anent, prep. in reference to, concerning Anglophone,adj. English-speaking anima ‘air, breath, life, soul, spirit’ (Latin) 426 Master Glossary animadversion,n.apocope,n. the loss of one or more sounds from the end of a word, as in Modern English sing from Middle English singen aporetic, adj. < aporia,n.a figure of speech in which the speaker expresses or purports to be in doubt about a question; an insoluble contradiction or paradox in a text’s meanings apothegmatic, adj. < apothegm,n. a terse, witty, instructive saying; a maxim apotropaic, adj. < apotropaism,n. an act or ritual conducted to ward off evil or danger appellation,n.a name or title by which a person, thing, or clan is called and known apposite, adj. suitable; well-adapted; pertinent; relevant; apt appositive, adj. < apposition,n. a construction in which a noun or noun phrase is placed with another as an explanatory equivalent, both having the same syntactic Master Glossary 427

relation to the other elements in the sentence; e.g., Copley and the painter in The painter Copley was born in Boston apropos, prep. with respect to; concerning, regarding aqueous, adj. of, relating to, or having the characteristics of water archaic, adj. of, relating to, or characteristic of words and language that were once in regular use but are now relatively rare and suggestive of an earlier style or period archaism,n. an archaic word, phrase, idiom, or other expression argosy,n. a rich source or supply artfully, adv. < artful,adj. performed with, characterized by, or exhibiting art or skill artifice,n. n ingenious expedient, a clever stratagem; (chiefly in negative sense) a manoeuvre or device intended to deceive, a trick arytenoid, adj. relating to or being either of two small cartilages to which the vocal cords are attached and which are situated at the upper back part of the larynx aspectual, adj. < aspect,n.a category of the verb designating primarily the relation of the action to the passage of time, especially in reference to com- pletion, duration, or repetition aspirate, adj. pronounced with an immediately following h-sound in a syllable in which the h is not usually represented (as in English) aspirated, adj. pronounced with the initial release of breath associated with English h,asinhurry; followed with a puff of breath that is clearly audible before the next sound begins, as in English pit or kit aspiration,n.the pronunciation of a consonant with an aspirate, i.e., the speech sound represented by English h; the puff of air accompanying the release of a stop consonant like p or t assertory, adj. being or containing an assertion assimilation,n.the process by which a sound is modified so that it becomes similar or identical to an adjacent or nearby sound. For example, the prefix in- becomes im-inimpossible by assimilation to the labial p of possible assimilatory, adj. < assimilate,v. to be or become similar or alike atavism,n. recurrence of or reversion to a past style, manner, outlook, approach, or activity athwart, prep. in opposition to; contrary to attendance,n.

their equivalents in the borrowing language, e.g., English superman for German Übermensch capacious, adj. not narrow or constricted; marked by ample scope cartographer,n. map maker case,n. a distinct form of a noun, pronoun, or modifier that is used to express one or more particular syntactic relationships to other words in a sentence castrato,n.a male singer castrated in boyhood so as to retain a soprano or alto voice catachrestic, adj. tone, or stress contraindicated, adj. inadvisable contravention,n.count noun a noun that forms a plural and is used with a numeral, with words such as many or few, or in English with the indefinite article a or an (as bean, stick, sheet, beer in “a dark beer”) Master Glossary 433 coup de grâce a blow by which one condemned or mortally wounded is ‘put out of his misery’ or dispatched quickly; hence fig. a finishing stroke, one that settles or puts an end to something (French) couplet,n.two successive lines of verse usually having some unity greater than that of mere contiguity (as that provided by rhythmic correspondence, rhyme, or the complete inclusion of a grammatically or rhetorically independent utterance) courtly, adj. marked by highbred polish, stateliness, and ceremony; characteristic of court usage or of courtiers creole,n. a language that has evolved from a pidgin (vide infra) but serves as the native language of a speech community creolize,v. to make Creole; cause to adopt Creole qualities or customs; to cause to become a creolized language cutaway,n. a man’s formal daytime coat, with front edges sloping diagonally from the waist and forming tails at the back dactylic, adj. < dactyl,n. a metrical foot consisting of one accented syllable fol- lowed by two unaccented or of one long syllable followed by two short, as in flattery dative, adj. (of a grammatical case) marking typically the indirect object of a verb datum,n. something that is given either from being experientially encountered or from being admitted or assumed for specific purposes; a fact or principle granted or presented; something upon which an inference or an argument is based or from which an intellectual system of any sort is constructed declarative, adj. having the characteristics of or making a declaration decorum,n.propriety and good taste, especially in conduct, manners, or appearance deduction,n.the process of deducing or drawing a conclusion from a principle already known or assumed; spec. in logic, inference by reasoning from generals to particulars; opposed to induction definiens,n. whatever serves to define (Latin) déformation professionnelle conditioning by one’s job (French) deictically, adv. < deictic,adj. directly pointing out, demonstrative deixis,n. the function of a deictic word in specifying its referent in a given context dejotation,n. the elision of a liquid or a glide following a consonant and preceding the medial vowel of a syllable 434 Master Glossary demoticization,n.nasalization in the initial sound of mat versus bat divagation,n.elision,n. omission of an unstressed elision,n. the act or an instance of dropping out or omitting something ellipsis,n. the omission of a word or phrase necessary for a complete syntactical construction but not necessary for understanding Master Glossary 437 emblematic, adj. < emblem,n. a typical representative en bloc as a body or whole (French) encomia [pl.], n. compliments; words of praise ensemble,n. a system of items that constitute an organic unity épater le bourgeois to shock people who have attitudes or views perceived as conventional or complacent (French) epenthetic,adj.phonemes gratias otiosae sunt odiosae ‘otiose thanks are odious’ (Latin) grave versus acute a phonological distinctive feature of vowels and obstruents gravid,adj.made larger or increased beyond a due, expected, or reasonable proportion hackneyed, adj. used so frequently and indiscriminately as to have lost its fresh- ness and interest; made trite and commonplace; stale haecceity,n.what makes something to be an ultimate reality different from any other handmaiden,n. something whose essential function is to serve and assist head, adj. < head,n. occurring at the head (beginning) of a construction 442 Master Glossary hegemony,n. preponderant influence or authority “Heiße Magister, heiße Doktor gar” (Goethe, Faust, Pt. 1, “Night”) ‘I’m called Master [of Arts], and Doctor [of Philosophy] too’ (German) hereditament,n.heritable property: lands, tenements, any property corporeal or incorporeal, real, personal, or mixed, that may descend to an heir hermeneutic,adj.

after next Monday”; many a for “many taken distributively”; had better for “might better”; how are you? for “what is the state of your health or feelings?”) idiomatization,n.incipient, adj. beginning; commencing; coming into, or in an early stage of, existence; in an initial stage incision,n. the effect of cutting into something; a division produced by cutting inculcate,v. to teach and impress by frequent repetitions or admonitions indecorous, adj. not proper; conflicting with accepted standards of propriety or good taste or good breeding indexical,adj.

subject and predicate (as opposed to a relation merely conceived, thought of, or wished, by the speaker) indirection,n. Indirect movement or action; a devious or circuitous course to some end; round-about means or method individualism,n. an individual characteristic; a quirk individuation,n.mass noun a noun characteristically denoting in many languages a homogeneous substance or a concept without subdivisions (as sand, butter, beer, accuracy distinguished from a grain of sand, a pat of butter, a glass of beer, a degree of accuracy), having in this usage in English only the singular form, and preceded in indefinite constructions by some rather than a or an media, adj., pl. mediae ‘intermediate in degree of aspiration’ (Latin) medial,adj. being a sound, syllable, or letter occurring between the initial and final positions in a word or morpheme morpheme, n., a meaningful linguistic unit consisting of a word, such as man, or a word element, such as -ed in walked, that cannot be divided into smaller meaningful parts mélange,n. mixture (French) Master Glossary 449 meliorative, adj. < meliorate,v. to make better or more tolerable metagrammatical,adj.grammars metalanguage,n. a language or vocabulary used to describe or analyze language metalinguistic, adj. of or relating to a metalanguage metanalysis,n. the reinterpretation of the form of a word resulting in the creation of a new word; esp. the changing of the boundaries between words or mor- phological units metaphonological, adj. transcending phonology metaphoric, adj. < metaphor,n. a figure of speech in which a name or descriptive word or phrase is transferred to an object or action different from, but analogous to, that to which it is literally applicable; an instance of this, a metaphorical expression metaphorize,v. make or turn into a metaphor metathetic, adj. < metathesis,n. transposition within a word of letters, sounds, or syllables, as in the change from Old English brid to modern English bird or in the confusion of modren for modern metonymic, adj, < metonymy,n. (a figure of speech characterized by) the action of substituting for a word or phrase denoting an object, action, institution, etc., a word or phrase denoting a property or something associated with it; an instance of this metonymization,n.Slavic languages) a type of vowel duplication whereby the sequences -oro-, -olo-, and -ere- have developed from earlier -ra-, -la-, -le-, and -re- occurring between consonants; the process of develop- ment of this phenomenon plosive, adj. of, relating to, or being a speech sound produced by complete closure of the oral passage and subsequent release accompanied by a burst of air, as in the sound [p] in pit or [d] in dog plurale tantum ‘occurring only in the plural’ (Latin) Master Glossary 457 pluriverbation,n. the transformation of one word into a phrase Pninesque, adj. resembling the eponymous character in Vladimir Nabokov’s (best) novel, Pnin politesse,n formal and cultivated politeness; decorousness (< French) polyphonic, adj. < polyphony,n. a style of musical composition employing two or more simultaneous but relatively independent melodic lines polyptoton the stylistic scheme in which words derived from the same root are repeated (e.g. “strong” and “strength”) polysyllable,n. a word containing more than one syllable pons asinorum ‘bridge of fools [asses]’ (Latin); the fifth proposition of the first book of Euclid’s Elements, which states that the angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal portionless, adj. having no dowry or inheritance portmanteau,n. a word that is composed of parts of two words (such as chortle from chuckle and snort), all of one word and part of another (such as bookmobile from book and automobile), or two entire words and that is characterized invariably in the latter case and frequently in the two former cases by single occurrence of one or more sounds or letters that appear in both the component words (such as motel from motor hotel, camporee from camp and jamboree, aniseed from anise seed) (French) postbiotic,adj. pertaining to the period following the appearance of life postposition,n. a word or element placed postpositionally, as a preposition placed after its object post-tonic, adj. occurring after the stressed syllable post-vocalic, adj. following a vowel potpourri,n. a general mixture of often disparate or unrelated materials or subject matter (French) pragmatistic, adj. < pragmatism,n.an American movement in philosophy founded by Peirce and James and marked by the doctrines that the meaning of conceptions is to be sought in their practical bearings, that the function of thought is as a guide to action, and that the truth is preeminently to be tested by the practical consequences of belief prandial, adj. of or relating to a meal praxis,n. the rhetorical or performative aspect of language; speech as an action preciosity,n. extreme meticulousness or overrefinement, as in language, taste, or style 458 Master Glossary predication,n.prothesis,n. the addition of a letter or syllable, usually at the beginning of a word provenience,n. origin Master Glossary 459 psyche,n.the whole conscious and unconscious mind, esp. when viewed as deciding or determining motivation, emotional response, and other psycholog- ical characteristics punctilious, adj. marked by exact accordance with the details of codes or conventions purlieu,n. a place where one may range at large; confines or bounds purport,n. meaning conveyed, professed, or implied purview,n. the range or limit of authority, competence, responsibility, concern, or intention putative, adj. commonly accepted or supposed; reputed QED < quod erat demonstrandum ‘which was to be demonstrated’ (Latin) quadrisyllabic, adj. containing four syllables quantité négligeable an insignificant or inconsequential factor; a matter of no account (French) quasi-, adv. as if; as it were; in a manner; in some sense or degree quasi-paronomastic, adj. < paronomasia,n. resembling paronomasia quaternion,n. a set of four persons or items quiddity,n. the real nature of a thing; the essence quién sabe? ‘who knows?’ (Spanish) quotative, adj. for the purposes of quotation quotidian, adj. commonplace, ordinary raison d’être reason for being (French) ramified, adj. < ramify,v. to separate into divisions or ramifications realism,n. the doctrine that matter as the object of perception has real existence (natural realism) and is neither reducible to universal mind or spirit nor dependent on a perceiving agent received, adj. generally adopted, accepted, or approved as true, authoritative, or standard recherché, adj. rare, choice, exotic (French) rection,n. grammatical government [vide supra] recumbent,adj. having a horizontal position; lying down redivivus ‘revived’; come back to life (Latin) 460 Master Glossary reduced,adj.sandhi,n. modification of the sound of a word or morpheme when juxtaposed with another, especially in fluent speech, as the modification of the pronunciation of Master Glossary 461

don’t in don’t you from its pronunciation in isolation or in a phrase like don’twe (Sanskrit) sans, prep. ‘without’ (French) sc., adv. scilicet (Latin); used to introduce more detailed information, or to specify a referent: that is to say, to be specific; namely, to wit scant,v. to give scant attention to; to treat slightingly or inadequately; to neglect, do less than justice to schwa,n. a mid-central neutral vowel, typically occurring in unstressed syllables, as the final vowel of English sofa; the symbol (ə) used to represent an unstressed neutral vowel and, in some systems of phonetic transcription, a stressed mid-central vowel, as in but seemliness,n.collective noun, as snowflake as opposed to snow skittles,n. a British form of ninepins, in which a wooden disk or ball is thrown to knock down the pins slough,n. a depression or hollow, usually filled with deep mud or mire; a state of deep despair or moral degradation slovenliness,n.Germanic languages that form their past tense by a change in stem vowel, and their past participles by a change in stem vowel and sometimes by adding the suffix-(e)n,assing, sang, sung or tear, tore, torn structuralist,n.syncope syncope,n.the shortening of a word by omission of a sound, letter, or syllable from the middle of the word syndetic, adj. serving to connect, as a conjunction syndeton,n. a form of syntactic coordination of the elements of a sentence with the help of a coordinating conjunction syntagm,n.a sequence of linguistic units in a syntagmatic relationship to one another syntagmatic, adj. pertaining to a relationship among linguistic elements that occur sequentially in the chain of speech or writing, as the relationship between the sun and is shining or the and sun in the sentence The sun is shining tacit, adj. silent, unspecified takeoff,n. an imitation especially in the way of caricature tantamount, adj. equivalent in value, significance, or effect tant pis ‘so much the worse’ (French) 466 Master Glossary tautological,adj,

Note: Asterisk (*) denotes a hypothetical (or reconstructed) form

Symbols A Élan, 244, 245 Abbreviation, 18, 19, 98, 137, 138, 334, 435 Épater Le Bourgeois, 275 Abduce, Abductive, Abduction Épater le bourgeois, 275 Economy of Effort, 333 Über (prefix), 57 economy of effort, 334 *Dead Broke (Phrase), 190 Female Nasalization:, 11 *Schoolguy, 239 habit with meaning/skill, 383 *Stupravity, 148, 156 Latin phrases., 211 *tj-, 378 Latin phrases, 211 \“King’s/Queen’s English, The\” (Received neostructuralism,, 351 Pronunciation or RP), 27, 76, 105, 345 Neostructuralism, 348 \“She is as light as a breath of wind,…\” neostructuralism, 351 (Constantine Shapiro), 228 Ablative, 44, 45 \“Valley girls\” (Southern Californian girls), Ablaut Pattern, 325 126 Ablaut pattern, 326 \”Elegy\” (Pushkin), 398 Aborning, 406 \”K***\” (Pushkin), 391, 392 Absolute, absolutely \”Limits of Mankind\” [\”Grenzen der adjectives, 157 Menschheit\”] (Goethe), 399 Absolute, Absolutely \”Saison beendet das Orchester,…\” Enjoy!, 193 (Constantine Shapiro), 390 Enjoy!, 194 \”The poet wishes you happiness,…\” irrefragable, irrefragably versus, 192, 193 (Constantine Shapiro), 412 Abstracta, abstract words, 150, 151 \”To a Japanologist Friend…\” (Constantine Abut, 157, 158 Shapiro), 394, 395 Accents \”To the right and left are mountains,…\” dialects versus,, 74 (Constantine Shapiro), 399 dialects versus, 373 \”Welcome and Farewell\” [\”Willkommen und Dialects Versus, 373, 374 Abschied\”] (Goethe), 412 foreign, 73 \”Willkommen und Abschied\” [\”Welcome Foreign, 73, 74 and Farewell\”] (Goethe), 412 regional, 230 \”Youth, The\” (Pushkin), 393 stress versus, 13

© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 471 M. Shapiro, The Speaking Self: Language Lore and English Usage, Springer Texts in Education, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-51682-0 472 Index

Accoutrement, 363, 369 Aesop’s fables, 401 Accusative case, 398 Aetiology, Aetiological, 235 Acronym, 421 Affect, affected, affective, affectation Actualization, 354, 355, 357 affective vocabulary, 164, 166 Address, forms of dative case, 306 Dr. versus Professor, 175 Affect, Affected, Affective, Affectation social norms, 359 fossilized speech, 268 Adhere, adhesion language change, 252 accents, 374 Style, 363 Adhere, Adhesion style, 366 Language Change, 374 Affix, Affixation language change, 383 Adjective Derivation, 92 Ad hoc, 161, 163 Affix, affixation Adjective(s), adjectival adjective derivation, 93 compound adjectives, 285 Archaic, Archaisms, 318 Adjective(S), Adjectival archaic, archaisms, 318 Derivation, 92 back-formations, 147 derivation, 93 Begrudging(Ly) Versus Grudging(Ly), 167 extruded, 294 Childish Errors, 379 government, 311 False Analogies, 106 pleonastic, 293, 294 Learnèd Plurals, 323 stress,, 4 pluriverbation, 295 stress:, 4 qualified and contrasted words, 177 Stress, 2 rection, 292 stress, 4 affix, affixation Adjudicate (pronunciation), 63 rection, 292 Admirative, 183, 185 Russian patronymics, 200 Adstructure, 243 Russian Patronymics, 200, 201 Adulation (pronunciation), 75 secondary stress,, 83 Adumbrate, Adumbration Secondary Stress, 82 Enjoy! (Phrase), 193 Virtuous Defined, 115 Adumbrate, adumbration virtuous defined, 116 Enjoy! (phrase), 194 word as structural unit, 86 learnèd words, 202 Afflatus, 33, 35 non-native/native speech, 274 Affricate Adversion, 177, 179 Beijing (Pronunciation), 63 Advert Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159 competence, linguistic, 246 Frenchification of Spanish words, 160 Grammar, 358 A hard place (phrase), 135, 136 grammar, 359, 383, 385 A kopeck preserves a ruble (proverb), 410 Advertising Alveolar adverbial position of nomina propria, 300, German Barbarisms, 56 301 German barbarisms, 57 alliteration, 218 Latino Speakers, 90 compound adjectives, 93 Latino speakers, 92 derivational pattern, 285 Alveolar Flap different than (phrase), 280 Latino Speakers, 90 economy of effort, 334 Alveolar flap portmanteau, 148 Latino speakers, 92 Portmanteau, 156 Secondary Stress, 82 transitive verbs, 300 Stylistics of, 53 transitivization, 300 Alveolar flap, 70 See also flap vocative, 198 Ambience, 404 Advocate, 287, 288 Ameliorative, 276, 277 Index 473

American(s) [pronunciation], 68 homo habilis, 383 American English, 76. See also English phatic defined, 208 language; younger speakers Reading Pronunciation, 44 “Valley girls,”, 126 shambles defined, 213 Accents, Foreign, 373 Sturm und Drang (pronunciation), 57 accents, regional, 230 virtuous defined,, 116 African Americans,, 69, 76 virtuous defined, 116 African Americans, 77, 335 Vowel Alternation, 14 Back-Formations, 194 Willy Nilly, 141 back-formations, 195 willy nilly, 142 basically, 273 Americanism(s), 141, 142, 183, 322 Drift, 171 Amicus, 302 drift, 171 Anacrusis emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231 exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase), extemporaneous speech, 241, 242 405 female speech, 73 Anadiplosis, 336, 337 German, 57, 303 Anaesthetics of language Great Vowel Shift, 16 fillers, 335, 336 hyperurbanisms, 253 Anaesthetics of Language Idioms, 156 like (Use of Word), 148 idioms, 156 like (use of word), 150, 335 individualism, 46, 316 proverbs, 244 intrusive r, 27 Analogy, 336, 337 Latino speakers, 8 Anamnesis, 130 Latino Speakers, 90 Anapest, Anapestic like (Use of Word), 148 at the end of the day (phrase), 206 like (use of word), 150, 200, 206, 247 Anapest, anapestic linguistic change, 418, 419 at the end of the day (phrase), 207 Linguistic Hypertrophy, 194, 195 on the ground (phrase), 218 names, 140, 164 prosody and emphasis, 71 numerals, 229 Russian poetry, 283 paralinguistic (mis)behavior, 218, 219 Spondaic, 10 phonostylistics, 220 Anaphora, anaphoric phrases, 251, 265 hypertrophy, 224 prosopopoeia, pronominal, 296 innovations in language, 222, 226 Southern, 30, 46, 69, 77, 95, 103, 175, 240, Anaphora, Anaphoric 373 innovations in language, 227 speech acts, 238 Russian poetry, 283 Stuttering (Stammering), 331 Andrea (pronunciation), 21 verbal tics, 260 Androgyny, 205 Vowel Syncope, 112 Anent vowel syncope, 113 Adjective Derivation, 92 Zero (Use of Word), 338 adjective derivation, 93 American Heritage Dictionary of the English Idiomaticity, 238 Language, The Well Versus Good, 169 adjectival stress on wrong sylláble,, 4 well versus good, 170 American Heritage Dictionary of the English Anglicization, 7, 8, 20 Language, the Anglophone(s) Barbarisms, 7 Anglophone Chinese, 140 catachresis defined, 207 Anglophone(S) different(ly) from versus different(ly) than, Graeco-Roman Patrimony, 183 280 Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184 error defined, 329 past passive participle, 292, 293 grammar (etymology), 118 rection, 291, 292 474 Index

Show (Use of Word), 134 like (Use of Word), 148 Anglo-Saxon, 138, 140, 143, 144, 202 like (use of word), 150 Anima, animus Propitiation, 256 persona, 415 propitiation, 256 Anima, Animus so (use of word), 209 uptalk, 254 straight talk, 247 uptalk, 255 straight talk, 248 Animadversion, 192 uptalk, 255 Anodize, 243 Apparently (pronunciation), 110 Anonymity (Namelessness), 239 Appellation Anonymity (namelessness), 240 Dr. versus Professor, 175 Anosognosia, 88, 89 Foreign Nomina Propria, 94 Antanaclasis, 203, 204 foreign nomina propria, 95 Antepenult, Antepenultimate Apposite, appositive Analogy as Explanans, 336 different(ly) from versus different(ly) than, Antepenult, antepenultimate 280 analogy as explanans, 337 well versus good, 169, 170 loan words, 55 Approximate function of language, 148, 151 Russian patronymics, 200, 201 Apropos, 169, 170, 401, 404 syllable, 4 Aqueous, 246, 247 Anthropomorphize, 401 Arabic, 229 Antimetabole, 203, 204 Arafat, Yasser (pronunciation), 20 Antonym, 157 Archaic, Archaisms Anttila, Raimo Diachrony in Synchrony, 318 Analogy as Explanans, 336 Archaic, archaisms analogy as explanans, 337 diachrony in synchrony, 319 Frisson of Etymological Discovery, 195 frisson of,, 398 k, 32 Russian poetry, 394, 396, 398 word origins knowledge, 196, 338 Argosy, 140 Aperçu, 156 Argot(s) Aphaeresis, Aphaeretic, 6 discourse-introductory so, 286 Aphasia, 276, 277 incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 125 Aphesis, 68 Argot(S) Apocope Professional Argots, 329 glottal catch/glottal stop,, 18 professional argots, 374 voiceless vowels, 68 Around/round (use of word), 68 Aporia, aporetic, 208 Artfully, 262, 263 Apothegm, apothegmatic Article, indefinite, 214, 270 learnèd words, 202 Artifice, 180 rhyme., 390 Arytenoid, 99, 100 rhyme, 390 Ascription, 374, 375 theory of language, 340 Asian (pronunciation), 37 Apotropaic, apotropaism Ask (pronunciation), 69, 335 apotropaic smile, 17, 73, 317 Aspect, Aspectual Apotropaic, Apotropaism Singulative Deverbal Nouns, 160 Assertory Force, 316 Aspect, aspectual assertory force, 317 singulative deverbal nouns, 161 Cultural Cachinnation, 345 Aspirate, Aspirated, Aspiration cultural cachinnation, 346 Lenition, not Voicing, 29 female speech, 12, 16, 73 Aspirate, aspirated, aspiration Infantilization, 127 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 infantilization, 128 Tennuis/Tenues and Media/Mediae, 98 Lengthening Clause-Final Unstressed tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100 Syllables, 102 Assertory, Assertion Index 475

absolutely as emphatic, 204 emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231 Assertory, assertion Axiology, Axiological absolutely as emphatic, 205 Good Work Versus Good Job, 126 blunting, 317 prosopopoeia, pronominal, 296, 297 emotive, 317 feminization of male Speech, 205 B Assimilate, assimilatory, assimilation, 89. Back (use of word), 224, 289 See also loan words (foreign borrowings) Back-Formed, Back-Formations Assimilate, Assimilatory, Assimilation American English Linguistic Hypertrophy, Phonetic Ellipses, 96 194 phonetic ellipses, 97, 98 Back-formed, back-formations phonetic variation, 46, 47 American English linguistic hypertrophy, Vowel Harmony, 90 195 Associative Meaning Fields, 117 nonce words, 147, 284 Associative meaning fields, 118, 119 of compound verbs, 147 Atavism ungrammatical versus grammatical, 298 female speech, 73 Bad guy (phrase), 119, 120, 171 German Barbarisms, 56 Bahrain (pronunciation), 25 German barbarisms, 57 Bail versus bail out, 299 phraseological, 250 Balsaam’s Ass, 146 propitiation, 256 Banality, 231, 232 -ate, 15, 362 Baneful, 234, 255 Athwart, 181 Barbarisms, 7, 8, 92, 324, 325 Atrocity Versus Tragedy, 157 Base Attendance, 310 adjectival stress on wrong sylláble,, 5 Attendant, 263 Adjectival Stress on Wrong Sylláble, 2 Attenuate, 187 adjective derivation, 93 At the end of the day (phrase), 207, 213, 407 Archaic, Archaisms, 318 Au fond, 61, 333 archaic, archaisms, 319 Augmentative, 164 False Analogies, 106 Augustine (saint), 321 German Barbarisms, 56 Aureole German barbarisms, 57 Discontinuous Grammar, 121 Learnèd Plurals, 323 discontinuous grammar, 122, 123 learnèd plurals, 324 names,, 137 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, names, 138 37 semantic, 123, 125, 140 pluriverbation, 295 Austen, Jane, 162 qualified and contrasted words, 177 Authentic/inauthentic, 56 rection, 291, 292 Authoritative Speech, 77 Russian Patronymics, 200 Authoritative speech, 78 Russian patronymics, 200, 201 Auto-, 263 Secondary Stress, 82 Autochthonous, 244 secondary stress, 83 Automorphism, 354–356 virtuous defined, 116 Autonomous, 375 word as structural unit, 86 Autotelic, 260 Basically (use of word), 248, 264 Autres temps, autres mœurs Basically (Use of Word), 273, 316 auxiliary, 306 Bat an eyelash/eyelid (idiom), 156 Autres Temps, Autres Mœurs Batch and badge (pronunciation), 31 extemporaneous speech, 241 Bate, Jonathan, 290 extemporaneous speech, 242 Bathos, Bathetic, 135 Language Change, 374 Bathos, bathetic, 136 language change, 375 Bauplan, 52, 111 Axiology, axiological Beardsley, Eleanor, 98 476 Index

Beg(s) the question, 278 Blends, 157, 156 Beggar Blockbuster-capable, blockbuster-dependent competence, linguistic, 246 (use of word), 285 supersession of literal meaning, 181 Bloomfield, Leonard, 418 Supersession of Literal Meaning, 181 Body language, 219 Begrudging(Ly) Versus Grudging(Ly), 167 Boethius, 157 Beg the question, 208, 278 Bon sens, sens commun, 184, 185 Behavior/(Mis)Behavior, Paralinguistic, 218 Bookification, Bookishness, 209 Behavior/(mis)behavior, paralinguistic, 219, Bookification, bookishness, 209 242, 243 Boots/with Boots (Use of Word/Phrase), 218 Behaviorist, 328, 329 Bossa Nova (Pronunciation), 54 Beijing (Pronunciation), 63 Bound, 62, 63 Bend versus *bended, 380 Bridegroom (folk etymology), 176 Between a rock and a hard place (phrase), 135, British English 136 *Triblet of Trisyllables, 1 Between the Devil and the deep blue sea adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4, 5 (phrase), 136 American English drift, 171 Between you and I/me (phrase), 265, 273, 352 American versus,, 61 Bible American versus., 60 Balaam’s Ass, 146 American versus, 19, 20 hierarchical value, 235 American Versus, 35, 37 King James version, 116, 235, 319 basically (use of word), 273 Matthew (New Testament), 319 extemporaneous speech, 241 Numbers (Hebrew Bible), 146 Great Vowel Shift, 16 Proverbs (Hebrew Bible), 116, 337 Idioms, 156 Pslams (Hebrew Bible), 235 idioms, 156 Bidder and bitter (pronunciation), 54 persona (etymology), 415 Bifurcation, 175 prosopopoeia, pronominal, 297 Bilabial, 376–378 Stammering (Stuttering), 331 Bilateral, 331 Vowel Syncope, 112 Binomial vowel syncope, 113 objective versus subjective case, 289 Broad Vowel, 32 Paronomastic Interference in Language Broad vowel, 32 Change, 41 Brooks, David, 290, 294 paronomastic interference in language Buccal, female speech, 72 change, 42 Buffett, Warren, 213 thirdness, 333 Bulgakov, Mikhail, 152 well versus good, 170 Bulgarian, 217 Biological sex Burlesque, 271, 389, 390 grammatical gender versus, 146, 147 Bush, George W, 38, 40, 41, 359 Biological Sex Businessman (pronunciation), 60 grammatical gender versus, 265, 266, 311, Butt versus butt cheeks, buttocks, rear-end, 229 401 Byrd, Deborah, 43 speech production, 72 by the Bye, 189 Bipartite, 249, 250 By the bye, 190 Bipedal, 323, 382 Birmingham (pronunciation), 60 C Biuniqueness, 363, 367 Cache (pronunciation), 320 Bizarrerie(s), 92 Cachinnation (Laughter) Blanchard, Olivier, 322 Cacoglossia, Cacoglossic, 240 Blandishment, 404 Cachinnation (laughter) Blather, 109, 258 cacoglossia, cacoglossic, 241, 257 slovenliness, 258 cacophonic, 371 Blatter, Sepp (pronunciation), 54 cajolery, 401, 404 Index 477

linguistic harmony, 370, 372, 374 Charybdis and Scylla myth, 136 propitiation, 256 Chattel (Use of Word), 161 Calques Chattel (use of word), 163 Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185 Chavez, Hugo (pronunciation), 159 not a problem (Phrase), 217 Chef d’oevre, 396 not a problem (phrase), 217 Cheshire-Ly, Cheshire Cat, 9 paralinguistic,, 125 Chevelure, 33, 35 paralinguistic, 126 Chiasmus, 203 Cambridge (English) Pronouncing Dictionary, Chicanery (pronunciation), 58 25, 58 Childish Errors, 379 Capacious, 96, 97 Childish errors, 380 Carroll, Lewis, 148 Children (plural form), 131 Cartographer, 158 Chinese Castrato, 72 Anglophonic Chinese, 141 Catachresis, catachrestic writing system, 129 alliterative proverbs, 132 Chivalry (pronunciation), 160 Catachresis, Catachrestic Chomsky, Noam (Chomskyan), 348, 350, 428 Alliterative Proverbs, 132 Chorale, 328, 329 defined, 207 Christian (word unity), 85 errors, 131 Christology, Christological, 115, 116 extemporaneous speech, 241, 242 Church Slavonic, 211, 227, 228, 236 idiomatic contamination, 232 Cicero, 38, 190 in a shambles (phrase), 213, 214 Cioran, S. D, 325 metaphors (use of word), 234 Clamber (pronunciation), 87 metaphors (use of word), 234, 235 Clausula, 410, 412 Self-Delusion, Vocabulary of, 138 Clichés self-delusion, vocabulary of, 139 indirection, 237 ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265 tropological, 120, 121 Catachrestic Clinton, Hillary, 63, 190 Anglo-Saxon Versus Latinate:, 143 Clueless (film), 126 Anglo-Saxon versus Latinate, 144 Cluster(s) semantic contamination,, 134 aphaeresis, 6 Catch, Glottal, 17 Cluster(S) Catch, glottal, 18 Consonant Clusters, 86 Category (pronunciation), 278 consonant clusters, 87 Cave/caving versus cave/caving in, 299 phonetic variation, 46, 47 Censorious, 253, 254 Coda Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, The dejotation,, 65 catachresis defined, 207 glottal catch/glottal stop, 18 Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, the Tw-, 376 Vowel Alternation, 14 tw-, 378 Cervantes, Miguel de, Don Quixote, 162 Cognate Ceteris Paribus, 69 Etymology, 172 Ceteris paribus, 70, 233 etymology, 174 Chaconne, 7 Sounds and Sense, 186 Chahal, Gurbaksh, 317 sounds and sense, 188 Challenge versus problem, 138 Twerk (Etymology), 182 Change, language twerk (etymology), 183 Chaparral (pronunciation), 160 Cohabitate, 195 Characterology, characterological Cohen, Patricia, 290 bad guy (phrase), 119, 120 Coles, Mark, 24 Characterology, Characterological Colleague (Pronunciation), 102 non-standard speech, 263 Collective, Collective Nouns non-standard speech, 263 Errors, 362 478 Index

Collective, collective nouns metalinguistic function, 381 errors, 363 vocative case;, 88 grammar and praxis tension, 311 Vocative Case, 88, 198 ungrammatical versus grammatical, 299 vocative case, 198 Collocation, collocational, 52 Conceptualization, 378, 379 Colloquialisms Concomitant ain’t versus isn’t (use of word), 248 cultural cachinnation (laughter), 346 Estrangement, 321 Going Forward Versus in the Future, 171 formal speech versus, 54, 204 going forward versus in the future, 172 Combat (pronunciation), 110 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 98–100 Commentate/commentator, 195 well versus good, 170 Commentator versus the commentator, 222 Concord, 310 Commit versus commit Condign, 244 myself/oneself/themselves, etc.,, 299 Conduce, 181 Communicative context, 89, 90 Confer on versus confer to, 359 Compact, Compactness Configure Ablaut Pattern, 325 style, 363, 366 Compact, compactness Conflation, 144, 145 ablaut pattern, 326 Confucius, 157, 177 Social Security (Pronunciation), 49 Congener, 90, 92 Social Security (pronunciation), 51 Congeries, 413 Companies who versus companies which, 222 Congratulate, congratulations (pronunciation), Compass, 378, 379 30, 32 Compassion defined, 154 Conjoined, 238 Competence, linguistic Conjugate, conjugation competent defined, 119 discontinuous grammar., 123 speech adjustments, 246 discontinuous grammar, 122, 123 Competence, Linguistic feminization of male speech, 206 speech adjustments, 246 Connote, connotative, connotation Complement Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185 different(ly) from versus different(ly) than, Connote, Connotative, Connotation 280 non-standard speech, 263 Enjoy!, 193, 194 non-standard speech, 263 Grammar, 358 style, 363, 366 grammar, 359 Twerk (Etymology), 182 head for versus head to, 282 twerk (etymology), 183 Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351 Untranslatability/Translatability, 189 metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353 untranslatability/translatability, 190 rection, 291, 292 Consciousness Composed versus self-composed, 294 Differential, 337 Compositum, 51, 52 differential, 338 Compound, compounding words Grammar, 384 compound adjectives, 285 grammar, 384 Compound, Compounding Words Conservatory defined, 196 Social Security (Pronunciation), 49 Consonant Clusters, 86 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 Consonant clusters, 87 Conative, conation Constate, 248 communicative context, 88 Constituent Conative, Conation Foreign Nomina Propria, 94 Interjections, 80 foreign nomina propria, 95 interjections, 82 names, 137, 138 Metalinguistic Function,, 327 neither and nor (use of word), 269 metalinguistic function;, 327 Secondary Stress, 82 Metalinguistic Function, 381 secondary stress, 83 Index 479

word as structural unit, 86 Couplet, 189, 190 Constrict, Constricted, 186 Couric, Katie, 215, 216 Constrict, constricted, 187 Courtly, 404 Constructivist art, 412, 413 Coverdale, Myles, 152 Consummate Creaky voice (vocal fry), 336 Faux English, 102 Creole, Creolize pronunciation of, 58 Cacoglossia, 240 Pronunciation of, 102 Creole, creolize Contamination cacoglossia, 241 idiomatic, 232 phonetic variation,, 47 rection, 291, 292 phonetic variation, 46 semantic, 134 Croatian Contiguity, 189, 363 lenition, not voicing, 31 Continental (use of word), 124, 425 marked, 51 Continuant, 96, 97 phrases, 217 Continue on (phrase), 305 voiced, 40 Continuity, 439 Crow and the Fox, The (Krylov), 404 Contour, 316, 317 Crow and the Fox, The (Krylov Contraction(s), 274 Krylov, Ivan, 403 Contraindicated, 229 Cultural cachinnation (laughter), 346 Contrasted and Qualified Words, 176 Curtis, Will, 20 Contrasted and qualified words, 177 Cutaway (frac), 398, 400 Contravention, 265, 266 Cut him a break versus give him a break, 232 Controversy (pronunciation), 66 Conversation-ready (use of word), 285 D Cooccurence patterns, 71 Déformation professionnelle Coordinate, 351–353 discontinuous grammar, 122, 123 Copenhagen (pronunciation), 33 discourse-introductory so, 286 Copula heterolingual interpolations, 211, 212 Errors, 362 jargon, 374 errors, 363 Déjà vu (pronunciation), 9 Language Change, 374 Déjà Vu (Pronunciation), 9 language change, 375 Dactyl, dactylic Subjunctive and Tense-Number Ronko(n)koma, 412 Syncretism, 346 Dactyl, Dactylic subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, Sounds and Sense, 53 348 Damascus, Damascene (pronunciation), 94 Corporeal, 161, 162 Dante, Alighjeri Correctness, 328, 329 pronunciation;, 20 Correct versus right, 143 vocabulary,, 391 Correlation, 98, 100 Data point, 295 Coseriu, Eugenio, 418 Dative, dative case, 90, 306, 307 Countenance, 264, 265 Datum Counterfactual, 346, 348 free variation, 80 Countermand Free Variation, 80 Speech, 372 style, 363, 366, 367 Count Noun Dead last (phrase), 190 Drift and the Iconic, 356 Declarative, 254–256 Count noun Decline of the West, the (der Untergang Des drift and the iconic, 357 Abendlandes)(Spengler), 9 ungrammatical versus grammatical, 298, Decorum, 243 299 Deduction, 177, 179 Coup de Grâce, 100 Defense (stress pattern), 233 Coup de grâce, 101 Definiens, 363, 368 480 Index

Deford, Frank, 212 Derive, derived, deriving, derivative, Deictic, deictically derivational, derivation hypercorrection, 308 adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4 innovations in language, 228 adjective derivation, 93 past time, 289, 291 advertising, 285, 303 Deictic, Deictically associative meaning fields, 118, 119 Th (Pronunciation), 107 compound adjectives, 285 th (pronunciation), 109 derivational suffix, 37 Deixis, 290 Emotive Force, 145 Dejotation emotive force, 146 February (Pronunciation), 64 False Analogies, 106 February (pronunciation), 65 incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129 Temperature (Pronunciation), 64 media/mediae, 303 temperature (pronunciation), 65 metalinguistic function, 327 Dematic, 183, 184 Metalinguistic Function, 327 Demos, 246, 247 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, Demotic, demoticization 37 affective vocabulary, 164 pluriverbation, 295 Denominal, denominate Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 adjective derivation, 93 Systemzwang, 344 neostructuralism, 351 virtuous defined, 116 Denotative, denotation word as structural unit, 86 metaphors (use of word), 234, 235 Descry, 188 style, 363 Designee, 175 Dental formation Desinence, desinential alveolar flap, 57 childish errors., 380 fricatives, 22, 23 Desinence, Desinential Dental Formation Childish Errors, 379 Latino Speakers, 90 hyperurbanisms), 150 Latino speakers, 92 Hyperurbanisms, 150 Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74 learnèd plurals, 323, 324 palatalization across word boundaries, 75 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 Th (Pronunciation), 107 Th (Pronunciation), 107 th (pronunciation), 109 th (pronunciation), 109 Desuetude, Words in, 170 Tw-, 376 Desuetude versus disuse, 170 tw-, 377 Desyllabication of /n/ in Consonant Clusters, word as structural unit, 86 110 Deontic, 328 Desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, De rigueur 111, 112 back (use of word), 290 Detritus, 410, 412 behavior/(mis)behavior, 242 Dettmer, Jamie, 290 contextual hypertrophy, 223 Deverbal, deverbative indefinite article, 214 adjective derivation, 93 de Rigueur alliterative proverbs,, 132 Language Change, 374 Deverbal, Deverbative language change, 375 Alliterative Proverbs, 132 postpositions, 299 past passive participle, 293 Vocative Case, 198 singulative deverbal nouns, 161 vocative case, 198 Devoicing, 40 Derive, Derived, Deriving, Derivative, dialectal., 40 Derivational, Derivation normative/nonnormative speech, 40 *Triblet of Trisyllables, 1 Diachrony, 354–356 Index 481

Diachronyarchaic, archaisms, 317, 318 Dialogism, 370, 371 Diacriticphonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 Diapason, 331 Diagram, Diagrammatic, Diagrammaticity, Dichotomy, 172 Diagrammatize, Diagrammatization Different(ly) from versus different(ly) than,, Authoritative Speech, 77 280 Diagram, diagrammatic, diagrammaticity, Differentia specifica, 121–124, 323 diagrammatize, diagrammatization Difformity, 356, 357 authoritative speech, 78 Digital revolution, 58 between unit and context, 65 Digraph Drift and the Iconic, 356 Englessness, 76 drift and the iconic, 358 englessness, 77 Enjoy!, 193 Oral Tradition/Transmission, 94 Enjoy!, 194 oral tradition/transmission, 94 errs (pronunciation), 79 th (pronunciation), 109 Errs (Pronunciation), 79 Dillard, J. L., 417 folk etymology, 176 Diminutive, diminutized in Language, 354 affective vocabulary, 164 in language, 355, 356 tw-, 376–378 intrusive r,, 27 Diphthong, diphthongal, 15, 19, 33, 66, 92 neostructuralism., 351 authentic/inauthentic knowledge, 21 neostructuralism, 351 déjà vu (pronunciation), 9 phonetic variation, 46, 47 Iran, Iranian (pronunciation), 47 pleonasm(s), 305 Latino speakers, 90, 92 sound and meaning, 168 reading pronunciation, 45 subject-predicate number, 310 Diphthong, Diphthongal Dialects, dialectal, dialectology, dialectisms Vowel Alternation, 14 accents., 73 vowel alternation, 15 accents versus,, 74 Discontinuous lexica accents versus, 373, 374 style, 363, 366 American English, 2, 37, 70, 76, 94, 95 truisms of linguistics, 122–124, 187, 454, British English), 68 465 British English,, 37 Discourse, discourse marker, 149, 273, 332 British English, 2, 76 Disfluent, Disfluency, 148 cluster(s), 46 Disfluent, disfluency, 236, 315 devoicing, 40 American English,, 332 faux English, 103 American English, 149, 150, 236, 315, 316, foreign nomina propria, 95 330, 335, 338 greasy (pronunciation), 30 anaesthetics of language, 335 intrusive r, 27 Anaesthetics of Language, 335 Dialects, Dialectal, Dialectology, Dialectisms assertory force, 317 Isoglosses, 37 British English, 332 Italian, 63 Horror Silentii, 315 loan words,, 55 like (use of word), 149, 150 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, Repetition, 330 37 Disinter, 410 non-standard speech, 263 Dissyllabic phonetic variation, 46, 47 Americans English speakers of French, 101 prestige, 21 faux English, 103 Prestige, 105 foreign names, 63 regional,, 77 foreign nomina propria, 95 regional, 43, 330, 416 Multiple Versus Many, 164 Shibboleths, 334 productive/unproductive stress, 233 shibboleths, 335 prosody and emphasis, 71 Yiddish, 38 Unstressed Vowels, 103 482 Index

unstressed vowels, 104 Phonetic Ellipses, 96 Distinctive, 98–100, 186, 188 phonetic ellipses, 97, 98 Disuse versus desuetude, 170 Russian patronymics, 200, 201 Divagation, 245 Self-Delusion, Vocabulary of, 138 Divinatory, divination, 235 self-delusion, vocabulary of, 139 Do (verb), 124 Vowel Syncope, 112 Doctor-tested (use of word), 57, 285, 303 Ellipsis, ellipses, elleptic Doctrinal, 350, 351 elliptic code, 97, 113 Don, 246, 247 Ellipsis, Ellipses, Elleptic Donnison, John, 241 Phonetic, 96 Don Quixote (Cervantes), 162 phonetic, 97 Dostoevsky, Fyodor, 142, 152 vowel syncope, 112, 113 Doublet Eloquence, 236 Adjectival Stress on Wrong Sylláble, 2 Emblematic, 183, 184 adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4 Emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231 isoglosses, 38 Emotive, Emotive Force Lambast, 28 Assertion, 316 orthographic,, 29 Emotive, emotive force Pronunciation and Prestige, 105 communicative context;, 88 Unstressed Vowels, 103 sense of form,, 146 Doubling, 11 Sense of Form, 145 Doyle, Arthur Conan, 123, 124, 179 Emphasis, emphatic Dr. versus Professor, 175 absolutely., 205 Drawing (pronunciation), 27 Emphasis, Emphatic Drift absolutely, 204 American English, 171 length of word,, 199 Triumph of the Iconic, 356 Length of Word, 199 triumph of the iconic, 358, 368 Prosody, 71 Dross, 247, 248 types of, 261 Dutch, 268 types of, 261 Dyslalia, 236 Enamor defined, 276 Encomia, 73, 74 E Englessness, 76, 77 Early bird gets/gathers the worm, the, 137 English language. See also American English\; Ebola (pronunciation), 104 British English Echt Enjoy!, 125, 126 calques,, 126 English Language. See also American English\; calques, 125 British English Calques, 125 Enjoy!, 193, 194 echt-German way, 58 incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 125 Economy of Effort, 333 lenition, not voicing, 31 economy of effort, 334 English Language Ecology, Linguistic, 133 basically (use of word), 273 Ecology, linguistic, 134, 339, 340 English language Effete, 245, 246 conceptualization., 379 Ejaculation, 275, 276 eloquence, 236 Elegiac distichs (dactylic hexameters), 393 Germanic substratum, 57 Elide, elision marked, 51 aphaeresis, 6 proverbs,, 133 Elide, Elision proverbs, 132, 133 Dejotation, 64 Russian Hypocoristics in English, 166 dejotation, 65 Russian hypocoristics in English, 166 German barbarisms, 56, 57 thanks, acknowledgment of, 259 Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74 Ensemble, 373 Index 483

Epenthesis, Epenthetic ese, 125 Desyllabication of /n/ in Consonant Et al Clusters, 110 foreign nomina propria, 95 Epenthesis, epenthetic et al desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159 111 Frenchification of Spanish words, 160 emphasis, 261 Etiolation, 346, 348 German barbarisms, 56, 57 Etymology, etymological, etymologically intrusive r,, 27 associative meaning fields, 118, 119 language of thought, 407, 410 discontinuous grammar, 122, 123 neither and nor (use of word), 269 Etymology, Etymological, Etymologically Epicene, 196 Frisson, 195 Epiphenomenon, epiphenomenona frisson, 196 metathesis, 69 Intrusive r, 26 Epiphenomenon, Epiphenomenona intrusive r, 27 Metathesis, 69 knowledge, 151 Nonce Words, 319 Knowledge, 151, 172, 173 Episodic, Episodically on behalf of,, 145 Consonant Clusters, 86 on behalf of, 144 Episodic, episodically paronomastic interference in language consonant clusters, 87 change, 42 fossilized speech, 268 persona, 415 Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185 re-cognition., 151 grammar, 359 Re-Cognition, 151 Epistemic, epistemological, epistemology, 421 Sounds and Sense, 186 habit with meaning/skill, 383, 384 sounds and sense, 187 Epistemic, Epistemological, Epistemology Etymon Untranslatability/Translatability, 189 associative meaning fields, 118, 119 untranslatability/translatability, 190 language of thought, 406, 407 Epithet, 404 paronomastic interference in language Epitome, epitomical, 184, 185 change, 42 Eponymous, 169, 170 Evildoer (phrase), 171 Equinox (pronunciation), 44 Evince, 98, 99 Equipossible, equipossiblity, 217 Exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase), 156, -er, 48, 49, 174 157 Err(S) (Pronunciation), 79 Exactly Right, That’s Exactly Right (Phrase), Err(s) (pronunciation), 79 157, 405 err(S) (Pronunciation), 105 Excogitate, 189, 190 Errare Humanum Est, 212 Exemplar, 190 Errare humanum est, 213 Exeunt, 33, 35 Error(S) Exogenous Production, 230 Childish, 379 Exogenous production, 230 Error(s) Ex Parte childish, 380 phatic and fatuity, 208 Defined, 320 Ex parte defined, 321, 329 Shapiro (surname), 117 motivated/unmotivated, 130, 131, 223, 241 Explanans, explanantia, explanandum motivated/unmotivated, 273, 277, 278, 360, at the end of the day (phrase), 407 362 Explanans, Explanantia, Explanandum Ersatz Economy of Effort, 333 Cacoglossia, 257 economy of effort, 334 cacoglossia, 257 Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351 Ersatz English, 267 metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353 Faux English, 102 neostructuralism, 351 484 Index

Explanans, Explanantia, Explanandum (cont.) that said (phrase), 263 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 Faux Phonetic Ellipses, 96 Englessness, 76 phonetic ellipses, 97, 98 englessness, 77 pleonasm(s), 304 Ersatz English, 268 straight talk, 247 Faux Authenticity, 25 straight talk, 248 faux authenticity, 26 Tw-, 376 faux English, 103 tw-, 377 Ignorance and Insistence of the Letter, 25 Extant, Extancy Macaronic language, 271 Childish Errors, 379 February (Pronunciation), 64 Extant, extancy February (pronunciation), 65 childish errors, 380 Fee Simple, 161 Consonant Clusters, 86 Fee simple, 162 consonant clusters, 87 Fee Tail, 161 feminine pronouns, 265 Fee tail, 162 Feminine pronouns, 266 Feinstein, John, 288 foreign nomina propria, 95 Fellow, rhyme, 413, 414 Latin phrases, 211 Female speech Latin phrases, 211 air quotes, 316 Systemzwang, 344 Female Speech Extempore, extemporaneous speech, 241, 242 Cachinnation (Laughter), 345 Ex Tempore, 358 Girlized Intonation, 16 Ex tempore, 359 homogeneous social groups, 72, 73 Extirpate, 256 Japanese, 394 Extragrammically, 148, 149 lengthening clause-final unstressed Extremely, very highly, 181 syllables, 102 Nasalization, 11 F nasalization, 12 Façade, 375 propitiation, 256 Fables and gender, 401, 404 register, 72 Factitious timbre, 72, 78 Latin Phrases, 211 vocal fry, 335, 336 Latin phrases, 211 Yiddishized patois, 125 Secondary Stress, 82 younger speakers, 16, 73, 102 secondary stress, 83 Feminine Pronouns, 265 slovenliness, 258 Feminine pronouns, 266 Facultative, facultatively, 107 Feminization of Male Speech, 205 Facultative, Facultatively, 258 Feminization of male speech, 206 Faiblesse, 132, 133 Fennicist, 195, 196 False Analogies, 106 Fewer versus less, 168, 358 Falsetto, 72 Figura, figural, figuration, figurative, Family/cabinet are vs. family/cabinet is., 223 figurational, figuratively Fatuity, fatuous learnèd words, 202 baneful, banality, 231 like (use of word), 149, 150 Fatuity, Fatuous linguistic harmony, 371, 372 Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159 Figura, Figural, Figuration, Figurative, Frenchification of Spanish words, 160 Figurational, Figuratively kick the can down the road (phrase), 249 Speech, 372 kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 style, 363, 369 let me be clear (phrase), 216 Supersession of Literal Meaning, 181 let me be clear (phrase), 216 supersession of literal meaning, 181 phatic, 263 Filibuster defined, 173 that said (phrase), 263 Filler(S) Index 485

Anaesthetics of Language, 335 linguistic harmony, 372 Filler(s) Running the Show (Phrase), 134 anaesthetics of language, 336 Form and Content, 203 assertory force, 317 Form and content, 204 like (use of word), 149, 150 Form Follows Function, 12 Repetition, 330 Form follows function, 13 Fillip, 134 Formulaic, 262 Final Straw/the Last Straw, the, 137 Fortis Finals versus the final, 197 German barbarisms, 56, 57 Finesse, 243 lenition, not voicing, 30, 31 Finnish Fossilized Speech, 268 Finnish-American, 196 Fox and the Raven, The (Aesop), 401 Finno-Ugric, 196 Frac (cutaway), 399 speech acts, 238 Franklin, Benjamin, 287 Fixed phrases, 137 Freebooter defined, 174 Fixed Phrases, 151, 204, 232, 333 Free Dictionary, The, 306 Flap, 54 Freehold, 162 Flat Broke (Phrase), 190 Free Variation, 80 Flat vowel, 19 Free variation, 80, 381 Flat Vowel, 32, 252 French Flow Americans English Speakers of, 100 errors, 273 Americans English speakers of, 101 ineptness, 236 foreign accents, 73 pauses between words, 219 Franglish, 271 Flummoxer, 246, 247 grammatical gender, 401, 404 Folk Etymology, 175 Hypermetrical Stress, 109 Folks (Use of Word), 214 marked,, 51 Folks (use of word), 215 normative/nonnormative speech, 122 Fons et origo (phrase), 247, 272 paralinguistics, 424 Foot persona (etymology), 415 kick the can down the road (phrase), 249, phrases, 216 250 voiced, 40 Spondaic Anapest,, 10 Frenchification, 95, 159, 160 Football (pronunciation), 18 Freudian Slip, 320 Foreground, 272 Fricative(s) Foreign Accents, 73 Dental Fricatives, 21 Foreign accents, 73 dental fricatives, 22 Foreign borrowings (loan words), 6, 25, 55, Frenchification of Spanish words,, 160 252, 303 Fricative(S) Foreign names, disyllabic, 63 Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159 Foreign nomina propria, 95 German barbarisms, 56, 57 Forename(s), 164, 251 lenition, not voicing, 31 Forename(S), 251 medial, 63 Formal speech, 54, 201 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 Forma mentis Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74 associative meaning fields, 118 palatalization across word boundaries, 75 Forma Mentis Sounds and Sense, 186 Atrocity Versus Tragedy, 157 sounds and sense, 187 folks (use of word), 214 Th (Pronunciation), 107 folks (use of word), 215 th (pronunciation), 109 going forward versus in the future, 172 word as structural unit, 86 Issues Versus Problems, 128 Friends (Pronunciation), 15 Linguistic Harmony, 370 Frisson 486 Index

Frisson (cont.) systemzwang,, 345 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, Systemzwang, 344 37 tense, 52 of archaism, 398 Teutonisms,, 57 of etymological discovery, 196 thanks, acknowledgment of, 259 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 voiced, 40 Front vowels, 43, 44, 90 Gestalt Fukushima (pronunciation), 28 dejotation, 65 Fulsome, 253 Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351 Fundament of Thought and Knowledge, 358 metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353 Fundament of thought and knowledge, 359 vowel reduction,, 63 Vowel Reduction, 59 G vowel reduction, 60 Gainsay Gesunkenes Kulturgut, 285 Semantic Change, 188 Get (pronunciation), 335 Timbre, 77 Gig, 136 timbre, 78 Gilboa, Eytan, 139 Gambit Girlized Intonation, 16 postpositions, 299 Girls/women versus guy(s), 267 that’s a good question. (Phrase), 253 Give him a break versus cut him a break, 232 that’s a good question. (phrase), 254 Glass, Ira, 68, 98 Game-Changer, Game-Changing Defined, 180 Glazunov (pronunciation), 8 Garbo, Greta, 374 Glide Garcia-Navarro, Lourdes, 320 interjections., 82 Gargantuan, 169, 170 Interjections, 80 Gavotte, 220 Latino Speakers, 90 Gay(s) defined, 197 Latino speakers, 92 Geekish, 210, 285 Tw-, 376 Gender tw-, 377, 378 grammar, 401, 404 word as structural unit, 86 grammatical, 146, 147, 265, 266, 312, 401 Gloss sex versus, 188 Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159 Genealogy, 363, 366 Frenchification of Spanish words, 160 Generative, 98, 99 Speech, 372 Genitive, 54 you are/you’re welcome, 258, 259 Genius defined, 392 Glossary, master, 440–456, 458–468 Gentilhomme (pronunciation), 7, 8 Glottal, Glottis Gentleman versus man, 169 Glottal Catch/Glottal Stop, 17 German Glottal, glottis American English, 57, 303 glottal catch/glottal stop, 18 barbarisms,, 57 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae., 100 barbarisms, 56 Tennuis/Tenues and Media/Mediae, 98 bridegroom (folk etymology), 176 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99 dative case, 306 Go-between (use of word), 163 Dr. versus Professor, 175 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von echt-German pronunciation, 58 “Grenzen der Menschheit” (“Limits of Emotive Force, 145 Mankind”), 399 infantalization, 128 “Willkommen und Abschied” (“Welcome lenition, not voicing, 30 and Farewell”), 412 marked, 51 Faust,, 123 meld defined, 187 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang Von normative/nonnormative speech, 122 Faust, 174 patrimony, 285 Faust, 175 phrases, 216, 302 Holmes (fictional character) on,, 123 Index 487

Holmes (fictional character) on, 89 competence, linguistic, 246 Going Forward Versus in the Future, 171 extemporaneous speech, 241, 242 Going forward versus in the future, 172 Grapheme, 109 Goldberg, Molly, 126 Gratias Otiosae Sunt Odiosae, 210 Goldbergs, The (radio and television program), Grave versus acute, 87 126 Gravid Proportion, 219, 220 Gonzalez, Sarah (pronunciation), 92 Greasy (pronunciation), 30 Good show (phrase), 134 Great vowel shift, 16 Good versus well, 127, 135 Greek Good Versus Well, 169, 170, 375 Anaphora (Etymology), 282 Goose, gosling (pronunciation), 22 Calques, 183 Gotcha (got you) [pronunciation], 75, 86 calques, 184 Govern, Government Charybdis and Scylla myth, 136 Errors, 362 etyma, 118, 136 Govern, government forenames, 164 errors, 363 Graeco-Roman patrimony, 337 grammar, 359 grammar (etymology), 118, 119 rection, 292 grammatical gender, 401 Governor (Pronunciation), 112 learnèd plurals, 324 Go with him (phrase), 107 normative/nonnormative speech, 125 Grading, gradience pantheon (use of word), 234, 235 affective vocabulary, 164 phrases, 129, 184, 185 begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167 th (pronunciation), 109 different(ly) from versus different(ly) than, Grudging(ly) versus begrudging(ly), 167 280 Guitar (pronunciation), 95 Graeco-Roman Patrimony, 183 Guy(s) Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185 *schoolguy, 239 Graffiti versus graffito, 277 Guy(S) Grammar, grammatical Bad Guy (Phrase), 119 associative meaning fields,, 119 bad guy (phrase), 120 Grammar, Grammatical girls/women, 267 Associative Meaning Fields, 117 habit with meaning/skill, 383 biological sex versus grammatical gender, 146, 147, 266, 312, 438 H Consciousness,, 384 Habitat (pronunciation), 19 consciousness, 384 Habit with Meaning/Skill, 382 discontinuous grammar., 123 Habit with meaning/skill, 383 Discontinuous Grammar, 121 Hackneyed, 262 discontinuous grammar, 122 Haecceity errors, 241 learnèd words, 202 etymology, 118, 122 Hall, Robert A., Jr., 328 fundament of thought and knowledge., 359 Handful versus small handful, 293 Fundament of Thought and Knowledge, Handmaiden, 246, 247 358 Harmony grandchildren versus grands., 334 Linguistic, 370 Hyperurbanisms, 150 linguistic, 372 grammar, grammatical Vowel, 90 hyperurbanisms, 151 Harris, Richard, 43 Metagrammar/Metagrammatical, 328 Hayyim of Volozhin, 394 Praxis, 311 Head praxis, 312 head for versus head to, 282 Second Amendment, 302 pleonasm(s), 305 ungrammatical versus, 265, 266, 299 Hearing Versus Seeing, 154 Grandiloquent Hearing versus seeing, 155 488 Index

Heaven (pronunciation), 113 Hominidae, 323 Hebrew Homo Abducans, 177 hierarchical value, 235 Homo abducans, 179 profanity, 229 Homo figurans, 323 Hegemony, 169, 170 Homo Figurans, 323 Heiße Magister, Heiße Doktor Gar (I’m Called Homo Habilis, 382 Master [of Arts], and Doctor [of Homo habilis, 383 Philosophy] Too) [Phrase], 174 Homologous Heiße Magister, heiße Doktor gar (I’m called habit with meaning/skill, 383, 384 Master [of Arts], and Doctor [of Philological Method, 338 Philosophy] too) [phrase], 175 Homo loquens, 414 Heraclitus, 371, 372 Homophony, 59 Hereditament, 161 Homorganic Hermeneutic, hermeneutically emphasis, 261 habit with meaning/skill, 383, 384 language of thought, 410 Hermeneutic, Hermeneutically Homo Sapiens, 323 Neostructuralism, 348 Homosexual(s) defined, 197 neostructuralism, 350, 351 Honan, Patrick, 218 style, 367 Honey I Shrunk the Kids (film), 326 theory of language, 338 Honorifics, 277 Hetero-, 263 Horror Silentii, 315 Heterogeneity, 356, 357 Horror vacui, 315 Heterolinguistic, heterolingual interpolations, Horsley, Scott, 89 210, 212 House/houses (pronunciation), 319 Heteronomous, 375, 376 Human Identity, 230 Hic Sunt Leones (Phrase), 158 Hungarian, 90 Hidden Homophony in Icon(Ic), 59 Hushing, 51 Hieratic, hierarchical Husserl, Edmund, 10 function of, 235 Hyperbole, 226 implicit hierarchy, 218 Hypercorrection, 311 leveling, 150, 282 Hypermetrical neutralization, 281 emphasis, 261 Second Amendment, 302 Spondaic Anapest, 10 High Stress, 109 dejotation, 65 Hyperplasia, 130 Voiceless Vowels, 67 Hypertrophic, Hypertrophy, Hypertrophies voiceless vowels, 68 anaphoric, 221 Hippocrates, Hippocratic Hypertrophic, hypertrophy, hypertrophies discontinuous grammar,, 122 anaphoric, 224 Discontinuous Grammar, 121 Back-Formations, 194 discontinuous grammar, 122, 123 back-formations, 195 Latin Phrases, 177 begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167 Latin phrases, 178–180, 211 contextual, 224 Hiroshima, 28 Dr. versus Professor, 175 Hirsute, 192 Emphasis and Length of Word, 199 Hissing, 51, 52 emphasis and length of word, 199 Hitchings, Henry, 161 fixed phrases,, 137 Hold versus *holded, 380 Hyperurbanisms, 142 Holmes, Sherlock (fictional character), 123, hyperurbanisms, 143 124 innovations in language, 222–224, 226, 233 Holmes, Sherlock (Fictional Character), 177, inter alia, 137 179 morphemic, 224 Homage (Pronunciation), 23 Multiple Versus Many, 155 Hominid, 382, 383 past time, 290, 291 Index 489

Philological Method, 338 exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase), pleonasm(s), 305 405 pleonastically extruded adjectives, 295 exactly right (phrase), 405 pluriverbation, 295 language of thought, 410 Prepositions After Verbs, 312 paroemics, 410 prepositions after verbs, 313 Prosodically, 71 prior to versus before, 253 Russian poetry, 395 Prosody and Emphasis, 71 -ian—, 37 semantics, 129, 130 Icon, Iconic, Iconicity, Iconically, Iconism straight talk, 247 Consonant Clusters, 86 straight talk, 248 Icon, iconic, iconicity, iconically, iconism Thirdness, 332 consonant clusters, 87 thirdness, 333 dejotation, 65 Hyperurbanism(s) Diagrammatization, 354 American English, 253 diagrammatization, 355, 356 grammatical,, 149 Drift, 356 grammatical, 150 drift, 357, 358 hyperurbanism(s) Emphasis and Length of Word, 199 hypertrophy,, 143 emphasis and length of word, 199 Hyperurbanism(S) Enjoy!, 194 Hypertrophy, 142 Errs (Pronunciation), 79 innovations in language, 222–224, 226, 233 errs (pronunciation), 80 metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352, Folk Etymology, 175 353 habit with meaning/skill, 383, 384 Multiple Versus Many, 155 Hidden Homophony in Icon(Ic), 59 objective versus subjective case, 289 icon of phonological values, 87 reality is (phrase), 298 Iconic Impulse, 53 Hypocoristic(S), Hypocorism iconic relationship, 65, 79, 324 Bad Guy (Phrase), 119 Interjections, 80 Hypocoristic(s), hypocorism interjections, 82 bad guy (phrase), 120 intrusive r, 27 Economy of Effort, 333 Learnèd Plurals, 323 economy of effort, 334 learnèd plurals, 324 Geekish, 209 male paralinguistics, 277, 278 glottal catch/glottal stop, 18 Multiple Versus Many, 164 Infantilization of Girls, 137 names, 137, 138 infantilization of girls, 138 Neostructuralism, 348 Russian Hypocoristics in English, 166 neostructuralism, 349, 351 Russian hypocoristics in English, 166 Phonetic Ellipses, 96 Hypostasis, 183, 185 phonetic ellipses, 97, 98 Hypotaxis phonological sandhi rules, 62 different(ly) from versus different(ly) than, pleonasm(s), 305 280, 281 pronunciation, 361, 362 head for versus head to, 282 semiotically iconic, 27 Singulative Deverbal Nouns, 160 I singulative deverbal nouns, 161 I’m Called Master [of Arts], and Doctor [of sound and meaning,, 168 Philosophy] Too (Heiße Magister, Heiße Sound and Meaning, 186 Doktor Gar) [Phrase], 174 sound and meaning, 187 I’m called Master [of Arts], and Doctor [of Timbre, 77 Philosophy] too (Heiße Magister, heiße timbre, 78 Doktor gar) [phrase], 175 Tw-, 376 -ia, 37 tw-, 377, 378 Iambic Twerk (Etymology), 182 490 Index

twerk (etymology), 183 Impetigo, 34 Idée Fixe, 227 Implicature Idée fixe, 228 grammar and praxis tension, 312 Idem Style, 363 errs (pronunciation), 79, 80 style, 367 singulative deverbal nouns, 161 Inanition, 143, 144 Ideology, 188, 189 Inauthentic/authentic, 56 Idiolect, Idiolectual In cahoots with (phrase), 304 Cacoglossia, 240 Incipient, Incipiency Idiolect, idiolectual affectation, 252 cacoglossia, 241 Incipient, incipiency Discontinuous Grammar, 121 style, 363, 366 discontinuous grammar, 122, 123 Incision, 367, 442 folks (use of word), 214 Incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129 folks (use of word), 215 Incredible/incredibly Language Change, 374 emphasis and length of word, 199 language change, 375 hypertrophy,, 199 lenition, not voicing, 31 very highly, extremely versus, 181 Normative/Nonnormative Speech, 38 Inculcate, 375 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 In decline (phrase), 214 Sandhi Phonological Alternation, 61 Indecorous, 76, 77 verbal tic, 260 In defense of (phrase), 304 Idioms, Idiomatic, Idiomaticity, Idiomatization Indefinite article, 214, 270 American Versus British, 156 Index, indexical Idioms, idiomatic, idiomaticity, idiomatization Graeco-Roman patrimony, 183–185 American versus British, 156 Index, Indexical Contamination, 232 male paralinguistics, 277 fixity,, 190 male paralinguistics, 278 Fixity, 151 Phonetic Ellipses, 96 freedom/constraint in use of, 238 phonetic ellipses, 97, 98 proverbs, 151 phonological sandhi rules., 62 Style, 363 phonological sandhi rules, 366 style, 366 style., 366 Usage, Correct/Incorrect, 190 style, 363 Idiosyncratic, idiosyncrasy Voiceless Vowels, 67 idiosyncratic derivation, 123, 425 voiceless vowels, 68 Idiosyncratic, Idiosyncrasy Indicative, 346, 348 Idiosyncratic Pronunciation, 24 Indirection, 237, 360 idiosyncratic pronunciation, 25 In disaray (phrase), 214 linguistic insecurity., 33 Individuate, individuation, individualism If you like (phrase), 316 American English, 46, 316 Ignorance and Insistence of the Letter, 25 phonetic variation, 46, 47 Illocutionary, 237, 238 semantic change, 190 Illud tempus, 235 sound and meaning, 168 Illusionist, 399 style, 363 Immanent, 384, 385 Denotative, denotation, 366 Imperative Indo-European languages, 60, 85, 196, 198, back-formation of compound verbs, 284 306 in a shambles (phrase), 213, 214 Indonesian, 140 pronunciation:, 362 Induction, 177–179 Vocative Case, 88 Ineluctable, 163 Imperfective learning, 212 Infantilistic, Infantilization, Infantilism, 249 Imperfective Learning, 212 Infantilistic, infantilization, infantilism Imperfect versus perfect verbs, 161, 284 defined, 124, 125 Index 491

Female Names, 137 straight talk, 247 female names, 138 straight talk, 248 kick the can down the road (phrase), 249 vocative case, 198 kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 Vocative Case, 198 Inflection, Inflectional, Inflected Interdental, 106, 109 Archaic, Archaisms, 318 Interjections, 80, 82 Inflection, inflectional, inflected Interlard, 271, 272 archaic, archaisms, 319 Interlingual, 117 childish errors, 151 Interpersonal relations, 17, 73, 260 Childish Errors, 379, 380 Interpolation(s) Learnèd Plurals, 323 heterolingual, 210, 212 learnèd plurals, 324 style, 366, 367 metalinguistic function,, 328 Interpretant Metanalysis as Explanans of Solecism, 351 learnèd words:, 202 metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 353 pronunciation, 338, 362 rection, 291, 292 subject-predicate number, 310 Russian patronymics, 200, 201 thirdness, 333 Informal speech, 18 Interrogative, 255 Informant versus informer, 222 Intervocalic, intervocalically In front of (phrase), 319 alveolar flap, 58 Inherent(ly), 106 Latino speakers, 90, 92 In hospital (phrase), 304 lenition, not voicing, 30, 31 Inner Speech, 344 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 Innovations in language, 219, 220, 222–224, palatalization across word boundaries, 75, 226 77 Innovations in Language, 227 th (pronunciation), 109 Innovative (pronunciation), 66 Intervocalically, 37 In potentia Intonation, intonational levels of patterning in language, 52 absolutely as emphatic, 205 metalinguistic function;, 327 assertory force,, 317 Insecurity/security, linguistic, 33 assertory force, 317 Insinuate, 309 girlized intonation, 16 In situ, 241, 242 uptalk, 255 Inskeep, Steve, 232 vocative case, 88 Insouciance, insouciantly, 322 Intonation, Intonational Instantiate, instantiation Vocative Case, 88 affective vocabulary, 164 Yiddishized Enumerative Intonation, 68 politeness, 243 Yiddishized enumerative intonation, 69 style, 366 Intonation subject-predicate number, 310 younger speakers, 23 In statu nascendi, 327, 328 Intransitive, intransitivity Instrumental nomina propria in adverbial position, 300, on behalf of (phrase), 144, 145 301 Russian poetry, 396, 398 past passive participle, 293 Insurance (pronunciation), 95, 103 transitive verbs, 300 Integrative, 62 Introversive, 260 Intentionality, 363, 368 Intrusive r, 26, 27 Intercalate, Intercalation In wake of (phrase), 304 Americans English Speakers of French, 100 Ipso facto, 231 Intercalate, intercalation Iran, Iranian (pronunciation), 19, 21, 45, 47, Americans English speakers of French, 101 89, 252 language of thought, 410 Iraq (pronunciation), 19, 21, 47, 119, 252 Latino speakers, 90, 92 Irony, Ironize, 245 492 Index

Irony, ironize, 246 Jejune phrase, 405 Irrefragable, irrefragably Jewish names, 138 absolute, absolutely versus, 192 Jocular Irrefragable, Irrefragably language change, 374, 375 Absolute, Absolutely Versus, 192 Judge (pronunciation), 63 Conceptualization, 378 conceptualization, 379 K defined,, 194 Köchel, 58 etymology, 196 Kant, Immanuel (pronunciation), 20 idioms, 156 Kegel, 16 Idioms, 156 Keillor, Garrison, 80, 229, 388 Multiple Versus Many, 155 Keleman, Michele, 89 Irreversible, 168, 170 Kell, Reginald, 367, 368 Isn’t Versus Ain’t (Phrase), 248 Kennedy, John F, 27 Isogloss(Es), 37 Kenyon, Peter, 25 Isogloss(es), 38 Kick the Can Down the Road (Phrase), 249 Isomorphism Kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 Diagrammatization, 354 Kid versus young kid (use of word/phrase), 293 diagrammatization, 355, 356 Kiev (Pronunciation), 94 issues versus problems, 128, 138 King’s Speech, The (film), 332 phonetic variation, 46, 47 King James Bible, 116, 235, 319 verb/noun stress alternation,, 13 Kipper, Judith, 296 Verb/Noun Stress Alternation, 12 Kissinger, Henry, 76 verb/noun stress alternation, 13 Knave defined, 318, 319 It’s Greek to me (phrase), 129 Knickers versus knikerbockers, 334 It’s OK by me (phrase), 303 Knight-errant (use of word), 162 Italian Knive/knives (pronunciation), 319 conservatorio/conservatory defined, 196 Knowledge dialects, 63 authentic/inauthentic, 21 normative/nonnormative speech, 125 etymology, 151, 173, 174 It is I versus It’s me, 375 Fundament of, 358 fundament of, 359, 360 J Kocieniewski, David, 326 Jakšić, Đura, 307 Konstantinovich, Mikhaíl, 200, 201 Jakobsonian mode, 384 Krepier (use of word), 117 James, Caryn, 289 Krylov, Ivan, 276, 401, 402, 404 James, P. D., 289 Kuznetsova, Svetlana, 55, 56 James, William, 177, 178 Kyoto, 28 Japanese affective vocabulary, 164 L American English drift, 171 L’Aquila, Italy (pronunciation), 67 Cachinnation (Laughter), 345 Labov, William, 417, 418 extemporaneous speech, 241 Lacuna, 359 female speech, 394 La Fontaine, Jean de, 401, 402, 404 Japlish, 271 Lallwörter, 128 Lenition, not Voicing,, 29 Lambast, Lambaste (Pronunciation), 28, 90 lenition, not voicing, 30 Lamborghini (pronunciation), 20 marked., 51 Language of thought, 227, 228, 344, 406, 407, politeness, 244 410, 412, 427–429 Prosody, 27 Lapidary, 246, 247 proverbs, 55, 132 Lapidos, Janet, 203 Proverbs, 191 Lapsus Linguae sex defined, 188 Errors, 320 Jargon, 129, 374, 375 Lapsus linguae Index 493

grammar, 359 Lenited, Lenition Larynx not Voicing, 29 cultural cachinnation (laughter), 346 not voicing, 30 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 98–100 Lentigo (pronunciation), 34, 35 timbre, 78 Lento, lento tempo, 68 Lascivious, 182 Leonhart, Jonathan, 23 Latin, 184 Lermontov, Mikhail, 395, 397 calques, 184, 185 Lesbian(s) defined, 197 etyma, 118 Less versus fewer, 168 Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185, 337 Less Versus Fewer, 356 grammar (etymology), 118 Let me be clear (phrase), 216 heterolingual interpolations, 211 Let Me Be Clear (Phrase), 216 learnèd plurals, 324 Letter (etymology), 118 normative/nonnormative speech, 122 Letzten Endes, 246, 247 paralinguistics, 428 Levels of patterning in language, 52, 421 persona defined, 414, 415 Lexeme, 171 phrases, 178–180, 184, 185, 272 Lexis, lexicon, lexica, lexical, lexicalized, Latinate lexically, lexicalization Anglo-Saxon Versus, 143 absolutely as emphatic, 205 Anglo-Saxon versus, 144 archaic, archaisms, 317, 318 learnèd words, 202 competence, linguistic, 246 prior to versus before, 253 Lexis, Lexicon, Lexica, Lexical, Lexicalized, reading pronunciation, 44 Lexically, Lexicalization Latinate, 202 See also Latin competence, linguistic, 246, 247 Latino speakers competence, 450 congeners, 90, 92 Conceptualization, 378 emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231 conceptualization, 379 Laughter (cachinnation), 219 Desuetude, Words in, 170 Lax, laxing. See also tense versus lax discontinuous grammar, 122, 123 at the end of the day (phrase), 207 emphasis, 261 Lax, Laxing emphasis, 261 at the end of the day (phrase), 206 Feminine pronouns, 265, 266 Lax, laxing Frisson of Etymological Discovery, 195 at the end of the day (phrase), 207 frisson of etymological discovery, 196 lenition, not voicing, 30, 31 incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, infantilization, 127, 128 37 inner speech, 344 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 language of thought, 228 palatalization across word boundaries, 75 learnèd plurals, 323, 324 pronunciation, 361, 362 linguistic harmony, 371, 372 sounds and sense, 187, 188 memoirs (plural form), 131 Lax, laxing, 207 See also tense versus lax metaphors (use of word), 234, 235 Learnèd words non-standard speech, 263 Latinate,, 202 Oral Tradition, 58 plurals, 323, 324 oral tradition, 58 Learning, imperfect, 212, 213 philological method, 339 Le Corbeau et le Renard (La Fontaine), 55, 402 profanity, 229 Leicester (pronunciation), 113 professional argots, 330 Leitmotif, 248 proverbs, 132, 133 Lenin, V. I. (pronunciation), 64, 160 style, 363, 366 Lenis, 57 well versus good, 170 Lenited, lenition Yiddishized enumerative intonation., 68 normative/nonnormative speech, 40 Yiddishized Enumerative Intonation, 68 not voicing), 31 Liasson, Mara, 132 494 Index

License, 92 Locus, 254, 255 Like (use of word), 149, 150, 200, 206, 246, Logic governing variations, 65 316, 335 Lomonosov, Mikhail, 394 Limn, 412 Lone versus alone (use of word), 68 Lingo, 125 Long-lived, 93 Lingua franca Long story short (phrase), 53 cacoglossia, 240, 241, 257, 258 Look (use of word), 250 Lingua Franca Look up to him (phrase), 107 Colloquialisms, 321 Lopez, Adolfo (pronunciation), 8 Ersatz English, 268 Lorry versus truck, 171 foreign accents, 73, 74 Loss of vowels, 67, 68 imperfective learning, 212 Lower, 412 performative(s), 238 Linguistic change M adhere, 374, 375 Mélange, 271, 272 affected, 252 Mírpráxu eë (mup npaxy ee), 58 described, 417–419 Macaronic Language, 271 Linguistic Change Macaronic language, 271 Paronomastic Interference, 41 Machination(s) [pronunciation], 42 paronomastic interference, 42 Magnanimous versus *magnimonious, 131 prestige,, 375 Mainland (pronunciation), 62, 63 prestige, 375 Makovsky, David, 121 telos, 47 Maladroitness, linguistic, 258 Linguistic Ecology, 133 Maladroitness, 258 Linguistic ecology, 133, 134 Malagré lui, 271, 272 Linking r, 27 Malapropism, 9 Liquid Malefactor, 170 dejotation, 65 Male Speech, 205 desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, feminization of, 205 110, 111 Male speech interjections, 80, 82 homogeneous social groups, 72 linguistic solopsism, 32 intonation, 16 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 paralinguistics, 277 phonetic variation,, 47 paralinguistics, 278 phonetic variation, 46 Register, 72 s Before Liquids, 21 timbre, 78 th (pronunciation), 107, 109 Vowel Alternation, 14 tw-, 377, 378 younger speakers, 16 vowel syncope, 112, 113 Malgré lui, 271, 272 Literal, Literalist Malkiel, Yakov, 169 Etymology of, 117 Manhattan (pronunciation), 33 Literal, literalist Mannerisms, 250 etymology of, 118 Mantra (pronunciation), 20 irony, 245, 246 Manus manum lavat, 272 literalist approach, 217, 245, 246 Man versus gentleman, 170 Literally (Use of Word), 264 Many versus multiple, 155 Literally (use of word), 265 Marckwardt, Albert H., 417 Literate defined, 119 Margins, 65 Lived, long- or short-, 93 Marked, Markedness. See also Unmarked, Loan words (foreign borrowings), 6, 25, 55, 56, Unmarking 252, 303 Ablaut Pattern, 325 Locative case Marked, markedness. See also unmarked, going forward versus in the future, 172 unmarking past time, 289, 291 ablaut pattern, 326 Index 495

Enjoy!, 193, 194 evisceration of, 136 Marked, markedness, 21 meaning fields, 118, 119 authentic/inauthentic knowledge., 21 sound and, 15, 168 consonant clusters, 87, 88 Mechanicalist conception, 337 diagrammatization, 355 Media/mediae drift and the iconic, 356, 357 derivational pattern, 285 errs (pronunciation),, 79 learnèd plurals, 324 errs (pronunciation), 79 Media/Mediae Feminine pronouns, 265, 266 Portmanteau, 156 intrusive r, 27 supersession of American English, 171 learnèd plurals, 323, 324 tennuis/tenues and,, 40 lengthening clause-final unstressed tennuis/tenues and, 98, 99 syllables, 102 Medial Position lenition, not voicing, 31 *Triblet of Trisyllables, 1 markedness value, 5 Medial position metathesis, 69, 70 aphaeresis, 6 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, consonant clusters, 87, 88 37 dejotation, 64, 65 names, 137, 138 fricative, 63 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 Linguistic Self-Awareness, 88 phonetic variation, 46, 47 linguistic self-awareness, 89 Marked, Markedness s Before Liquids, 21 Pin Versus Pen, 43 s before liquids, 22 pin versus pen, 43 Social Security (pronunciation), 51 productive/unproductive stress, 232 Tone-Deafness, 24 productive/unproductive stress, 233 Medvedev, Dmitri (pronunciation), 8 pronunciation., 20 Meld defined, 187 pronunciation, 19, 362 Meliorative, 243 protensity, 15 Memoirs (Plural Form), 131 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 Mencken, H. L., 417 sound and meaning, 168 Mercy defined, 153, 154 sounds and sense, 187, 188 Merger, Vowel, 15 subject-predicate number, 309, 310 Merger, vowel, 16 subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, Merriam-Webster Unabridged Dictionary 348 adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4 supersession of marked by unmarked, 232 enamor defined, 276 Th (Pronunciation), 107 err(s) (pronunciation), 79 th (pronunciation), 109 irrefragable defined and etymology, 193 unstressed vowels, 104 Multiple Versus Many, 164 verb/noun stress alternation, 13 Metagrammar, metagrammatical, 328 Vowel Alternation, 14 Metalanguage, metalinguistic(s) vowel alternation, 16 communicative context, 88 woman versus lady, 267 conative,, 381 word as structural unit, 85, 86 conative, 327 Marriage portion (phrase), 162 Metalanguage, Metalinguistic(S) Maryland (Pronunciation), 61 Conative, 327, 382 Maryland (pronunciation), 62 free variation, 381 Mass noun(s), 312, 357 norm/system/usage, 327 Matthew (New Testament), 319 Norm/System/Usage, 327 Mature (pronunciation), 75 performative(s), 238 McCarthy, Julie, 21 self-correction, 381 McDavid, Ravin, 417 Self-Correction, 381 Meaning Metanalysis Evisceration of, 135 Alliterative Proverbs, 132 496 Index

Metanalysis (cont.) false analogies, 106 alliterative proverbs, 133 hypertrophy, 224 Explanans of Solecism, 351 Inner Speech, 344 explanans of solecism, 352 innovations in language, 219, 220, 222, pluriverbation, 295 223, 226 Metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352, 353 innovations in language, 227 Metaphonological, metaphonology morpheme structure rules, 6 intrusive r, 27 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, sandhi, 27 37 Metaphor(s), metaphoric, metaphorize neither and nor (use of word), 269 metathetic, metathesis, 69, 70 Qualified and Contrasted Words, 176 style, 363, 366 Russian patronymics, 200, 201 use of word, 233, 234 tw-, 377, 378 Meter, 110 word as structural unit, 86 Metonymic, metonymization, 366 Morphology, Morphological, Morphologically Metric(s), metrical, metricist *Triblet of Trisyllables, 1 at the end of the day (phrase), 407 Morphology, morphological, morphologically discontinuous grammar, 122, 123 adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4, 5 kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 archaic, archaisms, 318, 319 Metric(S), Metrical, Metricist associative meaning fields, 118, 119 Sounds and Sense, 53 Back-Formations, 194 Milieu, 94 back-formations, 195 Mimic, mimetic, mimicry Begrudging(Ly) Versus Grudging(Ly), 167 going forward versus in the future, 172 childish errors, 380 Mimic, Mimetic, Mimicry Epiphenomenona, 319 Statistical Norms of Speech Production, Feminine pronouns, 265, 266 370 hyperurbanisms, 151 subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 129 348 metalinguistic function, 327 Minimal pairs, 13 misconstrual of words, 197 Mirabile dictu, 387 names, 137, 138 Miss (use of word), 413 rection, 291, 292 Mode(s), mood Russian poetry,, 396 metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352, Russian poetry, 398 353 secondary stress, 82, 83 subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, Social Security (pronunciation), 51 348 subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, Moldiferate, 148 348 Molière, 7, 35 word as structural unit, 86 Mollify, 254 Morphophonemic(s) Momenta medica, 34 diagrammatization, 355 Monolingual, monolinguistic, 32 Morphophonemic(S) Monophthong, monophthongal, 47 neither and nor (use of word), 269 Iran, Iranian (pronunciation), 47 Nominal Derivation, 35 reading pronunciation, 45 nominal derivation, 37 Morae, 27 Mortgage (pronunciation), 87 Morphea scleroderma, 34 Motivated/unmotivated errors, 130, 131 Morpheme(s), morphemic Motivated/Unmotivated Errors, 242, 275, 278, adjective derivation, 93 317, 356, 366 archaic, archaisms, 318 Motive, 171, 172 Morpheme(S), Morphemic Mot juste, 307, 392 Back-Formations, 147 Mozart, A. W., 16, 58, 392 desuetude, words in, 170 Mozart and Salieri (Pushkin), 16, 392 etymology, 174 Multifarious, 306 Index 497

Multiple Versus Many, 155 Native/non-native speech, 322 Multiple versus many, 165 NB (nota bene). See nota bene (NB) Multiply, 87 Neapolitan pronunciation, 63 Murav’ëv, A. N., 396 Nec/ne plus ultra, 141, 142, 178, 179 Musical Terminology, 136 Necropolis, 120 Musical terminology, 137 Neologism Mutatis mutandis begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167 authentic/inauthentic knowledge, 21 Economy of Effort, 333 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, economy of effort, 334 37 game-changer, game-changing, 180 neostructuralism,, 351 infantilization, 127, 128 neostructuralism, 351 neostructuralism, 351 rhyme, 389, 390 well versus good, 170 Neophyte (grammar), 359 N Ne plus/nec ultra, 178 Nabokov, Vladimir, 391, 399 Neutralize, neutralization Names, naming alveolar flap, 57 affective vocabulary, 164 hierarchical value, 235 female names, 137, 138 Latino speakers, 90, 92 first-name basis, 240 lenition, not voicing, 31 name day., 390 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, name day, 389 37 Names, Naming normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 namelessness (anonymity), 239 pin versus pen, 43 namelessness (anonymity), 240 Neutralize, Neutralization onomastic, 140 Pin Versus Pen, 43 semantic aureole, 140 prosopopoeia, pronominal, 297 verbal tic, 198 subject-predicate number, 310 Narratorial, 366 News (pronunciation), 335 Nasal, nasalization Nexus, 410 alveolar flap, 57, 70 Nil (use of word), 339 Nasal, Nasalization Ninepins, 16 Americans English Speakers of French, 100 Nocera, Joe, 296 Americans English speakers of French, 101 Noisome, 250 desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, Nominal, nominalization, nominalism 110, 111 drift and the iconic, 356, 357 emphasis, 261 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, englessness,, 77 37 englessness, 77 neostructuralism, 351 female, 11, 12 singulative deverbal nouns, 161 interjections,, 82 Nomina propria interjections, 80 adverbial position, 301 Latino speakers, 90, 92 authentic/inauthentic knowledge, 19 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 Nomina Propria palatalization across word boundaries., 75 Foreign, 94 palatalization across word boundaries, 75 foreign, 95 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 ignorance and insistence of the letter, 25 pin versus pen, 43 reading pronunciation, 44, 45 Pin Versus Pen, 43 vowel syncope, 112 post-vocalic position, 54, 326 Nomina Sunt Odiosa, 18, 174 sounds and sense, 187, 188 Nomina sunt odiosa, 328, 387 tw-, 377, 378 Nominative, nominative case, 55 vowels, 12, 112 Nonce, Nonce Words younger speakers, 12 Back-Formations, 147 498 Index

Nonce, nonce words Nullity, 135, 136 cacoglossia, 240, 241 Numbers (Hebrew Bible), 146 Cacoglossia, 257 Number-Tense Syncretism, 346 do (verb), 124 Number-tense syncretism, 348 Dr. versus Professor, 175 Numerals, 229 Latin phrases, 211 Latin phrases, 211 O like (use of word), 149, 150 Obama, Barack Vermontian,, 398 folks (use of word), 215 Vermontian, 124, 398 forma mentis, 215, 216 Non-Compact good versus well, 375 Ablaut Pattern, 325 grammar, 359, 360 Non-compact hypertrophies, 227, 293 ablaut pattern, 326 ideolect,, 30, 31 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 monolingual speakers, 32 Non-native/native speech nomina propria, 301 cacoglossia, 240, 241 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 speaking like a native, 275 past time, 291 Non-Native/Native Speech pauses between words, 219 speaking like a native, 275 phrases, 216, 301 Nonnormative/normative speech, 41 self-delusion, vocabulary of, 138 Nonnormative/Normative Speech, 273 verbal proprioception,, 78 Nonpareil, 401 voiceless vowels, 68 Non-standard speech, 263 Obama, Michelle, 76 Nope versus no, 274 Objective case Norms, normative speech, 328 hypercorrection, 308 correctness, 328, 329 Latin phrases, 210, 211 Norms, Normative Speech metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352, Departures from, 38 353 departures from, 40 subjective case versus, 288 errors, 273 Oblique, oblique cases, 55, 398 levels of patterning in language, 52 Obsolescent Vocabulary metalinguistic function, 327 Desuetude, Words in, 170 Metalinguistic Function, 327 fossilized speech, 268 Statistical, 370 Obstruent(s) Norwegian, 23 at the end of the day (phrase), 207 Nota bene (NB) consonant clusters,, 88 foreign accents, 73 consonant clusters, 87 foreign nomina propria, 95 dejotation, 65 sounds and sense, 187, 188 German barbarisms, 56, 57 thirdness, 333 interjections, 80, 82 Not a problem (phrase), 217 lenition, not voicing, 30, 31 Notional, notionally morphophonemics of nominal derivation, habit with meaning/skill, 383 37 subject-predicate number, 310 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 well versus good, 170 Ronko(n)koma, 412 Nouns, 357 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 mass nouns, 312, 357, 358 sounds and sense,, 188 singulative deverbal nouns, 161 sounds and sense, 187 verb/noun stress alternation,, 13 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 40 Verb/Noun Stress Alternation, 12 tw-, 377, 378 Nucleus Occlusion, 18 dejotation, 65 Octave(s), 389, 390 tw-, 377, 378 Odd duck versus strange duck (phrase), 212 Index 499

Odious infantilization of girls, 138 baneful, banality, 231 intrusive r, 27 kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 linguistic solopsism, 32 Nomina Sunt Odiosa, 18 oral tradition/transmission, 94 nomina sunt odiosa, 175, 328, 387 Oral Tradition/Transmission, 94 thanks, thank you, 210 palatalization across word boundaries, 75 Onomastic, onomastically phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 infantilization of girls, 138 quadrisyllabic words stress variation, 66 Shapiro (surname), 117 Shapiro (surname), 117 verbal tics, 260 th (pronunciation), 109 Onomastic, Onomastically vowel syncope, 112, 113 verbal tics, 260 Oslo (pronunciation), 22 Onomastic, onomastically names, 137, 138 Ossetia,Ossetian, 45 Onomatopoeia, 187, 188 Otiose, Otiosity On par with (phrase), 304 let me be clear (phrase), 216 Onset Otiose, otiosity dejotation, 65 let me be clear (phrase), 216 tw-, 377, 378 thanks, thank you, 210 on the Ground (Phrase), 218 that’s a good question. (phrase), 253 Ontology, ontological, ontologically that’s a good question. (phrase), 254 article in phraseologisms, 304 Out there, out here (phrase), 290, 291 diagrammatization, 355 Out there, out here, 226 like (use of word), 149, 150 Overdetermination of human activity,, 340 absolutely as emphatic, 205 speech, 372 prosody and emphasis, 71 style, 363, 366 Oxford English Dictionary (OED) Online Opacity, 258, 259 über, 57 Open, 111 *Triblet of Trisyllables, 1 Oral tradition/transmission, 58 advocate, 287 Oral Tradition/Transmission, 58, 94 Bridegroom (Folk Etymology), 175 Orthoepy, ortheopic chaparral (pronunciation), 160 intrusive r, 27 chivalry (pronunciation), 160 Orthoepy, Ortheopic colleague (pronunciation), 103 Metalinguistic Function, 381 compassion defined, 154 metalinguistic function, 381 correct defined, 143 on behalf of (phrase), 144, 145 discourse-introductory so, 286 oral tradition, 58 Do (Verb), 124 Oral Tradition, 58 ebola (pronunciation), 104 Orthography, orthographic, orthographical, etymology, 42 orthographically etymology defined, 174 adjective derivation, 93 Game-Changer, Game-Changing Defined, alveolar flap, 57 180 Orthography, Orthographic, Orthographical, genius defined, 392 Orthographically Lambast, 28 Americans English Speakers of French, 100 Macaronic Language, 271 barbarisms, 380 machination,, 42 Beijing (Pronunciation), 63 machination, 42 dejotation, 65 mercy defined, 153, 154 desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, on behalf of, 144 110, 111 person (etymology), 414 doublet, 29 persona (etymology), 415 englessness, 77 pitiful defined, 154 Frenchification of Spanish words, 160 pity, 152 glottal catch/glottal stop, 18 Pity, 152 500 Index

Oxford English Dictionary (OED) Online body language, 219 (cont.) cachinnation (laughter), 346 Portmanteau Defined, 148 calques, 125 portmanteau defined, 148 Calques, 125, 126 prowess (pronunciation), 345 cultural cachinnation (laughter), 346 router, 48 male speech, 277, 278 sex defined, 188 non-native/native speech, 275 smite (use of word), 235 non-native/native speech, 275 stomping/stamping ground (folk normative/nonnormative speech, 273 etymology), 176 persona, 414, 415 tweak defined, 377 phonostylistics, 220 welcome defined, 259 propitiation, 256 willy-nilly, 142 Parallelism Oz, Amos, 213 sounds and sense, 187, 188 style, 363, 366 P tw-, 377, 378 Pàneg/yric, 55 verb/noun stress alternation, 13, 14 Pace Paranomasia lenition, not voicing, 30 form and content., 204 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 form and content, 203 systemzwang, 345 kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 Pakistan (pronunciation), 19, 21, 25, 33 Parasitical, 149, 150 Palate, palatal, palatalize, palatalized, Parataxis palatalization. See also sounds different(ly) from versus different(ly) than, word as structural unit, 86 280 Palate, palatal, palatalize, palatalized, head for versus head to, 282 palatalization, 32 Parisian, 37 dejotation, 65 pronunciation, 37, 85 linguistic solopsism, 32 Word Unity, 84 morphophonemics of nominal derivation,, Parmigian(o) [pronunciation], 63 37 Parodic, 370 palatalization across word boundaries, 75 Paroemia, Paroemic(S) phonetic variation, 46, 47 aesthetics of language, 244 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 Paroemia, paroemic(s) Pale of Settlement, 166 aesthetics of language, 245 Palette, 389, 390 heterolingual interpolations, 211 Palliate, 178, 179 language of thought, 407 Pamplemousse, 242 language thought, 406, 407 Panchronic, 355 proverbs, 132, 133 Pantheon (use of word), 234 Paronomasia, Paranomastic Pantheon (Use of Word), 234 competence, linguistic, 246 Paradigm, Paradigmatic Paronomasia, paranomastic Ablaut Pattern, 325 competence, linguistic, 246 Paradigm, paradigmatic Etymology, 172 ablaut pattern, 326 etymology, 173 archaic, archaisms, 318, 319 idioms, 156 theory of language, 340 language of thought, 410 Paragogic, 270 Latin phrases, 211 Paralinguistic(S) Latin phrases, 211 Air Quotes, 316 levels of patterning in language,, 52 Paralinguistic(s) Power of Proverbs, 191 air quotes, 316 style, 363, 366 behavior/(mis)behavior, 219 Parsimony, linguistic, 258 behavior/(mis)behavior, 242, 243 Passive voice, passivization Index 501

past passive participle, 292, 293 thirdness, 333 Passive Voice, Passivization Pejorative, 164 please (use of word), 220 Penchant please (use of word), 221 exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase), Past time, 291 405 Patency, 269 multiple versus many, 155 Patently, 373 well versus good, 170 Pater, 381 Pendantcatachresis defined, 207, 208 Patois Penitentiary (word unity), 85 calques, 125, 126 Pentagon (pronunciation), 60, 62 Ersatz English, 268 Pentasyllable, 336, 337 girlized intonation, 16 Penult, Penultimate incomprehensible to speakers/writers,, 125 Adjectival Stress on Wrong Sylláble, 2 phonetic variation, 46, 47 Penult, penultimate Yiddish, 125 adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4 Patrial, 117 barbarisms, 380 Patrimony errors, motivated/unmotivated, 278 fables, 401 errors, motivated/unmotivated, 278 German, 285 loan words, 55 Graeco-Roman, 184, 185, 337 oral tradition/transmission, 94, 95 Latin, 118 penultimate stress, 55 Patronymic(s), 140, 200, 201 Please exit through the rear door. (phrase), Patterns, patterning 406 language, 52 Pen Versus Pin, 43 Patterns, Patterning Pen versus pin, 335 Thought, 322 Perambulate, 244, 245 thought, 322 Perdure, 380 Pauses Between Words, 219 Peregrination, 269 Pea/pease, 195 Perfective, 284 Peirce, Charles Sanders (Peircean) Perfect storm (cliché), 120, 121 abduction, 179 Perfect versus imperfective verbs, 161, 284 analogy as explanans, 337 Performative(s), 238, 259 associative meaning fields, 118, 119 Perfunctory, perfunctoriness, 169, 170, 262 consciousness and grammar,, 384 Peripeteia Consciousness and Grammar, 384 discontinuous grammar, 122, 123 diagram as icon of relation, 176 Permit (pronunciation), 110 diagrammatization, 355 Person (etymology), 414, 415 different(ly) from versus different(ly) than, Persona 280 defined, 414, 415 Economy of Effort, 333 language change, 374, 375 economy of effort, 334 person (etymology), 414, 415 emergency, emergencia (use of word), 231 Perspicuous, 366, 367 error defined, 321 Pestiferate, 148 habit with meaning/skill, 383 Petrification, 366 Irony, 245 Phatic irony, 245 assertory force, 317 language of thought, 228 communicative context, 88 learnèd words, 202 defined, 209 linguistic harmony, 371 fatuity, 209 Molière,, 35 Geekish, 210 neostructuralism, 351 horror silentii, 315 Power of Proverbs, 191 interjections, 80, 82 pronunciation, 361, 362 like (use of word), 149, 150 theory of language, 340 repetition, 331 502 Index

Phatic (cont.) th (pronunciation), 109 so (use of word), 209 unstressed vowels, 104 Stammering, 331 vowel syncope, 112, 113 that’s a good question. (phrase), 254 Phonic(s), 38 verbal tics, 260 Phonology, phonological, phonologically, 318 Vocative Case, 198 archaic, archaisms, 317, 318 Vocative case, 198, 336 as semiotic,, 47 Phenomenalism, 349, 350 consonant clusters, 87, 88 Philological Method, 338 dejotation, 65 Phonation, 335, 336 emphasis, 261 Phoneme, phonemic, phonemically Phonology, Phonological, Phonologically alveolar flap, 57 fossilized speech, 268 aphaeresis, 6 fossilized speech, 269 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 icon of phonological values, 87 propitiation, 256 interjections, 80, 82 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 intrusive r., 27 sounds and sense, 187, 188 intrusive r, 27 th (pronunciation), 109 lenition, not voicing, 31 Phonetic(s), phonetically normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 childish errors, 380 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 consonant clusters., 87 phonetic variation, 46, 47 consonant clusters, 88 phonological opposition, 41 desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, pin versus pen, 43 111, 112 professional argots, 330 Phonetic(S), Phonetically tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 98–100 Ellipsis, 96 th (pronunciation), 109 ellipsis, 97 voiceless vowels, 68 Ersatz English, 268 Vowel Harmony, 90 Female Nasalization, 11 vowel syncope, 112, 113 Frenchification of Spanish words,, 159 Phonostylistics, 17 Frenchification of Spanish Words, 159 Phonostylistics, 219, 220 habit with meaning/skill, 383 Phrase(s), phraseological, phraseologism” \ Latino speakers, 90, 92 “See also specific phrases, 304 lenition, not voicing, 30, 31 Phrase(s), phraseological, phraseologism linguistic solopsism,, 32 atavism, 250 male paralinguistics, 277, 278 memories, 159 metalinguistic function, 381 term versus, 191 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, Physiognomic, Physiognomy 37 Foreign Accents, 73 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 Physiognomic, physiognomy oral tradition/transmission, 94 foreign accents, 74 Oral Tradition/Transmission, 94 Power of Proverbs, 191 original language’s., 7 Pidgin original language’s, 8, 21–23 -ese, 125 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 cacoglossia, 240, 241, 257 Phonetic(s), Phonetically Cacoglossia, 257 Phonetic Variation, 45 Pin versus pen, 43 phonetic variation, 46, 47 Pin Versus Pen, 43, 335 Pronunciation and Prestige, 105 Pious defined, 153 Ronko(n)koma, 412 Pistachio (pronunciation), 21 sequential phonetic content, 41 Pitch, 28 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 Pitiful defined, 153 sounds and sense, 187, 188 Pity (Lexical Congeners), 152 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 98–100 Pity (lexical congeners), 153 Index 503

Placeless existence, 227, 289, 291 archaisms, 395, 398, 399 Platform (use of word), 412 chef d’oevre, 395 Platitudinous, 405 Poetic, Poetry Plato, 158, 204, 228, 340, 356, 413 Communicative Context, 88 Play versus show, 181 critique, 384, 385 Please (Use of Word), 220 iambic, 395 Please (use of word), 221 instrumental, 398 Please exit through the rear door. (phrase), 406 metalinguistic function, 327 Plebes, 77 mirabile dictu, 384, 385 Plenitude, platitudinous, 274 morphology,, 398 Pleonasm(s) morphology, 398 diagrammatized, 305 nomina sunt odiosa, 384, 385 innovations in language, 219, 220, 222, oblique cases, 398 223, 226 post-tonic, 398 Pleonasm(S) schwa, 398 innovations in language, 227 transliterated, 398 patterns of thought, 322 vocative case, 398 pluriverbation, 295 Politesse, Politeness prior to versus before, 253 Linguistic, 243 reality is (phrase), 298 Politesse, politeness straight talk, 247 performative, 238 straight talk, 248 Polyphonic, 372 thirdness, 333 Polyptoton, 203, 204 Pleonastic, pleonastically Polysyllable adjectives, 293, 294 foreign nomina propria, 95 exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase), vowel reduction, 60, 61 405 Pomeranian (pronunciation), 89 Pleophonic, 184 Pons Asinorum, 59 Plosive Portionless (use of word), 162 alveolar flap, 57, 70 Portmanteau emphasis, 261 advertising, 148 englessness, 77 Advertising, 156 Latino speakers, 90, 92 Defined,, 148 palatalization across word boundaries, 75 defined, 148 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 Enjoy!, 193, 194 sounds and sense, 187 media/mediae, 156 tw-, 377, 378 twerk (etymology), 182 Plurale Tantum Postpositions Memoirs (Plural Form), 131 Anglo-Saxon Versus Latinate, 143 Plurale tantum Anglo-Saxon versus Latinate, 144 misconstrual of words, 197 head for versus head to, 282 Term Versus Phrase, 191 imperfective learning, 212, 213 term versus phrase, 191 language change, 374, 375 ungrammatical versus grammatical, 298 nomina propria in adverbial position, 299, Plurals, learnèd, 323 300 Pluriverbation, 295 Patterns of Thought, 322 Pninesque, 169 pleonasm(s), 305 Poetic, poetry. See also specific poets rection, 291, 292 accusative case, 398 thanks for having me versus thanks for Poetic, poetry, 327 having me on, 299, 305 accusative case, 398, 399 transitive verbs, 300 anapestic, 283 Post-tonic anaphoric, 283 Latino speakers, 90, 92 archaisms,, 398 Post-Tonic 504 Index

Post-Tonic (cont.) dialects, 21 Quadrisyllabic Words Stress Variation, 65 Dialects, 105 quadrisyllabic words stress variation, 66 eloquence, 236 Russian poetry, 396, 398 language change, 374, 375 Secondary Stress, 82 Multiple Versus Many, 155 secondary stress, 83 pronunciation, 2, 57, 105, 106, 252 Post-vocalic Standard American English (SAE), 105 alveolar flap, 57 words, 55, 105 nasal, 54, 326 Preterit Potpourri, 271 Ablaut Pattern, 325 Pragmatics, pragmatistic, pragmatism, ablaut pattern, 326 pragmaticism childish errors, 380 analogy as explanans, 337 Pretonic errors, motivated/unmotivated, 321 barbarisms, 7 innovations in language, 219, 220, 228 Latino speakers, 90, 92 Latin phrases., 210 Print-ready (use of word), 285 Latin phrases, 211 Prior to Versus Before, 252 Pragmatics, Pragmatistic, Pragmatism, Prior to versus before, 253 Pragmaticism Pristine, 363, 366 metaphors (use of word), 234 Privative, 181 metaphors (use of word), 234 Probity, 375 Second Amendment, 302 Problems subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, challenge versus, 138 348 Issues Versus, 128 Prague School, 269 issues versus, 138 Prandial, 239 Processes (pronunciation), 150 Praxis and grammar tension, 310, 312 Profanity, 229 Preciosity, 320 Professional argots, 330, 374 Predicate, predication, predicative Prolixity, 245 grammar, 359 Promiscuous, promiscuously, promiscuousness past passive participle, 293 fables,, 401 subject-predicate number, 309, 310 irony, 245 Predilection, 250 Promiscuous, Promiscuously, Promiscuousness Prefix, prefixed irony, 245 adjective derivation, 93 style, 363, 366 begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167 subject-predicate number, 310 childish errors, 380 ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265 false analogies, 106 Pronominal prosopopoeia, 296, 297 qualified and contrasted words, 178 Pronouns, feminine, 265, 266 word as structural unit, 86 Pronunciation Prepositions “King’s/Queen’s English, The” (Received After Verbs, 312 Pronunciation or RP), 27, 76, 345 after verbs, 313 doublet, 105 stress of adverbialized prepositional idiosyncratic, 24, 25 phrases,, 107 prestige, 56 Stress of Adverbialized Prepositional Prestige, 105, 252 Phrases, 107 reading pronunciation, 44, 45 Prescriptivist, prescriptivism unrounded pronunciation, 48 intrusive r, 27 variations, 19, 20, 361 Prescriptivist, Prescriptivism Proof of the pudding (proverb), 132 Norms and Correctness, 328 Propensity, 178, 180 Prestige Propitiation, 256 “King’s/Queen’s English, The” (Received Proprioception, 78 Pronunciation or RP), 105 Prosodic, prosody, prosodically Index 505

adjectival stress on wrong sylláble, 4 Ronko(n)koma, 412 analogy as explanans, 337 Punctilious, 310 at the end of the day (phrase), 207, 407 Punning, 151, 207 emphasis, 71 Purlieu(S) faux English, 103 Idioms, 156 Prosodic, Prosody, Prosodically Multiple Versus Many, 155 Hypermetrical Stress, 109 Purport Japanese, 28 address, forms of, 251 kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 free variation, 80 language of thought, 410 Free Variation, 80 Please exit through the rear door. (phrase), style, 363, 366 406 well versus good, 170 Ronko(n)koma, 412 Purview secondary stress, 82, 83 consonant clusters, 87, 88 Spondaic Anapest, 10 Latino speakers, 90, 92 stress of adverbialized prepositional Pushkin, Alexander phrases, 107 “Elegy,”, 394, 395 Prosopopoeia, pronominal, 296 “K***, 392 Protasis, 346, 348 “Statue at Tsarskoe Selo,”, 393 Protensity “Youth, The,”, 393 lenition, not voicing, 30, 31 Mozart and Salieri, 393 markedness, 15 Shapiro, Constantine on,, 393 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 Shapiro, Constantine on:, 393 pronunciation, 362 Shapiro, Constantine on, 394 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 Putative, 190 sounds and sense, 187 Pyles, Thomas, 417 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100 th (pronunciation), 109 Q vowel alternation, 15 QED (Quod Erat Demonstrandum) Prothesis, 270 Conceptualization, 378 Proud of it (phrase), 107 QED (quod erat demonstrandum) Provenience conceptualization, 379 Enjoy!, 193, 194 exactly right, that’s exactly right (phrase), errors, motivated/unmotivated, 278 405 non-standard speech, 263 Frenchification of Spanish words, 159, 160 systemzwang, 345 iconic impule, 53 Unstressed Vowels, 103 Multiple Versus Many, 164 unstressed vowels, 104 Quadrisyllabic Proverbs (Hebrew Bible), 116, 337 Japanese Prosody, 27 Proverbs stress variation in words, 66 Bauplan, 52 Qualifications defined, 197 English language, 133, 134, 192 Qualified and Contrasted Words, 176 Idioms, 151 Qualified and contrasted words, 177 Japanese, 55, 192 Quantité négligeable, 231 Linguistic Ecology, 133 Quasi- linguistic ecology, 134 Frenchification of Spanish words, 159 Power of, 191 well versus good, 170 Russian,, 192, 390 Quasi-paronomasia, quasi-paronomastic, 207 Russian, 133, 177, 297, 410 Quaternion, 34 Prowess (Pronunciation), 344 Quenqua, Douglas, 336 Pslams (Hebrew Bible), 235 Quién sabe?, 24, 25 Psyche, 275 Quiddity Psycholinguistics homo figurans, 323 paroemics, 410 learnèd words, 202 506 Index

Quiddity (cont.) Rear-end versus butt, butt cheeks, buttocks, pleonasm(s), 305 229 pronunciation, 361, 362 Received, 363, 366 Quintilian, 204 Received Pronunciation (RP or \“The Quisling (pronunciation), 22, 23 King’s/Queen’s English\”), 27, 76, 105, 345 Quod erat demonstrandum, 320 Reception, 183, 184 Quotative Recherché, 201 feminization of male speech, 206 Rection, 291, 292 like (use of word), 149, 150 Red-breasted, red-breast, 93 Quotidian Redivivus, Molière, 34 going forward versus in the future, 172 Reduced, reduction Inner Speech, 344 alveolar flap, 70 quadrisyllabic words stress variation, 66 R unstressed vowels, 104 Réplique vowel reduction, 60, 61 heterolingual interpolations, 211 vowels, 60 namelessness (anonymity), 240 Referent, referential, reference not a problem (phrase), 216, 217 communicative context, 88 r, Intrusive, 26 interjections, 80, 82 R, intrusive, 27 metalinguistic function, 327, 381 R, linking, 27 so (use of word), 264 Radio speech. See also specific radio style,, 366 announcers style, 363 aphesis, 68 Referent, Referential, Reference errors, motivated/unmotivated, 130 verbal tics, 260 Radio Speech verbal tics, 260 Alveolar Flap, 53 woman versus lady, 267 Radio speech Reflex, reflexives aphesis, 68 Enjoy!, 193, 194 barbarisms, 7, 57 metathesis, 69, 70 cacoglossia, 257 unstressed vowels, 104 Cacoglossia, 257 Regenerate (use of word), 362 errors, motivated/unmotivated, 130 Regional accents, 230 grammatical errors, 241 Regional dialects, 43, 77, 330, 416 idioms, 232 Register imperfective learning, 212 female versus male speech, 73 numerals, 229 timbre, 78 pronunciation, 19, 58, 67, 89, 92, 229 Reify schwa, 98 drift and the iconic, 356, 357 Raison d’être Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185 at the end of the day (phrase), 407 Relational value(s), 13 childish errors, 380 Repetition diagrammatization, 355 speech, 329 head for versus head to, 282 thirdness, 225, 333 pronunciation, 362 Repose, 99, 100 sounds and sense, 187 Requiescat in pace, 106 Ramify, ramified Restaurant (Etymology), 151 adjective derivation, 93 Revivification, 366, 368 affective vocabulary, 164 Reynolds, David S, 326 Ravener, Julie, 105 Rhyme, 389, 390 Raz, Guy, 294 Right Reading pronunciation, 44, 45 correct versus, 143 Realism, 348, 349 etymology, 321 Index 507

Rigor mortis, 123, 178 iambic poems, 395 Riposte, 274, 275 instrumental in poems, 398 Risible, 169, 170 language of thought, 228 Risus sardonicus, 122, 178 literal (etymology), 118, 119 Roberts, Cokie, 250 morphology in poems, 396, 398 Romney, Mitt, 301 Names, 139 Ronkonkoma, 412 names, 140, 164 Roomicule, 34 oblique cases in poems, 398 Root patronymics, 140, 200 affective vocabulary, 164 phrases, 216 associative meaning fields, 118, 119 poetry,, 394 childish errors, 380 poetry, 271 Conceptualization, 378 post-tonic in poems, 398 conceptualization, 379 pronunciation of names, 55, 56 false analogies, 106 Pronunciation of Names, 63, 159 Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184, 185 proverbs, 133, 177 learnèd plurals, 323, 324 Proverbs, 191, 297, 410 Macaronic language, 271 qualified and contrasted words, 177 pluriverbation, 295 Russophone, 166, 167, 184, 338 qualified and contrasted words, 177 Sex Defined, 188 rection, 291, 292 speech acts, 238 virtuous defined, 116 Statistical Norms of Speech, 370 vowel harmony, 90 thanks, acknowledgment of, 259 word as structural unit, 86 transliteration, 166, 398 Round versus around (use of word), 68 vocative case, 198 Router (pronunciation), 48 vocative case in poems, 398 RP (Received Pronunciation or \“The voiced, 40 King’s/Queen’s English\”), 27, 76, 105, 345 vowel syncope, 112 Running the show (phrase), 134 Rustic, 95, 109 Russian Accents, 373 S accusative case in poems, 398 Sandhi aesthetics of language, 244 intrusive r, 27 affective vocabulary, 164 metaphonological function, 27 archaicisms in poetry, 395, 398 phonological rules, 27, 62 archaisms in poems,, 398 systemic function, 27, 62 archaisms in poems., 396 textual function, 62 archaisms in poems, 395 Sans, 389 chef d’oevre poets, 395 Sapir, Edward, 195, 357, 378, 379, 420 conceptualization, 379 Saxophonist (pronunciation), 66 eloquence, 236 Sc, scilicet, 92 Emotive Force, 145 Scalar, 328 Error Defined, 320 Scandinavian, 268 error defined, 321 Scant extemporaneous speech, 241 Atrocity Versus Tragedy,, 157 Feminine pronouns, 265, 266 verbal tics, 260 forenames, 164 Schapiro, Jeff, 117 fossilized speech, 268, 269 Schilling-Estes, Natalie, 417 Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184 Schwa grammar (etymology), 118 emphasis, 261 grammatical gender, 401, 414 errs (pronunciation), 79 heterolingual interpolations, 211 German barbarisms, 56, 57 hypocoristics in English, 166 Manhattan (pronunciation), 33 Hypocoristics in English, 166 Multiple Versus Many, 164 508 Index

Schwa (cont.) Errs (Pronunciation), 79 pentagon (pronunciation), 62, 63 female speech, 73 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 habit with meaning/skill, 383 poetry, 398 Indirection, 360 pronunciation, 362 interjections, 80, 82 Quadrisyllabic Words Stress Variation, 65 interpretative mapping of semiotic value, 47 quadrisyllabic words stress variation, 66 intrusive r, 27 Russian poetry,, 398 learnèd words, 202 Russian poetry, 396 Metathesis, 69 unstressed vowels, 104 metathesis, 69 vowel alternation, 15 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, vowel reduction;, 60 37 vowel reduction, 60, 61 neostructuralism, 351 Scylla and Charybdis myth, 136 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 Second Amendment, 302 Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74 Security/insecurity, linguistic, 33 palatalization across word boundaries, 75 Seeing Versus Hearing, 154 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 Seeing versus hearing, 155 phonetic variation., 47 Seemliness, 78 phonetic variation, 46 Segment, segmental, segmentally phonology as, 47 analogy as explanans,, 337 pleonasm(s), 305 analogy as explanans, 337 pronunciation, 362 assertory force, 317 semiotic relation,, 100 contraction(s), 274, 275 semiotically iconic, 27 secondary stress, 82, 83 Social Security (pronunciation), 51 spondaic anapest, 11 sound and meaning, 168 voiceless vowels, 68 sounds and sense, 187 word as structural unit, 86 subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, Self, the 348 Self-Awareness, 88 thirdness, 333 self-awareness, 89 timbre, 77, 78 self-composed versus composed, 294 voiceless vowels, 68 self-delusion, vocabulary of, 138, 139 vowel reduction., 60 self-fashioning, 206 vowel syncope, 112 self-referential, 381 woman versus lady, 267 self-reflexive, 260, 272 word as structural unit, 86 selfhood, 59 Semantic(s) Self-correction, 381 anamnesis, 130 Sem(e)iosis, sem(e)iotic, sem(e)iotics, sem(e) begrudging(ly) versus grudging(ly), 167 iotically change in, 188 adjectival stress on wrong sylláble,, 4 Semantic(S) alveolar flap, 70 Change in, 188 calques, 125 competence, linguistic, 246 consonant clusters, 87, 88 competence, linguistic, 246 contraction(s), 274 contamination, 134 dejotation, 65 Contamination, 134 diagrammatization, 355 Enjoy!, 194 drift and the iconic, 356 errors, 130, 131 Sem(E)Iosis, Sem(E)Iotic, Sem(E)Iotics, Sem Etymology, 172 (E)Iotically etymology, 173 Economy of Effort, 333 going forward versus in the future, 172 economy of effort, 334 Graeco-Roman patrimony, 184 Enjoy!, 194 habit with meaning/skill, 383 errs (pronunciation), 79 hyperplasia, 130 Index 509

hypertrophy, 130 Shapiro, Lydia Ita (née Chernetzky), 16, 395, linguistic change, 418 404 misconstrual of words, 197 Shapiro, Marianne (née Goldner), 57, 66, 73, Neologism, 180 126, 142, 148, 158, 393 secondary stress, 82, 83 Shapiro, Michael semantic(s) Russian Phonetic Variants and semantic attenuation of compound verb, Phonostylistics, 113 299 Word Paints a Thousand Pictures semantic aureole, 123, 140 The Consolation of Philosophy in the semantic fields, 134 Age of Stupravity, A, 148 semantic hierarchy:, 60 Shapiro, Uncle Misha (Diadia Misha), 38, 124, semantic hierarchy, 63 190 so (use of word), 264 Sharapova, Maria, 55, 56 sound and meaning, 168 Short-lived, 93 supersession of literal meaning, 181 Shostakovich (pronunciation), 8 Supersession of Literal Meaning, 181 Show tw-, 377, 378 good show (phrase), 134 untranslatability/translatability, 190 play versus, 181 Sens commun, bon sens, 184, 185 Running the Show (Phrase), 134 Sense and sounds, 53, 185, 187 running the show (phrase), 181 Sense and Sounds, 376, 377 Shrank versus shrunk, 380 Sensu stricto Sibilant, 51, 52 exactly right (phrase), 157 Sic (use of word), 251, 252 secondary stress, 82, 83 Sicilian pronunciation, 63 Sensu Stricto Sic transeunt onera mundi, 162 Self-Delusion, Vocabulary of, 138 Sic transit gloria mundi, 105, 106 that’s a good question. (phrase), 253 Siegel, Robert, 89, 335 that’s a good question. (phrase), 254 Sign, signata ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265 consonant clusters, 87, 88 Sentient, 243 contraction(s), 274, 275 Sepia (pronunciation), 94 diagrammatization, 355 Sequela, 275 drift and the iconic, 356, 357 Serbian, 306 habit with meaning/skill, 383 ethical dative, 306 Sign, Signata lenition, not voicing, 30 Indirection, 360 marked, 51 interjections, 82 voiced, 40 Latino speakers, 90, 92 Sesquipedalianian, sesquipedalianism, 169 normative/nonnormative speech,, 40 Set normative/nonnormative speech, 41 affective vocabulary, 164 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 Stammering, 331 pleonasm(s), 305 Sex versus gender, 188 pronunciation, 362 Shakespeare, William, 79, 134, 141, 388 style, 363, 366 Shapiro (surname), 117 subject-predicate number, 309, 310 Shapiro, Ari, 137 Subjunctive and Tense-Number Shapiro, Constantine Syncretism, 346 “Saison beendet das Orchester,…,”, 390 subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, “The poet wishes you happiness,…,”, 412 348 “To a Japanologist Friend…,”, 394 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100 “To the right and left are mountains,…,”, thirdness, 333 399 tw-, 377, 378 anapests, 283 unstressed vowels, 104 biographical information about, 401 verbal tics, 260 Russian name,, 201 vowel reduction, 58 510 Index

Sign, Signata (cont.) learnèd plurals, 323 woman versus lady, 267 metanalysis as explanans,, 352 word as structural unit, 86 Solecistic, Solecistically, Solecism Sign function, 5 Metanalysis as Explanans, 351 Sign theory, sign-theoretic, 40 objective versus subjective case, 289 Sime, Ruth Lewin, 290 well versus good, 170 Simon, Scott, 89 Solipsism, 31, 32 Simplex Sologub, Fyodor, 325 Anglo-Saxon Versus Latinate, 143 Sonorant(s) Anglo-Saxon versus Latinate, 144 interjections, 80, 82 prior to versus before, 253 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 tw-, 377, 378 Ronko(n)koma, 412 Simulacra, simulacrum vowel syncope, 112, 113 barbarisms, 7 Sonority Der Untergang des Abendlandes, 10 dejotation, 65 Ersatz English, 268 desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, prosopopoeia, pronominal, 296, 297 110, 111 Sine qua non, 112 Interjections, 80 Singulare tantum, 324, 325 interjections, 82 Singulative, singulative deverbal nouns, 161 Sounds Skill set (phrase), 42, 231, 232, 294, 295 *triblet of trisyllables, 2 Skittles, 16 meaning and., 15 Sl-, 378 meaning and, 168 Slavic. See also Slavonic, Church Sense and, 53, 186 affective vocabulary, 164 sense and, 187, 376 dative case, 306 Southern Californian girls (\“Valley girls\”), Slavic 126 English versus, 60 Spanish incomprehensible to speakers/writers, 125 category/categoria (pronunciation), 278 literal (etymology), 118 Frenchification of, 159, 160 medieval, 68 thanks, acknowledgment of, 259 nomina propria, 69 Specious, Speciously surnames, 55 Ersatz English, 267 Yiddish, 69 Specious, speciously Slavish, slavishly (pronunciation), 86 uptalk, 255 Slavonic, Church, 211, 228, 236 Speech, Speech Acts Sloan, Allan, 333 Authoritative Speech, 77 Slough, 156 Speech, speech acts Slovenliness, 258 authoritative speech, 78 Small handful versus handful, 293 biological sex, 72 Smile, apotropaic, 17, 73, 317 competence, linguistic, 246 Smite (Use of Word), 235 competence, linguistic, 246 So (use of word) culture, 10 apotropaic, apotropaism, 210 exogenous production, 230 defined, 270 Inner Speech, 344 discourse-introductory, 286 Nature of, 372 phatic, 210 performative, 237 ticastic, 199 performative, 238 Sociolect, sociolectal, 125, 240, 241 repetition, 331 Solecistic, solecistically, solecism Statistical Norms of, 370 Der Untergang des Abendlandes, 9 theory of language, 340 hypercorrection, 308 Spondee, spondaic language change, 374, 375 Please exit through the rear door. (phrase), learnèd plurals,, 324 406 Index 511

spondaic anapest, 11 defense (stress pattern), 233 Spoonerism, 321 Hypermetrical, 109 Sport versus sports, 376 penultimate, 55 Sprachgefühl, 328, 381 productive/unproductive, 232, 233 Sprezzatura, 148 Quadrisyllabic Words, 65 Stalin, Joseph (pronunciation), 64, 160 quadrisyllabic words, 66 Stammering (stuttering), 219, 315, 316 Secondary, 70 Stammering (Stuttering), 331, 332 secondary, 83 Stamping/stomping ground (folk etymology), verb/noun, 13 176 vowel alternation, 15 Standard American English (SAE) Vowel Reduction, 59 accents versus, 373 vowel reduction, 61 ain’t versus isn’t (use of word), 248 Strident, stridency Error Defined, 320 mellow versus, 87 folks versus people, 215 Strident, Stridency variations, 41, 44, 76, 103, 105 Metathesis, 69 Stanislavaskii, Konstantin, 211 metathesis, 69 Stem Strong verbs, 326 adjective derivation, 93 Structural coherence, 5 affective vocabulary, 164 Structuralist, structuralism morphophonemics of nominal derivation, diagrammatization, 355 37 neostructuralism, 351 pluriverbation, 295 Sturm und Drang (pronunciation), 57, 428, rection, 291, 292 430 virtuous defined., 116 Student (pronunciation), 70, 83 virtuous defined, 116 Stunk versus stank, 380 Stem-final, 37 Style, stylistics Stick to it (phrase), 107 of alveolar flap,, 54 Still life(s) [plural form], 131 Style, Stylistics Stolberg, Sheryl Gay, 139 of Alveolar Flap, 53 Stomping/Stamping Ground (Folk Etymology), trope, 363, 366–369 175 trope of meaning, 340 Stop Subcutaneous, subcutaneously alveolar flap, 57, 70 language change, 374, 375 emphasis, 261 Subjective, subjective case englessness, 77 hypercorrection, 308 Glottal, 17 metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352, glottal, 18 353 Latino speakers, 90, 92 Subjective versus objective case, 288 Palatalization Across Word Boundaries, 74 Subject-predicate number, 308, 309 palatalization across word boundaries, 75 Subjunctive, and Tense-Number Syncretism, phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 346 sounds and sense, 187 Subjunctive, and tense-number syncretism, 348 tw-, 377, 378 Sub rosa word as structural unit, 86 lengthening clause-final unstressed Straight Talk, 247 syllables, 102 Straight talk, 248 thirdness, 333 Strange duck versus odd duck, 212 Subserve, 167 Street (pronunciation), 46 Substantive Strength (pronunciation), 46 Back-Formations, 147 Stress Errors, 362 accents versus, 13 errors, 363 Adjectival, 2 errs (pronunciation), 79 adjectival, 4 Errs (Pronunciation), 79 512 Index

systemzwang, 345 adjectival stress,, 5 Substrate, substratum adjectival stress, 2, 4, 5 at the end of the day (phrase), 407 antepenult, 4 German barbarisms, 56, 57 Syllabic, Syllables kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 Desyllabication of /n/ in Consonant Subsume, 99 Clusters, 110 Succeed, 90 desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, Suffix, suffixal, suffixation. See also unsuffixed 111 adjectival stress on wrong sylláble,, 4 Quadrisyllabic, 65 adjective derivation, 93 quadrisyllabic, 66 past passive participle, 293 vowel syncope, 112, 113 secondary stress, 82, 83 Syllogism, 178, 179 Suffix, suffixal, suffixation Symbol, symbolism *triblet of trisyllables, 2 sounds and sense, 187 childish errors, 380 style, 366 derivational, 37 symbolic functioning, 341 false analogies, 106 Syncategorematic, 99 learnèd plurals, 324, 325 Synchronic, synchrony morphophonemics of nominal derivation, archaic, archaisms, 318, 319 37 diagrammatization, 355 names of boys, 138 Enjoy!, 194 names of girls, 138 Synchronic, Synchrony pluriverbation, 294, 295 fossilized speech, 268 Suffix, Suffixal, Suffixation fossilized speech, 269 Qualified and Contrasted Words, 176 Syncope, syncopate, syncopation singulative deverbal nouns, 161 Americans English speakers of French, 101 word as structural unit,, 86 consonant clusters,, 87 Superordination, 127 consonant clusters, 87 Supersession phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 of American English drift, 171 voiceless vowels, 68 of American English Drift, 171 vowel syncope, 112, 113 of literal meaning, 181 Syncretic, syncretism of marked by unmarked, 233 metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352, Supervene, supervenient, supervening 353 consonant clusters., 87 subjunctive and tense-number, 348 consonant clusters, 87 Syndetic metanalysis as explanans of solecism, 352, hypercorrection, 308 353 objective versus subjective case, 289 style, 366 Syndeton, Superfluous, 229 subject-predicate number, 310 Synod (pronunciation), 104 Supposedly (pronunciation), 110 Synonyms, synonymy, 151 Suprasegment, Suprasegmental Syntactic, syntax ain’t versus isn’t (phrase), 248 linguistic change, 418 Suprasegment, suprasegmental Syntagm, syntagmatic analogy as explanans, 337 different(ly) from versus different(ly) than, assertory force, 317 280 Hypermetrical Stress, 109 head for versus head to, 281, 282 kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 style,, 368 placement of stress, 5 style, 366 prosody and emphasis, 71 theory of language,, 340 secondary stress, 82, 83 theory of language, 340 Sweep under the carpet/floor (idiom), 156 System Sweet, Henry, 100 levels of patterning in language, 52 Syllabic, syllables Metalinguistic Function, 327 Index 513

metalinguistic function, 327 palatalization across word boundaries, 74, phonological sandhi rules, 62 75 Systemzwang, 345 phonetic ellipses, 95 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100 T tw-, 377 Tacit, 99 Tent (pronunciation), 70 Takeoff, 190 Tenure,, 99, 100 Taliban (pronunciation), 25, 32 Terminus Ad Quem, 132 Tantamount, 366 Terminus ad quem, 133 Tant Pis Terminus a quo, 366 Names, 139 Term versus phrase, 191 Tant pis Term Versus Phrase, 191 names, 140 Ternary Portmanteau, 156 Sounds and Sense, 53 postpositions, 305 spondaic anapest, 11 Tautological, 253 Tertium non datur, 43 Taxonomy Tertium Non Datur, 43 neostructuralism, 351 Teutonisms, 57 style., 366 Text, textual Telic, 281, 282 phonological sandhi rules, 62 Telos/teleos, teleological, teleologically, textual cohesion,, 75 teleology textual cohesion, 27 desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, Th (pronunciation), 107, 109 110, 111 Thanks, thank you (phrase), 210 drift and the iconic, 356, 357 Thanks for asking (phrase), 262 Enjoy!, 194 Thanks for Asking (Phrase), 262 errs (pronunciation), 79 Thanks for having me versus thanks for having Telos/Teleos, Teleological, Teleologically, me on, 299, 306, 322 Teleology That’s a Good Question. (Phrase), 253 Errs (Pronunciation), 79 That’s a good question. (phrase), 254 habit with meaning/skill, 383 That’s exactly right, exactly right (phrase), 157, language change, 47 405 Multiple Versus Many, 164 that Said (Phrase), 209 neostructuralism, 351 That said (phrase), 209 style, 366 Theory, language. See also specific Temperature (Pronunciation), 64 theoreticians and theories Temperature (pronunciation), 65 global, 340, 341 Tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 40, 98–100 habit with meaning/skill, 383 Tense hermeneutics, 340 German, 52 Third compared with three (pronunciation), 69 pronunciation, 361, 362 Thirdness, 225, 332, 333 Social Security (pronunciation), 51 This year (pronunciation), 75 sounds and sense, 188 Thorn, 109 subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, Thought 348 Fundament of, 358 th (pronunciation), 109 fundament of, 359 tw-, 377 language of,, 344, 406 Tense versus lax language of, 228, 229, 407, 412, 413 at the end of the day (phrase), 207 patterns of, 322 Latino speakers, 90, 92 Tic, Ticastic lenition, not voicing, 30 Feminine pronouns, 265 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, Tic, ticastic 38 Feminine pronouns, 266 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 like (use of word), 149, 150, 200, 206 514 Index

Tic, ticastic (cont.) Troops (use of word), 298 Macaronic language, 271 Trope, tropology, tropological, tropologically, Macaronic language, 271 troping, tropehood tropism so (use of word), 199 clichés, 120 Timbre, timbral Trope, Tropology, Tropological, authoritative speech, 78 Tropologically, Troping, Tropehood female speech, 73, 78, 138 Tropism infantilization, 127, 128, 138 Clichés, 120 paralinguistic (mis)behavior, 218, 219 Drift and the Iconic, 356 To have versus to have on, 306 drift and the iconic, 357 Tokyo, 28 Englessness, 76 Tolstoy, A. K., 389 englessness, 77 Tolstoy, Leo, 152 form and content, 203 Tone-Deafness, 24 form and content, 204 Tone-deafness, 25 global theory of language, 340 Toponym Homo Figurans, 323 Japanese Prosody, 27 homo figurans, 323 Manhattan (Pronunciation), 33 Indirection, 237 Manhattan (pronunciation), 33 indirection, 237, 360 morphophonemics of nominal derivation, infantilization,, 128 37 infantilization, 127 theory of language, 340 metaphors (use of word), 234 Tunis, 37 Speech, 372 Vowel Reduction, 59 style, 363, 366 vowel reduction, 60 supersession of literal meaning, 181 Tout court tw-, 377, 378 imperfective learning, 212, 213 well versus good, 170 metaphors (use of word), 234 Trubetzkoy, Nikolai, 100 not a problem (phrase), 217 Truck versus lorry, 171 theory of language, 340 Truisms of linguistics thirdness, 333 discontinuous lexica, 122 To wit (use of word), 251, 252 sounds and sense, 187 Traduttore, traditore, 164 Truncate, truncation Trafficky (use of word), 327 glottal catch/glottal stop, 18 Tragedy versus atrocity, 158 kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 Transitive, transitivity, transitivization Truncate, Truncation *triblet of trisyllables, 2, 4 you are/you’re welcome, 258 media/mediae, 301 you are/you’re welcome, 259 nomina propria in adverbial position, 301 Tsetse fly (pronunciation), 6 past passive participle, 293 Tsunami (Pronunciation), 6 transitive verbs, 300 Tsuris, tsores, tsures (pronunciation), 37, 190 Translatability/untranslatability, 190 Tunis, Tunisia, Tunisian, 37 Transliterate(d), transliteration, 166 Tunisia, Tunisian (pronunciation), 37 Transliterate(D), Transliteration, 166, 398 Turgenev, Ivan, 269 Trebuchet, 217 Turkic group, 90 Triadic, 371 Tw-, 377, 378 -trib-ute (verb ending), 2 Twaddle defined, 377 Trigeminal neuralgia, 178, 179 Tweak defined, 377, 378 Trinomial, 333 Twerk (etymology), 182 Tri-relative, tri-relativeness, 333 Twitter (etymology), 377, 378 Trochaic Two (pronunciation), 253 kick the can down the road (phrase), 250 Tynianov, Yury, 394 Please exit through the rear door. (phrase), Type, typology, typological, typologically 406 back-formation of compound verbs, 284 Index 515

Type, Typology, Typological, Typologically Untergang Des Abendlandes, der (the Decline Desyllabication of /n/ in Consonant of the West)(Spengler), 9 Clusters, 110 Untranslatability/translatability, 190 desyllabication of /n/ in consonant clusters, Unvoice (voiceless), 30, 68 111 Uprise, uprising, 213 German barbarisms, 56, 57 Uptalk, 254, 255, 271, 272, 335 levels of patterning in language, 52 Ur-, 321 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 Uralic group, 90 Social Security (pronunciation), 51, 52 Urban Dictionary, 182 tennuis/tenues and media/mediae, 99, 100, Usage, correct/incorrect 154, 155 idioms, 190 Usage, Correct/Incorrect U Metalinguistic Function, 327 Ukraine (Pronunciation), 94 metalinguistic function, 328 Ukraine (pronunciation), 95 User-friendly (use of word), 57, 285 Ultima Usurpation, 93 at the end of the day (phrase), 407 Ut pictura poesis, 306 Frenchification of Spanish words, 159, 160 spondaic anapest, 11 V vowel reduction, 60 Vacuum clean/vacuum cleaner (use of word), Ultimate, 28 195 Umbrage, 245 Valorize, Valorization Unassailable, 178, 179 Multiple Versus Many, 155 Unbelievably versus very highly, extremely, Valorize, valorization 181 subjunctive and tense-number syncretism, Unbidden, 412 348 Ungrammatical versus grammatical, 265 supersession of literal meaning, 181 Unit Value diagram between context and, 65 innovations in language, 220, 222, 223, word as structural unit, 86 226, 228 Univerbal, univerbative, univerbation markedness, 5 back-formation of compound verbs, 284 Vanek-Smith, Tracey, 57 calques, 125, 126 Variations pluriverbation, 295 Phonetics, 45 Unmarked, unmarking. See also marked, phonetics, 46 markedness pronunciation, 19, 20 ablaut pattern, 326 Pronunciation, 360, 362 phonetic variation, 46, 47 Velar, Velarize, Velarization Unmarked, unmarking Englessness, 76 Social Security (pronunciation), 51 Velar, velarize, velarization sounds and sense, 187 englessness, 77 subject-predicate number, 310 German barbarisms, 56, 57 verb/noun stress alternation., 13 Tone-Deafness?, 24 verb/noun stress alternation, 15 Velum Unmotivated/motivated errors, 131, 223, 241 female nasalization, 12 Unmotivated/Motivated Errors, 273, 278, 359, word as structural unit, 86 362, 363 Veracious, 88, 89 Unreflectively, unreflexivity, 230 Verbal tic(s) Unrounded pronunciation, 48 absolutely (use of word), 192, 193 Unstressed Verbal Tic(S) Syllables, 102 Basically (Use of Word), 316 Vowels, 103 between you and I/me (phrase), 265 vowels, 104 naming spouse/interlocutors, 198 Unsuffixed, 295 repetition, 331 516 Index

Verbal Tic(S) (cont.) Vocal fry (creaky voice), 336 so (Use of Word), 199 Vocative, vocative case speech, 260, 261 advertising, 88 thanks for asking (phrase), 262 Vocative, Vocative Case ticastic, 149 Conation, 88 Verbatim, 251 conation, 88 Verbs. See also deverbal, deverbative\; verbal Russian poetry., 398 tic(s) Russian poetry, 396 -trib-ute (verb ending), 2 Voice, voiced, voicing back-formation of compound verbs, 284 creaky voice/vocal fry, 336 calques, 125 French, 40 compound verbs, 147, 299 German, 40 Verbs. See also Deverbal, Deverbative\; Verbal lenition, not voicing, 30 Tic(S) morphophonemics of nominal derivation, Noun/Verb Stress, 12 37 noun/verb stress, 13 normative/nonnormative speech, 40, 41 perfect versus imperfective, 161 phonetic ellipses, 95, 97, 98 Prepositions After, 312 sounds and sense,, 187 prepositions after, 313 th (pronunciation), 109 preterit verb tense, 326 Voiceless (unvoice), 30 proprioception, 78 Voiceless (Unvoice), 67, 68 reference to time, 13 Vowel(S) strong, 326 Alternation, 14 transitive verbs, 300 Vowel(s) Verisimilar, 149, 150 alternation, 15 Vermont, Vermontian, 124, 230, 398 broad vowel, 32 Versification, 2 flat vowel, 19, 32, 252 Very highly, extremely, 181 front vowels, 43, 90 Vibrato, 366 Harmony, 90 Viet Nam (pronunciation), 19 Loss, 67 Vilipend, 122 loss, 68 Virgule, 267, 268 Merger, 15 Virtuous defined, 116 merger, 16 Vis-à-vis, 105, 265, 266, 302, 310, 367, 381 nasalization,, 112 Viva Voce nasalization, 12, 112 Back-Formations, 147 Reduction, 59 Consciousness, Differential, 337 reduction, 60 Viva voce Syncope, 112 consciousness, differential, 338 syncope, 112 grammar, 359 unstressed, 68 like (use of word), 149, 150 Unstressed, 103, 104 metalinguistic function, 381 voiceless, 27 Viva voce not a problem (phrase), 217 Voiceless, 67, 68 Vive la différence, 277, 278 Vulgarism, 27 Vocable Vulgate, 116, 147, 152, 415 Americans English Speakers of French, 100 horror silentii, 315 W infantilization,, 128 Wagner, Richard (pronunciation), 8 infantilization, 127 Wake up call (phrase), 136 stammering, 331, 332 Wayward, 257, 258 that’s a good question. (Phrase), 253 Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, that’s a good question. (phrase), 254 Unabridged Untranslatability/Translatability, 189 dative case, 306 untranslatability/translatability, 190 genius defined,, 392 Index 517

idiom defined, 239 phrases, 303 knave defined, 318, 319 profanity, 229 pantheon (use of word), 234, 235 Pronunciation, 38 Welcome, You Are/You’re, 258 pronunciation, 190 Welcome, you are/you’re, 259 Slavic, 69 Wellek, R., 369 Untranslatability/Translatability, 189 Well versus good, 127, 135 untranslatability/translatability, 190 Well Versus Good, 169, 170 Yod Wessel, David, 131 palatalization across word boundaries, 74, Whorf, Benjamin Lee,, 379 75 Who versus whom, 273, 375 tw-, 377, 378 Wife/wives (pronunciation), 319 Yore, 106 Wile, 401 You Are/You’re Welcome, 258 Willful mistakes, 278 You are/you’re welcome, 259 Williams, Mike, 317 You know (phrase), 316 Williamson, Lucy, 345 Younger speakers Willy Nilly, 141 air quotes, 316 Willy nilly, 141, 142 alveolar flap, 71 Wilson, Russell, 412 apotropaic, 73 Winans, Bill, 288 Younger Speakers Winged, winged words Desyllabication of /n/ in Consonant isoglosses, 38 Clusters, 110 qualified and contrasted words, 182 Faux English, 271 Winthrop, Bayard, 77 Faux English, 272 Withal, 360 female speech, 12, 16, 73 Oral Tradition/Transmission, 94 Friends (Pronunciation), 15 oral tradition/transmission, 94 Homage (Pronunciation), 23 that’s a good question. (phrase), 254 infantilization, 128 with Boots/Boots (Use of Phrase/Word), 218 intonation, 16 Wodehouse, P. G., 366, 367 jargon, 374 Wolfram, Walter, 417, 418 lengthening clause-final unstressed Woman versus lady, 267 syllables, 102 Word blind (use of word), 239 like (use of word), 248 Word Paints a Thousand Pictures\ long story short (phrase), 53 The Consolation of Philosophy in the Age male speech,, 16 of Stupravity, A (Michael Shapiro), 166 male speech, 16 Wright, Robin, 10 nasalization, 12 Wrong (etymology), 321 obsolescent vocabulary, 162 Wunderkind, 166, 167 phrases, 53 secondary stress, 83 Y seeing versus hearing, 155 Yiddish so (use of word), 263 calques, 125, 126 Sounds and Sense, 53 dialects, 38 student (pronunciation), 70 discourse-introductory so, 285, 286 Young kid versus kid (use of phrase/word), 293 Enumerative Intonation, 68 enumerative intonation, 69 Z female speech, 126 Zero Krepier, 135 singulative deverbal nouns, 161 krepier, 136 Use of Word, 338 patois, 125 Zhirmunsky, Viktor, 394