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Home , Ayub Khan (general), Azam Khan (general), Bakhtiar Rana, Defence Day, Douglas Gracey, Feroz Khan Noon

Notes

1 Introduction

1. Quoted in Friends Not Masters by M. Ayub (: University Press, 1967), pp. 115-16. 2. Documents relating to constitutional relations between Britain and have been published in thirteen volumes. Each volume covers a certain span of time and each document is dated. These volumes were published under the title The Transfer of Power 1942-47 (: Her Majesty's Stationery Office (here- after referred to as HMSO 1970-1982). The editor in chief was Dr Nicholas Mansergh assisted by many editors and assistants including Penderel Moon, David M. Blake and Lionel Carter. This series will hereafter be cited as TP 1942-47 and the appropriate volume number, the document number, date of the document (month and year) and pages will be provided in each case. TP 1942-47, Document No. 309 June 1947, Vol. 11, HM Minister at to Government of India pp. 577-78. 3. Lord Mountbatten in !lis personal report No. 14 to the British Government sent the details of results. For details see TP 1942-47, Document No. 288 July 1947, Vol. 12. Viceroy's personal report No. 14, pp. 333-9. 4. S.M. Burke, 's Foreign Policy: An Historical Analysis (: Ox- ford University Press, 1973), pp. 82-4. 5. See Maj. Gen. Fazal Muqeem Khan, The Story of Pakistan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1963), pp. 20-60. Also see 'The Formative Phase of ' by in The Journal of History and Political Science, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1971-2, pp. 25-40. Also see 'The Before and After 1947' by Maj. Gen. Sir Dashwood Strettell in Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Vol. 35, 1948, pp. 116-30. 6. Khan, ibid., pp. 38-40. 7. Burke, op. cit., pp. 62-8. 8. Ibid. 9. See Edward A. Kolodziej and Robert E. Harkavy (eds), Security Policies of Developing Countries (Lexington, Mass.: D.C. Heath and , 1982), p. 13. 10. Ibid., pp. 15-17. 11. For a detailed analysis of vital interests see Bernard Brodie's article on 'Vital Interests: By Whom and How Determined?' in National Security and American Society, edited by Frank N. Trager and Philip S. Kronenberg (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1973), pp. 63-7. 12. See Shahram Chubin, The Nature of Security Problems of Developing Countries: Intra Regional Relations (PSIS Occasional Paper No. 2/84. Gradu- ate Institute of International Studies, Geneva, June 1984), p. 19. 13. See 'Pakistan' by Stephen Philip Cohen in Kolodziej and Harkavy, op. cit., pp. 93-117.

2 Strategic Setting

1. See K.M. Panikkar, Problems of Indian Defence (New York: Asia Publishing House, 1960), p. 23.

183 184 Notes

2. Ibid. See also Shelton Kodikara, Strategic Factors in Interstate Relations in Canberra Papers on Strategy and Defence No. 19 (Canberra: The Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, The Australian National University, 1979), p. 13. 3. Panikkar, op. cit., p. 26. For a detailed study of sea power's significance, see Alfred Thayer Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History 1660-1783 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1957), pp. 371-416. 4. Panikkar, ibid. 5. Ibid., pp. 26-7. 6. For details see Lome J. Kavic India's Quest for Security: Defence Policies 1947-1965 (Berkely and Los Angeles: University of Press, 1967), p. 9. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Kodikara, op. cit., p. 14. 10. Ibid. 11. See Panikkar, op. cit., p. 23; also see Louis Dupree, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978), p. 363. 12. Leo E Rose, Nepal: Strategy for Survival (Berkely: University of California Press, 1971), p. 163. 13. See Kovic, op. cit., pp. 9-11. 14. For an interesting analysis of close border policy which is attributed to Lord Lawrence see Olaf Caroe, The Pathans 550 B.C. -A.D. 1957 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1976), pp. 346-59. For forward policy see Richard Issaq Bruce, The Forward Policy and its Results (: Gosha-e-Adab, 1977). 15. See Roger Beaumont, Sword of the Raj (New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., 1977), pp. 140-2. 16. See the translation of Prince Gorchakov's Memorandum in W.K. Fraser- Tytler, Afghanistan: A Study of Political Development in Central and Southern Asia, (London: Oxford University Press, 1958), Appendix II, 319-23. For Lord Roberts see his autobiography entitled Forty one years in India by Lord Roberts of Kandahar (London: Richard Bentley and Son, 1898), pp. vii-x. 17. Yaghistan (the land of the unruly) was the term commonly used not only by the British but also by the rulers of Kabul- the Amir Abdul Rehman used it in his autobiography. See The Life of Amir Abdur Rahman: Amir of Afghanistan, edited by Mir Munshi Mohammad Khan (London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1909), Vol. II, p. 157. Through the intermediaries the British official secured written agreements and offered allowances and subsi- dies to the tribesmen as the price of peace and stability on the borders. Caroe, op. cit., pp. 346-59. 18. Caroe, ibid., p. 371. 19. See Beaumont, op. cit., pp. 140-1. Also see Caroe, op. cit., pp. 370-89. 20. Caroe, ibid. 21. Beaumont, op. cit., p. 141. 22. Kovic, op. cit., p. 10. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid., p. 11. 25. Ibid., p. 12. 26. Ibid., p. 13. 27. The war office actually worked out a plan to counter perceived Russian attack on Afghanistan. Ibid., pp. 13-15. Also see B. Prashad, Defence of India: Policy and Plans (London: Longmans, 1963), pp. 22-54. Notes 185

28. See Kovic, ibid., pp. 13-15. 29. Ibid. 30. Ibid., pp. 15-17. 31. See S. Woodburn Kirby, The War Against Japan, Vol. 2 (London: HMSO, 1958), p. xvi. Also cited in Kovic, op. cit., pp. 18-20. 32. Kovic, ibid., pp. 19-20. See also Pannikar, op. cit., pp. 26-8. 33. See ' of the ' by Sir Wolesley Haig in The Cam- bridge , Vol. 6, edited by H.H. Dodwell (Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press, 1932), pp. 153-66. Dumas, the predecessor of Dupleix was the first French official who employed Sepoys. Also see Stringer Lawrence: The Father of the Indian Army by J. Biddulph (London: John Murray, 1901), p. 13, 'The Indian Army Before and After 1947' by Sir Dashwood Strettell in 'The Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society' Vol. 35, 1948, p. 121. See also Sword of the Raj by Roger Beaumont (New York: The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc. 1977), p. 1. 34. Strettell, op. cit., p. 121. 35. The word '' is the anglicised version of a Persian word 'Sipah', meaning an army. 'Sipahi' means a . 36. See Area Handbook For Pakistan, co-authored by R.N. Nyrop, B.L. Ben- derly, Co. C. Conn, W.W. Cover, M.J. Cutter and N.B. Parker (Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1975), pp. 370-1. 37. Ibid., see Col. Biddulph's book on Stringer Lawrence, op. cit. 38. See Tradition Never Dies: The Genesis and Growth of the Indian Army by B.S. Singh (Bombay: Lalvani Publishing House, 1972), pp. 23-4. 39. For example Hyder and were two good military commanders. See Philip Mason A Matter of Honour (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin Books, 1974), pp. 18-19, 67-8. 40. Beaumont, op. cit., pp. 1-2. 41. Indian Military: Its History and Development by S.T. Das (New : Sager Publications, 1969), p. 81. 42. Ibid. Also see Haig, op. cit., pp. 159-60. 43. Ibid. 44. Mason, op. cit., p. 140. 45. Area Handbook for Pakistan, op. cit., p. 37. Also Das, op. cit., p. 84. Also see Dodwell, op. cit., pp. 163-4. 46. See The Cambridge Shorter History of India by J. Allan, T.W. Haig and H.H. Dodwell (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1934), pp. 728-57. Also see 'The Mutiny' by T. Rice Holmes in The Cambridge History of India, Vol. 6, op. cit., pp. 167-205. 47. Das, op. cit., p. 89. Mason, op. cit., p. 317. See also Sir Wolseley Haig's Chapter on 'The Indian Army 1858-1918', in Dodwell, op. cit., p. 395. Strettell, op. cit., p. 123. Singh, op. cit., p. 32. 48. Ibid., Haig, Mason. 49. See Mason, op. cit., pp. 317-18. Also see Haig, op. cit., p. 395. 50. For details see Mason, op. cit., pp. 317-25. 51. Strettell, op. cit., p. 123. 52. Ibid. 53. Area Handbook for Pakistan, op. cit., pp. 371-2. 54. See Strettell, op. cit., pp. 123-4. 55. Area Handbook for Pakistan, op. cit., p. 372. 56. See Strettell, op. cit., p. 128. 57. Das, op. cit., p. 91. 186 Notes

58. Ibid. Also see Strettell, op. cit., p. 124. 59. See V. Longer, Red Coats to Olive Green: A History of The Indian Army 1600-1974 (Bombay: Allied Publisher, 1974), p. 135. 60. Ibid., pp. 135-6. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid., p. 137. 63. See Longer, op. cit., p. 140. Also see H.H. Dodwell's Chapter on 'The Relations of the Government of India with Indian States 1858-1918' in Dod- well, op. cit., p. 507. (The Cambridge History of India, Vol. VI). 64. See Kitchener: Portrait of an Imperialist by Philip Magnus (London: John Murray, 1958), pp. 196-201. Also see Soldier, Artist, Sportsman: The Life of General Lord Rawlinson of Trent, edited by Sir Frederick Maurice (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1928), pp. 273-300. 65. See Longer, op. cit., p. 138. Haig, op. cit., p. 400. 66. Longer, op. cit., p. 136. 67. Ibid., p. 146. See also Das, op. cit., pp. 94-5. 68. For an interesting and full account of the Curzon-Kitchener controversy see Longer's chapter on the Kitchener era, op. cit., pp. 135-49. See also Magnus, op. cit., pp. 204-26. Also see Stephen P. Cohen's article on 'Issue, Role and Personality', 'The Kitchener-Curzon Dispute' in Comparative Studies in So- ciety and History, Vol. 10, No.3, April1968, pp. 337-55. Also see Vincent A. Smith The Oxford History of India, revised by Sir Mortimer Wheeler and A.L. Basham (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958), pp. 759-61. Also see An Advanced History of India, by R.C. Majumdar, H.C. Raychaudhrui, and Kilikinkar Datta, (London: Macmillan, 1953), pp. 936-7. 69. See Haig, op. cit., p. 400. 70. Longer, op. cit., p. 146. 71. Haig, op. cit., pp. 401-2. 72. Strettell, op. cit., p. 125. 73. Ibid. 74. Area Handbook for Pakistan, op. cit., p. 372. Also see Smith, op. cit., p. 822. 75. See Stephen P. Cohen, The Indian Army (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1971), p. 107. 76. Ibid. Also see Maurice, op. cit., pp. 300-52. 77. Majumdar et al., op. cit., p. 937. 78. See Matlubul Hasan Saiyid Mohammad Ali Jinnah (A Political Study), (La- hore: Saikh Muhammad Ashraf, 1945), pp. 135-6, 194-200, 352-3. Also Selected Speeches and Statements of Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah (1911-34 and 1947-48), edited by Rafique Afzal (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1976), pp. 122-8. 79. Majumdar, op. cit., p. 37. Also see Cohen, op. cit., pp. 107-8. 80. Ibid. 81. See Majumdar et al., op. cit., p. 938. 82. See the Report: All Parties Conference, Report on the Committee appointed by the Conference to determine the principles of the constitution of India (Allah- bad, All India Congress Committee, 1928), pp. 13-14. Also see the Sup- plementary Report of the Committee, 1928. 83. SeeP. Hardy, The Muslims of British India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), p. 213. 84. See point No. 11 quoted in Chaudhri Muhammad Ali The Emergence of Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967), pp. 22-3. Notes 187

85. Smith, op. cit., p. 938. 86. Majumdar et a/., op. cit., p. 938. 87. Ibid., pp. 939. 88. Ali, op. cit., p. 43. 89. Ibid., p. 45. 90. Longer, op. cit., pp. 241-2. 91. TP Document 1942-47, No. 297 March 5, 1945, Vol. 5. See the enclosure No. 297, pp. 652. 92. Ibid. 93. Ibid., pp. 654-5. 94. TP 1942-47, Document No. 423,27 April, 1945, Vol. 5. Report by the Indian Committee, pp. 979-85. 95. TP 1942-47, Document No.104 September 11, 1945, Vol. 6. Cabinet Meeting C.M. (45) 30th Conclusions, pp. 247-49. 96. TP 1942-47, No. 94 and 135: April 7, 1947 and April13, 1947, Vol. 10. Also see TP 1942-47, Document No. 180: February 25, 1942, Vol. 1, Notes by Major General Lockhart, p. 238. 97. TP 1942-47, Document No. 106, Apri/9, 1947, Vol. 10, Mountbatten's letter to , p. 165. 98. See Rizvi, op. cit., p. 28. 99. TP 1942-47, Document No.138, Apri/14, 1947, Vo/.10. Recorded Interview between Mountbatten and Auchinleck. pp. 223--{). 100. Ibid. Also see TP 1942-47, Document No. 138, April 14, 1947, Vol. 10. Recorded Interview between Mo3 Meeting, pp. 419-20. 101. TP 1942-47, Document No. 135, April 13, 1947, Vol. 10. Liaquat, second letter to Mountbatten, pp. 220-1. 102. TP 1942-47, Document No. 215, April25, 1947, Vol. 10. Paper 2 Remarks by H.M. Defence, pp. 420-3. 103. Ibid. See also TP 1942-47, Document No. 401, May 10, 1947, Vol. 10, Lord Ismay, telegram to Mountbatten, p. 755. However, even announced that the armed forces would be divided if India were partitioned. This announcement came on 2 May 1947. See , 26 May 1947. 104. Ibid. 105. TP 1942-47, Document No. 221, April 25, 1947, Vol. 10, Defence Committee India Minutes of Third ( 47) Meeting, pp. 433-37. 106. Ali, op. cit., p. 187. The Statesman, 17 June 1947. 107. Rizvi, op. cit., p. 29. Also see TP 1942-47, Document No. 210, June 15, 1947, Vol. 11, Enclose 2 to No. 210 C-in-C Paper No. 1/47, 11 June 1947, pp. 406-13. 108. TP 1942-47, Document No. 54 June 3, 1947, Vol. 11, Mountbatten to Sir F. Burrows, p. 286. 109. TP 1942-47, Document No. 416, May 12, 1947, Vol. 10, Chiefs of Staff Commit- tee C.O.S. (47) 62nd Meeting pp. 786-92. 110. TP 1942-47, Document No. 41, July 9, 1947, Vol. 12, Chiefs of Staff Committee C.O.S. (47) 86th Meeting Minutes 2, pp. 43-9. Also see The Statesman, 2 July 1947. 111. Ali, op. cit., p. 189. 112. Source: TP 1942-47, Document No. 416, June 30, 1947, Vol. 11, Meeting of Partition Council Case No. P.C. 7/2/47, p. 757. Also see Rizvi, op. cit., pp. 30-1, Longer, op. cit., pp. 264-5. The Statesman, 12 July 1947. 113. TP 1942-47, Document No. 425, August 11, 1947, Vol. 12, Notification of the Governor General's Order, pp. 655-8. See also Ali, op. cit., p. 188. Also see 188 Notes

selected Documents on Asian Affairs Series, India I947-50, Vol. I, Inter- national Affairs, edited by S.L. Poplai (Bombay: Oxford University 1959), pp. 42-5. 114. Ibid. 115. Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 27. 116. A third tactic was to launch a wave of systematic attacks against Auchinleck as the Indian leaders saw their strategy endangered by his honesty. See Ali, op. cit., p. 189. 117. See the letters written to Mountbatten by Nehru and P. Patel. TP I942-47, Document No. 247, July 26, I947, Vol. I2. Also Nehru's letter to Mountbat- ten, pp. 365-7. See TP 1942-47, Document No. 312, August 2, 1947, Vol. 12, Patel's letter to Mountbatten, pp. 466-7. 118. See John Connell, Auchinleck (London: Cassell, 1959), pp. 920-2. 119. Ibid., pp. 924-30. 120. Fazal Maqeem Khan, op. cit., pp. 33--4. 121. Ali, op. cit., p. 192. 122. Sardar Patel was once a close friend of Auchinleck but after partition he became not only the most vociferous critic of Auchinleck but also openly challenged his impartiality and integrity. See Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 33. Again it seems particularly strange that Auchinleck was too hopeful about the Indian officers despite the fact that intelligence reports had given him a somewhat sceptical picture about the reliability of Indian officers. Perhaps he thought that he himself had done so much for their uplifting and, perhaps, in gratitude, they would stand by him. See TP 1942-47, Document No. 186, May 3, 1948, Vol. 13. Enclosure to No. 86 Director of Intelligence Report pp. 406-8. 123. Fazal Maqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 40. Also see Das, op. cit., p. 164. 124. TP 1942-47, Document No. 80, August 30, 1945, Vol. 6. Cabinet Paper C.P. (45), 137, p. 181. 125. TP 1942-47, Document No. 297, March 5, 1945, Vol. 5, Field Marshal Viscount Wavell to M.R. Amery. See Enclosure to No. 297, Proposal, for the future officering of the Royal , Indian Army and , pp. 649-55. 126. TP 1942-47, Document No. 159, June 12, 1947, Vol. 11. Auchinleck of Mountbatten, pp. 293-7. 127. TP 1942-47, Document No. 312, June 23, 1947, Vol. 11. Note by Auchinleck - Partition Committee Paper 584. 128. Rizvi, op. cit., p. 34. 129. See TP 1942-47, Document No. 564, July 7, 1947, Vol. 11. India and Burma Committee LB. (47), 41st Meeting pp. 976-9. 130. TP 1942-47, Document No. 335, June 24, 1947, Vol. 11. Mountbatten to Earl of Listowel, pp. 613-15. 131. Ibid. 132. TP 1942-47, Document No. 511, July 4, 1947, Vol. 11. Mountbatten to Earl of Listowel, pp. 904-5. 133. Ibid. 134. Longer, op. cit., p. 267. 135. Ali, op. cit., p. 158. 136. M.A.K. Azad, India Wins Freedom (Calcutta: Orient Longman, Green, 1960), p. 242. 137. Such optimism continued to be displayed by important Congress leaders like Sardar V.B. Patel and Acharya Kriplani who stated respectively that 'neither Notes 189

the Congress nor the nation has given up its claims of a united India'. Quoted in M. , op. cit., p. 115. To assess Nehru's feelings see also Leonard Mosley, The last Days of the (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1961), p. 248. 138. Ali, op. cit., pp. 160--1. 139. Russell Brines, The Indo Pakistani Conflict (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), pp. 54--5. 140. G.W. Choudhury, Pakistan's Relations with India I947--66 (London: Pall Mall Press, 1968), pp. 4--42. 141. 'The violence has been organized from the highest levels of Sikh leadership and it is being done systematically' wrote The Times, 25 . Also see, the Daily Mail, 9 September 1947; Ali, op. cit., pp. 254--75; Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 40--52. Also see Sir E. Jenkins (the Governor of ) Communication to Lord Mountbatten TP 1942-47, Document No. 109, 9 April1947, Vol. 10. Jenkins to Mountbatten, pp. 172-5. 142. TP 1942-47, Document No. 45, June 3, 1947, Vol. 11. Statement of 3 June 1947, pp. 89-94. Also see Ali, op. cit., p. 203. 143. See Keesings Contemporary Archives, Vol. VI, 1946--48, June 21-28, 1947 (Bristol: Keesing's Publications Limited), p. 8679. 144. Ibid. 145. Keesings Contemporary Archives, op. cit., June 28-July 5, 1947, p. 8696. 146. Ali, op. cit., p. 204; Choudhury, op. cit., p. 53. Also see Alan Campbell Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (London: Robert Hale, 1953), p. 124. 147. Ali, op. cit., p. 204. 148. Ibid. 149. Richard Symonds, The Making of Pakistan (London: Faber, 1949), p. 85. Also see Ali, op. cit., pp. 204--5. Keesings Contemporary Archives, op. cit., June 28-July 5, 1947, p. 8696. 150. Muhammad Zafrullah Khan, Servant of God (: Unwin Brothers, 1983), pp. 137--41. 151. Brines, op. cit., p. 43. Also see Ali, op. cit., p. 205. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 53. 152. Choudhury, ibid. 153. Ali, op. cit., p. 207. 154. Ibid. 155. Ibid., pp. 208-9. 156. Ibid., p. 207. 157. Campbell-Johnson, op. cit., pp. 71-2. Also see Ali, Ibid. 158. Lord Ismay, Memoirs (London: Heinemann, 1960), p. 42. Also see Ali, op. cit., p. 208. 159. Ian Stephens, Pakistan (London: Ernest Benn, 1963), p. 180. Also quoted in Ali, op. cit., p. 208. 160. The Hindu, 16 January 1950. 161. TP 1942-47, Document No. 487, August 16, 1947, Vol. 12. Minutes of a meeting between Mountbatten and representatives of India and Pakistan, pp. 737--44. Also see The Times, 18-19 August 1947; The Pakistan Times, 19 August 1947. 162. Donald N. Wilber, Pakistan: Yesterday and Today (New York: Hold Rine- hart and Winston Inc., 1964), p. 216. 163. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 53--4. 164. L.F. Rushbrook Williams, The State of Pakistan (London: Faber and Faber 1962), p. 48. 190 Notes

165. The Times, 19 August 1947. Also see Ali, op. cit., pp. 213-14. 166. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 54. 167. Lord Birdwood, A Continent Decides (London: Robert Hale, 1953), pp. 235-6 and Two Nations and (London: Robert Hale, 1956), p. 74. 168. Ali, op. cit., 173-8. Also see Stephen, op. cit., p. 176; Choudhury, op. cit., p. 56. 169. Government of India Records, quoted in Mosley, op. cit., p. 155. Also see Ali, op. cit., p. 177. 170. Ali, ibid. 171. Ibid., p. 217. 172. Ibid., pp. 217-18. 173. Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p. 140. 174. The Pakistan Times, 22-24June 1964. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 55-6. 175. Ibid. 176. The Times, 18 August 1947. Also see The Pakistan Times, 19 August 1947. TP 1942-47, Document No. 487, August 16, 1947, Vol. 12, pp. 737-44. 177. Mohammad Ali Jinnah: Speeches As Governor-General (Karachi: Pakistan Publications, 1963), pp. 32-3. 178. Ali, op. cit., p. 267. 179. Ibid., p. 262. 180. Ibid. 181. J.B. Das-Gupta, Indo-Pakistani Relations 1947-1955 (Amsterdam: Djamba- tan, 1960), p. 190. 182. Ibid. 183. Ali, op. cit., p. 270. 184. Das-Gupta, op. cit., pp. 197-9. Also see Ali, ibid. 185. Sir Percival Griffith, Modern India (London/New York: Benn/Praeger 1965), p. 103. 186. Stephen, op. cit., p. 215. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 58. 187. Burke, op. cit., p. 13. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 63. 188. Das-Gupta, op. cit., p. 46. 189. Ibid. 190. Ibid. Also see , 9 January 1948; Burke, op. cit., p. 13; Choudhury, op. cit., p. 63. 191. The Statesman, 13 January 1948. 192. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 8. 193. Ibid. 194. Ali, op. cit., p. 183. 195. D.G. Tendulkar, Mahatma (8 volumes, : Government of India, 1960-3), Vol. 8, p. 252. 196. The Times, 16 January 1948. The Statesman, 16 January 1948. 197. Das-Gupta, op. cit., p. 47. 198. Ibid. 199. Tendulkar, op. cit., pp. 252, 260. 200. Kewal L. Panjabi, The Indomitable Sardar (Bombay: ,Bharatiya Vidya Bha- van, 1962), p. 139. Also see Burke, op. cit., pp. 13-14. 201. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 60; Ali, op. cit., p. 188. 202. Ali, ibid. 203. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 60. 204. John Connell, Auchinleck (London: Cassell, 1959), p. 916. 205. Ibid., pp. 920-22. Quoted also in Ali is part of the report which Auchinleck sent to the British Government. See Ali, op. cit., pp. 190-1. Notes 191

206. Dawn, 13 November 1947. 207. Ibid. 208. Connel, op. cit., p. 928. 209. India News, 20 November 1947. 210. Burke, op. cit., pp. 10-11. 211. See Sir Mohammed Zafrullah Khan's speech at the Security Council Official Records, Third Year Nos. 1-1015 (Meetings 228-29). Quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 61. 212. Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 40. 213. The Times, 1 August 1951. 214. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 61. 215. Ibid., pp. 61-2. 216. Ali, op. cit., pp. 318-19. 217. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 157. 218. 'Another Korea in the Making' by David E. Lilienthal in Colliers Magazine, No. 4, August 1951. 219. Quoted in Pakistan News, 8 September 1951. Also quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 158. 220. Ali, op. cit., pp. 321-4. 221. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 159. 222. David Lilienthal toured the region extensively and on his return wrote an article in which he suggested that the ongoing unnecessary controversy could be resolved by common sense and to the benefit of the people who live by the waters of the Indus River provided both Indians and Pakis- tanis jointly work towards this end and the undertakes to assist in financing the necessary work. See the Press Release No. 650 of International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Washington DC, September 1950. 223. Burke, op. cit., p. 12. 224. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 165. 225. For details see A.A. Michel, The Indus Rivers (Princeton, N.J: Yale Univer- sity Press, 1967), p. 559. 226. The number of states vary from one source to another, some put the number at 600, others quote 562. What I have done is to put the average number. See Report of the India Statutory Commission, Vol. 11, Government of India, Command 3568 of 1930, p. 193. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 65 (who puts the number at 562); Ali, op. cit., p. 222 (who puts the figure also at 562). 227. The Times, 20 January 1947. 228. Burke, op. cit., p. 16. 229. Ibid. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 66; Ali, op. cit., pp. 231-2. 230. Stephen, op. cit., p. 234. 231. Ali, op. cit., p. 229. 232. Ibid., pp. 229-30. 233. Ali mentions the case of which opted for independence and how Mountbatten managed to bring about the accession. By contrast he did nothing for Pakistan, although as a Crown representative he owed an equal duty to both the dominions. In many disputed cases he threw his weight in favour of India. See Ali, ibid., pp. 230-5. The Maharaja of Jodhpur also expressed his wish to join Pakistan but Mountbatten warned him that his subjects, being predominently Hindu, would seriously oppose it and the accession would surely be in conflict with the principle underlying the parti- tion of India on the basis of Muslim and non-Muslim majority areas. As a 192 Notes

result of Mountbatten's efforts Jodhpur joined India eventually. See V.P. Menon, The Story of Integration of the Indian States (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1957), pp. 112-13. 234. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 66; Ali, op. cit., pp. 231-2; Stephen, op. cit., p. 195. 235. Lord Mountbatten, Time Only to Look Forward (London: Nicholas Kaye, 1949}, p. 42. 236. Ali, op. cit., p. 276. 237. The Pakistan Times, 25 September 1947. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 68. 238. Talukas were estates owned by landlords having special privileges. All of those were under the feudatory control of Junagadh- Choudhury, ibid., pp. 68--9. 239. The Times, 8 October 1947. 240. Security Council Official Records Nos. 16-35, 64, 1948, quoted in Choud- hury, op. cit., p. 69. Also see Dawn, 7 October 1948. 241. Choudhury, ibid., p. 69. 242. The Times, 10 October 1947. 243. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 71. 244. In fact, a of Indian troops, with few medium tanks, entered the Junagadh city, and took over the administration. See The Times, 10 Novem- ber 1947. Also see Ali, op. cit., p. 278. 245. Ibid. 246. Quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 73. Also see 'The Rape of Junagadh' in Dawn, 12 November 1947. 247. The New York Times, 11 October 1948; Manchester Guardian, 21 October 1947; Dawn, 9 October 1947. 248. Ali, op. cit., p. 278. 249. Ibid., pp. 278--9. Also see Stephen, op. cit., p. 195. 250. Burke, op. cit., p. 17. 251. See TP 1942-47, Document No. 135, October 9, 1945 Vol. 6, Field Marshal Viscount Wavell's communication to Lord Patrick Lawerence, pp. 319-23. Also see Security Council's Official Records No. 29, 1949. 252. The Times, 20 April 1948. 253. The Times, 10 October 1947. Also see 22 November 1947. 254. For details of the agreement see the actual agreement in India 1947-50: Selected Documents on Asian Affairs, edited by S.L. Poplai, Vol. 1, Internal affairs (Bombay: Oxford University Press, 1959}, pp. 300-1. 255. Ali, op. cit., p. 280. Also see Menon, op. cit., p. 335. 256. See Mountbatten's letter in Poplai, op. cit., pp. 298--300. 257. The Times, 28 July 1948. 258. Quoted in Ali, op. cit., p. 281. 259. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 79. 260. Ali, op. cit., p. 281. 261. Anthony Eden said that 'India has committed a flagrant and inexcusable breach of its own agreement' and regarded the invasion as 'an act of ag- gression'. The Times thought India had violated the moral principles upon which the hopes of the international community rested - The Times, 16 September 1948. 262. Choudhury op: cit., pp. 79-80. 263. Sisir Gupta, Kashmir (London: Asia Publishing House, 1966}, p. 95. 264. Burke, op. cit., p. 22. 265. Campbell-Johnson, op. cit., p. 224. 266. Ali, op. cit., p. 286. 267. Ibid. Notes 193

268. Ibid. 269. In viceroy's personal report, Mountbatten wrote that both Nehru and Gandhi were pathological on the subject of the states and both insisted that they wanted to get to Kashmir. Mountbatten preferred Gandhi's visit over Nehru's as he regarded Gandhi as very much the lesser evil and consequently arranged only Gandhi's visit to Kashmir. See TP 1942-47, Documeni No. 369, June 27, 1947, Vol. 11. Viceroy's personal report No. 10, pp. 687-88. 270. Ali, op. cit., p. 287. 271. Prem Nath Bazaz, The History of Struggle for Freedom in Kashmir (New Dehli: Kashmir Publishing Co. 1954), p. 138. 272. Birdwood, Two Nations and Kashmir, op. cit., p. 31. 273. According to Prime Minister Banerjee, Maharaja had no sym- pathy with the Muslim wants or grievances. See William C. Johnston's chapter on 'Jammu and Kashmir 1947-49' in Challenge and Response in Internal Conflict, edited by D.M. Condit, Best H. Cooper Jr. and others (Washington DC: Centre for Research in Social Systems, The American University, 1968), p. 310. 274. See The Pakistan Times, 6 September 1947 and 7 September 1947. Also see Stephen, op. cit., p. 200. 275. RSSS (Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh), INA (, the Ja- panese supported guerrilla force organised during the Second by Subhash Chandra Bose). See Birdwood, A Continent Decides, op. cit., p. 219. 276. Bazaz, op. cit., p. 325. 277. Johnston, op. cit., pp. 313-14. 278. Ibid., p. 314. 279. See Josef Korbel 'New Hopes for Kashmir', in Foreign Policy Bulletin, Vol. 34, 1 March 1955, p. 89. 280. This figure is on the maximum side- Johnston, op. cit., p. 314. 281. 'The Commonwealth Conference and the Kashmir Imbroglio' in Foreign Affairs, No. 30., February 1951, p. 4. 282. See , Independence and After: A Collection of Speeches 1946-49 (New York: The John Day Company, 1950), pp. 60--3. 283. K. Sarwar Hasan (ed.), Documents on the Foreign Relations of Pakistan, The Kashmir Question (Karachi: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs, 1966), p. 68. 284. Johnston, op. cit., p. 314. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 96. 285. Mr Philip Price writing in Manchester Guardian, 11 November 1948 stressed non-involvement of Pakistan, quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 96. Mr J. Spain is of the opinion that Jinnah wanted absolutely clean hands, the did not know anything about the tribal invasion and were not really involved in its organisation. In fact, when they came to know about it, Jinnah even tried to stop them- interview with James Spain. 286. Ibid., Choudhury. 287. Ali, op. cit., p. 292. 288. See Sir William Barton's article 'Pakistan's Claims to Kashmir' in Foreign Affairs, January 1950. Also see Ali, op. cit., p. 292. 289. See 'The ' by Alice Thorner in The Journal, Vol. 3, No. 1, January 1949, pp. 17-30. 290. Interview with James Spain. 291. Burke, op. cit., p. 25. 292. Ibid. 293. The Times, 25 October 1947. 294. The Times, 28 October 1947. 194 Notes

295. Ibid. 296. See The Times, 3 November 1947. Also The Pakistan Times, 4 November 1947. 297. Ali, op. cit., p. 296. 298. Ibid. 299. Burke, op. cit., pp. 27-K 300. Nehru, op. cit., pp. 27-8. 301. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 103. 302. The Statesman, 5 January 1948. 303. The treaty revealed that India would not only build a communication network from Pathankot to Jammu but also agreed to station its troops at . In addition, India would also build new airfields at strategic points and station its airforce in the state. See The Daily Telegraph, 7 October 1947. Also see Daily Mail, 7 October 1947 and The Pakistan Times, 13 September 1947. The Pakistan Times had already referred to the Dehli-5rinagar axis much before the discovery of the secret treaty. 304. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 100. 305. Lord Birdwood, The Two Nations and Kashmir, op. cit., p. 64. 306. Josef Korbel, Danger in Kashmir (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954), pp. 79--80. 307. Documents relating to foreign affairs of the are now published up to 1954. Each volume covers a certain area and time span. These docu- ments are published under the title of Foreign Relations of the United States. Each volume carries its number and the years it covers. These volumes were published by the US Government Printing Office in Washington DC. This series would be hereafter referred to as FRUS with volume and year specified. See FRUS, 1947, Vol. Ill, Grady to Secretary of State, 8 November 1947, pp. 180-1. 308. See Ali, op. cit., p. 297. 309. Ibid. 310. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 105. Ali, ibid., pp. 296-7. 311. Foreign Affairs, No. 30, February 1951, p. 5. 312. Quoted in Ali, op. cit., p. 299. 313. See Dawn, 6 November 1947. Also see The Times, 31 October 1947. 314. The Times, 10 November 1947. 315. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 106. 316. Ali, op. cit., p. 300. 317. The Times, 13 January 1948. 318. Ibid. 319. Ibid. 320. Ibid., 19 January 1948. 321. Ibid. 322. Burke, op. cit., p. 29. 323. Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p. 152. 324. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 109. 325. Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p. 153. 326. Ibid. 327. Manchester Guardian, 6 March 1948. 328. Choudhury and Burke have both given details of this episode. Burke believes that there is sufficient circumstantial evidence to support this contention. Mountbatten through Gordon Walker, Under Secretary of State, influenced the British Government. See Burke, op. cit., pp. 30-1; Choudhury, op. cit., p. 110; Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p. 123. 329. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 112-13. Notes 195

330. Ibid. 331. For details of exact physical locations and the nature of topographical terrain see Dr Kazi S. Ahmad, A (Karachi/Lahore: Oxford University Press, 1964), pp. 1-3. 332. The terms 'borders' and 'boundary' are synonymously used here. See J.R.V. Prescott Political Geography (London: Methuen and Co. Ltd., 1972), p. 55. 333. For details see Norman J.G. Pounds Political Geography (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1963), pp. 56-7. Also see Prescott, op. cit., pp. 54-5. 334. See Mujtaba Razvi, The Frontiers of Pakistan (Karachi: National Publishing House Ltd., 1971), pp. 4-7. Also see Prescott, op. cit., p. 63 and Pounds, op. cit.' pp. 65-6. 335. Pounds, op. cit., p. 65-6. 336. Ibid. Also see Razvi, op. cit., p. 5. Also see Lord Curzon of Kedlestan Fron- tiers (The Romanes Lecture, 1907), (London: Oarendon Press, 1907), p. 51. 337. The terms 'delimitation' and 'demarcation' were introduced by Sir Henry McMahon who himself was directly involved in the delimitation of the boundary between India and Tibet. See 'International Boundaries' by Sir Henry McMahon in Journal of the Royal Society of Arts (London), Vol. 84, 1935, pp. 2-16. 338. It needs to be mentioned that maps are not regarded as very reliable evidence of political boundaries by many international lawyers and geographers. A cartographer can make mistakes because of inadequate surveying or dictates of rulers could introduce involuntary distortions. See Razvi, op. cit., p. 6. 339. Pounds, op. cit., p. 57. 340. Prescott, op. cit., p. 56. 341. Ahmad, op. cit., p. 2. 342. The boundary line is named after Sir Mortimer Durand, the leader of the British Indian Boundary team that negotiated the agreement with the then Amir of Afghanistan, Amir Abdurrahman. For details see Sir Percy Sykes, Sir Mortimer Durand: A Biography (Lahore: Al-Biruni, 1977 (Reprint), pp. 205-23. Also see The Life of Abdur Rahman, Amir of Afghanistan (autobi- ography), edited by Sultan Mohammad Khan (London: John Murray, 1900), Vol. II, pp. 154-64. 343. See The Life of Amir Abdur Rahman, op. cit., Vol. II, pp. 145-64. 344. Ibid., p. 155. 345. Ibid. 346. Ibid. 347. Ibid. 348. Ibid., pp. 56-7. Also see Burke, op. cit., p. 82. 349. Ibid., Amir Abdur Rahman, p. 157. Also see Ludwig W. Adamac Afghanis- tan, 1900-1923 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), p. 23. 350. Ibid. 351. Ibid., pp. 157-8. 352. Burke, op. cit., p. 82. 353. For details of agreement, see Adamac, op. cit., pp. 175-77. Also see Sykes, op. cit., p. 217. 354. See Amir Abdur Rahman, op. cit., p. 161. 355. Ibid., pp. 161-2. 356. See Sykes, op. cit., p. 217. Also see Amir Abdur Rahman, op. cit., pp. 162-4, 237. 357. For relevant extracts of various treaties see Caroe, op. cit., pp. 463-65. 358. Sykes, op. cit., pp. 219-23. Also see Caroe, op. cit., pp. 382-3. 196 Notes

359. See D.P. Singhal India and Afghanistan 1876-1907: A Study in Diplomatic Relations (St Lucia, Queensland: University of Queensland Press, 1963), pp. 151-4. 360. See 'Political Problems of a Borderland' by James W. Sapin in Pakistan's Western Borderlands, ed. by Ainslie T. Embree (Karachi: Royal Book, 1979), pp. 1-23. 361. See Sir William Barton, India's North-West Frontier (London: John Murray, 1939), pp. 1-7. 362. See Alastair Lamb: Asian Frontier: Studies in Continuing Problem (New York: Frederick A. Prager, 1968), pp. 79-80. 363. Broadly speaking the British policy towards the North West Frontier can be classified into two categories: close border policy and forward policy. From the time of the British annexation of Punjab up to the outbreak of the second Afghan War is often termed as a period in which close border policy was practised. The supporters of close border schools were advocating that the British should avoid taking on the responsibility of direct administrative control and defence of the territory beyond Indus. Compared to the close border school, the exponents of forward policy were promoting an aggressive policy bringing all the frontier tribes under one authority and pushing the border up to the Hindukush range. The period between the second Afghan War to the creation of the North West Frontier Province is generally regarded as a forward policy period. Three reasons account for the success of the forward policy: 1) Russian advances in Central Asia; 2) in each decade the supporters of close border were few and much less influential than those advocating forward policy; 3) lack of strong central authority among the tribesmen. For details of various schools and especially the forward policy school see Richard Issaq Bruce, The Forward Policy and its Result (Quetta: Gosha-e- Adad, 1977), a reprint. The book was originally published by Longmans, Green and Co. in London in 1900. Also see Philip Woodruff, The Men Who Ruled India: The Guardians (London: Jonathan Cape, 1954), pp. 138-54. Also see A.B. , Baluchistan: Historical and Political Processes (Lon- don: New Century Publishers, 1985), pp. 145--56. Also see 'Historical Setting' by Surjet Mansingh in Pakistan: A Country Study, edited by Richard F. Nyrop (Washington: US Government, 1984), p. 20; Caroe, op. cit., pp. 346-59, 370-412; Barton, op. cit., pp. 1-7, 56-82; Lamb, op. cit., pp. 79-93; Singhal, pp. 178-9. 364. See Lamb, op. cit., p. 80. Also see Singhal, op. cit., pp. 175--6, 365. See Caroe, op. cit., pp. 330-1. 366. Ibid., pp. 413-15. 367. While it is true that Amir Abdur Rahman expressed his satisfaction over the Agreement of 1893, he did not like the fact that the tribes of Yagistan were placed on the eastern side of the line. During the succeeding years the hill tribesmen undertook innumerable raids on the British territory. It was a known fact that often these tribes were encouraged by the Kabul Government. See Barton, op. cit., pp. 286-99. Also see Singhal, op. cit., pp. 178-89. 368. Barton, op. cit., pp. 291-2. 369. Ibid. 370. No fewer than 50 such expeditions were mounted against these tribesmen between 1849-1947. See Newsweek, 5 June 1961. 371. Alan Campbell-Johnson called this situation a 'bastard situation'. What he Notes 197

really meant was that the Congress Ministry was still in power in a Province where more than 90 per cent of the population was Muslim and the majority of the people, by 1947, had gone over to the . See Alan Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (London: Robert Hale, 1951), pp. 54 and 74. Also see Burke, op. cit., p. 69. 372. See TP 1942-47, Document No. 395, June 29, 1947, Vol. 11, Telegram from Government of India to Secretary of State, p. 731. 373. See Ali, op. cit., pp. 163-65. 374. Azad, op. cit., pp. 193-4. 375. Despite the fact that Nehru once admitted to Mountbatten quite candidly that NWFP could not possibly stand by itself, the Congress Committee in the NWFP and the Khudai Khidmatgars or Red Shirts passed a resolution that a 'Free Pathan State of all Pakhtoons be established'. Quoted in Ali, op. cit., pp. 164-6. Also see Mosley, op. cit., p. 132. Also see Pyaralal, : The Last Phase (Ahmadabad; Navajivian Publishing House, 1956), Vol. II, p. 275. 376. M.K. Gandhi tried very hard to detach the NWFP from Pakistan but the facts of geography, the logic of the situation and the will of the people proved too strong for him. He even charged Nehru for 'being largely, responsible for the situation in regard to '. See Ali, op. cit., pp. 164-5. 377. TP 1942-47, Documents No. 140, June 11, 1947, Vol. 11, Telegram from H.M. Minister to Secretary of State, pp. 262-3. TP 1942-47, Document No. 212, June 16, 1947 Vol. 11, Telegram from Secretary of State to H.M. Minister at Kabul. TP 1942-47, Document No. 272, June 20, 1947, Vol. 11, Telegram from Secretary of State to H.M. Minister at Kabul. PT 1942-47, Document No. 309, June 23, 1947, Vol. 11, Telegram from H.M. Minister at Kabul to Government of India. 378. TP 1942-47, Document No. 395, June 29, 1947, Vol. 11, op. cit., p. 731. Also see TP 1942-47, Document No. 493 July 4, 1947, Vol. 11, Minutes of Indian Cabinets meeting held on 4 July 1947, p. 878. 379. See Burke, op. cit., pp. 69-70. 380. Ibid. Also see H.V. Hodson, The Great Divide (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1969), pp. 282-6. 381. TP 1942-47, Document No. 108, June 9, 1947, Vol. 11, Minutes of Viceroy's Fortieth Staff Meeting, p. 202. 382. TP 1942-47, Document No. 126, June 19, 1947, Vol. 11, Minutes of Viceroy's Forty First Staff Meeting, p. 238. 383. Burke, op. cit., p. 70. 384. Valid votes for Pakistan- 289 244 Valid votes for Hinustan (India)- 2874 Majority - 286 370 Percentage of valid votes of electorate entitled to vote was 50.99% Total electorate entitled to vote in referendum was 572 789 Percentage of the votes favouring Pakistan out of the total eligible votes was 50.49%. See TP 1942-47, Document No. 228, July 25, 1947, Vol. 12. Viceroy's Personal Report No. 14, p. 333. 385. Burke, op. cit., p. 71. Also see TP 1942-47, Document No. 349, August 5, 1947, Vol. 12. Government of India, External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations Department to H.M. Minister at Kabul, pp. 542-43. 386. Ibid., Burke, p. 71. 387. Spain, op. cit., pp. 22-3. 198 Notes

388. See the 'Frontier Policy of Pakistan' in Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Speeches As Governor General of Pakistan 1947-48 (Karachi: Government of Pakistan, 1963), pp. 132-3. 389. Ibid. Also see Sapin, op. cit., pp. 4-5; The Times, 6 March 1950. 390. See 'Strategic Frontiers of India and Pakistan' by William C. Johnstone in Foreign Policy Bulletin, 1 January 1955, pp. 61-3. 391. Quoted in 'Pakistan's Imperial Legacy' by Ainslie T. Embree in Pakistan's Western Borderlands, op. cit., pp. 25-7. 392, Ibid. 393. TP 1942-47, Document No. 348, August 5, 1947, Vol. 12, Mr Bevin to Sir G. Squire (Kabul)., p. 541. 394. Ibid. 395. TP 1942-47, Document No. 385, August8, 1947, Vol. 12, Viceroy's Personal Report No. 16, p. 599. 396. Ibid. 397. Razvi, op. cit., p. 194. 398. Kazi, op. cit., p. 2. 399. Lamb, op. cit., p. 97. 400. Ibid., pp. 95-96. 401. See Hugh Tinker, The Union of Burma (London: Oxford University Press, 1959), p. 357. 402. Razvi, op. cit., p. 197. 403. Ibid. 404. Ibid., pp. 197-9. 405. Ibid., p. 199. 406. See 'Pakistan's Relations with the Major Powers and some Minor Agreement' by W.M. Dobell in Pacific Affairs, Winter 1964-65, pp. 389-90. Also see The Statesman, 27 April 1947. Also quoted in Razvi, op. cit., pp. 198-9. 407. Mohammad Ali , who was Pakistan's Ambassador to Burma at the time, said that 'even if the Burmese Government succeed in suppressing the communists, it is possible they may shift the centre of communist efforts to Pakistan.' Quoted in Razvi, ibid., p. 2-0. 408. Ibid. 409. Ibid., p. 201. Also see Dawn, 7 July 1959. 410. Ibid., p. 166. 411. See 'Ramifications of the -Pakistan Border Treaty' by W.M. Dobell in Pacific Affairs, Fall 1964, p. 284. 412. Razvi, op. cit., p. 166. 413. Dobell, op. cit., p. 284. 414. See 'Pakistan and China: The Scope and Limits of Convergent Policies' by Khalid B. Sayeed in A.M. Halpern (ed.), Policies Towards China: Views from Six Continents (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965), p. 234. 415. See G.W. Choudhury, India, Pakistan, and the Major Powers (New York: The Free Press, 1975), p. 160. 416. Sayeed, op. cit., p. 234; Razvi, op. cit., pp. 167-8. 417. Dobell, op. cit., p. 284. 418. Sayeed, op. cit., p. 234. 419. See Choudhury, op. cit., p. 161. Also see Survey of China Mainland Press, No. 1440, 31 December 1956, p. 20. Also see Razvi, op. cit., p. 168. 420. For details see H.C. Hinton, Communist China in World Politics (Washing- ton: The George Washington Institute for the Defence Analysis, 1965), p. 317. Also see Razvi, op. cit., pp. 168-9. Notes 199

421. Dawn, 10 March 1958. 422. See Ayub Khan op. cit., pp. 126-7. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 163-4. The Statesman, 5 May 1959; The Daily Telegraph, 24 October 1959; The Observer, 18 August 1963. 423. See 'China as a factor in Indo-Pakistani Politics' by S.P. Seth in World Today, January 1969, pp. 40-1. 424. Ibid. 425. Ibid., p. 41. Also see Sayeed, op. cit., p. 238. 426. For details see Anwar Hussain Syed China and Pakistan: Diplomacy of an Entente Cordiale (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp. 82-92. Also see Sayeed, op. cit., pp. 239-44. 427. Razvi, op. cit., p. 178. 428. See A.H. Dani's Article on 'Gilgit Scout Wins the Battle of Freedom' in The Muslim, 2 November 1984. 429. Lamb, op. cit., p. 104. Also see The Muslim, November 1984. 430. See 'The Asian Frontiers of Kashmir' by Lord Birdwood in Royal Central Asian Journal, July-October 1952, Vol. XXXIX, pp. 241-5. Also see Lord Birdwood Two Nations and Kashmir (London: Robert Hale, 1956), p. 120. 431. The Muslim, op. cit. 432. Ibid. 433. Ibid. 434. Ibid. 435. Ibid. 436. Ibid. 437. Ibid. 438. Ibid. 439. A Tanzim-i-Sarfaroshan was secretly set up whose membership was delib- erately kept on the low side. It was through this Tanzim that the people all over the region were kept fully informed about the developments. A plan was devised by the leaders of Gilgit Scouts, Tanzim leaders and Captain Hasan Khan of Kashmir Army to overthrow the Governor on 6 November 1947. News of the plot was leaked and the Governor took immediate action by ordering Colonel Majid Khan to send forces from Bunji on 31 October 1947. Sensing the danger Babar Khan consulted the Gilgit Scouts and took immediate action by pushing back the 'D' day from 6 November to the night of 31 October, and arrested the Governor at about 8.00 p.m. on 1 November. The very same day the Kashmir flag was lowered and Pakistan's flag was hoisted and a request was sent to Pakistan to take over- Ibid. 440. See 'The Sino-Pakistan Border: Historical Aspect' by Zabeida Mustafa in Pakistan Horizon, Vol. XXV, No. 2, second quarter 1972, pp. 43-50. 441. Ibid., p. 46. 442. Ibid., p. 43. Also see Dohel, op. cit., p. 290. 443. Ayub Khan, op. cit., pp. 163-4. Also see Razvi, op. cit., p. 181. 444. Mustafa, op. cit., pp. 43-4. 445. Ibid., p. 45. 446. See the Debates of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan (Legislature), Vol. 1, No. 8, 19 March 1953, p. 323. 447. Some writers even asserted that defects in British planning resulted in such failures. See Lamb, op. cit., p. 99. 448. See Lars Blinkenberg, India-Pakistan: The History of Unsolved Conflicts (Copenhagen: Dansk Udenrigspolitisk Institute, 1972), p. 53. 449. Justice Din Muhammad went to see Jinnah in order to secure his consent to 200 Notes

resign from the Boundary Commission. He informed Jinnah that Radcliffe had already settled in his mind the line of demarcation of the boundary which was seriously prejudicial to Muslim interests. But Jinnah refused to give the desired permission. See Zafrullah Khan op. cit., p. 140. Jinnah referred to the award as unjust, incomprehensible and even perverse but asserted that as honourable people it had to be accepted because of the prior commitment to the Boundary Commission. See Mohammad Ali Jinnah Speeches As Governor General of Pakistan 1947-48, op. cit., 1963, p. 12. See also Choud- hury, op. cit., p. 57. 450. Lamb, op. cit., pp. 97-8. 451. One writer is of the opinion that Radcliffe took into consideration the complicated water canal system while deciding the of Punjab. See Blinkenberg, op. cit., p. 75. 452. Lamb, op. cit., p. 98. 453. Razvi, op. cit., p. 47. 454. For details see Razvi, op. cit., pp. 47-50. 455. See Ian Stephens, Horned Moon (London: Chatto and Windus, 1953), p. 33. Also see Dawn, 18 March 1950. 456. Burke, op. cit., pp. 57-8. 457. Lamb, op. cit., p. 98. Also see Razvi op. cit., pp. 55-8, 60-9. 458. Razvi, op. cit., p. 70. 459. Ibid., pp. 7~7. 460. Ibid., pp. 78-9. 461. Ibid., p. 205. 462. See Woodruff, op. cit., p. 143. Also see Awan, op. cit., pp. 119-20. 463. Ibid., Woodruff, p. 143; Awan, p. 123. 464. By skilful moves Sandeman was able to extend British influence over the entire Baluchistan. His system rested on the occupation of central points in Kalat and tribal territory in considerable force, linking them together by the fair-weather roads, and leaving the tribes to manage their own affairs accord- ing to their customs and working through their Chiefs and . In many ways the system was described as one of indirect rule. See Caroe, op. cit., p. 376. Also see Thomas Henry Thornton, Sir Robert Sandeman: His Life and Work (London: John Murray 1895), p. 94. Sandeman's achievements were greatly appreciated by his British colleagues like Sir Mortimer Durand. See Durand's letter to Lord Roberts, quoted in Sykes, op. cit., p. 171. Also see Thornton's work on Sandeman. 465. Bruce, op. cit., p. 66. 466. Awan, op. cit., p. 132. 467. TP 1942-47, Document No. 276, June 20, 1947, Vol. 11, Mr V.P. Menon to Mr Abell, p. 535. Also see Awan, op. cit., pp. 181-7; Burke, op. cit., pp. 71-2. 468. Ibid., Burke. Also see Awan, ibid., p. 210. 469. Ibid. Also see Mir Ahmad Yar Khan Baluch, Inside Baluchistan (Karachi: Royal Book Company, 1975), pp. 255-96. Also see Selig S. Harrison, In Afghanistan's Shadow: Baluch and Soviet Temptations (New York: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1981), pp. 22-6. Also see Awan, op. cit., p. 211. 470. Lamb, op. cit., pp. 83-4. 471. Ibid. 472. The western boundary from Gwatar Bay to Kahuk was settled by Colonel Goldsmid in 1871. A line from Kahuk to Koh-i- Siah was defined by the Notes 201

Anglo-Persian Boundary Commission of 1896 and the Southern portion of it was demarcated by pillars to the bank of the Talab River. North of this point, the demarcation never materialised. The -Pakistan boundary is known as the 'Goldsmid Line' after the name of the Chairman of Perso-Baluch Com- mission of 1891. Quoted in footnotes in Razvi, op. cit., p. 205. Also see Lamb, op. cit., pp. 83-5. 473. Killa Safaid was occupied by the Pakistani Chagai to which the Iranian authorities protested and questioned Pakistan possession of Killa Safaid. See Razvi, op. cit., p. 206. 474. Ibid., pp. 206--7. Also see New York Times, 25 July 1949, 14 August 1950. 475. Dawn, 27 December 1955, 8 January 1956. 476. Razvi, op. cit., p. 207. 477. There were people in Pakistan who resented the Pakistan-Iranian boundary agreement and questioned the Pakistan Government's constitutional right to transfer territory to an alien power. Mir Baqi Baluch, a member of the Assembly, even filed a writ petition in the High Court challenging the Pakistani Government's action. Ibid., pp. 208-9. Also see Lamb, op. cit., pp. 84-5. 478. Prescott, op. cit., p. 66. 479. Pakhtoonistan connotes different meanings to different people. To some it means an independent state consisting of Pakhtoons living on the eastern side of the Durand Line. To others it means a semi-autonomous state within Pakistan. In terms of area, some say Pakhtoonistan includes only the province of NWFP and the frontier states, while others maintain that Pakhtoonistan includes areas from to the . The Afghan Government since 1947 has consistently projected the Pakh- toonistan issue whereas the do not recognise the problem as Kabul would like them to do. For detailed discussion of Pakhtoonistan with both the Kabul and viewpoints see Burke, op. cit., pp. 85-90. For an interesting discussion covering legal aspects of the dispute see 'The Durand Agreement in the Light of Certain Recent International Conventions' by Ijaz Hussain in Law and Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America, 3rd Quarter, 1985 pp. 255-81. In addition, see 'Pakistan's North West Frontier' by James W. Spain, in Middle East Journal, Winter 1954, pp. 27-40; Dupree, op. cit., pp. 485-94; Caroe, op. cit., pp. 435-8. 480. See Percy W. Bidwell's article on 'Ideals in American Foreign Policy' in International Affairs, Vol. 22, No. 4, , pp. 479-87. 481. Originally the phrase was used by Sir Anthony Eden in House of Commons debates in 1944 when he actually referred to Anglo-Russian relations. Quoted in 'The Outlook in the USSR' by Alexander Werth in International Affairs, Vol. 22, No. 1, January 1946, pp. 28-40. 482. See 'The International Outlook' by Arnold J. Toynbee in International Affairs, Vol. 23, No. 4, October 1947, pp. 463-76. 483. The message delivered before a Joint Session of Congress on Greece and is known as the Truman Doctrine. For full text of the message see Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 16, 23 March 1947, pp. 534-7. Also see 'Soviet Foreign Policy', by Alvary Gascoigne in The Yearbook of World Affairs 1955 (London: Stevens and Sons Limited, 1955), pp. 24-5. 484. See FRUS, 1947, Vol. IV, op. cit., Eastern Europe, The , pp. 547-8. See also the document submitted by the State Department to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee on 2 June 1948 regarding the Soviet Violations of Treaty Obligations in Decade of American Foreign Policy Basic 202 Notes

Documents 1941-49, US Congress Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 81 Session (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 919-33. 485. Among others George Kennan had a lot to do in helping to formulate the policy which Truman eventually adopted: see George Kennan's official and secret communications to the then Secretary of State, FRUS 1946, Vol. VI, op. cit., Eastern Europe and The Soviet Union (Washington: US Govt. Printing Office 1969), pp. 673-866. 486. See 'The Foreign Policy of the United States' by M.J. Bonn in The Yearbook of World Affairs 1948, published by the London Institute of World Affairs (London: Stevens and Sons Limited, 1948), p. 43. For details of the European Recovery Programme see statements of George C. Marshall in Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 18, 1948, pp. 71-7, 108--14, 231-2, 374-5. Also see statements of Ernest A. Gross (Legal Adviser) on pages 564-7, 585. Also see Charles E. Bohlen (Counsellor) Statement, pp. 78--82. 487. FRUS, 1947, Vol. IV, op. cit., pp. 562. 488. See statement by the Secretary of State before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 27 April 1949 in American Foreign Policy 1950-1955, Basic Documents, Vol. 1, Department of State (Washington: US Govt. Printing Office, 1957), pp. 815-25. 489. Ibid. Also see ' as an Instrument of Policy' by F. Honig in The Yearbook of World Affairs 1953 (New York: Fredrick A. Praeger Inc., 1953), pp. 50-1. 490. See Marshall D. Shulman, Beyond the Cold War (New Haven: Yale Univer- sity Press, 1966), pp. 15-16. 491. See Thomas G. Paterson, J. Gassy Clifford and Kenneth J. Hagen, American Foreign Policy (Lexington: DC Heath and Company, 1977), pp. 446-7. 492. FRUS, 1941, Vol. IV, op. cit., p. 951. 493. Ibid. 494. Paterson et. al., op. cit., p. 447. 495. One such observer was A. Harriman, Ibid. 496. Harry S. Truman Memoirs, Vol. 1, Year of Decisions (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Company Inc. 1955), p. 416. 497. See Paterson, op. cit., p. 447. 498. Two famous speeches are often interpreted as the announcements of the Cold War. These are Stalin's speech on and in the Postwar World on 9 February 1946 and Sir 's Iron Curtain speech on 13 March 1946. In addition George Kennan's long telegram in which he interpreted the motivations of Soviet policies also needs to be read with the above mentioned speeches. For details of speeches and Kennan's telegram see The Dynamics of World Power: A Documentary History of United States Foreign Policy 1945-1973, Vol. II, edited by Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1973), pp. 191-221. 499. Shulman, op. cit., p. 5. 500. See Charles Robertson, International Politics Since World War II: A Short History (New York: and London: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1975), pp. 79-80. 501. See Truman, Memoirs, Vol. 11, op. cit., p. 64.

3 Defence Policy I: Early Developments

1. See Paul R. Viotti's 'Introduction: Military Doctrine' in Comparative Defence Policy, edited by Frank B. Horton III, Anthony C. Rogerson and Edward L. Notes 203

Warner III (Baltimore; The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1974), pp. 190--2. 2. See 'Threat and Foreign Policy: The Overt Behaviour of States in Conflict' by Gerald W. Hopple, Paul J. Rossa and Jonathan Wilkenfeld in Threat, Wea- pons, and Foreign Policy edited by Pat McGowan and Charles W. Kegley, Jr. (Beverly Hills; Sage Publication, 1980), pp. 44--5. 3. 'Stress can be produced by outside events, the actual problem-solving process itself, the psychological structure of the individual, or by all three.' Ibid. 4. See Kenneth N. Waltz, Man, the State and War: A Theoretical Analysis (New York: Columbia University Press, 1964, third edition), pp. 230--3. 5. For detailed analysis see 'Threat Perception and the Armament-Tension Di- lemma' by David J. Singer in Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol.II, No. 1, March 1958, pp. 90--105. 6. Ibid., p. 94. 7. For an interesting discussion of threat definitions, see Hopple et a/., op. cit., pp. 44--5. 8. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (New : Princeton University Press, 1976), pp. 48--9. 9. Literature on the use of force is sizable. It is not necessary to mention here all the books and articles on the topic. However, some of those books and articles which provide sufficient insight are listed here. See The Use of Force in International Relations, edited by F.S. Northedge (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1974); The Use of Force, edited by Robert J. Art and Kenneth N. Waltz (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971); 'The Role of Military Power' by John Garnett in Contemporary Strategy Theories and Policies by John Baylis, Ken Booth, John Garnett and Phil Williams (London: Croom Helm, 1975), pp. 50--64; 'Force in Modern Societies: Its place in International Politics', Adelphi Paper No. 102 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1973); Quincy Wright, A Study of War (2nd edition) (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965); Oran R. Young, The Politics of Force (Princeton N.J.: Princeton University Press 1968); Robert E. Osgood and Robert Tucker, Force, Order and Justice (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967). 10. For details see David Greenwood, article on 'Economic Constraints and National Defence Efforts' in European Military Institutions- A Reconnaissance Report 1970-71 (Scotland: Universities Service Study Group, 1971), pp. 71-95. 11. For an interesting discussion of the concept of national security see 'The place and role of defence experts in national security' by Syed Imtiaz Hussain Bokhari in Strategic Studies, Vol. V, No.1, Autumn 1981, pp. 33-47. 12. For a detailed discussion of a comprehensive nature of security policy see Report on Comprehensive National Security, prepared by the Comprehensive National Security Study Group, Tokyo, 1980. 13. Among the issues that exacerbated tension between India and Pakistan were the division of financial and military assets, refugees and evacuee property problems, the question of the Indus waters, minority problem, and the ques- tion of the integration of princely states like Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kash- mir. 14. SeeM. Ayub Khan, op. cit., pp. 115-16. In conversation with high officials of the South Asian Affairs Division of the State Department the American Ambassador to India (Mr Grady) confirmed that Patel was extremely sceptical about the future of Pakistan. Ambassador Grady said that Patel had personally told him that would go back to India within a year. He further stated that leaders like Rajgopalachari deplored references to unity by Indian leaders as they would accomplish nothing but would continue to offend Pakis- 204 Notes

tan. See Memorandum of Conversation by Mr JosephS. Sparks of the Division of South Affairs in FRUS i947, Vol. ill (Washington: US Government Printing Press, 1972), pp. 175-9. Also see State Department's Background Memoranda sent to Secretary of Defense in 1950 which correctly reflects Pakistanis' ap- prehensions regarding Indian intentions of forcing Pakistan into Indian Union. See Background Memoranda on Visit of Liaquat Ali Khan, Prime Minister and Minister of Defence, Government of Pakistan, May 1950. Prepared in the Department of State, 14 April1950, p. 22. 15. SeeM. Rafique Afzal, Selected Speeches of the Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1976), third impression, pp. 423-39. Also seeM. Rafique Afzal, Speeches and Statements of Quaid-i-Millat Liaquat Ali Khan (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1967), pp. 179, 182-3. 16. See 'Pakistan's Defence Policy' by Hasan Askari Rizvi in Pakistan Horizon, Vol. XXXVI, No. 1, 1983, p. 36. 17. While almost all books covering the creation of Pakistan do have sections on communal strife, the following books give a comprehensive picture of the situation: Sir , While Memory Serves (London: Cassell and Company Ltd., 1950); Richard Symonds, The Making of Pakistan (London: Faber and Faber, 1949); E.W.R. Lumby The Transfer of Power in india (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1954); Allan Campbell-Johnson, Mission with Mountbatten (London: Robert Hale, 1953); Ian Stephens, Pakistan (Lon- don: Ernest Benn Ltd., 1963). 18. Rizvi, op. cit., p. 37. 19. The first ordnance factory of Pakistan became operational in 1951. See Hasan- Askari Rizvi, 'Pakistan' in Arms Production in Developing Countries, edited by James Evertt Katz (Toronto: Lexington Books, 1984), p. 265. 20. See Connell, op. cit., pp. 919-24. 21. See Razvi, op. cit., p. 69. 22. See Ahmad, op. cit., p. 2. 23. Rizvi, op. cit., pp. 166, 194, 204. 24. See Aslam Siddiqui, Pakistan Seeks Security (Lahore: Longmans, Green, 1960), pp. 44-7. 25. Ibid. 26. The Partition Council was headed by Lord Mountbatten and consisted of Sardar Vallabhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, Rajagopalachari (representing Con- gress), M.A. Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan and Sardar A.R. Nishtar (representing the Muslim League). 27. See S.S. Khera, India's Defence Problems (New Delhi: Orient Longmans, 1968), pp. 24-5. 28. Hasan Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan (Lahore: Progressive Publishers, 1976), p. 33. 29. Khera, op. cit., p. 25. 30. Ibid., pp. 24-7. Also see Rizvi, op. cit., pp. 33-4; Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., pp. 26-7. 31. See Connell, op. cit., pp. 900-1. 32. Ibid. 33. Initially there were only two advisers, Ayub Khan (a Muslim) and Brigadier Brar (a Sikh). Later two more were added, Brigadier Thimayya and Brigadier Nasir Ahmad. Ibid., p. 902. 34. 'In early August Mountbatten was urged by Jinnah and Liaquat to put Master Tara Singh and his Chief colleagues under arrest, Vallabhabhai Patel strongly opposed this suggestion.' Ibid., p. 904. Notes 205

35. Ibid., p. 910. 36. See Lord Mountbatten's letter to Auchinleck of 26 September 1947, quoted in ibid., pp. 915-21. 37. Ibid., pp. 915-21, 925-6. 38. Ibid., pp. 926-30. Also see Khera, op. cit., p. 34. 39. Richard Symonds, The Making of Pakistan (London: 1950), p. 79. 40. Connell, op. cit., p. 928. Also see Khera, op. cit., p. 35. Also see Lt. Gen. M. Attiqur Rahman, Our Defence Cause (London: White Lion Publishers Lim- ited, 1976), pp. 25-6. 41. According to Ayub Khan there was no complete Muslim unit of battalion size in the British Indian Army whereas there were complete and intact Hindu and Gurkha . See Ayub Khan, op. cit., p. 20. 42. Khera, op. cit., p. 33. 43. See Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 29. Also see Stephen P. Cohen, The (New Delhi: Himalayan Books, 1984), p. 17. Also see Aslam Siddiqi, A Path For Pakistan (Karachi: Pakistan Publishing House, 1964), p. 74. Also see Rizvi op. cit., p. 32. 44. Keesing's Contemporary Archives, July 12-19, 1947, p. 8722. Also see Siddiqi, op. cit., p. 74. 45. Siddiqi op. cit., p. 74. Also see Rizvi, op. cit., p. 32. 46. F.M. Khan, op. cit., p. 25. 47. Ibid., p. 31. 48. Ibid., p. 30. 49. See Hodson, op cit., pp. 507-8. 50. Ibid., pp. 509-11. 51. F.M. Khan, op. cit., p. 36. 52. Ibid., p. 39. The first Director of the Inter Services Public Relations Office, Lt. Col. Mumtaz Alvi, specifically told the writer that while transferring the papers and sensitive equipment he discovered that many of the packages were filled with stones. The lenses of cameras were scratched with some sharp metal, rendering them useless- Unrecorded interview with Lt. Col. Mumtaz Ali Alvi, who later retired as Pakistan's Ambassador to China. 53. F.M. Khan, op. cit., p. 40. Liaquat Ali Khan, however, mentioned that 35 000 tons of ordnance stores were delivered. This figure is quite different from what is mentioned by F.M. Khan. See Times, 7 May 1949. Another writer men- tioned that only 30 000 tons were delivered to Pakistan - see Aslam Siddiqi, op. cit., p. 74. The Indian Ambassador Madam Vijayalakshmi Pundit in conversation with the US Secretary of State Dean Acheson claimed that India had shipped all the important items and 60 per cent of unimportant items of military stores to Pakistan whereas Pakistan had only shipped 10 per cent of the supplies which India owned. She further stated that while Liaquat during his US visit mentioned 160 000 tons of supplies he did not mention that Pakistan was supposed to deliver 50 to 60 000 tons of supplies. She claimed that 75 to 80 000 tons of supplies were actually delivered to Pakistan. See FRUS, 1950, Vol. V, Memorandum of Conversation by the Secretary of State, 15 June 1950, pp. 1412-15. 54. Ibid., p. 34. 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid., p. 38. 57. Ibid., p. 24. 58. See Eugene K. Keefe's chapter on 'National Security' in Pakistan: A Country Study, edited by Richard F. Nyrop (Washington D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1984, fifth edition), p. 265. 206 Notes

59. Cohen, op. cit., p. 17. 60. See Five Years of Pakistan, August 1947-August 1952 (Karachi, Pakistan Publication, 1952), p. 209. 61. Cohen, op. cit., p. 17. Also see Keefe op. cit., p. 266. Also see Dawn, 30 December 1947. 62. The accelerated pace of promotion can be demonstrated by the fact that Mohammad Ayub Khan was promoted from the rank of Lt. Col. to that of General within four years. See Rizvi, op. cit., p. 41. Also see The Pakistan Times, 1 January 1948. 63. Ibid. Also see The Pakistan Times, 25 December 1948. 64. Cohen, op. cit., p. 17. 65. Keesing's Contemporary Archives, July 2&-August 2, 1947, p. 8737. 66. See Major General Sir Dashwood Strettell's article on 'The Indian Army Before and After 1947' in the Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Vol. 35, 1948, p. 128. 67. The Pakistan Times (see the 'Armed Might of Pakistan' in the Independence Day Supplement), 14 August 1948. 68. Ibid. 69. See F.M. Khan, op. cit., p. 45. 70. Both Lt. Gen. (Rtd) Mohammad and Lt. Gen. (Rtd) Abdul Hamid Khan stressed this point in their unrecorded interviews with this writer. 71. F.M. Khan., op. cit., p. 47. 72. Ibid., p. 49. 73. Rizvi, op. cit., p. 40. 74. Unrecorded interview of Lt. Gen (Rtd) Bakhtiar who was commanding a battalion at the time of partition. 75. Rizvi, op. cit., p. 42. 76. Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 23--30 September 1950, p. 10977. Also see Times, 8 September 1950. 77. Times, 31 May 1952. 78. Rizvi, op. cit., p. 335. 79. F.M. Khan., op. cit., p. 38. 80. Ibid. 81. Unrecorded interview with Mr S.l. Haq, who was a Senior Deputy Secretary, Ministry of Defence, under Defence Secretary Sikandar who took over from Mr Dundas in October 1947. Mr Haq eventually retired as Chief Sec- retary. The interview was conducted on 6 February 1985. Also see Five Years of Pakistan, op. cit., p. 213. 82. Ibid. 83. F.M. Khan, op. cit., pp. 24-5. 84. These 61 were known as IMA () and PMA (Pakistan Military Academy) cadets simultaneously. See The Pakistan Times, 25 April 1948. 85. See The Pakistan Times, 14 April 1948. 86. Five Years of Pakistan, op. cit., pp. 212-13. 87. Ibid., pp. 214-15. Also see The Muslim ( Special), 6 September 1980. 88. Ibid. 89. Ibid., pp. 209-11. 90. Ayub Khoro was one of the few Pakistani leaders who tried to delay the delivery of these crates to India but eventually gave in- S.l. Haq unrecorded interview. Notes 207

91. Ibid. 92. For details see SANACC (State-Army-Navy-Air-Force Coordinating Com- mittee) Series No. 360110, 25 June 1948. Appraisal of US Politico-Military Interests in South Asia: Notes by the Secretaries, pp. 376-7. Also see The Muslim, Defence Day issue, 6 September 1980. 93. See June 1949, especially see JCS 1992/1, pp. 7-11. US Military Cooperation with India. 94. Five Years of Pakistan, op. cit., p. 211. 95. Ibid. 96. The Muslim, Defence Day Special, 6 September 1980. 97. Ibid. 98. Ibid. Also see Five Years of Pakistan, op. cit., p. 216. 99. For details see F.M. Khan, op. cit., pp. 47-8. Also see The Dawn, 30 December 1947. 100. See Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah's address to the Tribal Jirga at Government House on 17 April1948, in Speeches and Writings of Mr. Jinnah, edited by Jamil-ud-Din Ahmad, Vol. II (Lahore, Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1976), pp. 533-6. 101. F.M. Khan, op. cit., pp. 47-8. 102. G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 112. Also see Kashmir and Inter-Dominion Relations, A Statement by Liaquat Khan (Karachi: Government of Pakistan, 1951), p. 12. 103. The specific orders given to the Pakistan Army were 'Prevent India from obtaining a decision by force of arms.' See Chaudhri Muhammad Ali, op. cit., p. 306. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 112. 104. Ali, op. cit., p. 305. 105. See The Security Councils Official Records, 8 February 1950 (Meeting 464), p. 36. Quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 111. Also see Ali, op. cit., p. 305. 106. See M.M.R. Khan, The and Kashmir (D. Jakarka: J.B. Wolters-Groningen, 1955), p. 59. 107. Ali, op. cit., p. 305. 108. Ibid. 109. Many writers, Indian, Pakistani and others, have written that a few Pakistani were unofficially involved with the tribesmen. See Prithvi Nath Kaul Bamzai, Kashmir and Power Politics: From Lake Success to (Delhi: Metropolitan Book Co., 1966), p. 129. Also see M.C. Chagla Kashmir 1947-1965 (New Delhi: Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, 1965). Also see Maj. Gen. Khan, Raiders in Kashmir (Karachi: National Book Foundation, 1970), pp. 1-98; Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah, Attish- e- Chinar (in ), an autobiography (Lahore: Chaudhury Academy, 1985), pp. 402-60; Maj. Gen. Fazal Maqeem Kahn, op. cit., pp. 94-5. Also see Maj. Gen. M. Skbar Khan's interview with Brig. A.R. Siddiqui in The Defence Journal, Vol. XI, Nos. 6-7, 1985, pp. 16-20; Lars Blinkenberg, op. cit., pp. 108-9. Also see William C. Johnston, op. cit., p. 314. The Indian argument accusing Pakistan of involvement in tribal invasion has been quoted by many authors as well. For example, see Josef Korbel, op. cit., pp. 104-5. Also see Muhammad Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p. 149. Also see M.M.R. Khan, op. cit., pp. 86-7. 110. M.M.R. Khan, Ibid. Also see Abdullah, Ibid., pp. 410-11, 920-9. 111. Quoted in Chagla, op. cit., p. 19. 112. Ibid. 113. See Akbar Khan's interview with Brig. A.R. Siddiqui in The Defence Journal, 208 Notes

op. cit. Also see Akbar Khan's book 'Raiders in Kashmir' op. cit. Also see Johnston, op. cit., p. 315. 114. Johnston, op. cit., p. 314. Also see 'Kashmir Quiz' by Maj. Gen. J.R. Hartwell in the Eastern World, November 1947, p. 8. 115. Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 89. 116. Johnston, op. cit., p. 314. 117. See Akbar Khan, op. cit. (both the book and his interview in the Defence Journal.) 118. See the UN Security Council Resolution of 21 April 1948 which was passed unanimously with the Soviet and Ukranian delegations abstaining - Korbel, op. cit., pp. 112, 357-62. 119. See Maj. Gen. Akbar Khan's interview with Brig. A.R. Siddiqui in the Defence Journal, op. cit., pp. 17-18. 120. Bamzai, op. cit., pp. 126--7. Also see FRUS, 1948, Vol. V. The Ambassador in India to the Secretary of State, 28 November 1948, op. cit., pp. 458-9. 121. Johnston, op. cit., p. 316. 122. See Brig. Guizar Ahmed, Pakistan Meets Indian Challenge (: AI Mukhtar Publishers, 1967), pp. 59--60. 123. Blinkenberg, op. cit., p. 108. 124. Johnston, op. cit., p. 316. 125. Ibid., p. 320. 126. Ibid. 127. Ibid. 128. Akbar Khan, op. cit., pp. 99--123. 129. Johnston, op. cit., p. 320. 130. Akbar Khan, op. cit., p. 117. 131. Details of military operations in Kashmir are given in many books. Some of these books are Akbar Khan's Raiders in Kashmir, op. cit.; Fazal Muqeem Khan's The Pakistan Army, op. cit.; P.N.K. Bamzai, Kashmir and Power Politics, op. cit. 132. Initially 7th Division (Commanded by Major-General F.L. Loftus-Tottenham) was ordered to move into Kashmir; later the 9th Frontier Division (led by Maj. Gen. Nazir Ahmad) was moved. See F.M. Khan, op. cit., pp. 101-9. 133. Ibid., p. 117. 134. For example the capture of Pandu, which is at a height of almost 9000 feet above sea level, was a well-planned action. For details see Akbar Khan, op. cit., pp. 124-42. The importance of Pandu which overlooked the Pakistani position along Muzaffarabad-Uri could be judged from the fact that the Indians had given the village the codename of 'Karachi' while Pakistani troops named it Delhi. See F.M. Khan, op. cit., p. 109. 135. Ayub Khan mentions that when he took over as General he realised that there were some 50 000 men of varying military quality in forces. Similarly also mentions in his book that his government was supported by roughly 30 000 voluntary men and the number kept on rising. See Mohammad Ayub Khan, op. cit., p. 31; Sardar Ibrahim Khan The Kashmir Saga (Lahore: Rippon Press, 1965), pp. 86--100. 136. See Maj. Gen. Akbar Khan's interview with Brig. A.R. Siddiqui, op. cit., p. 19. Also see Abdullah, op. cit., p. 425. 137. F.M. Khan, op. cit., p. 105. Also see Blinkenberg, op. cit., p. 108. 138. F.M. Khan, ibid. 139. See Akbar Khan's interview with Brig. A.R. Siddiqui, op. cit., pp. 19-20. Notes 209

Also see Akbar Khan's Raiders in Kashmir, op. cit., pp. 143-5. Also see Symonds, op. cit., pp. 174-5. 140. Ibid., p. 143. 141. Johnston, op. cit., pp. 321-2. 142. Ibid. 143. Ibid. 144. Ibid. 145. Ali, op. cit., p. 307. 146. Korbel, op. cit., pp. 363-4. 147. Ibid., pp. 118--64. Also see Johnston, op. cit., p. 322. 148. Johnston, op. cit., p. 322. 149. Ibid. 150. Korbel, op. cit., p. 357. 151. M.M.R. Khan, op. cit., p. 357. 152. Ibid. Also see Kashmir and Inter-Dominion Relations, op. cit., p. 12. 153. At Chinari, addressing the soldiers, P.M. Liaquat Ali Khan said 'If you were not prevented from offensive activities you might have obtained more terri- tory. But Pakistan policy has been merely defensive and its objective was not to settle the fate of Kashmir by guns, but to enable its people to decide their fate by a peaceful and free plebiscite.' See F.M. Khan, op. cit., pp. 102, 117. Also see Ali, op. cit., p. 306; Symonds, op. cit., pp. 174-5. 154. Ibid., p. 103. 155. Blinkenberg, op. cit., p. 111. 156. Bamzai, op. cit., p. 127. Also see Abdullah, op. cit., pp. 407-30. 157. See Premnath Bazaz, op. cit., p. 325. 158. See Akbar Khan's interview with Brig. A.R. Siddiqui, op. cit., p. 18. Also see Abdullah, op. cit., p. 421. 159. Ibid. Also see Akbar Khan, Raiders in Kashmir, op. cit., p. 103. 160. The Sunday Times, 12 . 161. Ibid. 162. See India, edited by GrantS. McClellan, The Reference Shelf, Vol. 32, No. 1 (New York: The Wilson Company, 1960), p. 105. Also see Akbar Khan's interview given to Brig. A.R. Siddiqui, op. cit., pp. 15-21. 163. Akbar Khan, op. cit. 164. According to Akbar Khan, Col. Masood of the offered to go as a volunteer in plain clothes in order to clear the road block but the necessary permission was not given. Ibid. 165. McClellan, op. cit., p. 105. Also see Abdullah, op. cit., pp. 421-2. 166. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 103. 167. Ibid. Also see The Sunday Times, 12 September 1965. 168. Ibid. 169. For detailed appreciation of the situation see F.M. Khan, op. cit., pp. 98-100. 170. Ali, op. cit., p. 308. 171. Quoted in Mir Abdul Aziz's article 'Why we Lost Kashmir' in The Muslim, 8 May 1986. 172. Johnston, op. cit., p. 321. 173. Ibid. 174. 'An Organization for Defence' by Lt. Gen. Abdul Hamid Khan in Nawa-i- Waqt, 11 April 1979. 175. See Davis B. Bobrow, Components of Defence Policy (Chicago: Rand Mc- Nally Company, 1965), pp. 8-9. 210 Notes

176. For a detailed study of defence policy and strategy's compromises see E.J. Kingston-McCloughry, Defence Policy and Strategy (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1960), pp. 1-16. 177. Out of 52 crores 37.5 crores were allocated to defence mainly because of lack of requisite equipment. While some member expressed their concern over high defence allocations, most realised the necessity of strong armed forces. For a detailed discussion of defence allocations and Defence Minister's Justification see Debates of Constituent Assembly (Legislature), Vol. 1, No. 4, 1st and 2nd March 1948, pp. 79-83, 137-9. 178 Ibid., p. 137-38. 179. Dawn, 29 February 1948. 180. See Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 41. 181. See Debates of Pakistan Constituent Assembly, op. cit., pp. 137-8. 182. Ibid. 183. Ibid., pp. 60-1; 80-3, 137-9. Also see Debates of the Constituent Assembly (Legislature), Vol. 2, No. 2, 6 December 1948, pp. 48-51. 184. Ibid. 185. The Pakistan Times, 10 April1948. 186. For example, Defence Minister refused to give simple details regarding the establishment of ordnance factories or number of of different categories or representation of Bengalis, , Sindhis, Pathans and others in the battalions or plans for future development of the Air Force (in general terms), of the number of officers required for the army or the arrangements for their training or recruitments or amount of money for the defence of border with Kashmir, and so on. See Debates of the Constituent Assembly (Legislature), Vol. 2, No.2, 16 December 1948,20 December 1948, pp. 49-51, 172-74, 180. 187. See the budget speech of the Finance Minister in the Debates of the Constitu- ent Assembly, Vol. 1, No. 8, 28 February 1949, pp. 212-15. 188. Ibid. 189. Ibid., p. 219. Also see Vol. 1, No. 9, 2 March of the above-mentioned debates, p. 281. 190. See the Debate of the Constituent Assembly (Legislature), Vol. 1, No. 9, 2 March, 1949, pp. 265, 281-87; Vol. 1, No. 10, 3 March, 1949, pp. 314-17, 322-29; Vol. 1, No. 11, 5 March 1949, pp. 404-5; Vol. 2, No.4, 29 December 1949, pp. 152-3. Also see The Pakistan Times, 3 March 1949. 191. Ibid. 192. See Malik 's statement in the second budget debate. Ibid., Vol. 1, No. 9, 2 March 1949, pp. 280-5. 193. See 'Pakistan's Fears' by Robert P. Martin in Eastern World, Vol. II, Nos. 10-11, November 1948, p. 11. 194. See 'Pakistan' in Almanac of World Power, ed. Col. T.N. Dupay and Col. Wendell Blanchard (New York: R.R. Bowker Company, 1972), p. 326. Also see Keith Callard, Pakistan's Foreign Policy (New York: Institute of Pacific Relations, 1959), pp. 10-11. 195. See Debates of the Constituent Assembly, 1948 and 1949, op. cit. Also see Martin, op. cit. Also see The Pakistan Times, 9 October 1948, 23 November 1948, 22 February 1949, 15 June 1949, 20 October 1949. Also see 'Pakistan' in The Round Table, No. 155, June 1949, p. 271. 196. The Pakistan Times, 16 June 1949. 197. See Rehman, op. cit., pp. 112-16. 198. See 'An Organization for Defence' by Lt. Gen. Abdul Hamid Khan in the Notes 211

Nawa-e-Waqt (Rawalpindi edition), 11 April 1979. 199. Ibid. 200. See 'Pakistan Army, Society and Security' by Stephen P. Cohen in Asian Affairs, Vol. 10, No. 2, Summer 1983, pp. 2-3. 201. The Pakistan Times, 15 June 1948. 202. On 6 September 1950 it was announced that Major-General Mohammad Ayub Khan had been selected as the next Commander-in-Chief of the army in succession to General Sir due to retire in the beginning of 1951. Similarly the appointment of Maj. Gen. Khalid Sheikh as the next Chief of the General Staff replacing Maj. Gen. R.A. Hutton was announced a month early. See Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 29 July-5 August 1950, 23-30 September, 1950, pp. 10875, 10977. 203. See Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 138. 204. Ibid. 205. Ibid., p. 140. 206. Ibid. 207. Perhaps that is why gradually the motto of the army became 'training, more training and still more training'. Ibid., pp. 141-3. 208. Ibid., p. 143-4. 209. Ibid. 210. Ibid. 211. Ibid., pp. 147-8. 212. Debates of the Constituent Assembly (Legislature), 1 March 1948, op. cit., p. 81. 213. See William J. Barnds, 'Pakistan's Foreign Policy: Shifting Opportunities and Constraints' in Pakistan: The Long View, edited by Lawrence Ziring, Ralph Brabanti and W. Howard Wriggins (Darham, N.C. Duke University Press, 1977), p. 370. 214. The Times (London), 16 August 1952. 215. See 'Pakistan's Growing Stature' by Qutabuddin Aziz in Eastern World, Vol. 14, No. 10, October 1949, p. 15. 216. Ibid. 217. The Times (London), 10 January 1949. 218. See Civil and Military Gazette, 26 November 1949. 219. Quoted in Aslam Siddiqi, op. cit., p. 89. Also see Civil and Military Gazette, 10 February 1951. 220. Siddiqi, op. cit., p. 89. 221. Ibid. Also see Khalid B. Sayeed, The Political System of Pakistan (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1967), p. 284. 222. Siddiqi, op. cit., p. 89. 223. See Burke, op. cit., pp. 64-7. 224. Ibid., p. 68. 225. The Times (London), 8 January 1951. 226. See Symonds, op. cit., p. 170. 227. Burke, op. cit., p. 113. 228. Dawn, 8 May 1949. 229. The Times (London), 10 January 1949. 230. See G. W. Choudhury, 'Pakistan's Relations with India', 1947-66, op. cit., pp. 146-8. 231. Ibid. Also see The Economist, 22 October 1949. 232. Ibid. Also see Blinkenberg, op. cit., pp. 161-2. 233. Ibid. Also see The Economist, 24 September 1949. 212 Notes

234. See Burke, op. cit., pp. 48-50. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 227-9. 235. Ibid. For detailed drafts see No War Declaration and Canal Water Dispute, Correspondence Between the Prime Ministers of India and Pakistan (Karachi: Government of Pakistan, 1950). 236. Ibid. 237. Burke, op. cit., p. 57. 238. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 190. Also see New York Herald Tribune, 29 March 1950. 239. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 192. Also see The Times, 28 March 1950. 240. Choudhury, op. cit. Also see Stephens, op. cit., p. 33. 241. Ibid., p. 913. 242. Burke, op. cit., p. 58. 243. Ibid. 244. Ibid., pp. 58-9. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 200---1. Also see The Times (London), 16 July 1951. 245. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 202. 246. Ibid. Also see The Times (London), 17, 19 July 1951. 247. Four battalions of the National Guard were assigned to supplement the Pakistan Army. The Government of Pakistan also promulgated ordinance making provisions for civil defence and air-raid precaution services. Ibid., p. 205. 248. Burke, op. cit., p. 60. Also see Dawn, 28 July 1951. 249. Dawn, 18 October 1964. Also see Mohammad Ayub Khan, op. cit., p. 40. 250. Liaquat's plan included withdrawal of troops from borders, reaffirmation that the accession of Kashmir would be decided through democratic method of a free and impartial plebiscite, renunciation of the use of force in settlement of other disputes, the avoidance of propaganda directed against each other, and a declaration that they would not attack or invade the territory of the other. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 208-9. 251. Burke, op. cit., p. 60. 252. Ibid. 253. Ayub claims that he held back both the politicians and troops from going to war with India during the summer of 1951 mainly because of the inadequacy of military equipment. See Ayub Khan, op. cit., p. 40. 255. The Times (London), 17 January 1951. 256. Ibid. 257. Ibid. 258. See Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 154. 259. See S.M. Burke, Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies (Kara- chi: Oxford University Press, 1975), p. 121. 260. Ayub Khan, op. cit., p. 40. 261. Symonds, op. cit., p. 176. 262. Ibid. 263. Ibid.

4 Defence Policy II: Arms Procurements and Alignments

1. Speaking before the National Press Club, Dean Acheson Secretary of State, over and over emphasised that the American Asian policy primarily consisted of America's interest in the Asians as people. 'We are not interested in them as pawns or as subjects for exploitation but just as people', remarked Acheson. He further stated that 'our real interest is in those people as people. It is Notes 213

because communism is hostile to that interest that we want to stop it.' See 'Crisis in Asia - An Examination of US Policy' by Secretary Acheson in Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 22, 1950, pp. 111-18. 2. See National Security Council (hereafter referred to as NSC) Report No. 48/1 on 'The position of the United States with respect to Asia' dated 23 December 1949. Also see NSC report to the President NSC 48/2 dated 30 December 1949. Also see Central Intelligence Agency (hereafter referred as CIA) Memoran- dom No. 197, dated 25 July 1949. CIA Memorandum No. 259, 1 December 1949 (NSC Files Record Group 273). 3. See 'Asian Problems of United States' by Arthur Schlesinger Jr. in Foreign Policy Bulletin, Vol. 31, No. 13, 15 April1952, pp. 4-6. Also see 'What should the New Administration Do in Asia?' by Harold H. Fisher in Foreign Policy Bulletin, Vol. 32, No.7, December 1952, p. 4. 4. See The United States and the World, in Foreign Affairs, No. 21, May 1950, pp. 1--4. Also see spotlight in Foreign Policy Bulletin, Vol. 32, op. cit. 5. CIA Memo No. 197, op. cit. 6. S.M. Burke op. cit., pp. 133--4. 7. Acheson, op. cit., p. 117. 8. NSC 48/2, op. cit. 9. Ibid. 10. Acheson, op. cit., p. 112. 11. Ibid., p. 117. 12. NSC, 48/2, op. cit. 13. See W. Norman Brown, The United States and India, Pakistan, Bangladesh (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1972), pp. 398-9. 14. FRUS, 1947, Vol. Ill, op. cit., pp. 151-2. Also see US Senate and Department of State, A Decade of Foreign Policy (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 782-3. Also see G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 73--4. 15. See The Forrestal Diaries, edited by Walter Millis (New York: The Viking Press, 1951), pp. 277-8. 16. FRUS, 1947, Vol. III, op. cit., pp. 172--4. 17. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 78. Also see CIA Memo No. 197, op. cit. 18. See The Secretary Marshall's Memorandum to President, Truman, 17 July 1947. Papers of Harry S. Truman, Harry S. Truman Library, Independence, Mis- souri. Also see M.S. Venkataramani, The American Role in Pakistan 1947-58 (New Delhi: Radiant Publishers, 1982), pp. 7-8. 19. See CIA Memo No. 254, 1 December 1949, National Archives of the United States, Washington. 20. CIA Memo No. 197, op. cit. 21. See Hearings on the Nominations of Philip Jessup to be US Representative to the Sixth General Assembly of the United Nations, quoted in America as the World Power, by Norman A. Graebner (New Delhi: University Book Stall, 1986) (Indian reprint), p. 168. 22. Ibid., pp. 169-70. Also see Congressional Records, 81st Cong., 1st Sess., 22 August 1949, pt. 15; A5451-53, 9 September 1949, pt. 10, pp. 12, 755, 12758. 23. Graebner, op. cit., p. 172. 24. Venkataramani, op. cit., pp. 32-60. 25. USFR, 1947, Vol. III, Memo of conversation by Mr Joseph S. Sparks of the Division of South Asian Affairs, 26 December 1947, op. cit., pp. 175-9. 26. Ibid. 27. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 78. An American writer is of the view that Paul H. Alling did not present his credentials until February 1948. See 'The Pakistan 214 Notes

-American Alliance: A Reevaluation of Past Decade' by George J. Lerski in Asian Survey, May 1968, pp. 400-15. 28. See Latif Ahmad , Pakistan, China and America (Karachi: Council for , 1980), p. 39. 29. Ibid. Also see Lerski, op. cit., pp. 400-1. 30. Export of arms, ammunition and other military material was suspended. See FRUS, 1948, Vol. V. Memo of Secretary of State to President Truman, March 11, 1948, pp. 496-97. Joint Chief of Staff (hereafter referred to as JCS) Document No. 1992/1, dated 7th June 1949 entitled 'US Military Cooperation with India.' (Record Group 330; Records of the office of the Secretary of Defence). Also see Venkataramani, op. cit., p. 69. 31. See FRUS, 1948, Vol. V. The Secretary of State to the acting Secretary of State, 29 October 1948, pp. 435-6. 32. Ibid. Memo of conversation by the Assistant Chief of the Division of South Asian Affairs, 2 April 1948, pp. 501-6. 33. See FRUS, 1948, Vol. VI. Report by the SANACC subcommittee for the Near and Middle East, 19 April1949, pp. &-10. Also see Appendix C containing the memorandum from the JCS in the same report, 24 March 1949, pp. 29-31. 34. Ibid. See the footnotes on page 11. 35. NSC 48/2, op. cit. 36. Ibid. 37. FRUS, 1949, Vol. VI, op. cit., pp. 1-45, 51-65, 1996-8. 38. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 7. 39. Ibid., p. 11. 40. FRUS, 1948, Vol. V, op. cit., pp. 499-500. 41. Ibid., pp. 500-1. 42. See the Background Memorandum on the visit to the United States of Pandit Jawaharalal Nehru, prepared by the Department of State 3 Oct. 1949, Record Group 330, Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defence (The National Archives, Washington DC). 43. Ibid. 44. Ibid. 45. Burke, op. cit., p. 120. 46. See the Background Memo on the US visit, op. cit., pp. &-9. Also see Appendix to the Congressional Record, Vol. 95, Pt. 16, 1949, pp. A 5742-43. 47. Burke, op. cit., p. 122. 48. Ibid. Also see Congressional Records - House, Vol. 95, Part II, 1949, pp. 14430-31. 49. See 'Soviet Policy in Asia' by Geoffrey F. Hudson in Soviet Survey, July 1955, pp. 1-4. Also See G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 11-12. 50. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 11-12. 51. Burke, op. cit., p. 99. 52. See the letter of Mr M.A.H. lsphani's of 7 September 1949 to Liaquat Ali Khan. Quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 12. 53. Burke, op. cit., p. 99. 54. FRUS, 1950, Vol. V, The Acting Secretary of State to the Embassy in India, 9 May 1950, pp. 1410-11. Also the Ambassador in India (Henderson) to the Secretary of State, 5 May 1950, pp. 140&-10. 55. Ibid. 56. Ibid. Paper prepared in the Bureau of Near Eastern, South Asian and African Affairs, 6 March 1950, pp. 239-44. 57. FRUS, 1950, Vol. V. Policy of the United States with respect to Pakistan 3 , pp. 1490-9. Notes 215

58. Ibid. 59. Ibid. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid. 63. The Department was particularly apprehensive over Pakistan's approaches to Czechoslovakia for some time and thought that similar sources could be further explored by Pakistan. See ibid. 64. Ibid. 65. See Shirin Tahir-Kheli, The United States and Pakistan (New York: Praeger, 1982), p. 2. 66. Ibid. Also see Background Memoranda on Visit to the United States of Liaquat Ali Khan, Prime Minister and Minister of Defence, Government of Pakistan, prepared by the Department of State, 14 April 1950. Record Group 330, Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defense, The National Archives, Washington DC. 67. For details see Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan: The Heart of Asia. A collection of speeches in the USA and during May and June 1950 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1950). Also see M. Rafique Afzal, op. cit., pp. 364-418. 68. Burke, op. cit., p. 123. Also see Liaquat Ali Khan, op. cit., p. 12. 69. Ibid., p. 124. Liaquat Ali Khan op. cit., p. 82. 70. Burke, op. cit., p. 124. The Dawn, 21 May 1950. 71. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 80. 72. Ibid. 73. Ibid. This programme was also recommended by the State Department in its policy document. See FRUS, 1950, Vol. V. op. cit., p. 1493. 74. See the Background Memoranda on Liaquat's visit, op. cit., p. 19. 75. Sherwani, op. cit., p. 42. 76. Ibid. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 80. 77. The New York Times, 5 May 1950. Christian Science Monitor, 4, 5, and 10 May 1950. Also see Lerski, op. cit., pp. 400-1. 78. See Liaquat Ali Khan, op. cit., pp. 8-9; 'America's Military Alliance with Pakistan: The Evolution and course of uneasy Partnership' by M.S. Venkatara- mani and Hamish Chandra Arya in International Studies (Delhi), Vol. VIII, Nos. 1-2, p. 75. 79. Burke, op. cit., p. 122. See also 'Case History of a Mistake' by Selig S. Harrison in New Republic 10 August 1950. 80. See Jawaharlal Nehru, Discovery of India (London: Meridian Books, 1960), p. 143. Also see A. Cuttmann (ed.), Korea and Theory of Limited War (Boston: D.C. Heath, 1967), p. 3. Also see Burke, op. cit., p. 122. Also see Rafique Afzal, op. cit., pp. 422-3. 81. Lerski, op. cit., p. 401. 82. Ibid. Also see Burke, op. cit., pp. 133-5. 83. Rafique Afzal, op. cit., pp. 425-32. 84. Ibid. 85. Ibid. 86. Ibid. 87. FRUS, 1950, Vol. V. Regional Policy Statement: South Asia, 9 October 1950, pp. 245--54. 88. For details of objectives See ibid., p. 249. 89. Ibid. 90. Ibid., p. 252. 216 Notes

91. Ibid. 92. Ibid. 93. Lerski, op. cit., p. 400. 94. See Memorandum for the Secretary of Defence by the Chairman of JCS, 2 May 1950. Record Group 330. Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defence, National Archives of US, Washington. 95. FRUS, 1950, Vol. V., op. cit., p. 248. 96. India's standing forces were around 310 000, states forces were 110 000 and National Guards were 120 000 totaling to 640 000. See FRUS, 1949, Vol. VI, Appraisal of UN National Interests in South Asia, 19 April 1949, p. 21. 97. Ibid. 98. FRUS, 1947, Vol. Ill, US Ambassador Grady to Secretary of State, pp. 161-2. 99. See 'Appraisal of US Politico- Military Interests in South Asia', prepared by the State Department and submitted to SANACC, SANACC 360110, National Archives, Washington. Also see Report by the SANACC subcom- mittee for the Near and Middle East, SANACC 360114, April 19, 1949 in FRUS, 1949 Vol. VI, op. cit., p. 25. Also see the same report quoted in Venkataramani, op. cit., pp. 2-3. 100. See the Background Memoranda on visit to the United States of Liaquat Ali Khan, Prime Minister and Minister of Defence, Government of Pakistan, May 1950 prepared by the Department of State, 14 April1950, Record Group 330, National Archives, Washington, p. 34. 101. Ibid. Also see FRUS, 1949, Vol. VI, op. cit., p. 26. 102. Ibid. (FRUS, 1949, Vol. VI). 103. Ibid. 104. Ibid. 105. See G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 73. Also see FRUS 1947, Vol. III, Ambassador Henry F. Grady to the Secretary of State, pp. 161-2. Also Latif Ahmad Sherwani, op. cit., p. 38. Also see the New York Times, 9 October 1947. 106. Quoted in Sherwani, ibid. Also see Venkataramani, op. cit., p. 16. Also see FRUS, 1948, Vol. V, The Secretary of State to the Acting Secretary of State, 29 October 1949, p. 435. 107. Background Memo, op. cit., p. 33. 108. While India-Pakistan were locked up in their regional conflict, aid inflow had already started with regard to Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan. See FRUS, 1949, Vol. VI, op. cit., pp. 1-8. 109. Ibid., pp. 25--6. 110. See Lerski, op. cit., p. 400. Also see Venkatarmani and Arya, op. cit., pp. 73-133. Also see the appendix to the enclosure containing Dean Acheson's letter to the Secretary of Defence Louis A. Johnson, Notes by the Secretaries to the Chiefs of Staff on US Military Cooperation with India, JCS 199211, June 8, 1949, Record Group 319, National Archives Washington. Also see John C. Elliott's (Chief, Munition Division) Communication to (Foreign Military Affairs and Military Assistance Division) on 8 December 1949, Record Group 330, Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defence, National Archives, Washington. Also see Vankataramani, The American Role in Pakistan, op. cit., pp. 51-2. 111. See Defence Secretary James Forrestal's letter to the Secretary of States George C. Marshall, dated 25th Feb. 1948, Secretary of Defence Records, Record Group 330, National Archives, Washington. 112. For details of ammunition items and other items, see John C. Elliots (Chief Notes 217

Munition Division of the State Department) Communication to the Pentagon dated 8th December. Secretary of Defence Records, Record Group 330, National Archives, Washington. Also see Dean Acheson's communication to the Secretary of Defence Louis A. Johnson dated 17 May 1949, Secretary of Defence Records (RG 330). Also see State Department Communication to the Secretary of Defence, dated Apri/11, 1949 Secretary of Defence Records (RG 330). 113. Ibid. 114. Ibid. Also see Director of Plans and Operations (Maj. Gen. Charles L. Bolte) Comment on US Military Cooperation with India, Oct. 18, 1949. See The Records of the Army Staff, Record Group 319, The National Archives, Washington. 115. See the State Department Communication to the Secretary of Defence of April 11, 1949, op. cit. Also see the acting Secretary of States Communication to Defence Secretary of 6th June 1949 and Memorandum for the Secretary of the Army dated 8th June, 1949, Secretary of Defence Records, Record Group 330. 116. See State Department's Communication with the Secretary of Defence of 11 April 1949, op. cit. 117. See the State Department's Communication to the Secretary of Defence, 6 June 1949, op. cit. 118. The Americans stated that they were sympathetic and desired to help Pakis- tan but it would take quite some time before they would be able to clearly state what or how much could be made available to Pakistan. See Venkatara- mani, op. cit., pp. 80-4. 119. See Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 24, 1951, p. 299. 120. Ibid. See also Tariq Ali, Pakistan: Military Rule or People's Power (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. 1970), p. 72. 121. See the Agreed Conclusions and Recommendations of the South Asian Regional Conference of United States Diplomatic and consular officers, held at Muwara Eliya, Ceylon from 26 February to 2 March 1951, FRUS, 1951, Vol. VI. op. cit., pp. 1664-88. 122. Ibid. Also see Venkataramani, op. cit., pp. 148-50. 123. Ibid. 124. Memorandum of conversation by Mr John Frick Root, Second Secretary of the Embassy in UK dated 14February 1951, inFRUS, 1951, Vol. VI., op. cit., p. 1658. 125. See G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 200-8. 126. Ibid. 127. See FRUS, 1951, Vol. VI, Memorandum by the Central Intelligence Agency, dated 14 September 1951, pp. 1850-59. Also see The New York Times, 16 July 1951. 128. Ibid. Also see Maj. Gen. Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 154. 129. The CIA had already predicted that chances of a clash were high and in the event of a clash, Pakistan would be defeated though the Indians would not be able to get an easy walkover. See CIA Memo in FRUS, I951, Vol. VI, op. cit., pp. 1850-59. 130. S.M. Burke, op. cit., p. 149. 131. New York Times, 10 March 1951. Also see Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 7-14 April1951, p. 11396. Also see Stephen P. Cohen, The Indian Army, op. cit., p. 178. 132. New York Times, 10 and 13 March, 21 May 1951. According to the Ministry of Defence many more officers were also arrested including Col. Niaz Mo- 218 Notes

hammad Arabab, Lt. Col. Ziauddin, Lt. Col. Siddiq , Major lshaq Mohammad, Major Hassan Khan, Major Mohammad Sethi, Captain Zafrul- lah Poshni, Captain Khizer Hayat, etc. See Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 26 May-2 June 1951, p. 11494. 133. SeeM. Rafique Afzal Speeches and Statements of Quaid-i-Millat Liaquat Ali Khan, op. cit., pp. 544-9. Also see Herbert Feldman, Revolution in Pakistan (London: Oxford University Press, 1967), p. 37. Also see The New York Times, 10 March 1951. 134. The New York Times, 22 March 1951. Also see The Times (London), 9 April 1951. 135. See Hasan Askari Rizvi, op. cit., pp. 85--6. Also see op. cit., pp. 38-9. Also see Venkataramani, op. cit., pp. 151-2. Also see Feldman, op. cit., pp. 37-8. Also see Ex. Maj. Gen. Akbar Khan, op. cit. pp. 158-70. Also see The New York Times, 10 March 1951. 136. Rizvi, op. cit., p. 85. Also see The New York Times, 6 June 1953. 137. Ayub Khan, op. cit., p. 41. 138. See Congressional Records- Senate, Vol. 97, Part 10, 1951, pp. 13213-14. 139. See Ian Stephens, Pakistan, op. cit., pp. 232-3. 140. See FRUS, 1951, Vol. VI, op. cit., The Ambassador in Pakistan to the Secretary of State, 15 May 1951, pp. 2204-6. 141. Ibid. Also see Venkataramani, op. cit., p. 151. 142. FRUS, 1951, Vol. VI, op. cit., Department of State Policy Statement, 1 July 1951, pp. 2206-16. 143. See C. I. Eugene Kim and Lawrence Ziring, An Introduction to Asian Politics (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, Inc. 1977), pp. 188-90. Also see Stephens, op. cit., p. 219. 144. The New York Times, 22 October 1951. 145. Ibid. 146. See the editorial note in FRUS, 1951, Vol. VI, op. cit., p. 2219. Also see Memorandum for the Secretary, 23 October 1951, Records of the office of the Secretary, of Defence, Record Group 330, The National Archives, Washing- ton. 147. See memorandum of conversation by the Assistant Secretary of State Near Eastern South Asian and African Affairs (McGhee), 18 October 1951; memo of conversation by Mr Thomas W. Simons of the office of South Asian Affairs 18 October 1951; memo of conversation by the Secretary of State, 22 October 1951; and memo of conversation by Mr Lee E. Metcalf of the office of South Asian Affairs, 16 November 1951, in ibid., pp. 2220-7. 148. Ibid. 149. Ibid. 150. Ibid. See the memo of conversation by the Secretary of State, 17 November 1951, pp. 2227-8. 151. See editorial note in FRUS, 1951 Vol. VI, op. cit., pp. 2228-9. 152. See the Department of State's Policy Statement in FRUS, 1951, Vol. VI, op. cit., pp. 2208-9. 153. According to an American source Laik Ali placed orders for aircrafts which included 50 Canberra bombers; 36 attackers (Jet fighters) and 40 Bristol freighters. See the Memorandum of conversation of 3 July 1952, Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defence, RG 330 National Archives, Washing- ton, DC. 154. Ibid. Memorandum of conversation of 24 July 1952. 155. Ibid. Notes 219

156. Ibid. 157. Ibid. 158. Ibid. It was suggested that Pakistan would pay 15 million dollars annually for three years and smaller annual payments thereafter until payment for all the equipment was completed. See FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, Memorandum by the Acting Secretary to the Executive Secretary of the National Security (Lay) dated 19 August 1952 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1983), p. 1059. 159. Ibid. 160. Ibid., pp. 1060, 1639, 1658--60. 161. Ibid. 162. Ibid. 163. See the National Intelligence Estimate of 30 June 1953, in Ibid., p. 1082. 164. See Special Estimate of the consequences of communist control over South Asia, 3 October 1952, ibid., pp. 1062-72. 165. Ibid. 166. Ibid. 167. See Amos A. Jorden, William J. Taylor Jr. and Associates, American National Security: Policy and Process (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982), pp. 60--4. 168. President Harry S. Truman's address delivered to a Joint Session of Congress, 12 March 1947, reproduced in Joseph M. Jones, The Fifteen Weeks (New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1955), p. 272. 169. , Taylor, op. cit., p. 64. 170. The New York Times, 13 January 1954. 171. , 'The Evolution of Foreign Policy', Department of State Bulletin, No. 30, 25 January 1954, p. 108. 172. See John Foster Dulles, War Or Peace (New York: MacMillan, 1957), pp. iii-xi, 262-6. 173. See Dulles Statement on the Southeast Asia Collective Defence Treaty in Hearings Before Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 83rd Congress, 2nd Session 11 November 1954, p. 205. 174. Burke, op. cit., pp. 155-56. 175. See Ian Stephens, op. cit., pp. 236-9. The Chief Commissioner of Karachi in a statement declared that the Karachi troubles were organised by the Demo- cratic Student Federation, a communist-inspired body, and had been partici- pated in by certain non-student communists. See The New York Times, 10 January 1953, 28 February 1953. 176. Stephen, ibid. 177. The New York Times, 19 April1953. 178. See the National Intelligence Estimate in the FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1079-81. 179. See the Editorial Notes in ibid., pp. 1829-30. Also see New York Times, 12 January 1953, 24 May 1953, 2 June 1953. 180. See FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, ibid., p. 1828. 181. The New York Times, 2 June 1953. 182. Quoted in Burke, op. cit., pp. 159-60. 183. G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 83. 184. Ibid. 185. Ibid., p. 82. 186. FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., p. 1829-30. 187. Ibid. 220 Notes

188. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 82-4. 189. Dawn, 13, 14 October 1953. Also see the New York Times, 2 November 1953. Also in Burke, op. cit., p. 162. 190. Ibid., New York Times. 191. The New York Times, 5 November 1953. 192. The New York Times, 13 November 1953. Also see Newsweek, 30 November 1953. 193. The New York Times, 16, 17 November 1953. 194. The New York Times, 5 November 1953. 195. The New York Times, 16 November 1953. 196. See the editorial of The New York Times, 17 November 1953. 197. Ibid. 198. The New York Times, 19 November 1953. 199. Ibid. Also see 22 November 1953. 200. Ibid., 22 November 1953. 201. Burke, op. cit., p. 163. Also see The New York Times, 9 December 1953. 202. The New York Times, 9, 11, December 1953. 203. See Memorandum of conversation by the Ambassador in Pakistan, 7 Decem- ber 1953 in FRUS, 1952-45, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1831-5. 204. Ibid. 205. Ibid. 206. Ibid. 207. See The New York Times, 6 November 1952. Also see FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1730-2. 208. Burke, op. cit., p. 163. 209. See the Constituent Assembly Debates, Vol. 1, No. 4, 18 March 1952, pp. 186-90. 210. Ibid. 211. Ibid. 212. See the Debates of Constituent Assembly (Legislature) Vol. 1, No. 4, 14 March 1953, p. 145. 213. Ibid., Vol. 1, No.6, 17 March 1953, pp. 248-9. 214. Ibid., Vol. 1, No.7, 18 March 1953, p. 305. 215. Ibid., Vol. 1, No.5, 19 March 1952, p. 247; Vol. 1, No.5, 16 March 1953, p. 210; Vol. 1, No.7, 18 March 1953, p. 297; Vol. 1, 18 March 1953, pp. 321-2; Vol. 1, No. 8, 19 March 1953, pp. 343, 356-7. 216. Ibid., Vol. 1, No.5, 16 March 1953, p. 210. 217. Ibid., Vol. 1, No.8, 19 March 1953, p. 357. 218. Ibid., pp. 376-7. 219. Ibid. 220. Ibid. 221. Ibid., Vol. 1, No.4, 14 March 1953, pp. 144-5. 222. Ibid. 223. See Debates of the Constituent Assembly (Legislature), during the years 1952-3 and 1953-4. During the course of debate some members even referred to Master Tara Singh's declaration that his Akali Party would occupy Lahore in 1955 and also highlighted Afghanistan's hostility towards Pakistan. See Debates of the Constituent Assembly (Legislature), Vol. 2, No.7, 19 Novem- ber 1952, pp. 380-2. 224. Ibid., Vol. 1, No. 24, 21 April 1952, pp. 1542-7; Vol. 1, No. 21, 14 April 1952, pp. 1397-1400; Vol. 2, No.7, 19 November 1952, p. 79; Vol. 1, No.2, 12 March 1953, pp. 94-5. 225. Ibid., Vol. XV, No. 10, 21 October 1953, pp. 274-5. Notes 221

226. Ibid. 227. Ibid., Vol. 1, 19 March 1953, pp. 321-2. 228. Ibid. 229. Ibid. 230. Ibid., Vol. 2, No.7, 19 November 1952. 231. The New York Times, 14 February 1954. 232. See the statement by the Pre~ident of the United States in Documents on American Foreign Relations, ed. Peter V. Curl (New York: Harper and Brothers 1955), pp. 373-4. Also see The Hindu, 26 February 1954. 233. See The New York Times, 13 December 1953, 16 December 1953, 17 Decem- ber 1953, 1 January 1954, 2 January 1954, 4 January 1954, 6 January 1954, 10 January 1954, 30 January 1954, 8 February 1954, 10 February 1954, 11 February 1954, 14 February 1954, 21 February 1954, 26 February 1954, 28 February 1954, 2, 3, 5, 7, 24, 25 March 1954. Also see The Hindu, 1, 6, 7 January 1954, 26 February 1954, 2 March 1954. 234. The New York Times, 11 December 1953. 235. Ibid. Also see 6 January 1954. 236. During the last week of December 1953 India circulated a memorandum to friendly governments in the Middle East and Commonwealth setting forth its objections to American military assistance for Pakistan. See 'Military Assist- ance for Pakistan' by James W. Spain in the American Political Science Review, Vol. XLVII 948, No. 30, September 1954, pp. 738-51. Also see The New York Times, 26 December 1953. 237. Ibid., 25 December 1953. The New York Times in its 15 December 1953 issue reported that the Soviet Ambassador in Delhi at the time discussed with Nehru the possibility of the sale of military equipment to India if the USA remained determined to arm Pakistan. 238. Ibid., 18 December 1953. 239. The New York Times, 18 December 1953, 20 December 1953, 22 December 1953. 240. The New York Times, 13 December 1953. 241. Ibid. Also see 'Pakistan: New Ally' by James W. Spain in America, Vol. 90, No. 24, 13 March 1954. 242. Ibid. 243. Ibid. 244. The New York Times, 26 February 1954. Also see Curl, op. cit., pp. 374-5. 245. Ibid. 246. See India: The Parliamentary Debates: House of the People, Vol. 1, 1 March 1954, pp. 963-76. 247. Ibid. Also see The New York Times, 2 March 1954. Also see The Hindu, 2 March 1986. 248. See S.M. Burke, op. cit., pp. 48-53. Also see The Muslim, 28 July 1986. Also see India: The Parliamentary Debates: House of the Peoples, Vol. 1, No.2, 1 March 1954, p. 969. Also see The Hindu, 6 January 1954. 249. See ibid., Debates of House of the People. Also see The New York Times, 27 February 1954, 2 March 1954. 250. See Ambassador Allen's Communication to the State Department on 24 February 1954 in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1737-9. 251. Ibid. 252. The New York Times, 13 December 1953, 18 December 1953, 20 December 1953. 253. The New York Times, 5 January 1954. 254. Ibid., 6 January 1954. Also see FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., p. 1714. 222 Notes

255. Spain, op. cit., p. 741. 256. Ibid. 257. Ibid. 258. Ibid. 259. Ibid. Also see The New York Times, 5, 6 January 1954. 260. Ibid. Spain. Also see The Times (London), 31 December 1953. 261. See W. Norman Brown, op. cit., pp. 194-5. Also see India: Parliamentary Debates: House of People, Vol. 1, No.5, 17 February 1953, p. 426. The was concluded on 24 July 1952 between Nehru and Abdullah. According to agreement the ruler of Kashmir would be replaced by an elected head of state for a term of five years by the Constituent Assembly and re- cognised by the Indian President. Kashmir enjoyed a different status from the other states. Kashmir enjoyed complete autonomy in all but three subjects - communications, defence and external affairs. The jurisdiction of the Indian Supreme Court was limited to only interstate affairs, to fundamental rights, and to matters relating to defence, foreign affairs and communication. The National flag of India was to be recognised but Kashmir's flag was to be maintained. The President of India could apply emergency powers with the concurrence of the State Government only. See Josef Korbel, op. cit., pp. 224-5. It also needs to be mentioned here that the idea of establishing a Con- stituent Assembly in the state was Nehru's own as he admitted in a Lok Sabha speech. See Burke, op. cit., p. 23. 262. Burke, op. cit., p. 226. 263. Spain, op. cit., p. 742. 264. The New York Times, 8 January 1954. 265. Ibid., 27 December 1953; 8 January, 6 February 1954. Spain, op. cit., p. 742. No such meeting took place between the two Prime Ministers. 266. Ibid., Spain, p. 744. 267. The New York Times, 2 November 1953. 268. See National Intelligence Estimate 'Probable Developments in South Asia', 30 June 1953 in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1072-88. 269. Ibid. 270. Ibid. 271. Ibid. 272. Ibid. 273. The National Security Council (NSC) Document No. 5409 entitled 'US Policy Towards South Asia' was prepared and circulated on 14 February 1954 but was considered in its 187th meeting on 4 March 1954 and adopted the draft statement of policy. President Eisenhower approved, the statement on 6 March 1954. For details see the Draft Statement of Policy Proposed by the National Security Council, 19 February 1954, in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1089-96. Also see NSC Document No. 5409, 19 February 1954, Record Group No. 273 (Washington: National Archives, 1954). 274. Ibid. 275. See Memorandum by the Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern, South Asian and African Affairs to the Acting Secretary of State of 1 March 1954 in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1118-20. 276. See the Study prepared by the Staff of the National Security Council in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1096-1118. 277. Ibid. 278. Ibid. 279. See Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., pp. 2-3. Notes 223

280. See FRUS, I952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1087-8. Also see Stephen Cohen, The Pakistan Army, op. cit., pp. 136-7. 281. See Congressional Record: Senate, Vol. 99, Parts 3 and 5, 1953, pp. 4155-7, 6457-8. Also see Burke, op. cit., pp. 160-1. Also see Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 29, 21 September 1953, pp. 388-9. 282. See Dulles Statement: Wheat for Pakistan: Hearings before the Senate Com- mittee on Agriculture and Forestry, 83rd Congress, 1st Session 12 June 1953, pp. 4-5. Hearings before the House Committee on Agriculture and Forestry, 83rd Congress, 1st Session, 15 June 1953, pp. 8-9. 283. Pakistan News Digest, 1 . Also see the Debates of the Constituent Assembly, (Legislature), Vol. 1, No. 16, 19 April1954, pp. 1180-1. 284. See the speeches of various members in ibid., debates, pp. 1178-99. Also see US News and World Report, 15 January 1954. 285. Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., pp. 2-3. Also see Major-General Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 154. Also see G.W. Choudhury, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Major Powers, op. cit., pp. 84-7. 286. Ibid. Tahir-Kheli and Choudhury. 287. Ibid. 288. Cohen, op. cit., p. 137. 289. Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., pp. 2-3. 290. The New York Times, 13 November 1953. 291. Ibid. 292. See the editorial note in FRUS, I952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1829-30. 293. Burke, op. cit., p. 163. 294. See Memorandum of Conversation by the Ambassador (Hildreth) in Pakis- tan, 7 December 1953, and the Ambassador in Pakistan (Hildreth) to the Department of State, 8 December 1953 in FRUS, I952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1831-5. 295. Ibid. 296. Ibid. 297. The Secretary of State to the Embassy in Turkey, 24 December 1953, ibid., pp. 1835-7. 298. Ibid. 299. Ibid. The Secretary of State to the Embassy in Pakistan 29 December 1953. 300. See the Memorandum of conversation by the Secretary of State, 5 January 1954, ibid., pp. 1838-9. 301. For details see the special estimate, 15 January 1954, ibid., pp. 1938-54. 302. Ibid. Also see The New York Times, 23 February 1954. Also see Manchester Guardian, 23 February 1954. 303. See The Dawn, 20 February 1954. 304. The New York Times, 26 February 1954. 305. Ibid, 3 April1954. For details of the agreement see Curl, op. cit., pp. 376-8. Also see Department of State Bulletin, 1 March 1954, pp. 327-8. 306. Ibid. For details of the Agreement see Appendix I. 307. The New York Times, 6 April1954. 308. The New York Times, 20 May 1954. For details of agreement see Curl, op. cit., pp. 379-83. Also see US Treaties and Other International Agreements, Vol. 5, Part I (Washington: Department of State, 1954), pp. 853-8. See also Appendix II. Also see FRUS, I952-54, Vol. XI, Editorial note, op. cit., pp. 1845-6. Also see Department of State Bulletin, 31 May 1954, pp. 850-1. Also see US-Pak Agreement I954 in Military Alliances I947-57, Text of Documents (New Delhi: Lok Sabha Secretariat, 1957), pp. 65-9. 309. The Dawn, 20 May 1954. Also see The New York Times, 20 May 1954. 224 Notes

310. See Pakistan Affairs, 12 March 1954. A publication of the Pakistan Embassy in Washington. 311. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 85-6. Also see Spain, op. cit., p. 746. Also see Congressional Records-Senate, Vol. 100, Part. 2, 1954, pp. 2481-2. 312. Maulana Bashani the leader of was among the very few leaders who openly criticised the proposed agreement. See The New York Times, 22 February 1954. The media in Pakistan, of course, welcomed the aid including The Pakistan Times whose editor, though in jail in those days, was known to have progressive leanings. See The Pakistan Times, 22 December 1953 and 25 January 1954 in which Pakistan's sovereign right to accept aid from any quarter was strongly defended. Also see Spain, op. cit., pp. 738-51. Also see The Hindu, 17 April 1954. 313. See Burke, op. cit., p. 165. 314. See Sherwani, op. cit., p. 56. 315. Quoted in Burke, op. cit., p. 165. See also Anthony Eden, Full Circle (London: Cassell, 1960), p. 91. 316. Ibid., Eden, p. 87. 317. See David Horowitz From Yalta to (Harmondsworth, U.K.: Pen- guin, 1967), pp. 145-8. 318. Ibid. 319. See President Eisenhower's speech dealing with the Security Program for 1954 Presented to Congress in Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 28, 25 May 1953, pp. 735-41. 320. Not only had the Americans participated in the ; they increased aid to Chiang Kai-Shek and extended support to the French in Indo-China and after French withdrawal direct military assistance was given to South Vietnam (1955). See Amos A. Jordan, William J. Taylor Jr. and Associates, op. cit., pp. 360-73. 321. See Peter Lyon, War and Peace in South East Asia (London: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1969), p. 107. 322. See 'Collective Security in S.E. Asia' by Richard Butwell in Eastern World, Vol. VIII, September 1954, pp. 10-13. 323. Ibid. 324. Ibid. 325. See General Omar Bradley's (Chairman, Joint Chiefs of Staff) Memorandum for the Secretary of Defence April 10, 1950. Records of the Office of the Secretary of Defence, Record Group 330, The National Archives, Washington DC. The said memo was the response of the JCS who were requested by the Secretary of Defence to assess the strategic importance of the area. 326. Butwell, op. cit., p. 11. 327. Ibid. 328. Ibid. 329. Ibid., pp. 11-12. 330. Ibid., p. 12. 331. Horowitz, op. cit., pp. 144-5. 332. Butwell, op. cit., p. 12. 333. Horowitz, op. cit., pp. 146-8. 334. Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 4--11 September 1954, p. 13761. 335. Scotsman, 13 September 1954. Also see Butwell, op. cit., p. 12. 336. Ibid., Butwell. 337. The New York Times, 5 September 1954. India tried to influence Britain and other Commonwealth countries to prevent the establishment of SEATO but was unable to attain the said objective. See India: Lok Sabha Debates, Vol. Notes 225

VII, No. 31, 30 September 1954, pp. 3851-4. Also see India's Foreign Policy (J. Nehru's Selected Speeches -April 1961), Publication Division Government of India 1961). See specially a speech during a Lok Sabha Debate on 29 September 1954 on Foreign Affairs, pp. 87-93. 338. Manchester Guardian, 9 September 1954. 339. See The Treaty in Keesing's Contemporary Archives, 4--11 September 1954, pp. 13763-4. 340. Ibid. Also see Keesing's Contemporary Archives, op. cit., pp. 13761-64. Also see the text of the treaty in George Modelski, SEATO (Melbourne: F.W. Cheshire, 1964), p. 289. 341. Ibid. 342. Ibid. 343. Ibid. Also see Manchester Guardian, op. cit. 344. See the US understanding, Protocol on Indo-China and Pacific Charter in Keesing's Contemporary Archives, op. cit., p. 13764. 345. Ibid. Also see 'The Manila Pact and the Pacific Charter' by J.F. Dulles in the Department of State Bulletin, 27 September 1954, pp. 431-3. 346. The treaty specifically mentioned 'to prevent or to counter by appropriate means any attempt to subvert freedom or to destroy sovereignty or territorial integrity'. See 'SEATO: A Critique' by Ronald C. Nairn in Pacific Affairs, Vol. XLI, Spring, 1968, pp. 5-18. 347. Lyon, op. cit., pp. 146-7. 348. Ibid. Also see the Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations on Executive K. entitled 'The South East Asian Collective Defence Treaty, 84th Congress, Senate, Executive Report 1 (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1955). 349. Ibid. Report of the Committee on Foreign Relations. 350. See T.B. Miller, 'America's Alliance: Asia' in America's Security in the 80s Part II, Adelphi Paper No. 174 (London: International Institute for Strategic Studies, 1982), pp. 28-9. 351. Ibid. 352. Ibid. 353. Ibid. 354. See Venkataramani, The American Role in Pakistan 1947-58, op. cit., p. 246. 355. See G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 88. 356. See Mohammad Ayub Khan, op. cit., p. 157. 357. Quoted in 'Pakistan and the Great Powers' by Shamim Akhtar in Pakistan in a Changing World, edited by Masuma Hasan (Karachi: Pakistan Institute of International Affairs, 1978), pp. 172-3. 358. Ibid. Also see Muhammad Zafrullah Khan, op. cit., p. 214. 359. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 89. Also see the Memorandum of Conversation by the Assistant Secretary of State for Near Eastern, South Asian and African Affairs (Byroade) in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1847-8. Also see George J. Lerski, op. cit. 360. Burke, op. cit., p. 167. 361. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 89. 362. See Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., p. 4. 363. Ibid. 364. The Sunday Times, 12 September 1954. 365. See FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1846-7, 1849-51. Also see National Security Council's Progress Report on US Policy Towards South Asia, NSC 5409, 29 July 1954, Record Group 273, The National Archives, Washington DC. 226 Notes

366. Burke, op. cit., p. 169. 367. See 'The Central Treaty Organization' in and the Indian Ocean Region (Canberra: Government of Australia's Publication, 1976), pp. Anne- xure A 51-69. 368. Ibid. 369. Ibid., p. A-52. Also quoted in Burke, op. cit., p. 169. 370. Ibid. 371. Quoted in 'The Gulf Region in the Global Setting' by John C. Campbell in The Security of the Persian Gulf, edited by Hossein Amirsadeghi (London: Croom Helm, 1981), pp. 1-2. 372. Australian and the Indian Ocean, op. cit., p. A-52. 373. See Jordan, Taylor and others, op. cit., pp. 383-6. Also see Progress Report on NSC Document No. 5402, April 1954, Record Group 273, The National Archives, Washington. 374. See W. Howard Wriggins, 'The Balancing Process in Pakistan's Foreign Policy' in Pakistan: The Long View, op. cit., pp. 308-9. 375. Burke, op. cit., p. 169. Also see John D. Jernegan, 'The Middle East and South Asia - The Problem of Security in Department of State Bulletin, 22 March 1954, pp. 444-8. 376. Ibid. 377. Ibid. Also see Venkataramani, op. cit., p. 259. Also see Chester Bowles, Ambassador's Report, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), p. 254. 378. Jernegan, op. cit., p. 445. 379. See Department of State Bulletin, 16 June 1953, p. 835. 380. See 'Events in the Middle East: A Select Chronology 1946--57', Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 85th Congress, 1st Session, 11 January 1957 (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1957), pp. 7-8. 381. Burke, op. cit., p. 170. 382. Ibid. 383. See Aslam Siddiqi, op. cit., pp. 121-3. 384. See 'Events in the Middle East', op. cit., p. 9. 385. Ibid., Burke, op. cit., p. 170. 386. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 89. 387. Ibid. For detailed study also see John. C. Campbell Defence of the Middle East (New York: Harper and Brothers, Council on Foreign Relations, 1958). Also see NSC Documents No. 5428 dated 23 July 1954 in which it was recommended to encourage the plans for area defence. 388. Burke, op. cit., p. 170. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 90. Also see W.J. Gallman, Under General Nuri: My Recollections of Nuri al Said 1954--1958 (Balti- more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1968), p. 58. Also see John C. Campbell, 'Doctrine to Policy in the Middle East' in Foreign Affairs, April 1957. 389. See The New York Times, 27 November 1958 and 31 January 1958. 390. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 90. 391. Quoted in ibid. 392. Ibid. 393. Burke, op. cit., p. 171. 394. Ibid. 395. See Jernegen, op. cit., p. 445. Also see John Foster Dulles, 'A Mutual Security Program for 1955' in The Department of State Bulletin, 19 April1954, pp. 579-81. Also see 'The Growth of Freedom in India' by George V. Allen in the Department of State Bulletin, 7 June 1954, pp. 864-6. Also see The Notes 227

Hearing before the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, 83rd Congress, Second Session, 19 March and 14 April1954 (Washington: DC. US Govern- ment Printing Office, 1954), pp. 43-4. 396. Quoted in Burke, op. cit., p. 171. Also see Asian Recorder, 1957, p. 1395. 397. See the text of the treaty in Siddiqi, op. cit., pp. 185-9. 398. Dawn, 12, 29 January 1958, and 24 October 1959. 399. Dawn, 5 July 1955. Also see India's Foreign Policy, op. cit., pp. 94-6. Also see Burke, op. cit., p. 1. Also see The Hindu, 31 December 1955. 400. The New York Times, 11 December 1955. 401. See the joint communique issued at the end of the Soviet leader's Indian visit in The New York Times, 14 December 1955. 402. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 90. 403. See Lerski, op. cit., pp. 403-4. Also see Fred Greene U.S. Policy and the Security of Asia (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1968), p. 127.

5 Defence Policy III: Alliance Policy (Gains and Costs)

1. See J.W. Burton, 'International Relations: A General Theory' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), p. 171. 2. See 'Responsibilities of the United States in the Far East' by Walter S. Robertson in Department of State Bulletin, 8 March 1954, pp. 348-51. 3. Ibid. Also see 'Security Program for 1954 Presented to Congress' by President Eisenhowever in Department of State Bulletin, Vol. 28, 25 May 1953, pp. 735-41. 4. See Statement of John Foster Dulles and Arthur Radford, Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, Senate, 83rd Congress; 19 March and 14 April 1954 (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1954). 5. See. FRUS, 1949, Vol. VI (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1976), pp. 29-31. 6. See Jawaharlal Nehru's selected speeches from 1946 to April 1961, Indian Foreign Policy (Bombay: Government of India's Publication, 1961), pp. 87-9, 93-6, 471-76. Also seeM. Ayub Khan, op. cit., pp. 127, 130-3. 7. See the National Intelligence Estimate of 30 June 1953 entitled 'Probable developments in South Asia' in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1072-88. Also see Charles Wolf Jr., Foreign Aid: Theory and Practice in Southern Asia (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960), p. 204. 8. See Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., p. 4. Also see D.O. Campbell Pakistan, Emerging Democracy (Princeton, N.J.: Van. Nostrand C., Inc., 1963), p. 116. 9. Ibid. Tahir-Kheli. Ambassador Hildreth mentioned in his despatch to the State Department that Ayub had high hopes of securing a two billion dollar commit- ment from the USA. See the Ambassador in Pakistan to the Department of State, 10 July 1954 in FRUS, 1952-54, op. cit., pp. 1851-5. 10. Tahir-Kheli, ibid. 11. In the 1956 Budget Debate it was frequently pointed out how much was consumed by the Defence and Civil administration leaving very little for other sectors. For example one speaker quoted the figures that out of the total revenue income of 131.10 crores, defence consumed 79.35 crores and civil administration got 27.10 crores leaving very little for other sectors. See Consti- tuent Assembly (Legislature) Debates, Vol. 1, 17 March 1956, pp. 10-11, 68-9. 12. Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., p. 4. 13. Ibid., p. 5. 228 Notes

14. Ibid. 15. See Ambassador Hildreth's communications to the State Department of 10 July and 16 July 1954 in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. X1, op. cit., pp. 1851-6. 16. See Venkataramani, op. cit., pp. 303-4. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid., pp. 305-6. Also see NSC 5409 dated 24 August 1955. 20. See the Memorandum of Conversation by the Deputy Director, Office of South Asian Affairs, Washington, 6 August 1954 in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1859-60. 21. See the Ambassador's Communication to the State Department of 9 August 1954 in ibid., pp. 1860-3. 22. Ibid. 23. See the Secretary of State to the Embassy in Pakistan, 20 August 1954 in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. X1, op. cit., pp. 1865-7. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 26. See Memorandum by the Acting Secretary of State to the President, 15 October 1954 in ibid., pp. 1867-8. Also see footnotes on page 1871. 27. Memorandum of Conversation by the Acting In Charge of Pakistan -Afghanistan Affairs, 18 October 1954 in ibid., pp. 1868-9. 28. Ibid. 29. See the Acting Secretary of State to the Embassy in Pakistan, 22 October 1954 in ibid., pp. 1869-71. Also see Vankataramani, op. cit., pp. 309-13. 30. Ibid., FRUS. 31. Ibid. 32. See the Financial Appendix to the National Security Council's 'US Policy Toward South Asia', NSC 5617, 7 December 1956 Record Group No. 273 (Washington: The National Archives). 33. Ibid. 34. See the attachment 'A' Status of Pakistan MDAP in Memorandum for the Chairman of the JCS, by the Special Assistant to JCS for MDAP Affairs, 31 August 1955 Records of the Joint Chief of Staff Record Group 218. Also see Venkataramani, ibid., p. 312. 35. Costing Survey based on MAAG report concluded that the project programme would cost $301.1 million dollars (army $147.60 million, navy $40 million, air force $113.5 million). Comparative distribution of two figures was as follows: $171 $301.1 Difference Army 75.7 147.6 71.9 Navy 30.35 40.0 9.65 Air Force 64.95 113.5 48.55 See Memorandum for Radford by Major-General Cannon, 23 November 1955. Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Record Group 218. Also see Venkataramani, ibid, p. 315. 36. See the MAAG Chief in Pakistan Brigadier-General Rothwell H. Brown to Brigadier-General John. K. Wilson Jr., Office of the Secretary of Defence, 18 November 1955. Records of Joint Chiefs of Staff, Record Group 218. 37. In fact, it was stated that the induction of 40 000 troops under the ceiling of $171 million would not be possible. Under the old ceiling established by JCS only 18 000 to 20 000 troops could be furnished. Ibid. Notes 229

38. See the Chief of MAAG, Pakistan to the Minister of Defence 29 September 1955, Records of the Joint Chief of Staff, Record Group 218. 39. See MAAG Chief Brigadier-General Brown's Communication to Brigadier- General Wilson of 18 November 1955, op. cit. 40. Ibid. 41. Ibid. Also see Venkataramani, op. cit., pp. 320--2. 42. See Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., pp. 6-7. Also see Mohammad, Ahsan Choudhri's article 'Foundation of Pakistan's Foreign Policy' in L.A. Sherwani, Pakistan: An Analysis (Karachi: Allies Book Corp. 1964), p. 20. 43. See National Security Council, document entitled 'U.S. Policy Towards South Asia', NSC 5701 dated 10 January 1957 Record Group 273. 44. Ibid. 45. See the Financial Appendix containing Department of Defense Comments of Military Assistance to Pakistan to the NSC 5701, ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid. 48. Dawn, 18 December 1956. 49. Quoted in Aslam Siddiqi, op. cit., p. 106. 50. See Financial Appendix to NSC 5909 14 August 1959. Record Group 273. 51. Ibid. 52. Selig Harrison was quoted by Sherwani as having mentioned the figure of $522 million in his article published in The New Republic, 24 August 1959. See Sherwani, op. cit., p. 58. 53. NSC 5909, op. cit. 54. Ibid. 55. See Ayub Khan, op. cit., pp. 117-18. Also see FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. Xl, op. cit., pp. 1855-6. 56. See Mohammad Ayub Khan, 'The Pakistan-American Alliance: Stresses and Strains' in Foreign Affairs, Vol. 42, January 1964, pp. 195-209. 57. See FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. Xl, op. cit., p. 1818. 58. See Robert Laport Jr., Power and Privilege: Influence and Decision Making in Pakistan (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975), p. 25. Also see Pakistan Economic Survey, 1968-69 (Islamabad: Ministry of Finance, Govern- ment of Pakistan, 1969), p. 180. 59. Ibid. 60. What Eisenhower meant was that the rupee receipt from the sale of wheat would provide funds for development purposes. See the Congressional Records-House, Vol. 9, Part 5, 1953, p. 6357. 61. Figures were as follows (in million dollars).

1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 23.3 100.9 162.5 170.7 163.3 235

Quoted in Burke, op. cit., p. 255. Burke's figures are based on Foreign Operations Appropriations for 1964. Hearings before a subcommittee of the House Committee on Appropriations, pp. 1234, 1243. Robert Laporte Jr. quotes slightly different figures based on the US Department of Commerce Abstract of the United States (Washington, DC, 1972). Abstract of the United States (Washington, DC, 1972). His figures are as follows (in million dolllars).

1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 12 67 154 100 145 142 230 Notes

See Laporte, op. cit., p. 145. For the purpose of our discussion Burke's figures are applied. 62. Ibid. Laporte. 63. See Syed Adil Husain's thesis entitled Politics of United States (Ph.D. dissertation submitted to the University of Colorado in 1968), pp. 174-5. 64. Quoted in Ibid., pp. 175-6. Quoted from US Congress, House Committee on Foreign Affairs, Mutual Security Act of 1959, 86th Cong. 1st Session, 1959, p. 21. 65. Ibid., p. 178. 66. Ibid. 67. Ibid. 68. Ibid., pp. 178-9. Also see US Congress, Senate Committee on Foreign Rela- tions, Technical Assistance, 85th Congress 1st Session, 1957, Report No. 139, p. 37. 69. Ibid., Husain, pp. 179-80. Also see Foreign Economic Aid: A Review of Economic Aid to Pakistan, by Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan, Rawalpindi, 1962, pp. 9-15. 70. 'In some countries defence support is primarily military, in others primarily non-military. In some instance the identical item is shipped to a country, under defence support and under military assistance', US Congress, Senate, special committee to study the Foreign Aid Program, Hearing, the Foreign Aid Program 85th Cong. 1st Session, 1957, p. 157, all quoted in ibid., p. 181. 71. Ibid., p. 180. 72. Quoted in Sherwani, op. cit., pp. 60-1. 73. Ibid. 74. Pakistan never disguised its anti-Indian motivation for joining SEATO and hoped to isolate neutral India by bringing other Colombo Powers into SEATO. See Fred Greene, op. cit., p. 127. 75. See FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1822-9. Also see Burke, op. cit., pp. 160-2. 76. See the Probable Repercussions of a US decision to grant or deny Military Aid to Pakistan, 15 January 1954 in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1839-45. 77. Ibid., pp. 1848-51. 78. LaPorte, op. cit., p. 48. 79. Both Kripalani and Patel were preaching the eventual unity of India and Pakistan in aggressive tones. Quoted in Ayub Khan, Friends Not Masters, op. cit.' pp. 115-16. 80. The Washington Post, 15 August 1957. Also quoted in The Congressional Record-Senate, Vol. 103, Part II, 1957, p. 15123. 81. See Howard Wriggins, op. cit., pp. 313-14. 82. See Dawn, 18 December 1956 and 19, 23, 26 February 1957. 83. SeeM. Ayub Khan, The Pakistan American Alliance, op. cit., pp. 195-209. Also see Howard Wriggins, op. cit., p. 314. Also see Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., pp. 12-19. 84. Ibid. Tahir-Kheli. Also see Stephen Cohen, op. cit., p. 138. Also see Senator Donglas' speech in Congressional Records-Senate, Vol. 102, Part 5, 1956, pp. 6503-4. 85. Wriggins, op. cit., p. 314. 86. US Foreign Assistance (Obligations and loan authorizations) to India and Pakistan (Economic assistance total) in million dollars. Notes 231

1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 India 88.9 113.6 92.8 364.8 305.1 Pakistan 23.3 100.9 162.5 170.7 163.3

Quoted in Burke, op. cit., p. 255. Pakistan's economic assistance was provided under 'Defence Support'. 87. See Robert Rothstein, Alliances and Small Powers (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968). Quoted in Wriggins, op. cit., p. 311. 88. See M. Ayub Khan, Friends Not Masters, op. cit., pp. 133-48. See G.W. Ghoudhury, op. cit., pp. 108-11. Also see Z.A. Bhutto, The Myth of Indepen- dence (London: Oxford University Press, 1969), pp. 62--8; Wriggins, op. cit., p. 316. 89. See Sangat Singh, Pakistan's Foreign Policy: An Appraisal (Lahore: Farhan Asia Publishers, 1977), p. 55. Also see Keesing's Research Report entitled Pakistan: From 1947 to the Creation of Bangladesh (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973), pp. 47--8. Also see Mr Nehru Answers Critics on Kashmir, A publication of the Information Service of India (London: India House, 1958), pp. 2-7. Also see the White Paper on the Jammu and Kashmir Dispute (Islamabad: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of Pakistan, 1977), pp. 35-50. 90. See Fazal Muqeem Khan, op. cit., p. 154. 91. Ibid., p. 138. Also see Ayub Khan, Friends Not Masters, op. cit., p. 40. 92. See Kuldip Nayar, Distant Neighbours: A Tale of the Subcontinent (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House PVT Ltd. 1975), p. 59. Also seeM. Ayub Khan, The Pakistan-American Alliance, op. cit., pp. 196-7. 93. Ibid. 94. See Nehru's letter of 21 December 1953 to Pakistan Prime Minister, quoted in M. Ayub Khan, The Pakistan-American Alliance, ibid., p. 197 (footnotes). 95. Ibid. 96. See The Report on India by Ambassador George V. Allen, in the Hearings Before the Committee on Foreign Relations, US Senate, 83rd Congress, Second Session, 12 May 1954. 97. See Khalid B. Sayeed, op. cit., pp. 27(}-1. 98. See 'The Soviet Union, Pakistan and India' by Khalida Qureshi in Pakistan Horizon, Fourth Quarter, 1963, pp. 344-5. 99. See Harish Kapur, 'India and the Soviet Union' in Asian Survey, Winter 1971, p. 195. Also quoted in G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 11. 100. Ibid., Choudhury, p. 12. 101. See Dawn, 9 June 1949. Also see Mohammad Ahsen Chaudhri, 'Pakistan and Soviet Bloc' in the Pakistan Horizon, Vol. 9, June 1956, pp. 71--80. 102. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 11-14. 103. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 72-5. 104. See ''s Role in Indo-Pak Policies' by S.P. Set in Asian Survey, Vol. 9, August 1969, p. 614. 105. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 19. 106. Ibid., pp. 19-20. Also see The New York Times, 14 December 1955. 107. The New York Times, 22, 27, 29 November, 5, 11 December 1955. 108. The New York Times, 10, 12 December 1955. Also see Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., p. 14. 109. The New York Times, 18 December 1955. Also see Congressional Record- Senate, Vol. 102, Part 5, April 1956, p. 6504. 232 Notes

110. Quoted in Choudhuri, op. cit., p. 75. 111. Dawn, 27 February 1956; Choudhuri, op. cit., pp. 78-9. 112. See Burke, op. cit., p. 211. Also see Choudhuri, ibid. 113. The Pakistan Times, 25 March 1956. 114. G.W. Choudhury 'Pakistan's Relations with the West', Eastern World, July 1958, pp. 20-1. 115. Burke, op. cit., p. 213. 116. Ibid. Also see the Observer, 14 March 1954. 117. Choudhury, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and the Major Powers, op. cit., pp. 160-1. 118. Dawn, 25 December 1956. 119. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 160-1. 120. Burke, op. cit., pp. 202-3. 121. Quoted in ibid., p. 204. 122. Quoted in ibid. 123. The New York Times, 18 December 1955. 124. Burke, op. cit., p. 206. 125. See Hamza Alavi and Amir Khusro, Pakistan: The Burden of US Aid (Boston: New Free Press), pp. 26--7. 126. See Appendix II. 127. Greene, op. cit., p. 129. 128. Ibid. 129. Ibid., pp. 128-29. 130. See Sheikh Majibur Rahman's budget speech in which he pointed out that the former Prime Minister (M. Ali Bogra) had categorically declared that Pakis- tan would save money that was allocated to defence and would be put to alternative uses in civilian sectors, but instead the defence budget continued to register increases rather than the desired reductions. See Constituent Assembly (Legislature) Debates, 18 March 1956, op. cit., pp. 100-1. 131. The budgets during 1947-58 were as follows:

Year Defence Expenditure Percentage of the total in Millions Rs. Government Expenditure 1947-48 (From Aug.) 236.0 65.16 1948-49 461.5 71.32 1949-50 625.4 73.06 1950-51 649.9 51.32 1951-52 792.2 54.96 1952-53 725.7 56.68 1953-54 633.2 58.07 1954-55 640.5 57.05 1955-56 917.7 64.00 1956--57 800.9 60.01 1957-58 854.2 56.01 1958-59 996.6 50.09.

See Hasan Askari Rizvi, The Military and Politics in Pakistan (Lahore: Progressive Publishers, 1976), p. 56. 132. Ibid. 133. See Senator Morse's speech in Congressional Record- Senate, Vol. 104, Part 2, 1958, pp. 1943-4. 134. See the Financial Appendix of NSC 5617, op. cit. Notes 233

6 Abandoned Alternatives

1. Quoted in 'The Atlantic Report on the World Today', The Atlantic, Vol. 191, May 1953, pp. 4-9. 2. Quoted in Burke, op. cit., p. 67. Also see Dawn, 27 September 1956. 3. Ibid., Burke, p. 68. Also see Brown, op. cit., pp. 351-2. 4. See the 'Atlantic Report', op. cit., p. 4. 5. See United States Foreign Policy: Asia, Studies prepared at the request of the Committee on Foreign Relations, US Senate, 86th Congress, 1st Session, 1 November 1959 (Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1959), p. 49. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. See Liaquat's speech in on 5 November 1948 in M. Rafique Afzal, Speeches and Statement of Quaid-i-Millat Liaquat Ali Khan, i94i-5i (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1967), pp. 183--4. 9. See Lawrence Ziring, Pakistan: The Enigma of Political Development (Boulder: Westview Press Inc., 1980), p. 221. 10. Ibid., p. 220. 11. Ibid., pp. 220-1. 12. See Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Speeches as Governor-General, op. cit., p. 58. 13. Afzal, op. cit., pp. 182-3. 14. See 'The Foreign Policy of Pakistan 1947--64' by M.A.H. Isphani in Pakistan Horizon, Vol. 17, No. 3, 1964, pp. 231-2. 15. Ibid., p. 232. 16. Ibid., p. 241. 17. Theoretically non-alignment means non-participation in the defence alliance system that was the product of the Cold War. However, in practice it means non-involvement in the defence alliances and active participation in world politics with a view to not only introduce the much needed flexibility into the existing rigid bipolarity but also to maintain and assert the independent indentities of the newly born states after the post-war decolonisation. 18. See J.W. Burton, international Relations: A General Theory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967), pp. 169-85. Also see Peter Willetts, The Non-aligned Movement: The Origins of a Third World Alliance (London: Frances Pinter Ltd., 1982), pp. 1-58. 19. See Stephen P. Cohen and Richard C. Park, india: Emergent Power (New York: National Strategy Information Center, Inc., 1978), p. 28. 20. See Burton, op. cit., p. 175. Also see 'South Asia and the Great Powers' by Thomas Perry Thornton in World Affairs, Vol. 132, No. 4, March 1970, pp. 345-58. 21. Ziring, op. cit., p. 221. 22. In the case of Kashmir, Nehru insisted that Pakistan be branded as the aggressor to which the UN did not agree, whereas the UN condemned North Korea and China as aggressors in the Korean War to which Nehru strongly objected. Similarly in 1956 Nehru condemned the West for the Suez crisis but remained muted as far as the Soviets' actions in Hungary were concerned. See G.W. Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 90-140, p. 228. Also S.M. Burke, pp. 113-140, p. 153. 23. See Khalid B. Sayeed, Politics in Pakistan: The Nature and Direction of Change (New York: Praeger, 1980), p. 32. Also see Rizvi, op. cit., pp. 334-5. Also see Appendix. 234 Notes

24. See Burke, op. cit., p. 149. 25. FRUS, I952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1058-9, 1819-29. 26. An American assessment indicated in 1953 that the administrative inefficiency would continue to hamper economic development even in the future for quite some time. See the National Intelligence Estimate in ibid., pp. 1072-88. 27. Sayeed, op. cit., pp. 4-18, 32-51. 28. Ibid. 29. Laporte, op. cit., p. 48. 30. Ibid., p. 12. 31. Sayeed, op. cit., p. 44. 32. At the time Punjabis dominated the civil service though with the introduction of a quota system, it was hoped that in future East Pakistanis, Pathans, Sindhis and Baluchis would also occupy key positions eventually. In the army both Punjabis and Pathans dominated. Despite repeated appeals of many East Pakistani leaders in the Assembly both to the people of East Pakistan to come forward and to government to induct more Bengalis into the armed forces, the domination of Punjabis and the Pathans continued at least during the period under discussion. An American analyst adds that the Mohajar element in the domineering civil bureaucracy was also quite substantial. The Mohajar element was dead against India and all that India stood for. See Sayeed, ibid., pp. 32-33; Laporte, op. cit., pp. 12-15; Ziring; op. cit., pp. 85-7; Recorded Interview of Seling Harrison, a Senior researcher at Carnegie Endoment, Washington, 1984. 33. See 'Pakistan in World Affairs' by Lord Birdwood in The Yearbook of World Affairs I958 (London: Stevens and Sons Limited, 1958), pp. 96-114. 34. Ibid. 35. Quoted from Mountbatten Papers ( Records, Files No. 191 and 196) in Sherwani, op. cit., p. 10. 36. Quoted in Burke, Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani Foreign Policies, op. cit., p. 58. 37. Ibid. 38. Burke, Pakistan Foreign Policy, op. cit., p. 72. 39. See 'A Visit to Afghanistan' by M. Philips Price in the Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Vol. 36, 1949, pp. 124-34. 40. Burke, op. cit., p. 72. 41. Among the local leaders that had promoted the idea of Pakhtoonistan were the local Congressman Dr Khan and his elder brother Khan , the leader of Khudi Khedmitgars. Ghaffar Khan wrote letters to Gandhi stressing that the Afghan Government was exploiting the situation and stated that his position was to secure a fully autonomous state within Pakistan. See the letters in Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi: The Last Phase I, I1 (Ahmadabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1958), pp. 27~3. 42. See the earlier chapter on Insecure Border. 43. For details see J.C. Griffiths Afghanistan (London: Pall Mall, 1967), p. 62. 44. Ibid., p. 64. 45. Siddiqi, op. cit., pp. 25-30. Also see Burke, op. cit., pp. 205-8. 46. See 'Inside Afgahnistan - A Background to Recent Troubles' by Andrew Wilson in Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society, Vol. 47, 1960, pp. 286-95. Also see Price, op. cit., p. 125. Also see Sir Olaf Caroe 'Pakistan Revisited' in Journal of Royal Central Asian Society, Vol. 44, 1957, pp. 175-86. 47. See 'Pakistan-Afghanistan Relations and Central Asian Politics 1973-78' by Zubeida Mustafa in Pakistan Horizon, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1978, p. 25. Notes 235

48. Burke, op. cit., p. 37-47. 49. See 'Afghanistan, Independent and Encircled' by Bonald N. Wilber in Foreign Affairs, Vol. 31, April 1953, pp. 487-94. 50. See 'A New Great Game: Consequences of the Coup in Kabul' by Harvey Stockwin in Round Table, No. 271, July 1978, p. 247. Also see Siddiqi, op. cit., pp. 28-30. Also see the Ambassador in India (Bowles) to the Department of State, in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., p. 1373. 51. See Louis Dupree, op. cit., pp. 492-3. Also see FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, ibid. pp. 1373-4. 52. See 'The Soviet Union, Pakistan and India' by Khalida Qureshi in the Pakistan Horizon, Fourth Quarter, 1963, pp. 344-5. 53. Ibid. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 10-11. 54. Ibid., Qureshi, p. 350. 55. The Soviet Ambassador assumed his charge of office on 22 March 1950. Burke, op. cit., pp. 98-9. 56. 'Pakistan and the Soviet Bloc' by Mohammad Ahsen Chaudhri, in the Pakistan Horizon, Vol. 9, No. 2 June 1956, pp. 71-80. 57. Burke, op. cit., p. 101. 58. Chaudhri, op. cit., p. 73. 59. Qureshi, op. cit., p. 346-7. 60. See Malenkov's speech to the Supreme Soviet on 8 August 1953. Quoted in Chaudhry, op. cit., pp. 16-17. 61. Qureshi, op. cit., p. 347. 62. See 'Soviet Policy in Asia' by G.F. Hudson in Soviet Survey, July 1955, pp. 1-4. Also quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., pp. 11-12. 63. Chaudhri, op. cit., pp. 73-4. Also see Choudhury, op. cit., p. 26. 64. Qureshi, op. cit., pp. 350-1. 65. Ibid. 66. Burke, op. cit., p. 92. 67. Quoted in ibid. 68. See 'The Foreign Policy of Mr. Liaquat Ali Khan' by K. Sarwar Hasan in Pakistan Horizon, Vol. 4, No. 4, December 1951, pp. 181-99. 69. Choudhury, op. cit., p. 10. 70. Ibid. 71. Ibid., p. 14. Also seeM. Ayub Khan, op. cit., p. 156. 72. Qureshi, op. cit., p. 351.

7 Conclusion

1. See 'Military Ideology: South Asia' by Stephen P. Cohen in Comparative Defence Policies, edited by Frank B. Horton III, Anthony C. Rogerson, Edward L. Warner III, op. cit., pp. 73-87. 2. Ibid. 3. See the written lecture of Dr A.H. Dani entitled Ideology of Pakistan, delivered to the trainees at Pakistan Administrative Staff College, Lahore, 1975. 4. Cohen, op. cit., p. 75. 5. Ibid, pp. 77-8. 6. See Stephen Cohen's chapter on 'Pakistan' in Kolodziej and Harkavy, op. cit., pp. 100-1. 7. See the list of equipment and units attached with the Financial Appendix to NSC 5909, op. cit. 8. See 'Indian Military Policy and Strategy' by Ashok Kapur in Comparative 236 Notes

Defence Policies ed. by Horton and others, op. cit., pp. 272-8. 9. Ibid. Also see Cohen, op. cit., pp. 98-104. 10. Ibid., Cohen. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid., p. 106. 13. Quoted in G.W. Choudhury, India, Bangladesh and the Major Powers, op. cit., p. 107. 14. See 'Force Posture: India and Pakistan' by Lome J. Kavic in Comparative Defence Policies, edited by Horton III and others, op. cit., pp. 376-90. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. See 'Economic Constraints and National Defence Efforts' by David Green- wood in European Military Institutions: A Reconnaisance, by Universities Service Study Group, Scotland Report 1970-71, p. 73. 18. Ibid. 19. Kavic, op. cit., p. 384. 20. Laporte, op. cit., pp. 12, 48. 21. Ibid. 22. See FRUS, 1947, Vol. III. The Acting Secretary of State to the Pakistan Ambassador, 17 December 1947, pp. 172-4. 23. Ibid. 24. See FRUS, 1950, Vol. V. Record of Informal US-UK Discussions, 18 Septem- ber 1950, pp. 196-206. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid., Policy Statement and Proposals regarding the Near East and South Asia, 6 March 1950, pp. 239-44. 27. See FRUS, 1950, Vol. V, op. cit., pp. 204-5. 28. See Regional Policy Statement. South Asia, Estimate of Situation, 9 October 1950 in ibid., p. 248. 29. See M.A.H. Isphahani's letter of 7 September 1949 to Liaquat Ali Khan. Quoted in Choudhury, op. cit., p. 12. 30. Ibid., pp. 12-13. 31. Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., p. 14. 32. Quoted in ibid. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid., p. 15. Also see The New York Times, 8, 9 March 1956. 35. See FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., p. 1856. 36. Ibid., p. 1854. Also see, NSC No. 5409, 24 August 1955. 37. Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., p. 15. 38. NSC 5909, op. cit. 39. A simple comparison of the 1954 commitment and what was approved in 1956 clearly indicates the raised number. 1954 1959 divisions 4 4 Armoured divisions 11/2 1V2 Vessels 12 16 Air squadrons 6 9 See the Defence Comments to NSC 5909, op. cit. Also see the Appendix V. 40. Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., p. 15. 41. The New York Times, 22, 26 January, 7 February, 24, 25 March 1956. Notes 237

42. The New York Times, April1956. 43. For example Chester Bowles once asserted that some nations joined the USA purely out of necessity. Quoted in Tahir-Kheli, op. cit., pp. 15-16. 44. Ibid., p. 16. 45. On 1 April 1946, -General Arthur Smith (CGS: Chairman COS (India) Committee) wrote a paper analysing the defence implications of parti- tion which was discovered later and published without the name of author. General Smith's name appears at the bottom of page 2 indicating that he signed the manuscript. See Defence Implications of a into Hindustan and Pakistan (Karachi: East and West Publishing Company, 1976), pp. 13-14. 46. Ibid., pp. 15-16. 47. See Appendix. 48. As far as the tank and aircraft were concerned not only did the Pakistanis express their preference for American weapons but in fact they had already purchased over 300 Sherman tanks in preference to British tanks. See Memorandum of conversation by the Acting Officer in Charge, Pakistan -Afghanistan Affairs (Metcalf) in which the status of the Military Aid pro- gramme was discussed on 27 July 1954, in FRUS, 1952-54, Vol. XI, op. cit., pp. 1858-9. 49. See Allan Westocott, Mahan On Naval Warfare (Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1942), pp. 355-7. 50. Ibid. 51. See Defence Implications of a Partition of India into Hindustan and Pakistan, op. cit., p. 15. 52. See Five Years of Pakistan, August 1947-August 1952 (Karachi: Pakistan Publications, 1952), pp. 211-12. 53. Ayub Khan, Friends Not Masters, op. cit., pp. 155-7. 54. Because the Pakistanis had gone out of their way to please the Americans by joining SEATO and the , whose membership could have been easily delayed by the Pakistanis, the Americans, conscious of Ayub's forceful and even vehement stand on the promised force levels, responded sympatheti- cally. Ayub even told the visiting Congressman Zablocki quite frankly that the Americans had gone back on their commitments. Most American officers linked with MAP expressed shock over Ayub's attitude and bitterness. A meeting between General Ayub and General Cook was arranged in which Ayub strongly stressed three often repeated points. First, Pakistan had never been given a mission or objective under its commitments to SEATO or the defence of the Middle East. Second, Pakistan had never been consulted with regard to the strategic planning for defence of the Middle East. Third, the military aid programme was insufficient. Despite the strong language Ayub had been using in putting forward the above mentioned points, most American officers responded sympathetically. See Brigadier General Rothwell H. Browns (Headquarters, Military Assistance Advisory Group, Pakistan), com- munications to Brigadier-General K. Wilson Jr. (Office of the Secretary of Defence) on 18 November 1955, Records of the Joint Chief of Staff Record Group, 218. Appendix

NAMES OF PERSONS OCCUPYING KEY POSITIONS IN PAKISTAN (I947-58)

Governor-Generals

Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah August 1947-September 1948 September 1948-0ctober 1951 Ghulam Mohammad October 1951-September 1955 Major-General September 1955-March 1956

Presidents

Major-General Iskander Mirza March 1956-0ctober 1958

Prime Ministers

Liaquat Ali Khan August 1947-0ctober 1951 Khawaja Nazimuddin October 1951-April 1953 Mohammad Ali (Bogra) April 1953-August 1955 Chaudhuri Mohammad Ali August 1955-September 1956 H.S. Suhrawardy September 1956-0ctober 1957 1.1. Chundrigar October 1957-December 1957 Malik Feroz Khan Noon December 1957-0ctober 1958

COMMANDERS-IN-CHIEF/CHIEFS OF STAFF

The Army

General Sir } August 1947-January 1951 General Sir Douglas Gracey Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan January 1951-0ctober 1958

The Air Force

Air Vice Marshal A.L.A. Perry-Keane } Air Vice Marshal R.L.A. Atcherley Air Vice Marshal L.W. Cannon August 1947-July 1957 Air Vice Marshal A.W.B. McConald Mohammad July 1957-July 1965

The Navy

Rear Admiral J.W. Jefford August 1947-February 1953 Hafiz Mohammad Sadiq Chaudhri February 1953-February 1959 238 Appendix 239

PROVINCIAL ADMINISTRATION EAST PAKISTAN

Governors

Sir Frederick Bourne 1947-50 Malik Feroz Khan Noon 1950--53 Chaudhuri Khaliquzzaman 1953-54 Major-General lskander Mirza 1954 Sir Thomas Ellis 1954 Justice Shahibuddin 1954-55 Justice Amiruddin Ahmad 1955-56 A.K. Fazlul Huq 1956--58 Acting Governor Hamid Ali 1958 Acting Governor Sultanuddin Ahmad 1958

Chief Minister

Khawaja Nazimuddin 1947-48 Nural Amin 1948-54 A.K. Fazlul Huq 1954 Abu Hussain Sarkar 1955-56 Ataur Rahman Khan 1956--58 Abu Hussain Sarkar 1958 Ataur Rahman Khan 1958

THE PUNJAB

Governors

Sir Francis Mudie 1947-48 Sardar 1949-51 1.1. Chundrigar 1951-53 Mian Aminuddin 1953-54 Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola 1954 Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani 1954-55 Chief Ministers

Nawab Iftikhar Hussain of Mamdot 1947-49 Mian Mohammad 1951-53 Malik Feroz Khan Noon 1953-55 Abdul Hamid Khan Dasti 1955

SIND

Governors

G .H. Hidayatullah 1947-48 Din Mohammad 1948-52 Mian Aminuddin 1952-53 Habib Ibrahim Rahimtoola 1953-54 Iftikhar Hussain of Mamdot 1954-55 240 Appendix

Chief Ministers

Mohammad Ayub Khuhro 1947-48 Pir Illahi Bakhsh 1948-49 1949-50 Kazi Fazlullah 1950-51 Mohammad Ayub Khuhro 1951 Pirzada Abdus Sattar 1953-54 Mohammad Ayub Khuhro 1954-55

NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE

Governors

Sir George Cunningham 1947-48 Sir Ambrose Dundas 1948-49 Sahibzada Mohammad Khurshid 1949-50 1.1. Chundrigar 1950-51 Khawaja Shahabuddin 1951-54 Qurban Ali Khan 1954-55

Chief Ministers

Dr Khan Abdus Sattar Khan 1947 Abdul Qaiyum Khan 1947-53 Sardar Abdur Rashid 1953-55 Khan 1955

BALUCHISTAN

Baluchistan was not a full-fledged province. It was administered directly by the Governor-General until its integration into the province of West Pakistan in 1955.

WEST PAKISTAN

The Province of West Pakistan was established by the integration of the Punjab, Sind, NWFP, Baluchistan and the princely states in 1955.

Governors

Mushtaq Ahmad Gurmani 1955-57 Akhtar Hussain 1957-60

Chief Ministers

Dr Khan Abdus Sattar Khan 1955-57 Sardar Abdur Rashid 1957-58 Nawab Muzaffar Ali Qazilbash 1958

Source: Hasan Askari Rizvi The Military and Politics in Pakistan (Lahore: Pro- gressive Publishers, 1976) pp 334-39. Select Bibliography

DOCUMENTS (Unpublished)

(National Archives of USA, Washington DC) National Security Council's Documents and Reports Secretary of Defence Office Files Joint Chiefs of Staff Files Plans and Operation Directorate Files SANACC (State-Army-Navy-Airforce Coordinating Committee) Series Central Intelligence Agency Memorandums Background Memorandums on the Visits of Jawaharlal Nehru and Liaquat Ali Khan (prepared by the State Department)

DOCUMENTS (Published)

(Autobiographies; Biographies; Books; Collection of Documents; Congressional Records; Debates of the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan; Debates of Indian Lok Sabah; Hearings; Official State Department Records; Official Transfer of Power Documents; Reports; Speeches; White Papers and Yearbooks)

Abdullah, Sheikh Mohammed, Attish-e-Chinar (in Urdu): An Autobiography (Lahore: Chaudhury Academy, 1985). Afzal, M. Rafique, Selected Speeches of the Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1976, third impression). Afzal, M. Rafique, Speeches and Statements of Quaid-i-Millat Liaquat Ali Khan (194I-51), (Lahore: Research Society of Pakistan, 1967). Ahmad, Jamil-ud-Din (ed.), Speeches and Writings of Mr. Jinnah, Vol. 1, Vol. 11 (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf, 1976). Ali, Chaudhri Muhammad, The Emergence of Pakistan (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967). American Foreign Policy I950-55: Basic Documents, Vol. 1, Department of State, (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1957). Amir Abdur Rahman, The Life of Amir Abdur Rahman: Amir of Afghanistan: An Autobiography that was edited by Mir Munshi Sultan Mohamed Khan (London: John Murray, Albemarle Street, 1900). Australia and the Indian Ocean Region (Canberra: Government of Australia's Publication, 1976). Azad, M.A.K., India Wins Freedom (Calcutta: Orient Longman, Green, 1960). Baluch, Mir Ahmad Yar Khan, Inside Baluchistan (Karachi: Royal Book Com- pany, 1975). Biddulph, Col. J., Stringer Lawrence: The Father of Indian Army (London: John Murrey, 1901). Bowles, Chester, Ambassador's Report (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954). Bruce, Richard Issaq, The Forward Policy and its Results (Quetta: Gosha-e-Adab, 1977). The book was originally published in 1900 by Longmans, Green and Co. Campell-Johnson, Alan, Mission with Mountbatten (London: Robert Hale, 1951). Caroe, Olaf, The Pathans 550 B.C. -A.D. 1957 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1976).

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Abell, George, 27 Caroe, Sir Olaf, 50 Acheson, Dean, 106 CENTO Afghanistan, Arab, Indian and Soviet criticism British concerns over, 8 of, 143 British Policy towards, 8 Indian interpretation of Pakistan as a formal buffer zone, 49 membership, 3 Armed Forces Reconstitution Chatfield Commission, 15, 16 Committee (AFRC), 19, 79 China, American State Department, Pakistan border, 55 Pakistan's request for financial aid Pakistan boundary agreement, 57 to, 84 Choudhri, Haji M. Siddiq, Response to Indian request for as first Pakistani Naval C-in-C, 82 military aid, 84 CIA, 105 Anwar, Khurshid (Maj.), 91 Clive, Lord, 11 Auchineleck, Sir Clande Cold War in Asia, 65-6 as the chairman of AFRC, 19 Commonwealth, Pakistan's links with and Mountbatten, 20, 21, 22 100-1 proposal on the future of British Company, East India, 10, troops, officers in , 22 11-12 and the rejection of Liaquat's plan, Cook's Mission, 149 17, 18 Cornwallis, 12 vilification campaign against, 20 Cripps, Sir Stafford, 17 Curzon, Lord, 9 Baghdad Pact see CENTO differences with Kitchner, 14 Bajpai, Girja Shanker, 108 and the formation of NWFP, 49 Baluchistan accession to Pakistan, 60 Lord on functions of army, 13 Baruch Plan, 64 resignation, 14 Bogra, Mohammad Ali, 121 Lord three-fold frontier policy, 51 Bogra-Nehru Coramunique, 130 Bowles Chester, 129, 131, 136 Defence of India Plan 1927, 10 Bose, Subhash Chandra, and the Defence professionals, role in organisation of the Indian Pakistan's defence planning, 97-9 National Army, 16 Disraeli, 9 Boucher, (Gen.), 91 Division of Assets British policy towards the tribesmen, cash balance, 30 19 and the Kashmir problem, 30 British Indian Army military assets, 31, 77-8 recruitment from Punjab & NWFP, Dulles, John Foster, 121, 133, 135, 12 136, 148, 178 Burma, appreciation of Pakistan's strategic Memorandum of Agreement with location, 122 Pakistan, 52-3 convictions of; 121 Pakistan border, 52 visit to India and Pakistan, 122 Pakistan's border problems with, 52 Durand, Sir Mortimer, 48 Durand line, Anglo-Afghan Camberley Staff College, 14 agreement on, 2, 48

246 Index 247

East Pakistan India, 74 riots in, 102 position on the future status of suggestions for increased role of in princely states, 35 armed forces, 125 and the refugee relief fund, 29 Eisenhower, Dwight, 121, 145 Joint Defence Council (JDC), 20, 76 assurance to Nehru, 129 abolition of, 32, 77 Evacuee property, 28--9 and the division of military assets, 31 Gandhi, 167 Junagadh, 35-7 M.K., of, 31 Indian occupation of, 36 on the Indian occupation of Junagadh, 37 Kashmir, visit to the Maharaja of Kashmir, 39 case before the UN Security Gracey, disobedience of Jinnah's Council, 44 orders, 92 first war, 85, 93 Grady, 107 first war: Indian offensive, 87 Graham, Frank, 103 first war: Pakistani blunders, 91-2 Gurdaspur, first war: state of Pakistani troops , the importance of, 26, 27 88 Indian pressures on the Maharaja Habibullah Committee, 99 of, 38--9 Heinz Mission, 148 Mountbatten's role in, 42 Hindu Mahasaba, 31 Muslim genocide in, 39-40 Hyderabad, Indian invasion of, 38 Keene, A.L. Perry, 80 Killa Safaid dispute, 60 Ikramullah, Mohammad, 118 Kissinger, Henry, 175 Imperial Kitchner, Lord, 13 establishments of, 14 and the reorganisation of the army, India 14, 15 bilateral trade agreement with Kriplani, A., 74, 154 USSR, 130 statement on partition, 1 boundary with Pakistan, 58 trip to Kashmir, 38--9 Military Academy, 16 Khaliquzzaman, Ch. Mutual Defence Assistance and the idea of Islamistan, 100 Agreement with US, 119 Khan, Abdul Ghafar, Indian Navy, 7 and the boycott of the referendum Indus water dispute, 32-4 in NWFP, 50 , signing of, 34 Khan, Abdul Monem, 125 Indus Basin Development Fund Khan, Akbar Maj, Gen. 117 Agreement, 34 Khan, A. Qayyumm Khan, 91 Indus Water Treaty, stipulations of, 34 Khan, A.M. Yahya as member of Iran-Pakistan border, 59 Army Planning Board, 98 Pakistan boundary accord, 60 Khan, Fazal Muqeem (Brig.) as Ismay, Lord, 26 member Army Planning Board, Isphani, M.A.H., 106, 177 99 Khan, Ikramullah, 171 Jefford, J.W., 80 Khan, Laik Ali, 119, 120 Jenkins, 27 Khan Liaquat Ali, 94 Jinnah, M. Ali, 113, 114, 162, 163,167 102, 107, 110, 112, 117, 131, 156, on control of armed forces, 97-8 162, 163, 171, 177 desire for cordial relations with assassination of, 103, 171 248 Index

desire for cordial relations with accession, 39 India, 74 attitude towards Pakistan, 27 foreign policy of, 118 refusal to hold referendum in on Muslim brotherhood, 100 Calcutta, 26 five-point peace plan, 103 Munir, Mohammed (Justice) on Pakistan armed force, 95 on Radcliffe Award, 28 pronouncements in US, 110-11 Murphy, Roberts, 135 on representation of Muslims in Muslim League, armed forces, 17, 18 composition of, 165 request to US for arms, 118 visit to the US, 110 National Security, 70-3 Khan, M. Ayub, 102, 133, 149, 151, Nazimuddin, Kh., 118, 119, 120, 125, 154, 156, 171, 178, 179, 182 163 as the first Pakistani C-in-C, 82 Nehru, J.L., 102 110, 111, 123, 129, motives for joining alliances, 147 130, 162, 164, 169, 170 offer of joint defence (1959), 54 formal offer of no war pact, 101 reorganisation of army, 98 opposition to US-Pakistan MDAA, visit to the US, 123 127 Khan Sir Zafarullah, 25, 28, 90, 135, position on the future status of 171 princely states, 35 in UN on the division of assets, 32 position on Korean War, 112 remarks on MEDO, 123 Lawrence, Lord 8, Soviet impression of, 108 and the close border policy, 9 report, (1928) on transfer of control Lawrence, Strenger (Gen.), 11 over the Indian Army, 16 Liaquat-Nehru Pact, 29, 102 Truman's invitation to, 107 Listowel, Lord, 35 Nishter, Sardar Abdur Rab, 122 Lockhard, Sir Rob on Radcliffe Award, 28 as first C-in-C of Indian Army, 23 Nixon, Richard Lytton, and the forward policy, 8, 9 visit to Karachi, 129 Noon, F.K., 150 MAAG, 147 Assurance to Chinese, 54 Maharaja of Kashmir, NSC 5409, 132 accession letter to India, 41 NWFP British concerns about, 8 standstill agreement with Pakistan, creation of, 9 41 referendum in 50, 51 Manila Pact see SEATO Marshall Plan, 62, 63 Operation Curzon, 85 Messervy, Sir Frank, 80 advice on tribal areas and Durand Pakistan line, 52 acknowledgement of strategic appointment as first C-in-C of location by US, 116 Pakistan Army, 23 apprehensions of Soviet southward reaction on Maharaja's accession, 42 drive, 129 Mirza, Iskander, 116, 134, 154, 171 borders of, 46 Mohammed, Din (Justice), 28 cost of alliances for, 155-61 Mohammed, Ghulam, 92, 94, 118, decline in export earnings, 117 124, 154, 162, 166, 171 economic gains from the alliances, on high defence spending, 96 151-3 visit to US, 134 efforts at Muslim unity, 100 Mountbatten, 76 establishment of armed forces advice to Maharaja of Kashmir on training institutes, 83 Index 249

factor for abandoning Radcliffe, Sir Cyrill, 25, 57 non-alignment, 164 Radcliffe A wards first ordnance factory, 82 announcement and publication, 25 first request for arms, 113-14 on Bengal, 58 US refusal, 114 and the Indus Water dispute, 33 halt on trade with India, 101 Case initial problems in the organisation accused in, 117 of armed forces, 81 Rawlenson, Lord and the inheritance of armed forces, 80 Indianisation of the army, 15 military gains of the alliances for, Rees, 146-1 assistants and advisors of, 76 motives for joining Turco-Iraqi Ring-fence system, 8 Pact, 142-3 Roberts, Lord, 9 Mutual Defence Assistance and the notion of martial races, 12 Agreement with US, 119 RSSS, 31 naval shortcomings, 180--1 parliament's role in defence Sandeman, Robert, 60 planning, 125-7 SEATO political benefits of the alliance, affirmation of support to Pakistan 153-4 on Kashmir, 153 position on Korean war area and objectives, 138--9 psychological benefits of alliance, Chinese apprehensions on Pakistan's 154--5 joining, 54 reasons for Western leanings, 166 formation, 137 rejection of no war pact, 101-2 Indian interpretation of Pakistan request to US for wheat, 133 membership, 3 role of bureaucracy in sabotaging Pakistan's motive in joining, 139-40 Liaquat's visit to , 171 Sepoy armies, 11 -Turkey Agreement for Friendly Singh, Baldev, 83 Cooperation, 135 reaction to Liaquat's plan, 18--19 -US Mutual Defence Agreement, Skeen, Sir Andrew, 15 135-6 Committee, 15 Pakistan Military Academy, Soviet Union see USSR establishment of, 83 Stalin, 64, 65 Parliament, Suhrawardy, 54, 150 role in defence policy formulation, Supreme Commander's Office, closure 94-6 of 78--9 Partition Council, 76 decision on division of ordnance Threat perception, 68--70 stores, 78 Tribal Lashkar, 40--1, 86 Partition of India and the massacre of Truman invitation to Liaquat, 109 Muslims, 29 Turco-Iraqi Pact, 142 views of INC and League, 23-4 Pakistan's accession to, 142 Patel, Sardar, V.B., 1, 26, 30, 74, 154 attack on JDC, 78 Umrao Khan Committee, 99 Pondicherry, 11 UNCIP, 89, 90 Princely states of India establishment of, 44 constitutional position at the time of members, 44 partition, 34 resolutions of, 45 number at the time of partition, 34 us Pakhtoonistan issue, 2, 61, 186-9 change of administration in, 212 Indian support for, 103 first arms embargo on 250 Index

India-Pakistan, 107 non-alignment, 108 initial response towards India and initial interest in the sub-continent, Pakistan, 106 108 invitation to Nehru, 109 invitation to Liaquat, 109 Iraq MDAA, 141 offer of a steel mill to Pakistan, 159 policy of isolationism, 62 reaction to Pakistan's alignment, policy in South Asia, 112 157-9 priorities in Asia, 105 southward expansion, 9 response to the partition, 106 support to Afghan claims on rivalry with the USSR, 62-3 Pakhtoonistan, 160 and South Asia, 106-7 veto on Kashmir in the UN, 159 visit of Indian and Pakistan military missions to, 115-16 Warren, A., 107 endorsement of Indian position on Wave!, Lord, Kashmir, 158 succession as viceroy, 17 USSR World Bank factors impeding closer relations offer of good offices for the solution with Pakistan, 171 of Indus Water impression of Nehru's dispute, 34