Water and Health Programme Course 1 - Introduction

Water and Health Title Page

How to use the course materials:

The material is divided into Concept and Discussion sections. Most Concept pages are accompanied by a Discussion page. The Concept page gives a brief overview of the topic being considered and each Discussion page amplifies that overview into a more detailed review of the topic. The simple analogy is that the Concept pages are what you would see on a PowerPoint or blackboard summary in a lecture and the Discussion page is what the lecturer would say in class about that topic (or would provide in written lecture notes).

This means that you can use the Concept pages as a quick review of the topics by progressing through them in order using the Arrow icons at the top of the page (or in any order you want) and looking at the Discussion pages to amplify or remind you of the detailed content. This is very useful for a rapid review of course materials.

If you mark the level of understanding you have for each topic (from low to high - red to green) , you can then use these measures of understanding to review only those topics that you need to work on further or had difficulty with on first reading.

You may also add notes to any page or highlight materials for later study.

For Help with the StudySpace software, see the Help Section on the left-hand menu. To see a PowerPoint Presentation on the StudySpace software used in these Water-Health courses see this link. PowerPoint or PowerPoint Viewer (free from Microsoft) is required and PowerPoint Viewer is included for installation from the CD

Any page may contain references to extra materials; either on the CD or as an external web reference (URL) (usually marked as Internet Access Required). You can access the CD material directly but you need an internet connection to access the external references. These extra materials and the external web references are NOT required reading but are there for those who wish to look at certain topics in more detail or who want to go to the original sources of material. The CD references are given to amplify the topics and are usually well worth reading even though we will not normally require any detailed knowledge of their contents for this course.

You will also see listings of material such as bibliographies and data sources on the internet. We provide these in an attempt to make the courses more useful to you in your career or studies, but knowledge of them is NOT required. They are there to provide reference materials that might be useful to you.

In short, everything you need to know for this series of courses is on the CD,, but you have been given extra materials and internet references to supplementary materials for clarification if needed, for later use if it is relevant, or for you to pursue individual topics for your own interest.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d000TitlePage.html[11/3/2014 5:18:27 PM] Water and Health Title Page

Water and Health Programme Introduction to the Programme

The Water and Health Programme consists of a number of individual courses addressing the many issues surrounding the relationships between water and the health of people and populations.

Overview of Water-Health Programme Courses

Course 1 Introduction to Water & Health

History of Early Civilizations

History of Water

History of Water and Health

Global Water Issues – importance of water, current access to water and sanitation, history of water resources.

Global Health Issues – water quantity, water quality and health overview; global burden of waterborne disease; history of water-health; London cholera outbreak case study.

Water Supply (Water Quantity and Quality) - water cycle, hydrology, case studies for surface water e.g., Lake Victoria, marine and oceanic systems, groundwater.

Global Water Use and the Hydrogeological cycle – Patterns of use (global and regional) Consumptive versus non- consumptive uses, comparison of patterns of use, types of use and trends - water for human consumption, water for food, water for energy, water for industry, water for ecosystem health, water for recreation and tourism; management approaches for multiple uses IWRM watershed management.

Water Management and Introduction to IWRM – A brief overview of the history and practices of Integrated Water Resource Management

Information Sources on Water and Water-Health issues

Course 2 Water-Related Impacts on Health – Principles, Methods and Applications

Introduction – Viewing water and health through different macro lenses of user of water, needs and usage of water, quality of water and availability of water. Closer look at the intersection of these lenses where impacts occur from a needs assessment and risk assessment perspective. Look at processes for the identification of potential hazards and impacts and standard methods for evaluating prioritizing and reporting acute and chronic exposures to different types of contaminants and applied in assessing and responding in situations with threats of significant potential for causing harmful effects local scale and global scale. Health issues associated with extreme events, watershed diseases, hygiene and drought and flooding.

Water Quality – What are contaminants affecting water quality, biological microbiological and chemical and physical. What are pollution sources, point source and diffuse non-point sources.

Impacts of Water Quantity and Quality on Health – Impacts of water quality and quantity on environmental and public health. Practical methods for measuring and assessing water quality, methods for monitoring and surveillance of water quality and hygiene for use by households, schools, and the community.

Exposure - Disease transmission routes and exposure routes and exposure pathways to contaminants in water, pathogens and parasites and toxic chemicals. Acute and chronic exposures. The faecal-oral exposure pathway of disease and zoonosis. Factors influencing exposures, including differences in life-stages, children, pregnant women and other vulnerable populations.

Toxicology Epidemiology and Risk Assessment - Basic principles and methods and applications. Brief history of epidemiology and application of demographics pertaining to water-related disease. General risk assessment frameworks and integration of risk communication and risk management, including deterministic versus probabilistic risk assessment, cumulative risk assessment, and qualitative and quantitative studies. Drinking water guidelines by the World Health Organization and their development and application.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d001Introduction.html[11/3/2014 5:18:27 PM] Water and Health Title Page

Case studies - Examples of case studies and different types of contaminants and exposure pathways such as, food contamination, guinea worm, arsenic in drinking water, fluoride, pesticides and pharmaceuticals and personal care products.

Social surveys – What are social surveys. How are social surveys conducted and constructed. Data analysis and information.

Risk Communication and Risk Management Challenges –Demographics, language and literacy, and hazard identification of public health emergency of international concern.

Course 3 Technical Solutions for Water & Health

Water Treatment Methods and Water Distribution Systems– Introduction to safe drinking water and the multiple-barrier approach and other water treatment methods. Novel water treatment and purification systems. Examples of different types of water distribution systems. Household water treatment systems.

Source Water Protection - Protecting the source water supply and health issues associated with water treatment and distribution (see also Course 1 and 2). To be added in future are the following topics –water towers, reservoirs, cisterns and rain barrels and other rain and water collection and storage methods for water supply and case studies.

Point of Use, Conventional Drinking Water Treatment, and Advanced Drinking Water Treatment - Selection for the optimization of treatment system configuration- multiple barrier approach.

Sanitation and Wastewater Treatment systems including - Decentralized Treatment, Constructed Wetlands, Conventional Waste Water Treatment, and Advanced Waste Water Treatment -– Overview, sanitation hygiene and wastewater, Ecosan, waste treatment systems, health issues associated with waste treatment (see also Course 1 and 2), non-technical solutions (constructed wetlands). Resource materials are provided on education and participatory approaches. Case studies of wastewater treatment and wetlands construction.

Course 4 Water Ethics, Governance, Law, Economics and Social Intervention

Water and Ethics

Human Rights & Social Justice

Managing Water

Integrating Water and Health

Challenges to Integration

Moving Forward -- Managing Watersheds for Health

Course 5 Challenges for WaSH

Introduction – About 2.5 billion people lack improved sanitation facilities, and 768 million people still use unsafe drinking water sources, according to the latest estimates of the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP), released in early 2013. Inadequate access to safe water and sanitation services, coupled with poor hygiene practices, kills and sickens thousands of children every day, and leads to impoverishment and diminished opportunities for thousands more.

Challenges for WaSH - The following challenges for WaSH are discussed in the course: disease prevention; disease intervention; maternal health; newborn infant and preschool health; school health.

Water and Sanitation -The importance of water and sanitation in religious and cultural traditions, and in ecological food webs and food networks.

Applications of WaSH – including WaSH and Energy; WaSH and social well-being; WaSH and Tourism, and WaSH in disasters. Case studies for WaSH file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d001Introduction.html[11/3/2014 5:18:27 PM] Water and Health Title Page

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Course 1 - Introduction to the Water-Health programme

Overview

To see a PowerPoint Presentation on the StudySpace software used in these Water-Health courses see this link on the CD.

PowerPoint or PowerPoint Viewer (free from Microsoft) is required and it is included for installation from the CD

Early History of the Earth

The history of water and civilizations

Human evolution and water - Prehistoric times

Ancient civilizations and water

The last 1000 years

Progress through the centuries

The Water Cycle

The Hydrologic cycle

Cycling of water

Quantity of water recirculating in the cycle

Residence times of water in various parts of the cycle

Amount of water available for use by populations

Global Climate Change and its Effects on the cycle

Water Resources (details of surface, water, groundwater, oceanic and coastal systems)

Water availability

Why Water is important in Health

Global Water Issues

Population Pressure

Water quantity

Water uses

Water quality issues

Distribution

Patterns of use

Global and regional

Consumptive and non-consumptive

Uses of water

Drinking water (municipal, treated at home, untreated)

Agriculture (arable, animal watering, aquaculture, etc) file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d002Course1.html[11/3/2014 5:18:27 PM] Untitled 1

Industrial

Ecosystem requirements

Water and Civilizations

Ancient Water Systems

1000 CE to the Present day

Civilization Timeline and History Overview

Global Health Issues related to water

Overview of water related illnesses and health problems

Water requirements for health

Water requirements for other activities

Water and Diseases

Water Quantity, Quality, Health requirements (hygiene and sanitation)

Oveview of Water Treatment

Overview of Sanitation

Water Conflicts

Water Management

Integrated Water Resource Management

History, Theory, Practices, Outcomes and Assessment

Data and Information Access

Bibliographic Information

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d002Course1.html[11/3/2014 5:18:27 PM] Introduction - Water Supplies

Historical background to water and health - 2

Complete History of the Earth - The Geologic Time Clock

All of the Earth’s evolution expressed as a clock with 12 hours in a different graphical representation

Notice that:

1. Photosynthesis started around 3.5 billion years ago and led eventually to an oxygen rich atmosphere about 2.3 billion years ago (see the outer purple line for “prokaryotes” that were responsible for photosynthesis)

2. Eukayotes emerged just over 2 billion years ago followed by multicellular organisms about 1.5 billion years ago

3. Land plants evolved at 450 million years ago allowing land animals to evolve

4. The first vertebrates occurred around 380 millions years ago and dinosaurs existed from 230 to 65 million years ago

5. First humans at 2 millions years ago (it almost doesn’t show on the clock!)

6. Modern recorded history and civilization only occupies the last 10,000 years (or less than the blink of an eye on the 12 hour clock!)

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The geologic time scale (GTS) is a system of chronological measurement that relates stratigraphy to time, and is used by geologists, paleontologists, and other earth scientists to describe the timing and relationships between events that have occurred throughout Earth's history. The table of geologic time spans presented here agrees with the dates and nomenclature set forth by the International Commission on Stratigraphy standard color codes of the International Commission on Stratigraphy. Evidence from radiometric dating indicates that the Earth is about 4.54 billion years old.

Extra Material:

The geology or deep time of Earth's past has been organized into various units according to events which took place in each period. Different spans of time on the GTS are usually

delimited by changes in the composition of strata which correspond to them, indicating major geological or paleontological events, such as mass extinctions. For example, the boundary

between the Cretaceous period and the Paleogene period is defined by the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, which marked the demise of the dinosaurs and many other groups of

life. Older time spans which predate the reliable fossil record (before the Proterozoic Eon) are defined by the absolute age. (from Wikipedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale)

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d003EarlyHistory1Title.html[11/3/2014 5:18:27 PM] A simpler view of the history of

Where did the water come from?

A simpler view of the history of the Universe and the Earth.

Humans appear in the last few minutes of the clock.

All of recorded history is shorter still!

There are many interesting questions (many still to be answered) about this evolutionary process

An interesting one from our point of view in this course is "Where did the water come from on Earth?"

That question is not as easy to answer as one might expect!

In a paper on the formation of planets, Morbidelli et al. (Adobe Reader required) model the early evolution of differently-sized planets and speculate that water could have come from three sources;

1. From the nebula dust cloud by the early Earth capturing hydrogen from the nebula that was subsequently oxidized to water through chemical reactions. This theory is somewhat at odds with the ratio of Deuterium to Hydrogen in water and the time scale required for it to occur seems to be too long.

2. From water contained in comets bombarding the early Earth (although their models show this could only have contributed about 10% of the water)

3. By the early Earth accreting water by bombardment with primitive very small planets and asteroids present in the outer asteroid belt. According to their calculations, this could account for sufficient water accumulation during the later stages of Earth's formation

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d005Sourceofwater.html[11/3/2014 5:18:28 PM] A simpler view of the history of

Wherever the water came from, it now comprises about 0.0005 to 0.005 of the Earth's mass - a significant but still small percentage. The evolution of life could not proceed until there was liquid water and the first procaryotes (single celled organisms with no distinct membrane around their nucleus) evolved in that water around 4.2 billion years ago. They eventually produced atmospheric oxygen in sufficient quantities for single-celled eucaryotes (with a nuclear membrane) to evolve followed by multicellular eucaryotes, marine animals ( which later colonized the land surface), followed by primates and humans.

A video of stages in the formation of the Earth is available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/earth/earth_timeline (Internet Connection Required)

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d005Sourceofwater.html[11/3/2014 5:18:28 PM] Human Migration Timeline

Human Migration Timeline

In an excellent analysis of human genetics, Stephen Oppenheimer was able to trace the migration routes of humans from Africa around the entire Earth over a period of 160,000 years.

The results were compiled and presented in an interactive animation available on-line at http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/ (Internet Access Required). With this, you can track the migration of humans and relate it to major climatic events such as the glaciation periods, large volcanic eruptions causing climate change and other factors. Based on a synthesis of the mtDNA and Y chromosome evidence with archaeology, climatology and fossil study, Stephen Oppenheimer has tracked the routes and timing of migration, also placing it in context with ancient rock art around the world.

Also available is the Journey of Mankind lecture film at http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/stephenoppenheimer/journey_of_mankind.php. (Internet Access Required)

If you have problems with the video playing intermittently, allow more of it to download by pressing "Pause" and waiting till more video has downloaded before starting to "Play" again.

The image below is the final view of human migration patterns from the website. Click the image to go to the animation on the Internet at http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/journey/ (Internet Access Required)

Homo sapiens are supposed to have appeared in East Africa around 200,000 years ago. The oldest individuals found left their marks in the Omo remains (195,000 years ago) and the Homo sapiens idaltu (160,000 years ago), that was found at the Middle Awash site in Ethiopia. Recent claims of remains of anatomically modern humans from 400,000 years ago, found at Qesem Cave (Israel), are controversial. Some authors argue that these remains are from Neanderthals or their ancestors. From there they spread around the world. An exodus from Africa over the Arabian Peninsula around 125,000 years ago brought modern humans to Eurasia, with one group rapidly settling coastal areas around the Indian Ocean and one group migrating north to steppes of Central Asia. There is some evidence for the argument that modern humans left Africa at least 125,000 years ago using two different routes: the Nile Valley heading to the Middle East, at least into modern Israel (Qafzeh: 120,000–100,000 years ago); and a second one through the present-day Bab-el-MandebStrait on the Red Sea (at that time, with a much lower sea level and narrower extension),

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d008HumanMigration.html[11/3/2014 5:18:28 PM] Human Migration Timeline

crossing it into the Arabian Peninsula, settling in places like the present-day United Arab Emirates (125,000 years ago) and Oman (106,000 years ago)] and then possibly going into the Indian Subcontinent (Jwalapuram: 75,000 years ago). Despite the fact that no human remains have yet been found in these three places, the apparent similarities between the stone tools found at Jebel Faya, the ones from Jwalapuram and some African ones suggest that their creators were all modern humans. These findings might give some support to the claim that modern humans from Africa arrived at southern China about 100,000 years ago (Zhiren Cave, Zhirendong, Chongzuo City: 100,000 years ago, and the Liujiang hominid: controversially dated at 139,000–111,000 years ago). Since these previous exits from Africa did not leave traces in the results of genetic analyses based on the Y chromosome and on MtDNA (which represent only a small part of the human genetic material), it seems that those modern humans did not survive or survived in small numbers and were assimilated by our major antecedents. An explanation for their extinction (or small genetic imprint) may be the Toba catastrophe theory (74,000 years ago). However, some argue that its impact on human population was not dramatic. According to the Recent African Origin theory a small group living in East Africa migrated north east, possibly searching for food or escaping adverse conditions, crossing the Red Sea about 70 millennia ago, and in the process going on to populate the rest of the world. According to some authors, based in the fact that only descendants of a particular genic group (L3) are found outside Africa, only a few people left Africa in a single migration to a settlement in the Arabian peninsula. From that settlement, some others point to the possibility of several waves of expansion close in time. For example, Wells says that the early travelers followed the southern coastline of Asia, crossed about 250 kilometers [155 miles] of sea (probably by simple boats or rafts]), and colonized Australia by around 50,000 years ago. The Aborigines of Australia, Wells says, are the descendants of the first wave of migration out of Africa. There is some evidence (Internet Access Required) that the human race was reduced to about 10,000 individuals 74,000 years ago. We only just escaped extinction! Around 50,000 years ago the world was entering the last ice age and water was trapped in the polar ice caps, so sea levels were much lower. Today at the Gate of Grief the Red Sea is about 12 miles (20 kilometres) wide but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 metres lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached by simple rafts. Shell middens 125,000 years old indicate that the diet of early humans in Eritrea included sea food obtained by beachcombing. This has been seen as evidence that humans may have crossed the Red Sea in search of food sources on new beaches. Modified from: Wikipedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_human_migrations (Internet Access Required)

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d008HumanMigration.html[11/3/2014 5:18:28 PM] History of Civilization

Timelines of Ancient Civilizations

Some initial observations:

No major health differences between populations on the various continents during the Stone Age. We all started from the same place as hunter-gatherers. At least four more stages in development after that:

1. Hunter-gatherer societies (up to about 10,000 years ago) 2. Agriculture (10,000 to 5,000 years ago) 3. Empires (5,000 to 1,000 years ago) 4. European dominance (1,000 to 50 years ago) 5. The present day The next few pages provide a capsule view of the stages in development and important civilizations and their relation to water over the centuries. We also will attempt to explain the divergence between different parts of the world in terms of development of civilizations and technology.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d010TimelineCivilization.html[11/3/2014 5:18:28 PM] Hunter-gatherer society

Prehistoric and Hunter-Gatherer Societies

A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves: 1) direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild, and 2) foraging and hunting without significant recourse to the domestication of either.

The Mesolithic or "Middle Stone Age” was the period in the development of human technology between the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods of the Stone Age. Flint tools, bows, fishing tackle and canoes appear.

The Neolithic, or “New Stone Age” was an era of primitive social and technological development including villages, agriculture, animal domestication

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d040HunterGatherer.html[11/3/2014 5:18:28 PM] Agriculture and Human Developmen

Agriculture and Human Development

A major change occurred about the 10th millennium BCE with the adoption of agriculture. The Sumerians first began farming c. 9500 BCE. By 7000 BCE, agriculture had been developed in India and Peru separately; by 6000 BCE, to Egypt; by 5000 BCE, to China.

• About 2700 BCE, agriculture had come to Mesoamerica.

• Although attention has tended to concentrate on the Middle East's Fertile Crescent, archaeology in the Americas, East Asia and Southeast Asia indicates that agricultural systems, using different crops and animals, may in some cases have developed there nearly as early.

• The development of organized irrigation, and the use of a specialized workforce, by the Sumerians, began about 5500 BC. Stone was supplanted by bronze and iron in implements of agriculture and warfare.

• Agricultural settlements had until then been almost completely dependent on stone tools. In Eurasia, copper and bronze tools, decorations and weapons began to be commonplace about 3000 BC. After bronze, the Eastern Mediterranean region, Middle East and China saw the introduction of iron tools and weapons

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The Origins of Agriculture

Major Crops

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The 5 most important crops were, and are:

• Wheat - in Syria/Turkey/Iran

• Maize - in Mexico

• Rice - in China

• Potato - in Peru

• Cassava - in Brazil

• The “other five” are millet, sorghum, sweet potato, yams and bananas

Domesticated animals were, and are:

• Cow, horse, sheep, pig, goat, camel, llama, chicken, duck and turkey.

• and NOT – water buffalo, zebra, kangaroo, wombat, etc.

Why these plants and animals?

· Why at these locations?

· Why not elsewhere?

· Why have there been no new discoveries of “domesticatable” plants or animals?

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The simple answers:

· Where nature provided suitable animals and plants for domestication, people developed agriculture.

· All major domestic crops and animals were in use 4000 years ago. No others have been found since then, although many have been tried.

· Notice: none of the crops are native to Europe The result was that: Agriculture enabled the population to increase by 100-fold from 10 million at the end of the Stone Age to 1 billion at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (circa 1810-1820). More food improved nutrition and general health but, because of increased population density, led to the spread of new and infectious diseases such as measles and smallpox. May also have resulted in more deficiency diseases (iron and others) However, overall effect was favourable as shown by increased population.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d060Agriculture2.html[11/3/2014 5:18:29 PM] Distribution of social and techn

Distribution of social and technological systems in early history - An Overview

Click on each map for a larger version in a new window (and then click on that new map to enlarge it)

Distribution of social and technological systems in 2000 BCE

There are one or two state societies in the Middle East and South America, but most of the world is comprised of hunter-gatherer, nomadic, simple farming, or complex farming societies

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d070CivilizationsEarly.html[11/3/2014 5:18:29 PM] Distribution of social and techn

Distribution of social and technological systems in 1000 BCE

Agriculture enabled expansion of farming communities either through spread of the methods or by conquest (probably mainly by conquest!) It led to the establishment of larger communities and eventually kingdoms and civilizations in what is now China, India, Iran, Egypt and Mexico.

Why in those places? 1.Spread of agricultural technology and crops was easiest in an East-West direction since the major land masses are arranged in that direction and:

2. There are barriers in the North-South direction such as mountains, the Central American forest and the Saharan

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desert

Distribution of social and technological systems in 500 BCE

More state societies emerge in India and China. Empires develop in the Middle East

Distribution of social and technological systems in 200 BCE

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Then: More Empires develop in Rome, Greece, India and China. More state societies develop.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d070CivilizationsEarly.html[11/3/2014 5:18:29 PM] Barriers affecting Empires

Empires - General Historical Context

For a large scale economic, social and cultural unit like an Empire to develop, there are some obvious criteria:

1. A population large enough and producing enough excess food to

sustain non-agricultural workers an education system to produce skilled workers and bureaucrats a concentration of artisans and bureaucrats in cities and a ruling class sufficiently powerful to impose order and organization in some manner

2. Some kind of armed force to protect the Empire against invaders and/or internal rebellion

3. A succession program for the rulers to prevent too much competition for the ruling positions

Interesting early examples of Empires are those of China and Mongolia.

They had different ways of establishing and maintaining their Empire - the Mongolians under Kublai and Genghis Khan rapidly expanded by force of arms with superior fighting strategy and tactics - their succession was by a meeting of the leaders in their capital city - this saved Europe when the conquering army off Genghis Khan had to return to Mongolia for those succession meetings just before they finished their conquests. Nothing had stopped them until that point.

The Chinese Empires were based on a well-organized bureaucracy (which is why top civil servants today are often called "mandarins") and either negotiation or treaties between regions,. Some actually used water as a weapon against rebellious provinces; in times a water shortages, they cut off rebellious provinces and gave the water to loyal ones - a very powerful incentive to stay loyal. External threats were dealt with by a large armed force, but even if that failed, the invaders were often assimilated into Chinese culture and society.

For an animated view of the rise and fall of civilizations and empires from 1 to 900 CE - Right-click this link and "Open in new window" It is a very large map of the world that cycles through the period from 1 to 900 CE - you can enlarge or decrease the size of the map by zooming your browser and then move around it by using the page "sliders"

Derived and modified from: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ (Internet Access Required)

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d080Empires.html[11/3/2014 5:18:29 PM] Barriers affecting Empires

Barriers affecting Empires

Physical barriers played a large role in allowing and preventing the spread of crops, technologies and social institutions in early history. Travel and communications was very difficult in a North-South direction in Africa, South-East Asia and Australia and in South America due to deserts, large ocean expanses, small islands, mountain ranges and other difficult terrain. It was easier in an East-West direction between Asia, the Middle East and Europe by overland routes with many intermediate stopping places. The result was that:

· Civilizations that developed early on the Eurasian continent gradually came into contact with each other and transferred technology and institutional arrangements.

· Europe had no native crops and did not develop an early civilization but was able to “import” agriculture, crops and technologies from the others (Iran, Egypt and China) since movement was easy in that East-West direction.

· The kingdoms of Sub-Saharan Africa were involved to a very limited extent

· The civilizations in the American continent (Mayans, Incas and Aztecs) were isolated from Eurasia and also largely from each other

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d090Barriers.html[11/3/2014 5:18:29 PM] The Fertile Crescent – General H

The Fertile Crescent – General Historical Context

The Fertile Crescent is regarded as the birthplace of agriculture, urbanization, writing, trade, science, history and organized religion and was first populated c.10,000 BCE (Before Current Era) when agriculture and the domestication of animals began in the region. By 9,000 BCE the cultivation of wild grains and cereals was wide-spread and, by 5000 BCE, irrigation of agricultural crops was fully developed. By 4500 BCE the cultivation of wool-bearing sheep was practiced widely. The first cities began around 4300 BCE and cultivation of wheat and grains was practiced. The unusually fertile soil of the region encouraged the cultivation of wheat as well as rye, barley and From 3400 BC, the priests (who were also the rulers of the cities) were responsible for the distribution of food and the careful monitoring of surplus for trade.

By 2300 BCE, soap was produced from tallow and ash and was in wide use. Attention to one’s person in terms of hygiene was stressed in that human beings were thought to have been created as help-mates to the gods and so should make themselves presentable in the performance of their duties (this was especially so for the Priestly Class). By 2000 BCE, Babylon controlled the Fertile Crescent and the region saw advances in law (Hammurabi’s famous code) literature (The Epic of Gilgamesh, among other works) religion (the development of the Babylonian pantheon of the gods) science and math. From 1900-1400 BCE trade with Europe, Egypt, Phoenicia and the Indian sub-continent was flourishing, resulting in the spread of literacy, culture and religion between these regions.

The region changed hands many times through the ages. By 600 BCE the Assyrians controlled the Fertile Crescent and, by 580, the Neo-Babylonian Chaldean Empire under Nebuchadnezzar II ruled the region. In 539 BCE Babylon fell to the Cyrus the Great after the Battle of Opis and the lands fell under the control of the Achaemenid Empire (also known as The First Persian Empire). Alexander the Great invaded the area in 334 BCE and, after him, it was ruled by the Parthians until the coming of Rome in 116 CE. After the short-lived Roman annexation and occupation, the region was conquered by the Sassanid Persians (c. 226 CE) and, finally, by the Arabian Muslims in the 7th century CE.

By then, the knowledge from the cities which grew up beside the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers had long been disseminated throughout the ancient world but the cities themselves were mostly in ruins through the destruction caused by the many military conquests in the region as well as natural causes such as earthquakes and fire. Over-use of the land and urbanization also resulted in the decline and eventual abandonment of the cities. Eridu, considered by the early Mesopotamians to be the first city on earth, built and inhabited by the gods, had been abandoned since 600 BCE, Uruk, the city of Gilgamesh, since 200 CE and Babylon, the city which gave writing, law and culture to the world was a vacant ruin.

Modified from Wikipedia

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d091FertileCrescent.html[11/3/2014 5:18:30 PM] Ancient Chinese Dynasties

Ancient Chinese Dynasties - General Historical Context

"Territories of Dynasties in China" by Ian Kiu - Zhou Dynasty 1000 B.C. from "The Chou Dynasty, 11th-9th Centuries B.C."Warring States 350 B.C. from "The Contending States- Boundaries of 350 B.C."Han Dynasty 100 B.C. from "Economic Development under the Earlier Han Dynasty, ca. 100 B.C."Sui Dynasty 581 A.D. from "The Sui Dynasty, 581-618 A.D."Tong Dynasty 700 A.D. from "The T'ang Dynasty, 618-906 A.D.-Boundaries of 700 A.D."Albert Herrmann (1935). History and Commercial Atlas of China. Harvard University Press.. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons - http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Territories_of_Dynasties_in_China.gif#mediaviewer/File:Territories_of_Dynasties_in_China.gif

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d092china.html[11/3/2014 5:18:30 PM] Ancient Chinese Dynasties

Extra: Click Image for a PowerPoint slideshow summarizing the Chinese Dynasties (on CD)

Extra: If you have difficulties with PowerPoint, the file is available here as an Adobe Acrobat Reader PDF file on the CD

Summary:

China is one of the areas where civilization developed earliest. It has a recorded history of nearly 5,000 years.

More than a million years ago, primitive human beings lived on the land now called China. About 400,000 to 500,000 years ago, the Peking Man, a primitive man that lived in Zhoukoudian southwest of Beijing, was able to walk with the body erect, to make and use simple tools, and use fire. Six to seven thousand years ago, the people living in the Yellow River valley supported themselves primarily with agriculture, while also raising livestock. More than 3,000 years ago these people began smelting bronze and using ironware.

In China, slave society began around the 21st century B.C. Over the next 1,700 years, agriculture and animal husbandry developed greatly and the skills of silkworm-raising, raw-silk reeling and silk-weaving spread widely. Bronze smelting and casting skills reached a relatively high level, and iron smelting became increasingly sophisticated. The Chinese culture flourished, as a great number of thinkers and philosophers emerged, most famously Confucius.

In 221 B.C., Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of the Qin Dynasty, established a centralized, unified, multi-national feudal state. This period of feudal society continued until after the Opium War in 1840. During these 2,000 years, China's economy and culture continued to develop, bequeathing a rich heritage of science and technology, literature and the arts. The four great inventions of ancient China - paper-making, printing, the compass and gunpowder - have proved an enormous contribution to world civilization.

Chinese civilization peaked at Tang Dynasty (618-907) when Tang people traded with people all over the world. This is why Chinese residing overseas often call themselves Tang Ren, or the People of Tang.

In 1840, anxious to continue its opium trade in China, Britain started the Opium War against China. After the war, the big foreign powers forcibly occupied "concessions" and divided China into "spheres of influence"; thus, China was transformed into a semi- colonial, semi-feudal society.

In 1911, the bourgeois democratic revolution (the Xinhai Revolution) led by Sun Yat-sen abolished the feudal monarchy, and established the Republic of China, therefore starting the modern history of China.

In 1949, Chinese Communist Party established the People's Republic of China, driving Kumingtang Party to Taiwan Island.

From: http://polaris.gseis.ucla.edu/yanglu/ECC_HISTORY_SUMMARY.htm (Internet Access Required)

Extra - A very detailed timeline is available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_history (Internet Access Required)

Extra - Another good, short history is at http://condensedchina.com/index.html (Internet Access Required)

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d092china.html[11/3/2014 5:18:30 PM] The Indus Valley Civilization -

The Indus Valley Civilization - 3300–1300 BCE - General Historical Context

The Indus Valley Civilization (IVC) was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 BCE; mature period 2600–1900 BCE) in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, consisting of what is now mainly present-day Pakistan and northwest

India. Flourishing around the Indus River basin, the civilization extended east into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley and the upper reaches Ganges-Yamuna Doab; it extended west to the Makran coast of Balochistan, north to northeastern Afghanistan and south to Daimabad in Maharashtra. The civilization was spread over some 1,260,000 km², making it the largest known ancient civilization.

The Indus Valley is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products, seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin). The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multistoried houses.

The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, as the first of its cities to be unearthed was located at Harappa. There were earlier and later cultures, often called Early Harappan and Late Harappan, in the same area of the Harappan Civilization. The Harappan civilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from these cultures. Over 1,056 cities and settlements have been found, out of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Lothal, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Kalibanga, and Rakhigarhi.

Modified from Wikipedia

Extra: Documentary Video "Masters of the River" - from http://dharma-documentaries.net/the-indus-valley-the-masters-of- the-river (Internet Access Required)

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d093Indus.html[11/3/2014 5:18:30 PM] Egypt – General Historical Conte

Egypt – General Historical Context People began to settle in the Nile valley in about 7000 B.C.. They farmed the land, kept animals, and built permanent homes on the banks of the Nile. Since early history, civilization in Egypt has been closely linked with the annual flooding of the Nile River. Daily life in ancient Egypt revolved around the Nile and the fertile land along its banks. The yearly flooding of the Nile enriched the soil and brought good harvests and wealth to the land. The ancient Egyptians thought of Egypt as being divided into two types of land, the 'black land' and the 'red land'.

The 'black land' was the fertile land on the banks of the Nile. The ancient Egyptians used this land for growing their crops. This was the only land in ancient Egypt that could be farmed because a layer of rich, black silt was deposited there every year after the Nile flooded.

The 'red land' was the barren desert that protected Egypt on two sides. These deserts separated ancient Egypt from neighbouring countries and invading armies. They also provided the ancient Egyptians with a source for precious metals and semi-precious stones.

Narmer (also known as Menes) was the first Egyptian pharaoh to conquer and rule over Upper and Lower Egypt. (3100 BCE)

The first stone pyramid built in ancient Egypt was the 'Step Pyramid'. The Step Pyramid was built at Saqqara for the

pharaoh Djoser. It was made by building several 'steps' or layers of stone on top of each other.

In about 2200 B.C. the government in ancient Egypt collapsed and many people fought to become the ruler of ancient Egypt. For about 150 years, Upper and Lower Egypt had different rulers. Ahmose was a pharaoh who ruled ancient Egypt from 1550 B.C. to 1525 B.C.. In about 1550, Ahmose became pharaoh of Upper and Lower Egypt. The Assyrians came from Mesopotamia. They conquered Egypt in 669 B.C., and controlled the country until 525 B.C The Persians came from the Near East. They conquered Egypt in 525 B.C. and controlled the country until 332 B.C. file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d095Egypt.html[11/3/2014 5:18:30 PM] Egypt – General Historical Conte

Alexander the Great (352-323 B.C.) came from Macedonia. Alexander had conquered much of Greece and the Levant by the time he was about 20 years old. In 332 B.C. Alexander conquered Egypt.

He founded the city of Alexandria on the Mediterranean coast, then left Egypt to continue his battles in the Near East. Alexander conquered territories as far east as India. However, in 323 B.C. he died of a fever.

In A.D. 642 Egypt was conquered by Arabs who came from lands in the east.

1517 – The Ottaman Turks ruled Egypt In the late eighteenth century, the French ruler, Napoleon Bonaparte invaded Egypt. In 1798, he fought against the rulers of Egypt called the Mamelukes. Napoleon and the Mamelukes fought a major battle near the pyramids of Giza.

A dam built in the 1960s to control the annual flooding of the Nile, and to create a reservoir. The water flowing from the Nile sources collects south of the dam forming Lake Nasser. Lake Nasser covers much of the area that was ancient Nubia.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d095Egypt.html[11/3/2014 5:18:30 PM] Egypt – General Historical Conte

Narmer (also known as Menes) was the first Egyptian pharaoh to conquer and rule over Upper and Lower Egypt. (3100 BCE)

The first stone pyramid built in ancient Egypt was the 'Step Pyramid'. The Step Pyramid was built at Saqqara for the

pharaoh Djoser. It was made by building several 'steps' or layers of stone on top of each other.

In about 2200 B.C. the government in ancient Egypt collapsed and many people fought to become the ruler of ancient Egypt. For about 150 years, Upper and Lower Egypt had different rulers. Ahmose was a pharaoh who ruled ancient Egypt from 1550 B.C. to 1525 B.C.. In about 1550, Ahmose became pharaoh of Upper and Lower Egypt. The Assyrians came from Mesopotamia. They conquered Egypt in 669 B.C., and controlled the country until 525 B.C The Persians came from the Near East. They conquered Egypt in 525 B.C. and controlled the country until 332 B.C. file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d095Eygypt.html[11/3/2014 5:18:30 PM] Egypt – General Historical Conte

Alexander the Great (352-323 B.C.) came from Macedonia. Alexander had conquered much of Greece and the Levant by the time he was about 20 years old. In 332 B.C. Alexander conquered Egypt.

In A.D. 642 Egypt was conquered by Arabs who came from lands in the east.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d095Eygypt.html[11/3/2014 5:18:30 PM] Greece – General Historical Cont

Greece – General Historical Context

The history of Greece starts in Neolithic times with some small settlements, prroceeds through the Bronze Age when Aegean civilization is a general term for the Bronze Age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea. There are three distinct but communicating and interacting geographic regions covered by this term:Crete, the Cyclades and the Greek mainland. Crete is associated with the Minoan civilization from the Early Bronze Age. The collapse of the Mycenaean civilization coincided with the fall of several other large empires in the near east, most notably the Hittite and the Egyptian. The Greek Dark Ages (ca. 1100 BC–800 BC) refers to the period of Greek history from the presumed Dorian invasion and end of the Mycenaean civilization in the 11th century BC to the rise of the first Greek city-states in the 9th century BC and the epics of Homer and earliest writings in alphabetic Greek in the 8th century BC. Ancient Greece was an ancient civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. 600 AD). In common usage it refers to all Greek history before the Roman Empire, but historians use the term more precisely. Some writers include the periods of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, while others argue that these civilizations were so different from later Greek cultures that they should be classed separately. Traditionally, the Ancient Greek period was taken to begin with the date of the first Olympic Games in 776 BC, but most historians now extend the term back to about 1000 BC. In Ancient Greece the basic unit of politics in Ancient Greece was the polis, sometimes translated as city-state. "Politics" literally means "the things of the polis". Each city was independent, at least in theory. Some cities might be subordinate to others (a colony traditionally deferred to its mother city), some might have had governments wholly dependent upon others (the Thirty Tyrants in Athens was imposed by Sparta following the Peloponnesian War), but the titularly supreme power in each city was located within that city. This meant that when Greece went to war (e.g., against the Persian Empire), it took the form of an alliance going to war. It also gave ample opportunity for wars within Greece between different cities. The traditional date for the end of the Ancient Greek period is the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. Ancient Greece is considered by most historians to be the foundational culture of Western Civilization. Greek culture was a powerful influence in the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of Europe. The Hellenistic period of Greek history begins with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and ends with the annexation of the Greek peninsula and islands by Rome in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political independence. During the Hellenistic period the importance of "Greece proper" (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek-speaking world declined sharply. The great centres of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria.

(Modified from Wikipedia)

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d097Greece.html[11/3/2014 5:18:31 PM] Rome - General Historical Conte

Rome - General Historical Context

600 BC The Etruscans establish cities from northern to central Italy 282 BC 282-272: War with Pyrrhus 264 BC 264-241: War with Carthage (First Punic War) 218 BC Hannibal invades Italy 135BC First Servile War prompted by slave revolts 73 BC Slave uprising led by the gladiator called Spartacus 64 BC Pompey captures Jerusalem 45 BC Julius Caesar defeats Pompey to become the first dictator of Rome 44 BC Julius Caesar assassinated 44 BC The Triumvirate of Marc Antony, Lepidus, and Octavian (later known as Caesar Augustus) become the rulers of Rome 31 BC Antony and Cleopatra are defeated by Octavian 27 BC Octavian becomes Caesar Augustus, the first Roman emperor until 14AD 14AD Death of Augustus and Tiberius, stepson of Caesar Augustus, becomes emperor until 37AD 37 Gaius (Caligula) crowned Emperor 41 Caligula is killed and Claudius proclaimed Emperor 54 Emperor Claudius is murdered and Nero is proclaimed Emperor 64 Fire destroyed much of Rome - the Christians are blamed for the destruction 68 The death of Nero ended the infamous Julio-Claudian dynasty 75 The Roman emperors start to build the Coliseum in Rome as a place of gladiatorial combat 180 Commodus succeeds his father Marcus Aurelius and gains imperial power 305 Constantine becomes the first Christian emperor 380 Christianity is declared the sole religion of the Roman Empire by Theodosius I 410 The Visigoths, led by Alaric, sack Rome heralding the total decline of the Roman Empire 455 The Vandals, led by Gaiseric, sack Rome 476 The last Roman Emperor was Romulus Augustulus who was defeated by Odoacer who was a German Goth

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d098Rome.html[11/3/2014 5:18:31 PM] Hydrologic Cycle - The Water Cyc

Hydrologic Cycle - The Water Cycle

The water cycle describes the existence and movement of water on, in, and above the Earth. Earth's water is always in movement and is always changing states, from liquid to vapor to ice and back again. The water cycle has been working for billions of years and all life on Earth depends on it continuing to work.

The water cycle has no starting point, but most water is in the world's oceans. The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in the oceans. Some of it evaporates as vapor into the air; a relatively smaller amount of moisture is added as ice and snow sublimate directly from the solid state into vapor. Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere, along with water from evapotranspiration, which is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil. The vapor rises into the air where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into clouds.

Air currents move clouds around the globe, and cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands of years. Snowpacks in warmer climates often thaw and melt when spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland as snowmelt. Most precipitation falls back into the oceans or onto land, where, due to gravity, the precipitation flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with streamflow moving water towards the oceans. Runoff, and groundwater seepage accumulate and are stored as freshwater in lakes.

Not all runoff flows into rivers, though. Much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration. Some of the water infiltrates into the ground and replenishes aquifers (saturated subsurface rock), which store huge amounts of freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as groundwater discharge, and some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs. Yet more groundwater is absorbed by plant roots to end up as evapotranspiration from the leaves.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d100WaterCycleTitle.html[11/3/2014 5:18:31 PM] Main components of the water cyc

Main components of the water cycle - Part 1

Water storage in oceans:

The water cycle sounds like it is describing how water moves above, on, and through the Earth ... and it does. But, in fact, much more water is in storage; for long periods of time than is actually moving through the cycle. The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans. It is estimated that of the 332,600,000 cubic miles (mi3) (1,386,000,000 cubic kilometers (km3)) of the world's water supply, about 321,000,000 mi3 (1,338,000,000 km3) is stored in oceans. That is about 96.5 percent. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90 percent of the evaporated water that goes into the water cycle.

During colder climatic periods more ice caps and glaciers form, and enough of the global water supply accumulates as ice to lessen the amounts in other parts of the water cycle. The reverse is true during warm periods. During the last ice age glaciers covered almost one-third of Earth's land mass, with the result being that the oceans were about 400 feet (122 meters) lower than today. During the last global "warm spell," about 125,000 years ago, the seas were about 18 feet (5.5. meters) higher than they are now. About three million years ago the oceans could have been up to 165 feet (50 meters) higher.

Oceans in movement

You might think that the water in the oceans moves around because of waves, which are driven by winds. But, actually, there are currents and "rivers" in the oceans that move massive amounts of water around the world. These movements have a great deal of influence on the water cycle. The Kuroshio Current, off the shores of Japan, is the largest current. It can travel between 25 and 75 miles (40 and 121 kilometers) a day, 1-3 miles (1.4-4.8 kilometers) per hour, and extends some 3,300 feet (1,000 meters) deep. The Gulf Stream is a well known stream of warm water in the Atlantic Ocean, moving water from the Gulf of Mexico across the Atlantic Ocean towards Great Britain. At a speed of 60 miles (97 kilometers) per day, the Gulf stream moves 100 times as much water as all the rivers on Earth. Coming from warm climates, the Gulf Stream moves warmer water to the North Atlantic.

Evaporation:

Evaporation is the process by which water changes from a liquid to a gas or vapor. Evaporation is the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor. Studies have shown that the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers provide nearly 90 percent of the moisture in our atmosphere via evaporation, with the remaining 10 percent being contributed by plan Heat (energy) is necessary for evaporation to occur. Energy is used to break the bonds that hold water molecules together, which is why water easily evaporates at the boiling point (212° F, 100° C) but evaporates much more slowly at the freezing point. Net evaporation occurs when the rate of evaporation exceeds the rate of condensation. A state of saturation exists when these two process rates are equal, at which point, the relative humidity of the air is 100 percent. Condensation, the opposite of evaporation, occurs when saturated air is cooled below the dew point (the temperature to which air must be cooled at a constant pressure for it to become fully saturated with water), such as on the outside of a glass of ice water. In fact, the process of evaporation removes heat from the environment, which is why water evaporating from your skin cools you.

Evaporation drives the water cycle

Evaporation from the oceans is the primary mechanism supporting the surface-to-atmosphere portion of the water cycle. After all, the large surface area of the oceans (over 70 percent of the Earth's surface is covered by the oceans) provides the opportunity for such large-scale evaporation to occur. On a global scale, the amount of water evaporating is about the same as the amount of water delivered to the Earth as precipitation. This does vary geographically, though. Evaporation is more prevalent over the oceans than precipitation, while over the land precipitation routinely exceeds evaporation. Most of the water that evaporates from the oceans falls back into the oceans as precipitation. Only about 10 percent of the water evaporated from the oceans is transported over land and falls as precipitation. Once evaporated, a water molecule spends about 10 days in the air

Sublimation:

Sublimation describes the process of snow and ice changing into water vapor without first melting into water. Sublimation is a common way for snow to disappear in certain climates.

It is not easy to actually see sublimation happen, at least not with ice. One way to see the results of sublimation is to hang a wet shirt outside on a below-freezing day. Eventually the ice in the shirt will disappear. Actually, the best way to visualize sublimation is to not use water at all, but to use carbon dioxide instead, as this picture shows."Dry ice" is solid, frozen carbon dioxide, which sublimates, or turns to gas, at the temperature -78.5 °C (-109.3°F). The fog you see in the picture is a mixture of cold carbon

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d105WaterCycle1.html[11/3/2014 5:18:31 PM] Main components of the water cyc

dioxide gas and cold, humid air, created as the dry ice sublimates.

Sublimation occurs more readily when certain weather conditions are present, such as low relative humidity and dry winds. It also occurs more at higher altitudes, where the air pressure is less than at lower altitudes. Energy, such as strong sunlight, is also needed. If I was to pick one place on Earth where sublimation happens a lot, I might choose the south side of Mt. Everest. Low temperatures, strong winds, intense sunlight, very low air pressure - just what is needed for sublimation to occur.

Evapotranspiration:

Although some definitions of evapotranspiration include evaporation from surface-water bodies, such as lakes and even the ocean, on this Web site, evapotranspiration is defined as the water lost to the atmosphere from the ground surface and the transpiration of groundwater by plants through their leaves.

Transpiration:

Plant transpiration is an invisible process;since the water is evaporating from the leaf surfaces, you don't just go out and see the leaves "breathing". During a growing season, a leaf will transpire many times more water than its own weight. A large oak tree can transpire 40,000 gallons (151,000 liters) per year.

The amount of water that plants transpire varies greatly geographically and over time. There are a number of factors that determine transpiration rates:

Temperature Transpiration rates go up as the temperature goes up, especially during the growing season, when the air is warmer.

Relative humidity: As the relative humidity of the air surrounding the plant rises the transpiration rate falls. It is easier for water to evaporate into dryer air than into more saturated air.

Increased movement of the air around a plant will result in a higher transpiration rate. When moisture is lacking, plants can begin to senesce (premature ageing, which can result in leaf loss) and transpire less water.Plants transpire water at different rates. Some plants which grow in arid regions, such as cacti and succulents, conserve precious water by transpiring less water than other plants.

Water storage in the atmosphere

The water cycle is all about storing water and moving water on, in, and above the Earth. Although the atmosphere may not be a great storehouse of water, it is the superhighway used to move water around the globe. There is always water in the atmosphere. Clouds are, of course, the most visible manifestation of atmospheric water, but even clear air contains water; water in particles that are too small to be seen. One estimate of the volume of water in the atmosphere at any one time is about 3,100 cubic miles (mi3) or 12,900 cubic kilometers (km3). That may sound like a lot, but it is only about 0.001 percent of the total Earth's water volume. If all of the water in the atmosphere rained down at once, it would only cover the ground to a depth of 2.5 centimeters, about 1 inch.

Condensation:

Condensation is the process in which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water. Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible for the formation of clouds. These clouds may produce precipitation, which is the primary route for water to return to the Earth's surface within the water cycle. Condensation is the opposite of evaporation.

You don't have to look at something as far away as a cloud to notice condensation, though. Condensation is responsible for ground-level fog, for your glasses fogging up when you go from a cold room to the outdoors on a hot, humid day, for the water that drips off the outside of your glass of iced tea, and for the water on the inside of your home windows on a cold day.

Condensation in the air

Even though clouds are absent in a crystal clear blue sky, water is still present in the form of water vapor and droplets which are too small to be seen. Depending on meteorological conditions, water molecules will combine with tiny particles of dust, salt, and smoke in the air to form cloud droplets, which grow and develop into clouds, a form of water we can see. Cloud droplets can vary greatly in size, from 10 microns (millionths of a meter) to 1 millimeter (mm), and even as large as 5 mm. This process occurs higher in the sky where the air is cooler and more condensation occurs relative to evaporation. As water droplets combine (also known as coalescence) with each other, and grow in size, clouds not only develop, but precipitation may also occur. Precipitation is essentially water cloud in its liquid or solid form falling form the base of a cloud. This seems to happen too often during picnics or

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d105WaterCycle1.html[11/3/2014 5:18:31 PM] Main components of the water cyc

when large groups of people gather at swimming pools.

As we said, clouds form in the atmosphere because air containing water vapor rises and cools. The key to this process is that air near the Earth's surface is warmed by solar radiation. But, do you know why the atmosphere cools above the Earth's surface? Generally, air pressure, is the reason. Air has mass (and, because of gravity on Earth, weight) and at sea level the weight of a column of air pressing down on your head is about 14 ½ pounds (6.6 kilograms) per square inch. The pressure (weight), called barometric pressure, that results is a consequence of the density of the air above. At higher altitudes, there is less air above, and, thus, less air pressure pressing down. The barometric pressure is lower, and lower barometric pressure is associated with fewer molecules per unit volume. Therefore, the air at higher altitudes is less dense. Since fewer air molecules exist in a certain volume of air, there are fewer molecules colliding with each other, and as a result, there will be less heat produced. This means cooler air. Do you find this confusing? Just think, clouds form all day long without having to understand any of this.

Precipitation:

Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides for the delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain.

The clouds floating overhead contain water vapor and cloud droplets, which are small drops of condensed water. These droplets are way too small to fall as precipitation, but they are large enough to form visible clouds. Water is continually evaporating and condensing in the sky. If you look closely at a cloud you can see some parts disappearing (evaporating) while other parts are growing (condensation). Most of the condensed water in clouds does not fall as precipitation because their fall speed is not large enough to overcome updrafts which support the clouds. For precipitation to happen, first tiny water droplets must condense on even tinier dust, salt, or smoke particles, which act as a nucleus. Water droplets may grow as a result of additional condensation of water vapor when the particles collide. If enough collisions occur to produce a droplet with a fall velocity which exceeds the cloud updraft speed, then it will fall out of the cloud as precipitation. This is not a trivial task since millions of cloud droplets are required to produce a single raindrop.

Precipitation rates vary geographically and over tim. Precipitation does not fall in the same amounts throughout the world, in a country, or even in a city. For example, in Georgia, USA, it rains fairly evenly all during the year, around 40-50 inches (102-127 centimeters (cm)) per year. Summer thunderstorms may deliver an inch or more of rain on one suburb while leaving another area dry a few miles away. But, the rain amount that Georgia gets in one month is often more than Las Vegas, Nevada observes all year. The world's record for average-annual rainfall belongs to Mt. Waialeale, Hawaii, where it averages about 450 inches (1,140 cm) per year. A remarkable 642 inches (1,630 cm) was reported there during one twelve-month period (that's almost 2 inches (5 cm) every day!). Is this the world record for the most rain in a year? No, that was recorded at Cherrapunji, India, where it rained 905 inches (2,300 cm) in 1861. Contrast those excessive precipitation amounts to Arica, Chile, where no rain fell for 14 years

The map below shows average annual precipitation, in millimeters and inches, for the world. The light green areas can be considered "deserts". You might expect the Sahara area in Africa to be a desert, but much of Greenland and Antarctica are deserts.

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On average, the 48 continental United States receives enough precipitation in one year to cover the land to a depth of 30 inches (0.76 meters).

Ice caps around the world.

The vast majority, almost 90 percent, of Earth's ice mass is in Antarctica, while the Greenland ice cap contains 10 percent of the total global ice-mass. The Greenland ice cap is an interesting part of the water cycle. The ice cap became so large over time (about 600,000 cubic miles (mi3) or 2.5 million cubic kilometers (km3)) because more snow fell than melted. Over the millenia, as the snow got deeper, it compressed and became ice. The ice cap averages about 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) in thickness, but can be as thick as 14,000 feet (4,300 meters). The ice is so heavy that the land below it has been pressed down into the shape of a bowl. In many places, glaciers on Greenland reach to the sea, and one estimate is that as much as 125 mi3 (517 km3) of ice "calves" into the ocean each year;one of Greenland's contributions to the global water cycle. Ocean-bound icebergs travel with the currents, melting along the way. Some icebergs have been seen, in much smaller form, as far south as the island of Bermuda.

Ice and glaciers

The climate, on a global scale, is always changing, although usually not at a rate fast enough for people to notice. There have been many warm periods, such as when the dinosaurs lived (about 100 million years ago) and many cold periods, such as the last ice age of about 20,000 years ago. During the last ice age much of the northern hemisphere was covered in ice and glaciers, and, as this map from the University of Arizona shows, they covered nearly all of Canada, much of northern Asia and Europe, and extended well into the United States.

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The vast majority, almost 90 percent, of Earth's ice mass is in Antarctica, while the Greenland ice cap contains 10 percent of the total global ice mass. The Greenland ice cap is an interesting part of the water cycle. The ice cap became so large over time (about 600,000 cubic miles (mi3) or 2.5 million cubic kilometers (km3)) because more snow fell than melted. Over the millennia, as the snow got deeper, it compressed and became ice. The ice cap averages about 5,000 feet (1,500 meters) in thickness, but can be as thick as 14,000 feet (4,300 meters). The ice is so heavy that the land below it has been pressed down into the shape of a bowl. In many places, glaciers on Greenland reach to the sea, and one estimate is that as much as 125 mi3 (517 km3) of ice "calves" into the ocean each year—one of Greenland's contributions to the global water cycle. Ocean-bound icebergs travel with the currents, melting along the way. Some icebergs have been seen, in much smaller form, as far south as the island of Bermuda.

Contribution of snowmelt to streamflow

A good way to visualize the contribution of snowmelt to streamflow in rivers is to look at the hydrograph below, which shows daily mean streamflow (average streamflow for each day) for four years for the North Fork American River at North Fork Dam in California. The large peaks in the chart are mainly the result of melting snow, although storms can contribute runoff also. Compare the fact that minimum mean-daily streamflow during March of 2000 was 1,200 cubic feet per second (ft3), while during August streamflows ranged from 55-75 ft3.

Note that runoff from snowmelt varies not only by season but also by year. Compare the high peaks of streamflows for the year 2000 with the much smaller streamflows for 2001. It looks like a major drought hit that area of California in 2001. The lack of water stored as snowpack in the winter can affect the availability of water (for streamflow) in streams the rest of the year. This can have an effect on the amount of water in reservoirs located downstream, which in turn can affect water available for irrigation and the water supply for cities and towns.

Surface runoff

Many people probably have an overly-simplified idea that precipitation falls on the land, flows overland (runoff), and runs into rivers, which then empty into the oceans. That is "overly simplified" because rivers also gain and lose water to the ground. Still, it is true that much of the water in rivers comes directly from runoff from the land surface, which is defined as surface runoff.

When rain hits saturated or impervious ground it begins to flow overland downhill. It is easy to see if it flows down your driveway to the curb and into a storm sewer, but it is harder to notice it flowing overland in a natural setting. During a heavy rain you might notice small rivulets of water flowing downhill. Water will flow along channels as it moves into larger creeks, streams, and rivers. This picture gives a graphic example of how surface runoff (here flowing off a road) enters a small creek. The runoff in this case is flowing over bare soil and is depositing sediment into the river (not good for water quality). The runoff entering this creek is beginning its journey back to the ocean.

As with all aspects of the water cycle, the interaction between precipitation and surface runoff varies according to time and geography. Similar storms occurring in the Amazon jungle and in the desert Southwest of the United States will produce different surface-runoff effects. Surface runoff is affected by both meteorological factors and the physical geology and topography of the land. Only about a third of the precipitation that falls over land runs off into streams and rivers and is returned to the oceans. The other two-thirds is evaporated, transpired, or soaks into groundwater. Surface runoff can also be diverted by humans for their own file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d105WaterCycle1.html[11/3/2014 5:18:31 PM] Main components of the water cyc

uses

The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) uses the term streamflow to refer to the amount of water flowing in a river.

Amended from the United States Geological Survey web site at http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html (Internet bAccess Required)

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Main components of the water cycle - Continued - Part 2

Importance of rivers

Rivers are invaluable to not only people, but to life everywhere. Not only are rivers a great place for people (and their dogs) to play, but people use river water for drinking-water supplies and irrigation water, to produce electricity, to flush away wastes (hopefully, but not always, treated wastes), to transport merchandise, and to obtain food. Rivers are indeed major aquatic landscapes for all manners of plants and animals. Rivers even help keep the aquifers underground full of water by discharging water downward through their streambeds. And, we've already mentioned that the oceans stay full of water because rivers and runoff continually refreshes them.

Watersheds and rivers

When looking at the location of rivers and also the amount of streamflow in rivers, the key concept to know about is the river's "watershed". What is a watershed? Easy, if you are standing on the ground right now, just look down. You're standing, and everyone is standing, in a watershed. A watershed is the area of land where all of the water that falls in it and drains off of it goes into the same place. Watersheds can be as small as a footprint in the mud or large enough to encompass all the land that drains water into the Mississippi River where it enters the Gulf of Mexico. Smaller watersheds are contained in bigger watersheds. It all depends of the outflow point;all of the land above that drains water that flows to the outflow point is the watershed for that outflow location. Watersheds are important because the streamflow and the water quality of a river are affected by things, human-induced or not, happening in the land area "above" the river-outflow point

Streamflow is always changing, from day to day and even minute to minute. Of course, the main influence on streamflow is precipitation runoff in the watershed. Rainfall causes rivers to rise, and a river can even rise if it only rains very far up in the watershed; remember that water that falls in a watershed will eventually drain by the outflow point. The size of a river is highly dependent on the size of its watershed. Large rivers have watersheds with lots of surface area; small rivers have smaller watersheds. Likewise, different size rivers react differently to storms and rainfall. Large rivers rise and fall slower and at a slower rate than small rivers. In a small watershed, a storm can cause 100 times as much water to flow by each minute as during baseflow periods, but the river will rise and fall possibly in a matter of minutes and hours. Large rivers may take days to rise and fall, and flooding can last for a number of days. After all, it can take days for all the water that fell hundreds of miles upstream to drain past an outflow point.

One part of the water cycle that is obviously esential to all life on Earth is the freshwater existing on the land surface. Just ask your neighbor, a tomato plant, a trout, or that pesky mosquito. Surface water includes the streams (of all sizes, from large rivers to small creeks), ponds, lakes, reservoirs (man-made lakes), and freshwater wetlands. The definition of freshwater is water containing less than 1,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved solids, most often salt.

The amount of water in our rivers and lakes is always changing due to inflows and outflows. Inflows to these water bodies will be from precipitation, overland runoff, ground-water seepage, or tributary inflows. Outflows from lakes and rivers include evaporation and discharge to groundwater. Humans get into the act also, as people make great use of diverted surface water for their needs. So, the amount and location of surface water changes over time and space, whether naturally or with human help. Certainly during the last ice age when glaciers and snowpacks covered much more land surface than today, life on Earth had to adapt to different hydrologic conditions than >those which took place both before and after. And the layout of the landscape certainly was different before and after the last ice age, which influenced the topographical layout of many surface-water bodies today. Glaciers are what made the Great Lakes not only "great," but also such a huge storehouse of freshwater Surface water keeps life going

Water on the land surface really does sustain life, and this is as true today as it was millions of years ago. Dinosaurs held their meetings at the local watering hole 100 million years ago, just as antelopes in Africa do today. And, since groundwater is supplied by the downward percolation of surface water, even aquifers are happy for water on the Earth's surface. You might think that fish living in the saline oceans aren't affected by freshwater, but, without freshwater to replenish the oceans they would eventually evaporate and become too saline for even the fish to survive.

Usable freshwater is relatively scarce and represents only about three percent of all water on Earth and freshwater lakes and swamps account for a mere 0.29 percent of the Earth's freshwater. Twenty percent of all freshwater is in one lake, Lake Baikal in Asia. Another twenty percent is stored in the Great Lakes (Huron, Michigan, and Superior). Rivers hold only about 0.006 percent of total freshwater reserves. You can see that life on Earth survives on what is essentially only a "drop in the bucket" of Earth's total water supply

Groundwater begins as precipitation

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Anywhere in the world, a portion of the water that falls as rain and snow infiltrates into the subsurface soil and rock. How much infiltrates depends greatly on a number of factors. Infiltration of precipitation falling on the ice cap of Greenland might be very small, whereas, as this picture of a stream disappearing into a cave in southern Georgia, USA shows, a stream can act as a direct funnel right into groundwater!

Some water that infiltrates will remain in the shallow soil layer, where it will gradually move vertically and horizontally through the soil and subsurface material. Eventually it might enter a stream by seepage into the stream bank. Some of the water may infiltrate deeper, recharging ground-water aquifers. If the aquifers are shallow or porous enough to allow water to move freely through it, people can drill wells into the aquifer and use the water for their purposes. Water may travel long distances or remain in groundwater storage for long periods before returning to the surface or seeping into other water bodies, such as streams and the oceans.

In places where the water table (the top of the saturated zone) is close to the land surface and where the water can move through the aquifer at a high rate, aquifers can be replenished artificially

Groundwater storage:

Large amounts of water are stored in the ground. The water is still moving, possibly very slowly, and it is a part of the water cycle. Most of the water in the ground comes from precipitation that infiltrates downward from the land surface. The upper layer of the soil is the unsaturated zone, where water is present in varying amounts that change over time, but does not saturate the soil. Below this layer is the saturated zone, where all of the pores, cracks, and spaces between rock particles are saturated with water. The term groundwater is used to describe this area. Another term for groundwater is "aquifer," although this term is usually used to describe water-bearing formations capable of yielding enough water to supply peoples' uses. Aquifers are a huge storehouse of Earth's water and people all over the world depend on groundwater in their daily lives.

At a certain depth the ground, if it is permeable enough to hold water, the soil is saturated with water. The top of the pool of water in this hole is the water table.

To access freshwater, people have to drill wells deep enough to tap into an aquifer. The well might have to be dozens or thousands of feet deep. But the concept is the same - access the water in the saturated zone where the voids in the rock are full of water.

You see water all around you every day as lakes, rivers, ice, rain and snow. There are also vast amounts of water that are unseen; water existing in the ground. And even though groundwater is unseen, it is moving below your feet right now. As part of the water cycle, groundwater is a major contributor to flow in many streams and rivers and has a strong influence on river and wetland habitats for plants and animals. People have been using groundwater for thousands of years and continue to use it today, largely for drinking water and irrigation. Life on Earth depends on groundwater just as it does on surface water.

Groundwater flows underground

Some of the precipitation that falls onto the land infiltrates into the ground to become groundwater. Once in the ground, some of this water travels close to the land surface and emerges very quickly as discharge into streambeds, but, because of gravity, much of it continues to sink deeper into the ground. If the water meets the water table (below which the soil is saturated), it can move both vertically and horizontally. Water moving downward can also meet more dense and water-resistant non-porous rock and soil, which causes it to flow in a more horizontal fashion, generally towards streams, the ocean, or deeper into the ground.

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As this diagram shows, the direction and speed of ground-water movement is determined by the various characteristics of aquifers and confining layers (which water has a difficult time penetrating) in the ground. Water moving below ground depends on the permeability (how easy or difficult it is for water to move) and on the porosity (the amount of open space in the material) of the subsurface rock. If the rock has characteristics that allow water to move relatively freely through it, then groundwater can move significant distances in a number of days. But groundwater can also sink into deep aquifers where it takes thousands of years to move back into the environment, or even go into deep ground-water storage, where it might stay for much longer periods.

Springs

A spring is a water resource formed when the side of a hill, a valley bottom or other excavation intersects a flowing body of groundwater at or below the local water table. A spring is the result of an aquifer being filled to the point that the water overflows onto the land surface. They range in size from intermittent seeps, which flow only after much rain, to huge pools with a flow of hundreds of millions of liters per day.

Springs may be formed in any sort of rock, but are more prevalent in limestone and dolomite, which fracture easily and can be dissolved by rainfall that becomes weakly acidic. As the rock dissolves and fractures, spaces can form that allow water to flow. If the flow is horizontal, it can reach the land surface, resulting in a spring.

Water from springs usually is remarkably clear. Water from some springs, however, may be "tea-colored." In Florida, many surface waters contain natural tannic acids from organic material in subsurface rocks, and the color from these streams can appear in springs. If surface water enters the aquifer near a spring, the water can move quickly through the aquifer and discharge at the spring vent. The discharge of highly colored water from springs can indicate that water is flowing quickly through large channels within the aquifer without being filtered through the limestone.

Thermal springs are ordinary springs except that the water is warm and, in some places, hot, such as in the bubbling mud springs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Many thermal springs occur in regions of recent volcanic activity and are fed by water heated by contact with hot rocks far below the surface. Even where there has been no recent volcanic action, rocks become warmer with increasing depth. In such areas water may migrate slowly to considerable depth, warming as it descends through rocks deep in the Earth. If it then reaches a large crevice that offers a path of less resistance, it may rise more quickly than it descended. Water that does not have time to cool before it emerges forms a thermal spring.

Amended from the United States Geological Survey web site at http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycle.html (Internet bAccess Required)

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Distribution of Water on the Earth

The vast majority (96.5%) of the water on Earth is in the oceans as salt water. Unless desalinated with high energy expenditure, this is not available for human consumption.

Saline groundwater and saline lakes (both also unavailable for direct human consumption) comprises 0.93% and 0.07%, respectively.

Freshwater comprises only 2.5% of the water on Earth - but 68.6% of this is in the ice caps and glaciers and 30.1% is in the form of groundwater, leaving only 1.3% of the freshwater on Earth easily available as surface and other freshwater sources for human consumption and use.

Of this 1.3%, 73.1% is in the form of ice and snow, 20.1% is in lakes, 0.46% is in rivers, 2.53% is in swamps and marshes, 3,52% is soil moisture, 0.22% is atmospheric water and 0.22% is in organisms (biological water).

One estimate of global water distribution

Water source Water volume, in Water volume, in Percent Percent cubic miles cubic kilometers of of total water

Oceans, Seas, & Bays 321,000,000 1,338,000,000 -- 96.5

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Ice caps, Glaciers, & 5,773,000 24,064,000 68.6 1.74 Permanent Snow

Groundwater 5,614,000 23,400,000 -- 1.7

Fresh 2,526,000 10,530,000 30.1 0.76

Saline 3,088,000 12,870,000 -- 0.93

Soil Moisture 3,959 16,500 0.05 0.001

Ground Ice & 71,970 300,000 0.86 0.022 Permafrost

Lakes 42,320 176,400 -- 0.013

Fresh 21,830 91,000 0.26 0.007

Saline 20,490 85,400 -- 0.007

Atmosphere 3,095 12,900 0.04 0.001

Swamp Water 2,752 11,470 0.03 0.0008

Rivers 509 2,120 0.006 0.0002

Biological Water 269 1,120 0.003 0.0001

Source: Igor Shiklomanov's chapter "World fresh water resources" in Peter H. Gleick (editor), 1993, Water in Crisis: A Guide to the World's Fresh Water Resources (Oxford University Press, New York).

Approximate residence time of water found in various reservoirs.

Approximate Residence Reservoir Time

Glaciers 40 years

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Seasonal Snow Cover 0.4 years

Soil Moisture 0.2 years

Groundwater: Shallow 200 years

Groundwater: Deep 10,000 years

Lakes 100 years

Rivers 0.04 years

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d115WaterDistribution.html[11/3/2014 5:18:32 PM] The Earth

The Earth's Atmosphere and Climate

Click blue Start button to start animation

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Earth Surface Temperature Fires

Water Vapour Vegetation Index

DETAILS

LAND SURFACE TEMPERATURE: is how hot the “surface” of the Earth would feel to the touch in a particular location. From a satellite’s point of view, the “surface” is whatever it sees when it looks through the atmosphere to the ground. It could be snow and ice, the grass on a lawn, the roof of a building, or the leaves in the canopy of a forest. Thus, land surface temperature is not the same as the air temperature that is included in the daily weather report.

The maps shown here were made using data collected during the daytime by the Moderate Resolution Imaging

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Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite. Temperatures range from -25 degrees Celsius (deep blue) to 45 degrees Celsius (pinkish yellow). At mid-to-high latitudes, land surface temperatures can vary throughout the year, but equatorial regions tend to remain consistently warm, and Antarctica and Greenland remain consistently cold. Altitude plays a clear role in temperatures, with mountain ranges like the North American Rockies cooler than other areas at the same latitude.

Scientists monitor land surface temperature because the warmth rising off Earth’s landscapes influences (and is influenced by) our world’s weather and climate patterns. Scientists want to monitor how increasing atmospheric greenhouse gases affect land surface temperature, and how rising land surface temperatures affect glaciers, ice sheets, permafrost, and the vegetation in Earth’s ecosystems.

Commercial farmers may also use land surface temperature maps like these to evaluate water requirements for their crops during the summer, when they are prone to heat stress. Conversely, in winter, these maps can help citrus farmers to determine where and when orange groves could have been exposed to damaging frost.

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FIRE: On Earth, something is always burning. Wildfires are started by lightning or accidentally by people, and people use controlled fires to manage farmland and pasture and clear natural vegetation for farmland. Fires can generate large amounts of smoke pollution, release greenhouse gases, and unintentionally degrade ecosystems. But fires can also clear away dead and dying underbrush, which can help restore an ecosystem to good health. In many ecosystems, including boreal forests and grasslands, plants have co-evolved with fire and require periodic burning to reproduce.

The fire maps show the locations of actively burning fires around the world on a monthly basis, based on observations from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite. The colors are based on a count of the number (not size) of fires observed within a 1,000-square-kilometer area. White pixels show the high end of the count —as many as 100 fires in a 1,000-square-kilometer area per day. Yellow pixels show as many as 10 fires, orange shows as many as 5 fires, and red areas as few as 1 fire per day.

Some of the global patterns that appear in the fire maps over time are the result of natural cycles of rainfall, dryness, and lightning. For example, naturally occurring fires are common in the boreal forests of Canada in the summer. In other parts of the world, the patterns are the result of human activity. For example, the intense burning in the heart of South America from August-October is a result of human-triggered fires, both intentional and accidental, in the Amazon Rainforest and the Cerrado (a grassland/savanna ecosystem) to the south. Across Africa, a band of widespread agricultural burning sweeps north to south over the continent as the dry season progresses each year. Agricultural burning occurs in late winter and early spring each year across Southeast Asia.

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WATER VAPOUR: Water is constantly cycling through the atmosphere. Water evaporates from the Earth’s surface and rises on warm updrafts into the atmosphere. It condenses into clouds, is blown by the wind, and then falls back to the Earth as rain or snow. This cycle is one important way that heat and energy are transferred from the surface of the Earth to the atmosphere, and transported from one place to another on our planet.

Water vapor is also the most important greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Heat radiated from Earth’s surface is absorbed by water vapor molecules in the lower atmosphere. The water vapor molecules, in turn, radiate heat in all directions. Some of the heat returns to the Earth’'s surface. Thus, water vapor is a second source of warmth (in addition to sunlight) at the Earth’s surface.

These maps show the average amount of water vapor in a column of atmosphere in a given month. The units are given in centimeters, which is the equivalent amount of water that could be produced if all the water vapor in the column were to condense. The lowest amounts of water vapor (0 centimeters) appear in yellow, and the highest amounts (6 centimeters) appear in dark blue. Areas of missing data appear in shades of gray. The maps are based on data collected by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) sensor on NASA’s Aqua satellite.

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The most noticeable pattern in the time series is the influence of seasonal temperature changes and incoming sunlight on water vapor. In the tropics, a band of extremely humid air wobbles north and south of the equator as the seasons change. This band of humidity is part of the Intertropical Convergence Zone, where the easterly trade winds from each hemisphere converge and produce near-daily thunderstorms and clouds. Farther from the equator, water vapor concentrations are high in the hemisphere experiencing summer and low in the one experiencing winter.

Another pattern that shows up in the time series is that water vapor amounts over land areas decrease more in winter months than adjacent ocean areas do. This is largely because air temperatures over land drop more in the winter than temperatures over the ocean. Water vapor condenses more rapidly in colder air.

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VEGETATION INDEX: Satellites observe global-scale patterns of vegetation that scientists use to study changes in plant growth as a result of climate and environmental changes as well as human activity. Photosynthesis plays a big role in removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and storing it in wood and soils, so mapping vegetation is a key part of studying the carbon cycle. Farmers and resource managers also use satellite-based vegetation maps to help them monitor the health of our forests and croplands.

On these maps, vegetation is pictured as a scale, or index, of greenness. Greenness is based on several factors: the number and type of plants, how leafy they are, and how healthy they are. In places where foliage is dense and plants are growing quickly, the index is high, represented in dark green. Regions where few plants grow have a low vegetation index, shown in tan. The index is based on measurements taken by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA’s Terra satellite. Areas where the satellite did not collect data are gray.

The most obvious pattern that the maps show is a global one: vegetation greenness is high around the equator all year long, where temperatures, rainfall and sunlight are abundant. Between the equator and the poles, the vegetation greenness rises and falls as the seasons change.

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NASA Earth Observatory

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d116EarthsAtmosphere.html[11/3/2014 5:18:32 PM] Introduction - Water Supplies

Present Situation - Water Supplies and Sanitation

What is the current situation with regard to provision of safe water and sanitation?

According to the United Nations, the world has already (in 2010) met the Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) for increasing by 50% the world population with access to improved drinking water by 2015:

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As they state, the quality of this water is unknown so that the improvement in access to safe water is also unknown. The distribution of this improved access across regions and countries is very uneven. To quote the 2012 Report on progress towards the MDGs;

"TARGET: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation. file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d120PresentSituation.html[11/3/2014 5:18:32 PM] Introduction - Water Supplies

The number of people using improved drinking water sources reached 6.1 billion in 2010, up by over 2 billion since 1990. China and India alone recorded almost half of global progress, with increases of 457 million and 522 million, respectively.

The work is not yet done. Eleven per cent of the global population—783 million people—remains without access to an improved source of drinking water and, at the current pace, 605 million people will still lack coverage in 2015.

In four of nine developing regions, 90 per cent or more of the population now uses an improved drinking water source. In contrast, coverage remains very low in Oceania and sub-Saharan Africa, neither of which is on track to meet the MDG drinking water target by 2015. Over 40 per cent of all people without improved drinking water live in sub-Saharan Africa. Since it is not yet possible to measure water quality globally, dimensions of safety, reliability and sustainability are not reflected in the proxy indicator used to track progress towards the MDG target. As a result, it is likely that the number of people using improved water sources is an overestimate of the actual number of people using safe water supplies.Continued efforts are required to promote global monitoring of drinking water safety, reliability andsustainability and to move beyond the MDG water target to universal coverage."

Rural areas fared worse than urban areas

"Coverage with improved drinking water sources for rural populations is still lagging. In 2010, 96 per cent the urban population used an improved drinking water source, compared with 81 per cent of the rural population. In absolute terms, because of population growth, the number of people without an improved source in urban areas actually increased. In rural areas, on the other hand, the number of people without an improved source of water decreased, from 1.1 billion in 1990 to 653 million in 2010. However, the gap between urban and rural areas still remains wide, with the number of people in rural areas without an improved water source five times greater than in urban areas."

The global picture for access to water is shown on the map below. The different kinds of water scarcity reflect the that water can be considered scarce for a variety of reasons, not simple physical lack of water, but also that the cost of water extraction can make it unavailable (economic water scarcity).

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Progress towards the MDGs on the sanitation target has been much slower.

"Sanitation coverage increased from 36 per cent in 1990 to 56 per cent in 2010 in the developing regions as a whole. Despite progress, almost half of the population in those regions—2.5 billion—still lack access to improved sanitation facilities."

The greatest progress was achieved in Eastern and Southern Asia, where sanitation coverage in 2010 was, respectively, 2.4 and 1.7 times higher than in 1990. In contrast, progress was slowest in Western Asia and sub- Saharan Africa, and no improvement was achieved in Oceania over the 20-year period. At the current pace, and barring additional interventions, by 2015 the world will have reached only 67 per cencoverage, well short of the 75 per cent needed to achieve the MDG target."

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"The number of people who do not use any facility and resort to open defecation has decreased by 271 million since 1990. But there remain 1.1 billion people—or 15 per cent of the global population—with no sanitation facilities at all. Daily, entire communities are exposed to the considerable health and environmental hazards of inadequate human waste disposal. In 11 countries, a majority of the population still practices open defecation. Even in countries with rapidly growing economies, large numbers of people still must resort to this practice: 626 million in India, 14 million in China and 7 million in Brazil. Nearly 60 per cent of those practicing open defecation live in India."

The complete report (in Adobe Acrobat pdf format) on progress towards all of the MDGs is available locally here:

Click the image to access a local copy in Adobe PDF format

Click here for a local Summary of the Report in HTML format file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d120PresentSituation.html[11/3/2014 5:18:32 PM] Introduction - Water Supplies

Or go to the UN website at http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/MDG_Report_202012.pdf to see the full report (Internet Access Required)

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The Hydrologic Cycle

The Earth's Water Cycle movie (below) from NASA shows the cycling of water around the Earth.

The Movie below will play in most recent versions of Chrome, Firefox, Opera, Microsoft Explorer, and Safari

Video is not visible, most likely your browser does not support HTML5 video

Water is the fundamental ingredient for life on Earth. Looking at our Earth from space, with its vast and deep ocean,s thougere is an abundance of water for our use. However, only a small portion of Earth's water is accessible for our needs. How much fresh water exists and where it is stored affects us all. This animation uses Earth science data from a variety of sensors on NASA Earth observing satellites as well as cartoons to describe Earth's water cycle and the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Sensors on a suite of NASA satellites observe and measure water on land, in the ocean and in the atmosphere. These measurements are important to understanding the availability and distribution of Earth's water -- vital to life and vulnerable to the impacts of climate change on a growing world population. This video is public domain.

NASA Earth Observing System Data and Information Systems (EOSDIS) EOSDIS is a distributed system of twelve data centers and science investigator processing systems. EOSDIS processes, archives, and distributes data from Earth observing satellites, field campaigns, airborne sensors, and related Earth science programs. These data enable the study of Earth from space to advance scientific understanding.

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Why is water so important?

1. Freshwater resources are unevenly distributed, with much of the water located far from human populations. Many of the world’s largest river basins run through thinly populated regions. There are an estimated 263 international rivers, covering 45.3% of the land-surface of the earth (excluding Antarctica).

2. Groundwater represents about 90% of the world’s readily available freshwater resources, and some 1.5 billion people depend upon groundwater for their drinking water.

3. Agricultural water use accounts for about 70% of total global consumption - mainly through crop irrigation - while industrial use accounts for about 20%, and the remaining 10% is used for domestic purposes

4. It is estimated that two out of every three people will live in water-stressed areas by the year 2025. In Africa alone, it is estimated that 25 countries will be experiencing water stress (below 1,700 m3 per capita per year) by 2025. Today, 450 million people in 29 countries suffer from water shortages.

Annual global freshwater withdrawal has grown from 3,790 km3 (of which consumption accounted for 2,070 km3 or 61%) in 1995, to 4,430 km3 (of which consumption accounted for 2,304 km3 or 52%) in 2000 (Shiklomanov, 1999).

In 2000, about 57% of the world’s freshwater withdrawal, and 70% of its consumption, took place in Asia, where the world’s major irrigated lands are located (UNESCO, 1999).

In the future, annual global water withdrawal is expected to grow by about 10-12% every 10 years, reaching approximately 5,240 km3 (or an increase of 1.38 times since 1995) by 2025. Water consumption is expected to grow at a slower rate of 1.33 times (UNESCO, 1999).

In the coming decades, the most intensive rate of water withdrawal is expected to occur in Africa and South America (increasing by 1.5-1.6 times), while the least will take place in Europe and North America (1.2 times) (Harrison and Pearce, 2001; Shiklomanov, 1999; UNESCO, 1999).

Annual global freshwater withdrawal has grown from 3,790 km3 (of which consumption accounted for 2,070 km3 or 61%) in 1995, to 4,430 km3 (of which consumption accounted for 2,304 km3 or 52%) in 2000

In 2000, about 57% of the world’s freshwater withdrawal, and 70% of its consumption, took place in Asia, where the world’s major irrigated lands are located

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5. Clean water supplies and sanitation remain major problems in many parts of the world, with 20% of the global population lacking access to safe drinking water. Around 1.1 billion people globally do not have access to improved water supply sources, while 2.4 billion people do not have access to any type of improved sanitation facility. About 2 million people die every year due to waterborne diseases from faecal pollution of surface waters; most of them are children less than five years of age. A wide variety of human activities also affect the coastal and marine environment. Population pressures, increasing demand for space and resources, and poor economic performance can all undermine the sustainable use of our oceans and coastal areas.

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6. Serious problems affecting the quality and use of these ecosystems include the alteration and destruction of habitats and ecosystems. For example:

Estimates show that almost 50% of the world’s coasts are threatened by development-related activities. Severe eutrophication has been discovered in several enclosed or semi-enclosed seas. It is estimated that about 80% of marine pollution originates from land-based sources and activities.

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In marine fisheries, most areas are producing significantly lower yields than in the past. Substantial increases are never again likely to be recorded for global fish catches. In contrast, inland and marine aquaculture production is increasing and now contributes 30% of the total global fish yield.

7. The impact of climate change is projected to include a significant rise in the level of the world’s oceans. This will cause some low lying coastal areas to become completely submerged, and increase human vulnerability in other areas. Small Island Developing States (SIDS), which are highly dependent upon marine resources, are especially vulnerable, due to both the effects of sea level rise and to changes in marine ecosystems.

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This can lead to many effects. One might be an increase in disease spread

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Climate Change, Water and Health

Heavy rainfall or flooding can increase water-borne parasites such as Cryptosporidium and Giardia that are sometimes found in drinking water. These parasites can cause gastrointestinal distress and in severe cases, death. The distribution of diseases and disease vectors (such as the malarial mosquito) may change as the climate changes Heavy rainfall events cause stormwater runoff that may contaminate water bodies used for recreation (such as lakes and beaches) with other bacteria. The most common illness contracted from contamination at beaches is gastroenteritis, an inflammation of the stomach and the intestines that can cause symptoms such as vomiting, headaches, and fever. Other minor illnesses include ear, eye, nose, and throat infections Flooding and heavy rainfall can cause overflows from sewage treatment plants into fresh water sources. Changes in temperature and precipitation, as well as droughts and floods, will likely affect agricultural yields and production. In some regions of the world, these impacts may compromise food security and threaten human health through malnutrition, the spread of infectious diseases, and food poisoning. The worst of these effects are projected to occur in developing countries, among vulnerable populations.

In the USA, for example, it has been calculated that water shortages will occur in 33% of the counties in the lower 48 states and 400 of these will face extyreme water shortage.

Worldwide, water availability will change drastically (both higher and lower) over the next few decades

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The Science of Global Climate Change

For an excellent summary of the science of global warming, see the Summary of the Physical Science basis for GCC from the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) on the CD and the website at http://ipcc.ch/ (Internet Access Required)

One of the many Figures from the IPCC report quite clearly shows some of the impacts of Global Climate Change - there are many others!

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Also see the large poster produced on "Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis" on the CD.

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One part of the poster shows the likely scenarios of continued global warming:

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Water and civilizations

The Fertile Crescent. The Fertile Crescent is the region in the Middle East which encompasses modern- day southern Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and northern Egypt

The Indus Valley Civilization The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age Civilization in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, consisting of what is now mainly present-day Pakistan and northwest India

Egypt For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world

Greece The history of Greece can be traced back to Stone Age hunters. Later came early farmers and the civilizations of the Minoan and Mycenaean kings. This was followed by a period of wars and invasions, known as the Dark Ages. Classical period of ancient Greek history, is fixed between about 500 B. C., when the Greeks began to come into conflict with the kingdom of Persia to the east, and the death of the Macedonian king and conqueror Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. In this period Athens reached its greatest political and cultural heights. The Hellenistic Period (336-146 BC) was the period between the conquest of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great and the establishment of Roman supremacy, in which Greek culture and learning were pre-eminent in the Mediterranean and Asia Minor.

Rome In its approximately twelve centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to an aristocratic republic to an increasingly autocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate Southern Europe, Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa, parts of Northern Europe, and parts of Eastern Europe. Rome was preponderant throughout the Mediterranean region and was one of the most powerful entities of the ancient world. It is often grouped into Classical Antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as the Greco-Roman world

A comprehensive treatment of ancient water technologies can be viewed in:

"Ancient Water Technologies" Edited by Larry Mays (on CD)

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The Fertile Crescent

About 6,000–7,000 years ago, farming villages of the Near East and Middle East became urban centers. During the Neolithic age (ca. 5700–2800 B.C.), the first successful efforts to control the flow of water were driven by agricultural needs (irrigation). Irrigation probably began to develop at a small scale during the Neolithic age in the so-called “fertile crescent,” an arc constituting the comparatively fertile regions of Mesopotamia and the Levant, delimited by the dry climate of the Syrian Desert to the south and the Anatolian highlands to the north.

Mesopotamia is in the east side of the region named “fertile crescent”, where agriculture flourished and the earliest civilizations were born more than eight thousand years ago. In the alluvial plain of Lower Mesopotamia agriculture based on irrigation developed, in contrast to the Upper Mesopotamia, where dry-farming was possible. A complex system of canals and waterworks developed, with the dual function to ensure irrigation and to be used as waterways. Control of water was decisive as a way to guarantee economic prosperity, but also was a source of interstate conflicts and a political tool. Water technology was not limited to irrigation, Mesopotamians also pioneered in sanitary engineering, with many cities presenting networks of wastewater and storm water drainage systems. Overexploitation of land and water resources for agriculture affected the environment, resulting in silting and soil salinization, matter that has been recorded since the earliest cuneiform writings (Ancient Water Technologies, Larry W. Mays Editor 2010)

Irrigation:

Lift Irrigation

The first devices were human-powered. The shaduf had a bag and rope attached to the one end of a wooded arm or beam with a counter balance at the other end of the arm. The beam rotates around an axis so that the person operating the shaduf pulls down the bag into the water, then lifts the bag with water, and then drops the water from the bag. The shaduf was known in Mesopotamia as early as the time of Sargon of Akkad (ca. 2300 B.C.).

Qanat

The qanat is a collection and conveyance system for groundwater that was developed in Persia. It consists of an underground tunnel which uses gravity to convey water from the water table (or springs) at higher elevations to the surface of lower lands. Qanats also have a series of vertical shafts that were used for excavation of the tunnel and provided air circulation and lighting. The oldest qanats have been found in the northern part of Iran and date back to around 3,000 years ago when the Arians (Aryans) settled in present day Iran file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d202WaterandCivilization.html[11/3/2014 5:18:35 PM] Civilizations and Water

Urban Water Supply

Urban Water Sources

The sources of water for some early cities or, sometimes, just the ruler's palaces were:

Short canal connected to permanent river Canals and reservoirs storing flood water of nonpermanent river, rainfall Rainwater harvesting (gutters and cisterns) Shallow Wells Aqueducts from source at altitude Underground cisterns w/ steps Springs

Sanitation

There is evidence that, as early as 6500 B.C., there was a well developed urban settlement at El Kowm 2, Central Syria, about 80 km south from the Euphrates. The city had well planned houses, many of them with drainage systems for domestic wastewater. Many cities of Mesopotamia had networks of wastewater and storm water drainage systems.

Water Treatment and Settling Basin

Perhaps most surprising to modern day hydraulic engineers is the very early engineering works in Sumaria. Kang (1973) proposed a system of Sumerian canal and irrigation systems as a multi- purpose settling-reservoir, serving ‘to facilitate intersections, to slow water flow from higher to a lower plane, to prevent scouring and erosion, and to act as a kind of a simple reservoir’. However, according to Kang, its primary importance was to serve as a sedimentation basin, as storage and water regulator, and as a reservoir for dry seasons. It is remarkably similar to todays sedimentation basins for run-off water and the sedimentation systems used to remove suspended solids from water.

The settling-reservoir (nag-ku5) and complementary water-works,

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Egypt

The ancient Egyptians depended upon the Nile not only for their livelihoods, but they also considered the Nile to be a deific force of the universe, to be respected and honored if they wanted it to treat them favorably. Its annual rise and fall were likened to the rise and fall of the sun, each cycle equally important to their lives, though both remaining a mystery. Since the Nile sources were unknown up until the 19th century, the Ancient Egyptians believed it to be a part of the great celestial ocean, or the sea that surrounds the whole world.

The Nile seen from space, nearly 6,650 km in total length, drains an estimated 3,350,000 km2, which is about one-tenth of the African continent with catchments in nine different countries.

Sad-el-Kaffara Early Egyptian periods (6000 to 3000 BCE) depended on the flooding of the Nile to both irrigate and fertilize the soil. Around 3000BCE, artificial canals began to appear and led to larger areas being irrigated. Artificial irrigation increased the area of annual cropland in relation to the flood stage; retained water in the basin after smaller floods; and allowed second and even third crops in some basins. This form of water management, called basin irrigation, consisted of a network of earthen banks, some parallel to the river and some perpendicular to the river that formed basins of various sizes.

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Floodwaters were diverted into the basins where the water was allowed to saturate the soil with the remaining water drained off to a down-gradient basin or to a canal. After the draining process was completed in a basin, crops were planted. King Menes, the founder of the first dynasty in 3100 B.C. traditionally has been known as the first to develop a major basin irrigation project. About 1500 BCE, lift irrigation started and was well advanced by Roman times. Oldest records of Nile flood levels were carved on a large stone monument from approximately 2480 BCE.

The Sadd-el-Kafara dam (Dam of the Pagans) was constructed about 2600–2700 B.C. The dam was constructed around 2650 and was the first attempt at storing water on a large scale. Possibly older dams include the Jawa reservoir in Jordan and diversion dams on the Kasakh River in the southern part of the former Soviet Union. However these structures were much smaller than the Sadd- el-Kafara dam so Sadd-el-Kafar is probably the world’s oldest large- scale dam.

Urban Water Supply

Urban Water Sources

The sources of water in Ancient Egypt were

The Nile Canals and reservoirs storing flood water Shallow Wells Springs

Sanitation

Women would walk to the Nile, in groups, to fetch the water needed file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d203WaterandCivilization.html[11/3/2014 5:18:35 PM] Civilizations and Water

for drinking, washing and cooking. Female servants (baket) made frequent trips, transporting heavy jars balanced on their heads. The streets of ancient Egypt lacked a proper drainage system. Canals were used to draw away waste. The disposal of refuse was always a major concern. Household garbage was heaped into a dump outside the town and burned, or leveled, and houses would later be built on the site. Sewage was disposed of in the river as well as in the alleys.

http://emhotep.net/2013/02/25/emhotep-digest/em-hotep-digest-vol- 02-no-07-daily-life-in-ancient- egypt/ Internet Access Required)

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Greece

The ancient Greeks invented many features of modern civilization. A brief list shows how much we owe to their ingenuity. Their achievements in water technology were impressive; in 250 BCE they invented the water mill and in circa 250 BCE they pioneered the water wheel. They had air and water pumps, indoor plumbing, central heating, showers and built canal locks an ancient version of the Suez Canal.

For example:

A shower room for female athletes with plumbed-in water is depicted on an Athenian vase.

A whole complex of shower-baths was also found in a 2nd-century BC gymnasium at Pergamum. and excavations at Olympus as well as Athens have revealed extensive plumbing systems for baths and fountains as well as for personal use.

They used groundwater, constructed aqueducts for water supply, used storm water and wastewater sewerage systems, flood protection and drainage, and constructed and used fountains, baths and other sanitary and purgatory facilities.

As well as many water-related inventions, they also invented the first Streets, use of Cartography, Calipers, Truss roof, Crane, Escapement, Tumbler lock, Gears, Spiral staircase, Urban Planning, Crossbow, Winch, Wheelbarrow, Central heating, Lead sheathing, Astrolabe, Lighthouse, Alarm clock, Odometer, Chain drive, Cannon, Double-action principle, Levers, Three-masted ship (mizzen), Gimbal, Sakia gear,Surveying tools, Fore-and-aft rig (spritsail), Analog computers, Fire hose, Vending machine, Wind vane, Clock tower and Automatic doors ---- an impressive list. There are many more.....

Some examples of Greek inventions:

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Washstand

Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BC) in his technical treatise Pneumatics (chapter 31) as part of a washstand automaton for guests washing their hands. Philon's comment that "its construction is similar to that of clocks" indicates that such escapements mechanism were already integrated in ancient water clocks

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Crossbow

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Lighthouse: Pharos of Alexandria

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Clock Tower: Tower of the Wind

The watermill

The earliest machine harnessing natural forces (apart from the sail) and as such holding a special place in the history of technology, was invented by Greek engineers somewhere between the 3rd and 1st centuries BC. The image is a Roman gristmill as described by Vitruvius.

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Rome

Dams: Roman dam construction was characterized by "the Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale". Roman planners introduced the then novel concept of large reservoir dams which could secure a permanent water supply for urban settlements also over the dry season. Their pioneering use of water-proof hydraulic mortar and particularly Roman concrete allowed for much larger dam structures than previously built, such as the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to that date, and the Harbaqa Dam, both in Roman Syria. The highest Roman dam was the Subiaco Dam near Rome; its record height of 50 m (160 ft.) remained unsurpassed until its accidental destruction in 1305. Roman engineers made routine use of ancient standard designs like embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. Apart from that, they displayed a high degree of inventiveness, introducing most of the other basic dam designs which had been unknown until then. These include arch-gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams and multiple arch buttress dams, all of which were known and employed by the 2nd century AD (see List of Roman dams). Roman workforces also were the first to build dam bridges, such as the Bridge of Valerian in Iran Roman dam construction began in earnest in the early imperial period. For the most part, it concentrated on the semi-arid fringe of the empire, namely the provinces of North Africa, the Near East, and Hispania. The relative abundance of Spanish dams below is due partly to more intensive field work there; for Italy only the Subiaco Dams, created by emperor Nero (54–68 AD) for recreational purposes, are attested. These dams are noteworthy, though, for their extraordinary height, which remained unsurpassed anywhere in the world until the Late Middle Ages The most frequent dam types were earth- or rock-filled embankment dams and masonry gravity dams. These served a wide array of purposes, such as irrigation, flood control, river diversion, soil-retention, or a combination of these functions. In this, Roman engineering did not differ fundamentally from the practices of older hydraulic societies. "The Romans' ability to plan and organize engineering construction on a grand scale" gave their dam construction special distinction. Their engineering prowess, therefore, facilitated the construction of large and novel reservoir dams, which secured a permanent water supply for urban settlements even during the dry season, a common concept today, but little-understood and - employed in ancient times. The impermeability of Roman dams was increased by the introduction of water-proof hydraulic mortar and especially opus caementicium in the Concrete Revolution. These materials also allowed for bigger structures to be built, like the Lake Homs Dam, possibly the largest water barrier to date, and the sturdy Harbaqa Dam, both of which consist of a concrete core. On the whole, Roman dam engineering displayed a high degree of completeness and innovativeness. While hitherto dams relied solely on their heavy weight to resist the thrust of water, Roman builders were the first to realize the stabilizing effect of arches and buttresses, which they integrated into their dam designs. Previously unknown dam types introduced by the Romans include:

Aqueducts:

The Romans constructed numerous aqueducts to bring water from distant sources into their cities and towns, supplying public baths, latrines, fountains and private households. Waste water was removed by complex sewage systems and released into nearby bodies of water, keeping the towns clean and free from effluent. Some aqueducts also provided water for mining operations and the milling of grain. Aqueducts moved water through gravity alone, being constructed along a slight downward gradient within conduits of stone, brick or concrete. Most were buried beneath the ground, and followed its contours; obstructing peaks were circumvented or, less often, tunneled through. Where valleys or lowlands intervened, the conduit was carried on bridgework, or its contents fed into high- pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes and siphoned across. Most aqueduct systems included sedimentation tanks, sluices and distribution tanks to regulate the supply at need. Rome's first aqueduct supplied a water-fountain sited at the city's cattle-market. By the third century AD, the city had eleven aqueducts, sustaining a population of over a million in a water-extravagant economy; most of the water supplied the city's many

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public baths. Cities and municipalities throughout the Roman Empire emulated this model, and funded aqueducts as objects of public interest and civic pride, "an expensive yet necessary luxury to which all could, and did, aspire." Most Roman aqueducts proved reliable, and durable; some were maintained into the early modern era, and a few are still partly in use. Methods of aqueduct surveying and construction are noted by Vitruvius in his work De Architectura (1st century BC). The general Frontinus gives more detail in his official report on the problems, uses and abuses of Imperial Rome's public water supply. Notable examples of aqueduct architecture include the supporting piers of the Aqueduct of Segovia, and the aqueduct-fed cisterns of Constantinople.

The multiple arches of the Pont du Gard in Roman Gaul(modern-day southern France). Its lower tiers carry a road across the river, and the upper tiers support an aqueduct conduit that carried water to Nimes in Roman times.

Water Wheels:

Another fascinating technology used by the Romans was the water wheel (Noria) which is represented in 4th century AD mosaics from Syria. The noria is powered by the flow of a river and lifts water in buckets to fields or aqueducts. There remain a number of ancient Arabic water wheels along the Orontes River in and near Hama. These water works date back to medieval times and as late as 1985 there were about 80 in use along the file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d260WaterandCivilization.html[11/3/2014 5:18:36 PM] Civilizations and Water

river irrigating over 5000 ha. Today only a handful remain and those in Hama itself are tourist attractions for the city – ancient and elegant reminders of the long history of water management and transference in Syria.

Water wheel (Noria) and aqueduct at Hama

Cisterns:

One type of Roman water work that is extremely abundant, and often still functional, is the Roman Cistern (Abar Romani). These are small excavated caverns, often lined with Roman hydraulic cement, that capture surface flow from the winter rains for use in the dry summer. They typically have a large stone cover to protect the water. There are at least 1115 of these cisterns in Syria.

Roman Sanitation Technologies:

The Romans were one of the first known civilizations to invent indoor plumbing. The Roman public baths, or thermae served hygienic, social and cultural functions. The baths contained three main facilities for bathing. After undressing in the apodyterium or changing room, Romans would proceed to the tepidarium or warm room. In the moderate dry heat of the tepidarium, some performed warm-up exercises and stretched while others oiled themselves or had slaves oil them. The tepidarium’s main purpose was to promote sweating to prepare for the next room, the caldarium or hot room. The caldarium, unlike the tepidarium, was extremely humid and hot. Temperatures in the caldarium could reach 40 degrees Celsius (104 degrees Fahrenheit). Many contained steam baths and a cold-water fountain known as the labrum. The last room was the frigidarium or cold room, which offered a cold bath for cooling off after the caldarium. The Romans also had flush toilets.

These levels of sophisticated water supply systems, sanitation and management of water were not approached again until the 19th and 20th centuries, except for isolated remnants of technology in some parts of the world

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Civilizations from 1000 AD to the present

Previously, we examined the contribution of ancient civilizations in different regions to the development of water technologies, processes and looked at the advances in health and hygiene flowing from those advances.

A timeline of civilizations in the various regions of the world shows the changes that have occurred in the past 1000+ years. Most continents and regions have examples of relatively advanced civilizations in that period and many have had advanced civilizations for very long periods of time.

In many of those cases, the different cultures in the last 1000+ years developed different methods for handling water supply, treatment and distribution, but, as we will show in the next sections of the course, in many other cases they invented or used remarkably similar approaches to those issues. In fact, many of the solutions were developed in the ancient world and were not significantly improved until the industrial era.

Some innovations in engineering and science happened during this period, but it was not until the advent of water purification technologies in the late 19th century and the discovery of the disease causing microorganisms in the same time period that massive improvements in It could be argued that many of the sanitation the health of the public in some of those regions occurred. and water technology and distribution systems developed in the ancient Greek, Roman, As is evident in the video below showing the changes in borders and Mayan, Middle Eastern and other old countries in Europe between 1000 CE and the present day, one civilizations were essentially "lost" as those important reason for the lack of progress was constant turmoil, civilizations declined and had to be reinvented invasions, wars and fragmentation of countries. The same was true for or rediscovered much later in history. much of the rest of the world.

If video is not visible, most likely your browser does not support HTML5 video

Changes in Europe between 1000 CE and the present day.

Also available from: http://www.liveleak.com/view?i=f54_1337075813&use_old_player=1

(Internet connection required for link - Right-click and Open as New Window)

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European Dominance Main Reasons for European/Eurasian Dominance

Trade and Capital: · The Empires in China and India kept themselves more isolated. The Europeans (starting in Italy) carried out more trade. · They used superior weapons to enforce trade and to colonize. Agriculture and crops: · European trade and dominance led to a “globalization” of agricultural crops (maize, cassava, potatoes and wheat) Technology and Institutions: · Europe advanced until around 1500 by importing the technologies developed in the Middle East, India and China . The change around 1500 was due to steadily increasing populations, urban centre development (with universities, the church, financial institutions, and trade). · Culminated in the Industrial Revolution (starting around 1820)

Results: In 1820, the economic level of Europe, North America and Japan were only about twice that of the rest of the world. The level is now approximately 7 times that of the “rest of the world” Asia has started to close the gap. The total disparity between high and low income countries continues to grow

Some other observations: · Total size of the world economy has increased 300 fold in the last 1000 years · Total population has increased about 20 fold (from 0.3 to 6 billion) · Therefore the total economic activity per capita has increased 15 fold.

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Population Increase Theoretical rate of Population Increase

Assumptions; 4 children survive per couple per generation (i.e. population doubles each generation) and all survivors produce 4 surviving children.

This very large, hypothetical, population increase has only been approached in the modern era. The growth rate during the early Stone Age was, in fact, 0.02% per year (one person per 1000 people per generation!). The reasons for this low rate were numerous and included: Very harsh living conditions; leading to: – High mortality rates (children and adults) – Short life expectancies – Infanticide – Expulsion of young adults

The World population 10,000 years ago was approximately 10 million (same as Sweden today) after about 90,000 years (4000 generations) of existence of Homo sapiens

The graph of actual population increase shows the dramatic increase in the last 300 years. Some of this increase can undoubtedly be ascribed to better water management in agriculture, drinking water and sanitation

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Summary of All History (or, more accurately, the last 4000 years)

In 1931, John B. Sparks created a "histomap" that distilled the history of civilization into a colorful timeline. See 4,000 years of empires rising and falling, and even though it stops after World War I, you can imagine how it would look if it were continued. The original can be seen at -http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_vault/2013/08/12/the_1931_histomap_the_entire_history_of_the_world_distilled_into_a_single.html (Internet Connection Required)

The chart emphasizes domination, using color to show how the power of various “peoples” (a quasi-racial understanding of the nature of human groups, quite popular at the time) evolved throughout history.

This is a huge image and may be too big for your screen, depending on the browser you use, but you can usually navigate around by using the scroll bars.

If you simply look at the patterns on the chart, it is easy too see how most empires and civilizations had short lifetimes and have now gone. Notable exceptions are the Indian and Chinese civilizations - still important today (even more so now than when this chart was finished). Others lasted a long time but are no longer existing as important civilizations (even though the countries may still be with us). Examples are the Mongolian, Ottoman, Greek and Roman empires.

Note: This chart is for reference ONLY. It is here to give you an overview of history for the last 4000 years. Probably nobody in the world knows the details of everything behind this chart. If they do, they are a candidate for one of the many TV quiz shows out there. For an even more detailed treatment see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history (Internet Connection Required)

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Global Health Risks

The global burden of diseases and injuries - World Health Organization 2009 update (on CD)

World Health Statistics - 2013 - World Health Organization (on CD)

More than one third of the world’s deaths can be attributed to a small number of risk factors. The 24 risk factors described in this report are responsible for 44% of global deaths and 34% of DALYs; the 10 leading risk factors account for 33% of deaths. Understanding the role of these risk factors is key to developing a clear and effective strategy for improving global health. The five leading global risks for mortality in the world are high blood pressure, tobacco use, high blood glucose, physical inactivity, and overweight and obesity. They are responsible for raising the risk of chronic diseases, such as heart disease and cancers. They affect countries across all income groups: high, middle and low.

This report measures the burden of disease, or lost years of healthy life, using the DALY: a measure that gives more weight to non-fatal loss of health and deaths at younger ages. The leading global risks for burden of disease in the world are underweight and unsafe sex, followed by alcohol use and unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene.

Three of the four leading risks for DALYs – underweight, unsafe sex, and unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene – increase the number and severity of new cases of infectious diseases, and particularly affect populations in low-income countries, especially in the regions of South-East Asia and sub- Saharan Africa.

Note the relative importance of water-related diseases and unsafe water, sanitation and hygiene in the various tables and figures.

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Ranking of selected risk factors: 10 leading causes of death by income group, 2004

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Ranking of selected risk factors: 10 leading causes of DALY's by income group, 2004

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Major Causes of death in children under 5 years old with disease specific contribution of undernutrition

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Deaths and DALYS from Selected Water-Related Diseases, 2000 and 2004

2000 2004 Deaths DALYS Death DALYS Diarrheal diseases 2,019,585 63,345,722 2,163,283 72,776,516 Childhood cluster diseases Poliomyelitis 1,136 188,543 1,195 34,399 Diphtheria 5,527 187,838 5,091 173,575 Tropical-cluster diseases Trypanosomiasis 49,129 1,570,242 52,347 1,672,728 Schistosomiasis 15,335 1,711,522 41,087 1,707,144 Trachoma 72 3,892,326 108 1,334,414 Intestinal nematode infections Ascariasis 4,929 1,204,384 2,455 1,850,781 Trichuriasis 2,393 1,661,689 1,828 1,012,138 Hookworm disease 3,477 1,785,539 242 1,091,589 Other Intestinal Infections 1,692 53,222 1,957 58,158 TOTAL 2,103,274 75,601,028 2,269,593 81,711,443

Source (2004 data): http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/estimates_regional/en/index.html (Internet Connection Required)

There has been an improvement in many areas based on the estimates below of Global Morbidity and Mortality of Water- Related Diseases from the early 1990s;

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Disease Morbidity (episodes/year or people infected) Mortality (deaths/year)

Diarrheal Diseases 1,000,000,000 3,300,000

Intestinal Helminths 1,500,000,000 (people infected) 100,000

Schistosomiasis 200,000,000 (people infected) 200,000

Dracunculiasis 150,000 (in 1996) -

Trachoma 150,000,000 (active cases) -

Malaria 400,000,000 1,500,000

Dengue Fever 1,750,000 20,000

Poliomyelitis 114,000 -

Trypanosomiasis 275,000 130,000

Bancroftian Filariasis 72,800,000 (people infected) -

Onchocerciasis 17,700,000 (people infected; 270,000 blind) 40,000 (mortality caused by blindness)

Data from World Health Organization, 1995, "Community Water Supply and Sanitation: Needs, Challenges and Health Objectives." 48th World Health Assembly, A48/INF.DOC./2,28 April, Geneva, Switzerland.

The WHO World Health Statistics for 2013 (download a local copy as a pdf file)

has numerous statistics that include some on water and sanitation.

Just as examples, here are some extracts from the Index to the report:

1. Life expectancy and mortality 49 Life expectancy at birth (years) Life expectancy at age 60 (years) Stillbirth rate (per 1000 total births) Neonatal mortality rate (per 1000 live births) Infant mortality rate (probability of dying by age 1 per 1000 live births)

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Under-five mortality rate (probability of dying by age 5 per 1000 live births) Adult mortality rate (probability of dying between 15 and 60 years of age per 1000 population)

2. Cause-specific mortality and morbidity 61 Mortality Age-standardized mortality rates by cause (per 100 000 population) Number of deaths among children aged < 5 years (000s) Distribution of causes of death among children aged < 5 years (%) Age-standardized adult mortality rate by cause (ages 30–70 per 100 000 population) Maternal mortality ratio (per 100 000 live births) Cause-specific mortality rate (per 100 000 population) Morbidity Incidence rate (per 100 000 population) Prevalence (per 100 000 population)

3. Selected infectious diseases Cholera Diphtheria H5N1 influenza Japanese encephalitis Leprosy Malaria Measles Meningitis Mumps Pertussis Plague Poliomyelitis Congenital rubella syndrome Rubella Neonatal tetanus Total tetanus Tuberculosis Yellow fever

5. Risk factors Population using improved drinking-water sources (%) Population using improved sanitation (%) Population using solid fuels (%) Preterm birth rate (per 100 live births) Infants exclusively breastfed for the first 6 months of life (%) Children aged < 5 years who are wasted (%) Children aged < 5 years who are stunted (%) Children aged < 5 years who are underweight (%) Children aged < 5 years who are overweight (%) Prevalence of raised fasting blood glucose among adults aged ≥ 25 years (%) Prevalence of raised blood pressure among adults aged ≥ 25 years (%) Adults aged ≥ 20 years who are obese (%) Alcohol consumption among adults aged ≥ 15 years (litres of pure alcohol per person per year) Prevalence of smoking any tobacco product among adults aged ≥ 15 years (%) Prevalence of current tobacco use among adolescents aged 13–15 years (%) Prevalence of condom use by adults aged 15–49 years during higher-risk sex (%) Population aged 15–24 years with comprehensive correct knowledge of HIV/AIDS (%)

6. Health systems Health workforce Physicians (per 10 000 population) Nursing and midwifery personnel (per 10 000 population) Dentists (per 10 000 population) Pharmacists (per 10 000 population) Environment and public health professionals (per 10 000 population) Community health workers (per 10 000 population) Psychiatrists (per 10 000 population) Infrastructure and technologies Hospitals (per 100 000 population) Hospital beds (per 10 000 population) Psychiatric beds (per 10 000 population) Computed tomography units (per million population) Radiotherapy units (per million population) Essential medicines Median availability of selected generic medicines in public and private sectors (%) Median consumer price ratio of selected generic medicines in public and private sectors

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Water and Sanitation-related Diseases

(Internet Access required to visit CDC and WHO websites)

These Resources are for information and reference only - you are NOT required to know details of each details of each disease. Important organisms will be dealt with in a later course.

1. Waterborne Diseases Amebiasis (CDC) Buruli Ulcer* (CDC, WHO ) Campylobacter (CDC, WHO) Cholera (CDC, WHO) Cryptosporidiosis (CDC) Cyclosporiasis (CDC) Dracunculasis (guinea-worm disease) (CDC, Carter Center, WHO) Escherichia coli (CDC, WHO) Fascioliasis (CDC, WHO) Giardiasis (CDC) Hepatitis (CDC, WHO) Leptospirosis (CDC, WHO) Norovirus (CDC) Rotavirus (CDC, WHO) Salmonella (CDC, WHO) Schistosomiasis (CDC, WHO, WHO-PPC) Shigellosis (CDC, WHO) Typhoid Fever (CDC, WHO)

2. Sanitation & Hygiene-Related Diseases

Lice (CDC) Lymphatic filariasis (CDC, WHO, Global Alliance to Eliminate LF) Ringworm (CDC, WHO, NIH) Scabies (CDC, WHO) Soil transmitted helminthiasis (CDC, Ascaris, Whipworm, Hookworm, WHO, Children without Worms, WHO-PPC) Trachoma (CDC, WHO, International Trachoma Initiative)

[Note: Many of the waterborne diseases of the previous section may also be associated with inadequate sanitation and hygiene.]

3. Vector or Insect-borne Diseases Associated with Water Arboviral Encephalitides (CDC, WHO) (Eastern Equine Encephalitis, Japanese Encephalitis, La Crosse Encephalitis, St. Louis Encephalitis, Western Equine Encephalitis, West Nile Virus) Dengue/dengue haemorrhagic fever (CDC, WHO) Malaria (CDC, WHO) Onchocerciasis (CDC, WHO) Rift Valley Fever (CDC, WHO)

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Yellow Fever (CDC, WHO)

4. Neglected Tropical Diseases associated with water

Buruli Ulcer (CDC, WHO) - According to the World Health Organization, Buruli Ulcer is believed to be present within environments (for example, small aquatic animals, biofilms) from where it can be spread to humans by an unknown m Dengue/dengue haemorrhagic fever(CDC, WHO) Dracunculiasis (guinea-worm disease)** (CDC, Carter Center, WHO) Fascioliasis (CDC, WHO) Lymphatic filariasis (CDC, WHO, Global Alliance to Eliminate LF) Onchocerciasis (CDC, WHO) Schistosomiasis (CDC, WHO, WHO-PPC) Trachoma (CDC, WHO, International Trachoma Initiative)

Modified from: Center for Disease Control, USA http://www.cdc.gov/healthywater/wash_diseases.html

Extra Reading Materials - not required reading, just well-written, semi-technical books and videos.

For an interesting account of the effects of microorganisms on history and health of peoples, see "Guns, Germs and Steel" by Jared Diamond and the Public Broadcasting Service TV program of the same name (Internet Access required)

For an old, but still very relevant, treatment of diseases and their possible emergence and re-emergence see "The Coming Plague" by Laurie Garrett. Published 1995 by Penguin Books

Review: "Unpurified drinking water. Improper use of antibiotics. Local warfare. Massive refugee migration. Changing social and environmental conditions around the world have fostered the spread of new and potentially devastating viruses and diseases—HIV, Lassa, Ebola, and others. Laurie Garrett takes you on a fifty-year journey through the world's battles with microbes and examines the worldwide conditions that have culminated in recurrent outbreaks of newly discovered diseases, epidemics of diseases migrating to new areas, and mutated old diseases that are no longer curable."

From: http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/46722.The_Coming_Plague (Internet Access required)

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Modern Water Treatment Systems More Recent Developments in Water Treatment

Water treatment originally focused on improving the aesthetic qualities of drinking water. Methods to improve the taste and odor of drinking water were recorded as early as 4000 B.C. Ancient Sanskrit and Greek writings recommended water treatment methods such as filtering through charcoal, exposing to sunlight, boiling, and straining. Visible cloudiness (later termed turbidity) was the driving force behind the earliest water treatments, as many source waters contained particles that had an objectionable taste and appearance. To clarify water, the Egyptians reportedly used the chemical alum as early as 1500 BCE to cause suspended particles to settle out of water. During the 1700s, filtration was established as an effective means of removing particles from water, although the degree of clarity achieved was not measurable at that time.

By the early 1800s, slow sand filtration was beginning to be used regularly in Europe. During the mid to late 1800s, scientists gained a greater understanding of the sources and effects of drinking water contaminants, especially those that were not visible to the naked eye. During the 19th and 20th centuries, water filters for domestic water production were generally divided into slow sand filters and rapid sand filters (also called mechanical filters and American filters). While there were many small-scale water filtration systems prior to 1800, Paisley, Scotland is generally acknowledged as the first city to receive filtered water for an entire town. The Paisley filter began operation in 1804 and was an early type of slow sand filter. Throughout the 1800s, hundreds of slow sand filters were constructed in the UK and on the European continent. An intermittent slow sand filter was constructed and operated at Lawrence, Massachusetts in 1893 due to continuing typhoid fever epidemics caused by sewage contamination of the water supply. The first continuously operating slow sand filter was designed for the city of Albany, New York in 1897 In 1855, epidemiologist Dr. John Snow proved that cholera was a waterborne disease by linking an outbreak of illness in London to a public well that was contaminated by sewage. In the late 1880s, Louis Pasteur demonstrated the “germ theory” of disease, which explained how microscopic organisms (microbes) could transmit disease through media like water.

During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, concerns regarding drinking water quality continued to focus mostly on disease-causing microbes (pathogens) in public water supplies. Scientists discovered that turbidity was not only an aesthetic problem; particles in source water, such as fecal matter, could harbor pathogens. As a result, the design of most drinking water treatment systems built in the U.S. during the early 1900s was driven by the need to reduce turbidity, thereby removing microbial contaminants that were causing typhoid, dysentery, and cholera epidemics. To reduce turbidity, some water systems in U.S. cities (such as Philadelphia) began to use slow sand filtration. While filtration was a fairly effective treatment method for reducing turbidity, it was disinfectants like chlorine that played the largest role in reducing the number of waterborne disease outbreaks in the early 1900s. In 1908, chlorine was used for the first time as a primary disinfectant of drinking water in Jersey City, New Jersey. The use of other disinfectants such as ozone also began in Europe around this time, but were not employed in the U.S. until several decades later. Many of the treatment techniques used today by drinking water plants include methods that have been used for hundreds and even thousands of years (see the diagram below). However, newer treatment techniques (e.g., reverse osmosis and granular activated carbon) are also being employed by some modern drinking water plants.

Recently, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the National Academy of Engineering named water treatment as one of the most significant public health advancements of the 20th Century. Moreover, the number of treatment techniques, and combinations of techniques, developed is expected to increase with time as more complex contaminants are discovered and regulated. It is also expected that the number of systems employing these techniques will increase due to the recent creation of a multi-billion dollar state revolving loan fund that will help water systems, especially those serving small and disadvantaged communities, upgrade or install new treatment facilities. From: EPA The History of Drinking Water Treatment EPA-816-F-00-006 - February 2000

A combination selected from the following processes is used for municipal drinking water treatment worldwide:

Pre-chlorination - for algae control and arresting any biological growth Aeration - along with pre-chlorination for removal of dissolved iron and manganese Coagulation - or flocculation Coagulant aids, also known as polyelectrolytes - to improve coagulation and for thicker floc formation Sedimentation - for solids separation (removal of suspended solids trapped in the floc) Filtration - removing particles from water Desalination - Process of removing salt from the water Disinfection - for killing bacteria.

There is no unique solution (selection of processes) for any type of water. Also, it is difficult to standardize the solution in the form of processes for water from different sources. Treatability studies for each source of water in different seasons need to be carried out to arrive at most appropriate processes. The above mentioned technologies are well developed, and generalized designs are

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available that are used by many water utilities (public or private). In addition to the generalized solutions, a number of private companies provide solutions by patenting their technologies. The developed world employs a considerable amount of automation for water and wastewater treatment. The developing nations worldwide use automation along with manual operations. The level of automation is a choice of operators. The aspects that govern the choice of level of automation are capital and operating costs, skills available locally, operators comfort, integration of automation & control with rest of the component of water supply and so on.

See Course 3 for more details

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Sanitation Technologies and Methods

Sanitation Sanitation refers to the safe disposal of human excreta. This entails the hygienic disposal and treatment of human waste to avoid affecting the health of people. Sanitation is an essential part of the Millennium Development Goals. The most affected countries are in the developing world. Population increase in the developing world has posed challenges in the improvement of sanitation. Lack of provisions of basic sanitation is estimated to have contributed to the deaths of approximately 3.5 million people annually from water borne diseases.

The World Health Organization states that: "Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and feces. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease world-wide and improving sanitation is known to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in households and across communities. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal" The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi of Indus Valley civilization. This urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.

The Indus Valley civilization had a system of underground drainage. The main sewer, 1.5 meters deep and 91 cm across, connected to many north-south and east-west sewers. It was made from bricks smoothened and joined together seamlessly. The expert masonry kept the sewer watertight. Drops at regular intervals acted like an automatic cleaning device.

A wooden screen at the end of the drains held back solid wastes. Liquids entered a cess poll made of radial bricks. Tunnels carried the waste liquids to the main channel connecting the dockyard with the river estuary. Commoner houses had baths and drains that emptied into underground soakage jars.

http://www.harappa.com/lothal/14.html (Internet Connection Required)

Ancient Lothal, an ancient Indus port city in the state of Gujarat, India as envisaged by The Archaeological Survey of India.

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Roman cities and Roman villas had elements of sanitation systems, delivering water in the streets of towns such as Pompeii, and building stone and wooden drains to collect and remove wastewater from populated areas - see for instance the Cloaca Maxima into the River Tiber in Rome.

Most Roman apartment houses (insulae) didn't have much in the way of drainage or toilet facilities; or if they did, such facilities tended to exist only on the ground floor. So most apartment dwellers used chamber pots in their own rooms. Private Roman homes, on the other hand, often had latrines. When they existed, they would typically lie near the atrium or kitchen of the domus or villa. Again, if there were no toilet facilities, chamber pots were typically used, and the contents would be dumped periodically into cesspits. As far as public facilities were concerned, urinal pots and public toilets served the public need. In Rome, large urinal pots typically were posted on street corners. Periodically, fullers (the Roman version of a not-so-dry cleaner) would empty them and use the contents in the process of laundering and bleaching togas, tunics, and other clothing. In many Roman cities there were public toilets.

Latrine, Forum or Seaward baths, Sabratha, Libya.

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Roman Sewer, Cologne

From: http://www.sewerhistory.org

Cutaway view of a typical Roman street during the Roman Empire, showing lead water pipes and a central channel for sewage under the pavement.

Perpendicular connections brought sewage from nearby homes and businesses.

From: http://www.sewerhistory.org

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Roman Toilets at Ephesus From: http://www.sewerhistory.org

Such public toilet facilities were typically just rectangular shaped rooms (some seating as many as 100 people). Arranged along several of the walls of these rooms were long stone benches each with a row of keyhole-shaped openings cut into it. Water running down drains underneath the benches would flush waste away into the sewers. Sponge-sticks were used instead of toilet paper (which, of course, did not exist at this time).

In the Minoan civilization on Crete (3000 to 100 BCE) there is evidence of sanitation;

Pithoi in the ruined town of Knossos, Crete. Items including oak and olive oil (first and second in importance) were stored in these vessels for the trade with Egypt.

The stone slabs of the floor are partially removed to show part of the extensive sewage canal system underneath the whole settlement. Knossos was probably the first European settlement with a well organized water system for incoming clean water, regular waste water disposal (ending up in the gardens outside the settlement) and storm sewage canals for the times of heavy rain.

Knossos was also the first place in Europe where "flush" toilets actually functioned (although the "flush" seems to have come from buckets of water)

From: http://www.sewerhistory.org

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Sewer structure in the Palace of Knossos in Crete. The palace dates from 1700-1300 BCE. From: http://www.sewerhistory.org

There is little record of other sanitation in most of Europe until the late Middle Ages. Unsanitary conditions and overcrowding were widespread throughout Europe and Asia during the Middle Ages, resulting periodically in cataclysmic pandemics such as the Plague of Justinian (541-42) and the Black Death (1347–1351), which killed tens of millions of people and radically altered societies. Very high infant and child mortality prevailed in Europe throughout medieval times, due not only to deficiencies in sanitation but to an insufficient food supply for a population which had expanded faster than agriculture. This was further complicated by frequent warfare and exploitation of civilians by autocratic rulers.

The late 1800s saw the beginnings of modern-style toilet design, with models following the earth closet, pan closet, and water closet designs. Modern design was complemented by the invention of toilet paper by American Joseph Cayetti in 1857. The main toilet designs were:

1. Earth closet - Dry earth is used to cover waste material for later removal. Henry Moule patented one design in 1869, advertising it as a great improvement over the cesspit.

2. Pan closet - A simple but fairly unsanitary design featuring a basin with a pan at the bottom. This pan could be tipped to discharge its contents into a receptacle.

3. Valve closet - An opening at the bottom of a pan was sealed by a valve. When flushed, the valve opened and water was released into the pan by some mechanism. As noted above, Sir John Harington is credited with designing the first valve closet. Modern airplane toilets are often a version of the valve closet.

4. Hopper closet - This inexpensive design featured an inverted cone as the receptacle, with a squirt of water released for (generally inadequate) flushing. Because of its low cost, it was used mainly by poor people.

5. Wash-out or flush-out water closet - Water was used to seal the drain tube, as in the modern trap. Combined with a flushing mechanism and siphonic action, this evolved into the modern toilet.

Modern Sewage Treatment

Modern Sewage treatment is the process of removing contaminants from wastewater and household sewage, file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d370Sanitation.html[11/3/2014 5:18:45 PM] Water and Sanitation-related Dis

both runoff (effluents), domestic, commercial and institutional. It includes physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove physical, chemical and biological contaminants. Its objective is to produce an environmentally safe fluid waste stream (or treated effluent) and a solid waste (or treated sludge) suitable for disposal or reuse (usually as farm fertilizer). Sewage treatment is the process that removes the majority of the contaminants from wastewater or sewage and produces both a liquid effluent suitable for disposal to the natural environment and a sludge. To be effective, sewage must be conveyed to a treatment plant by appropriate pipes and infrastructure and the process itself must be subject to regulation and controls. Some wastewaters require different and sometimes specialized treatment methods. At the simplest level, treatment of sewage and most wastewaters is carried out through separation of solids from liquids, usually by sedimentation. By progressively converting dissolved material into solids, usually a biological floc, which is then settled out, an effluent stream of increasing purity is produced.

Sewage treatment generally involves three stages, called primary, secondary and tertiary treatment.

Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the sewage in a quiescent basin where heavy solids can settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids float to the surface. The settled and floating materials are removed and the remaining liquid may be discharged or subjected to secondary treatment. Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended biological matter. Secondary treatment is typically performed by indigenous, waterborne micro-organisms in a managed habitat. Secondary treatment may require a separation process to remove the microorganisms from the treated water prior to discharge or tertiary treatment. Tertiary treatment is sometimes defined as anything more than primary and secondary treatment in order to allow rejection into a highly sensitive or fragile ecosystem (estuaries, low-flow rivers, coral reefs,...). Treated water is sometimes disinfected chemically or physically (for example, by lagoons and microfiltration) prior to discharge into a stream, river, bay, lagoon or wetland, or it can be used for the irrigation of a golf course, green way or park. If it is sufficiently clean, it can also be used for groundwater recharge or agricultural purposes.

There are many processes used at various stages in different kinds of wastewater treatment plants.

They can include:

Pre-treatment Screening Grit removal

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Flow equalization Fat and grease removal Primary treatment Secondary treatment Activated sludge Aerobic granular sludge Surface-aerated basins (lagoons) Filter beds (oxidizing beds) Constructed wetlands Biological aerated filters Rotating Biological Reactors Membrane bioreactors Secondary sedimentation Tertiary treatment Filtration Lagooning Nutrient removal Nitrogen removal Phosphorus removal Disinfection Odor control Sludge Treatment and Disposal Anaerobic digestion Aerobic digestion Composting Incineration Sludge Disposal

For more details, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewage_treatment and later sections of the course.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d370Sanitation.html[11/3/2014 5:18:45 PM] Water as a Source of Conflict

Water as a Source of Conflict

See http://www.worldwater.org/conflict/list/ (Internet Access Required) from the Pacific Institute for more detail and a searchable list of Water Conflicts

In the listing, 4 conflicts had a religious basis (all between 3000BCE to 681 BCE), about 112 were due to a development dispute, 6 were due to a military goal, 62 were due to use as a military target, 70 were due to use a a military tool, 16 were where water was used a a political tool, and 65 were due to terrorism acts.

Water as Promoter of Peace

Although water can certainly be a source of conflict and even miltary actions, most water conflicts are resolved peacefully This is because of the imprtance of water to both (or all) of the countries, regions, or areas involved in the disputes. A settlement where water continues to be available,

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perhaps with a changed diistribution or entitlement, seems to be the most common outcome of water disputes. In many cases the water source itself is very vulnerable to diversion or deliberate overuse. The key element seems to be the relative strength or power of the disputing parties; where they are similar, the dispute is often settled quickly. Where they are very unequal, it may take much longer if it even happens at all.

Most disputes are very local in scope, even down the level of neighbours disputes over water rights or withdrawals. The list of water conflicts in 2012 from the Water Conflict Chronology website shows that relatively few are large-scale conflicts and most are about local concerns.

During the 2011 Libyan Civil War, forces loyal to dictator Muammar Gaddafi gain control of a water operations center and cut off water Circle of Blue supply to the capital. The system controls Libya’s Great Manmade River—a system of pumps, pipes, and canals that brings water from 2012 Libya Military tool Yes 2012; UPI distant aquifers to Tripoli and other cities. Half the country is left without running water, prompting the UN and neighboring countries to 2011 mobilize tanker ships to deliver water to coastal cities.

Up to 150 schoolgirls are reported sickened by poison in a school water supply in an intentional attack thought to be carried out by 2012 Afghanistan Terrorism Yes Hamid 2012 religious conservatives opposed to the education of women.

2012 Afghanistan Terrorism Yes Seven children are killed by a bomb thought to be aimed at Afghan police and planted at a fresh water spring in Ghor Province. Shah 2012

Military Islamist militants execute militia members defending the Machalgho Dam in eastern Afghanistan. The dam is being developed for irrigation 2012 Afghanistan target; Yes and local power supply. This dispute is one of several surrounding the international waters of Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan, which Mashal 2012 Terrorism share several rivers,.

Thousands of farmers in Karnataka try to prevent the release of water from two dams (Krishna Raja Sagar and Kabini) on the Cauvery Circle of Blue Development River. Injuries to protestors and police are reported. The water releases were ordered by the Indian Supreme Court, which required 2012 India Yes 2012; Indian dispute Karnataka to deliver water downstream state of Tamil Nadu despite severe drought. The dispute continues later in the year when Express 2012 Karnataka again halts releases.

Development Scuffles and protests break out around New Delhi during the summer of 2012 as residents surround water delivery trucks and fight over 2012 India Yes Reuters 2012c dispute water. The summer was the hottest in 33 years, leading to extensive energy and water shortages.

Development Violence erupts in the latest event in the dispute between Pakistan and India over the waters of the Indus Basin. Pakistani militants attack India, dispute; and sabotage water systems, flood protection works, and dams in the Wullar Lake region of northern Kashmir. They attack engineers and Ul Hassan 2012 Yes Pakistan Military workers and detonate explosives at the unfinished Tulbul Navigation Lock/Wullar Dam. Pakistan claims the new dam violates the Indus 2012 target Water Treaty by cutting flows to Pakistan.

Brazil’s federal police respond to reports that water used by the indigenous Guarani-Kaiowa tribe was poisoned by nearby landowners Development Associated 2012 Brazil Yes attempting to gain control over disputed land. Since 2009, the dispute has led to the deaths of three tribesmen, who say the water runs dispute Press 2012a through sacred land.

Development Property 2012 Brazil Work on the controversial $13 billion Belo Monte dam is halted after protesters burn buildings at three dam sites. Phys.org 2012 dispute damage

Development Northeastern Brazil sees growing conflicts after severe drought reduces water availability. News agencies report that one person a day is Catholic Online 2012 Brazil Yes dispute being killed from ‘water wars,’ which involve locals fighting over scarce supplies. 2012

Several incidents of protests, injuries, and deaths are reported in regions of Peru where residents oppose large mines because of Reuters Development 2012 Peru Yes concerns over water quality and water rights. Police kill four protestors in clashes over the proposed Canadian-operated $5 billion dollar 2012a;Yeager dispute Minas Conga gold mine. 2012

Development Protests because of concerns over water quality and water rights around the Xstrata Tintaya copper mine lead to two deaths and 50 2012 Peru Yes Reuters 2012b dispute injuries.

Egypt Development Farmers from the Abu Simbel region in Egypt hold over 200 tourists hostage to protest inadequate irrigation water. The farmers captured 2012 Egypt Yes Independent dispute the tourists after they visited nearby monuments, but released them after officials agreed to a temporary release of water. 2012

Public protests over drinking and irrigation water shortages take place across Egypt. Several protests turn violent: in Beni Sueif, one Development Ooska News 2012 Egypt Yes person is killed and many injured during a conflict over irrigation water; in Minya, villagers clash with officials over water shortages and dispute 2012 water pollution; in Fayyoum, hundreds of people protesting water shortages block a highway and set fires.

Somalia, Military Somali Al Shabaab insurgents poison a well and damage water infrastructure near the port city of Kismayo, Somalia. Insurgents are 2012 Yes Wabala 2012 Kenya target fighting against Kenyan peacekeeping troops participating in the African Union mission in Somalia.

Extensive violence over water is reported in Kenya, with more than 100 deaths in clashes between farmers and cattle herders. The AFP 2012– Development conflict is part of a long-running dispute between Pokomo farmers and Orma, semi-nomadic cattle herders, over land and water. The Kenya Yes 2012;Wikipedia 2013 dispute current conflict is being exacerbated by Kenyan and foreign investment in vast tracts of land for food and biofuel cultivation, putting 2013a pressure on local resources. (See also entry in 2001.)

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Development 2012 Kenya Yes Violence, including several deaths, occurs during disputes over access to water in the poorest slums around Nairobi, Kenya. Njeru 2012 dispute

Tajikistan, Development Uzbekistan cuts natural gas deliveries to Tajikistan in retaliation over a Tajik hydroelectric dam which Uzbeks say will disrupt water Kozhevnikov 2012 Yes Uzbekistan dispute supplies. Gas flows resumed after a new contract is signed. 2012

Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Tensions escalate over two proposed dams in central Asia: Kambarata-1 in Kyrgyzstan and the Rogun Dam in Tajikistan. These dams Development The Economist 2012 Uzbekistan, No could affect water supplies in the downstream nations of Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan. Uzbekistan’s president, Islam dispute 2012b Turkmenistan, Karimov, says the dams could cause “not just serious confrontation, but even wars.” Kazakhstan

McNeish Sudan, South Development Violence breaks out at water points in the Jamam refugee camp in South Sudan. Médécines Sans Frontières reports that as many as 10 2012 Yes 2012; Ferrie Sudan dispute refugees die every day because of water shortages at refugee camps in South Sudan. 2012

Information is leaked about an alleged secret agreement that would allow Egypt to build an air base in Sudan to attack the Grand Development Egypt, Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD). Egypt is concerned that the dam, under construction in Ethiopia just upstream of Sudan on the Sudan Tribune dispute; 2012 Ethiopia, Yes Blue Nile, would reduce flows into its territory. The news reports, strongly denied by Egypt, claim that Sudan would allow Egypt to launch 2012; Al Military Sudan attacks if diplomatic efforts failed to resolve water sharing between Egypt and Ethiopia. The allegations were based on an internal 2010 Arabiya 2012 target email made available by Wikileaks.

A clash along the border between Dogon villagers from Mali and nomadic Fulani herders from Burkina Faso kills at least 30 people, after Mali, Burkina Development Xinhua News 2012 Yes an earlier agreement to share water and pasture land was revoked. Chaos following a military coup in March is partly responsible for the Faso dispute 2012a breakdown in law and order in Mali.

Mali, Development Protests and violence over water shortages occurred in the capital of Mauritania, Nouakchott. By July 2012, over 70,000 Malian refuges 2012 Yes Taha 2012 Mauritania dispute were seeking asylum in Mauritania, putting pressure on scarce food and water supplies.

Development In August 2012, fighting between two clans in the Lower Jubba region of south Somalia kills at least three people and wounds five. Shabelle Media 2012 Somalia Yes dispute Reports from the village of Waraq (near the border with Kenya) indicate that the dispute began over the ownership of new water wells. Network 2012

Uganda, Development Tensions lead to violence between Uganda and Kenya after Kenyan Pokot herdsmen cross the border seeking water and pasture. In 2012 Yes Bii 2012 Kenya dispute October, the Ugandan government sends 5,000 soldiers to control violence among pastoralists from the two countries.

Violence between farmers and pastoralists expands in Tanzania’s southeastern Rufiji valley, a region hit by drought. A farmer is killed in Development 2012 Tanzania Yes a conflict with a herdsman over access to water in the southern regions of Lindi and Mtwara. Five more people die and many more are Makoye 2012 dispute injured in subsequent violence. According to local sources, violence has worsened during the prolonged drought.

Development Protesters in poor communities of Cape Town, South Africa riot over inadequate water and power. Hundreds burn tires, destroy cars, and Xinhua News 2012 South Africa Yes dispute throw rocks at police in anger over the lack of basic services. 2012b

Military During the Syrian Civil War, the major pipeline delivering water to the city of Aleppo is badly damaged. The city of three million suffers 2012 Syria Yes BBC 2012a target severe shortages of drinking water.

In November, Syrian rebels fighting the government of President Bashar al-Assad overrun government forces and capture the Tishrin Military 2012 Syria Yes hydroelectric dam on the Euphrates River, after days of heavy clashes. The dam supplies electricity to part of Syria and is considered Mroue 2012 target strategically important to the Syrian regime.

Development Violence over access to a water source in Maluku, Indonesia. Rival mobs from two villages attack one another “with sharp weapons, guns 2012 Indonesia Yes Antara 2012 dispute and explosives” causing several deaths and injuries.

For a complete list of the water conflicts from the Pacific Institute, see this page (Local Version) To access the interactive web pages at the Pacific Institute go to the web site at http://worldwater.org/chronology.html (Internet Access Required)

International Treaties on Water

Approximately 261 international watersheds, and an unknown but very large number of transboundary aquifers, cover about one-half of the globe's land surface. Water has created and worsened tensions around the globe, most notoriously in the Middle East, but also throughout Africa and Asia.

The fortunate corollary of water conflict is that water, by its very nature, tends to induce even hostile neighbours to cooperate even as disputes continue over other issues. The evidence tends to favor water as a catalyst for cooperation: organized political bodies have signed 3,600 water-related treaties since AD 805, versus only seven minor international water-related skirmishes (each of which included other non-water issues).

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The UN Food and Agriculture Organization has identified more than 3,600 treaties relating to international water resources dating between AD 805 and 1984, the majority of which deal with some aspect of navigation. Since 1814, states have negotiated a smaller body of treaties which deal with non- navigational issues of water management, flood control, hydropower projects, or allocations for consumptive or non-consumptive uses in international basins. Including only those dating from 1870 and later which deal with water per se, and excluding those which deal only with boundaries, navigation, or fishing rights, the authors have collected full and partial texts of 145 treaties in a Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database at the University of Alabama. The collection and translation efforts continue in an ongoing project of the Department of Geography and the Center for Freshwater Studies, in conjunction with projects funded by the World Bank and the US Institute of Peace. Table 1 lists the treaties in the Database chronologically.

Modified from : Patterns in International Water Resource Treaties:The Transboundary Freshwater Dispute Database by Jesse H. Hamner and Aaron T. Wolf. Published in: Colorado Journal of International Environmental Law and Policy. 1997 Yearbook, 1998.

Local Version of the Paper

UNESCO and Green Cross contributed the publication below (a local version) to the World Water Assessment Programme.

"From Potential Conflict to Cooperation Potential: Water for Peace" : Contribution of the International Hydrological Programme and Green Cross International to the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP) (Local Version)

Summary:

On balance, most observers think that water conflicts at the international level have normally led to a peaceful resolution through treaties or negotiations. Some local disputes are still occurring and are often more difficult to resolve, although they affect relatively few people. The incidence, scope and importance of acts of terrorism is difficult to predict but could be locally significant .

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d410WaterConflict.html[11/3/2014 5:18:45 PM] A selected list of Global Databa

A selected list of Global Databases relevant to the Water Health Programme

Click on each image to go to the main page for the website (this will open in a new window) (Internet Access Required)

A very large list of many databases that offer access to environmental data (Internet Access Required)

The World Resource Institute uses data from many sources to produce many relevant maps, graphs and publications (Internet Access Required)

The World Health Organization has many relevant datasets and publications at http://www.who.int/research/en/ (Internet Access Required)

and

Water, sanitation and health databases at http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/database/en/ (Internet Access Required)

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d500ListofDatabases.html[11/3/2014 5:18:46 PM] A selected list of Global Databa

The Pacific Institute has many articles, maps and databases on topics related to water (Internet Access Required)

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d500ListofDatabases.html[11/3/2014 5:18:46 PM] Other Sources of Data

Other Sources of Data: Waterbase

A large amount of global data is available for download. All data can be used in the MapWindow/SWAT interface tools MWSWAT and MWSWAT 2009 ,the SWAT visualization tools SWATPlot and SWATGraph and the MapWindow/AGNPS interface tool MWAGNPS. These tools are used for predictive modeling and decision support for water management (Internet Access Required)

(all software is freely downloadable from www.waterbase.org - (Internet Access Required)

Waterbase Data Sets:

The main data inputs for hydrological modelling are digital elevation, land use, and soil. These are the sources our data is currently based on:

SRTM 90m Digital Elevation Data

USGS Global Land Cover Characterization (GLCC) database

FAO/UNESCO Soil Map of the World and Derived Soil Properties

Data Downloads (Internet Access Required)

A large amount of global data is available for download.

World Data Grids

This is a MapWindow project contained in a zip archive that allows you to graphically select the DEMs, landuse, and soil maps that you need for your location. Just unzip the archive and open the project file World_Data_Grids.mwprj in MapWindow.

Digital Elevation Maps (DEMs)

DEMs for most of the world are available from CGIAR-CSI. The quantity of data for the world is very large, but our geo- processing guide (see the documents page) explains how to select the files you need.

Landuse Maps

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Landuse maps for most of the world are available from WaterBase. They come in the form of zip files containing 1 or more tiles for each continent. They come in two resolutions, the originals at approximately 400 meters (at the equator) and the resampled at 800 meters. The first are a little more accurate but the they take some time to load and minipulate in MapWindow. You may prefer to use the resampled ones at least while you are learning or experimenting.

Africa (original) Africa (resampled) Australia/Pacific (original) Australia/Pacific (resampled) Europe/Asia (original) Europe/Asia (resampled) North America (original) North America (resampled) South America (original) South America (resampled)

Soil Maps

Soil maps for most of the world are available from WaterBase. They come in the form of zip files containing 1 or more tiles for each continent.

Africa Australia/Pacific Europe/Asia North America South America

Also available are some notes and a readme file from the FAO, the source of the soil data.

Weather Data

Global weather data is now available from the SWAT website, and WaterBase also offers a special program for detecting and compensating for missing dates in that data. The SWAT data is more extensive than the data previously offered by WaterBase.

Global River Basins file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d501Waterbase.html[11/3/2014 5:18:46 PM] Other Sources of Data

Shape files for river basins across the world are available from WaterBase, divided into continents:

Africa Asia Australasia Europe North America South America

Digital Elevation Maps (DEMs)

DEMs for most of the world are available from CGIAR-CSI (Internet Access Required). The quantity of data for the world is very large, but the Waterbase geo-processing guide (see the documents page) explains how to select the files you need.

file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d501Waterbase.html[11/3/2014 5:18:46 PM] Gapminder World

Gapminder World

This graphic shows the Life Expectancy versus the Per Capita Income (converted to $US) for the countries of the world

Click the graphic above to download the large, full-sized Adobe Acrobat file (suitable for printing) (Internet Access Required)

If you have an internet connection, you can go to Gapminder World (Internet Access Required) and look at many other comparisons,

Some interesting ones are: Wealth & Health of Nations: This graph shows how long people live and how much money they earn. Click the play button to see how countries have developed since 1800.

People killed in floods: The size of the bubbles shows the number of people killed in floods during the given year.

CO2 emissions since 1820: In 1820, at the dawn of the Industrial Revolution, United Kingdom emitted most CO2 - both per person and in total emissions. See how USA becomes the largest emitter of CO2 from 1900 onwards.

Smaller families and longer lives: In the 1950s, most countries in Latin America, Asia and Africa had low life

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expectancy and high birth rates; in most cases, more than 5 children per women. Only five decades later, most of those countries have less than three children per woman, and much longer lives.

You can choose which data you want to plot and try out different datasets to see the results.

On this page is a list of over 500 data sets that can be used to produce Gapminder graphics

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Water Management

To effectively manage water, many different skill sets are needed, but they were often located in different agencies.

The skills include:

· Engineering · Computer Science – Databases, Modeling and Simulation · Biology

· Management Sciences · Chemistry

· Agriculture · Microbiology

· Sociology · Soil Science

· Ecology · Climatology

· Economics · Hydrology

· Aquatic Toxicology · Hydrogeology

· Environmental Sciences · Remote Sensing

· Legal & Regulatory · Geographic Information Systems

· Governance and Political Science · Cartography

The evolution of water management has been the gradual integration of people withy these skill sets, coupled with an increasing involvement of society as a whole in the decision making process that balances the competing interests in water.

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Water Management

Integrated Water Resource Management

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximise economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems and the environment.

IWRM helps to protect the world’s environment, foster economic growth and sustainable agricultural development, promote democratic participation in governance, and improve human health. Worldwide, water policy and management are beginning to reflect the fundamentally interconnected nature of hydrological resources, and IWRM is emerging as an accepted alternative to the sector-by-sector, top-down management style that has dominated in the past.

The basis of IWRM is that the many different uses of finite water resources are interdependent. High irrigation demands and polluted drainage flows from agriculture mean less freshwater for drinking or industrial use; contaminated municipal and industrial wastewater pollutes rivers and threatens ecosystems; if water has to be left in a river to protect fisheries and ecosystems, less can be diverted to grow crops. There are plenty more examples of the basic theme that unregulated use of scarce water resources is wasteful and inherently unsustainable.

Diagram of IWRM Interactions

The diagram is an attempt to show the factors that impact developing an IWRM plan in a watershed or drainage basin.

The four main areas to be considered are:

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1. The hydrologic cycle - the physical aspects of water transport and movement in the system 2. Watershed and land use - all the activities in the watershed that affect water cycling, use and quality 3. Economics, social interactions and institutons - human interventions, social and legal aspects,waste treatment, water control measures,and others 4. External Impacts such as global climate change, water transfers (including virtual water imported or exported in food and other products), and atmospheric pollution

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Water Management

Recent Developments in Water Management

In the 20th Century, water management and sanitation developed into a complex interacting system in the industrialized countries. It started as a set of individual management processes for the various resources (water supply, purification and distribution, and waste disposal systems), but it soon became evident that these resources needed to be coordinated to be most effective and safe. During the past 80 years an evolving integration of these processes, and the institutions operating them, has happened. More recently, the concept of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) has come to be the dominant theoretical basis for integrating and managing all of the complex set of resources, processes, governance structures, social and legal issues that surround water and sanitation management The usual scale of IWRM is at the watershed, or drainage basin scale.

The evolution of the concept of IWRM came from observations that many aspects of water protection, treatment, distribution, sewage and waste treatment, water quality, and legal protections and rights to water were scattered amongst many different agencies, government and municipal departments,

There are four main stages in the evolution of IWRM. They occur along an uninterrupted pathway and overlap considerably.

For the sake of convenience, we will deal with each period separately.

1. The Sectoral Approach - 1820 to 1950s

2. The Cooperative Approach - 1960s and 1970s

3. Management-oriented IWRM - 1980s

4. Goal-oriented IWRM - 1990s to present

1. The Sectoral Approach: Discussion

In the earliest examples of water planning, no sectors really existed -- there were only private or public bodies responsible for delivering water to citizens. As different interest groups were formed (government, consumers, regulators, companies, etc.), responsibilities began to be shared and each sector's respective part in managing the water supply began to be defined.

Very early on, different agencies and institutions became responsible for:

Planning and implementation processes, Activities and tasks (such as water storage, transmission, distribution, allocation), Physical and construction measures (water canals, dams, reservoirs), Legal and economic instruments such as regulations and incentives, Institutional and organizational requirements.

They began to cooperate in some rudimentary form.

Eventually these tasks and responsibilities devolved to particular agencies, but it became increasingly clear that cooperation was necessary to ensure a safe and plentiful supply of water.

2. The Cooperative Approach: Discussion

In the 1960s and 1970s, cooperative efforts increased until it became clear that more organized cooperation was required to protect the water supply, distribute the water and monitor and regulate the water quality. In the developed world, these efforts led to agencies becoming specialized (e.g. government environment agencies or ministries for monitoring and regulation) and cooperating with the other groups (the private sector, municipalities, states, etc.) who, in many cases, actually provided and distributed the water.

Gradually, the concept of an integration of many of the functions surrounding the supply of water (for all purposes, not just for drinking water) came into being. It began as a realization that to manage water effectively, one needs to look at a broader scale picture -- that of the watershed (or drainage area of the river or lake) that supplies the water. Where groundwater was the primary or a substantial component, the recharge area (where water enters the groundwater system) and any other region that could affect

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the quantity and quality of the groundwater, must also be considered.

3. Management-Oriented IWRM: Discussion

There are many examples of early attempts at IWRM. Some recommendations for Canadian policies were developed by Pearse et al. (1985). The “key” principles were:

· A watershed plan sufficiently comprehensive to take into account all uses of the water system and other activities that affect water flow and quality.

· Information about the watershed’s full hydrological regime.

· An analytical system, or model, capable of revealing the full range of impacts that would be produced by particular uses and developments in the watershed.

· Specified management objectives for the watershed, with criteria for assessing management alternatives in an objective and unbiased way.

· Participation of all relevant regulatory agencies.

· Provisions for public participation in determining objectives and in making management decisions.

Note the emphasis on watersheds, hydrology, analytical models, management and participation

4. Goal-Oriented IWRM: Discussion

A typical set of goals was given by Heathcote (2002):

· To develop a consensus-based vision of ideal water resources conditions for the area of interest.

· To measure the distance between current and ideal conditions, and thus define one or more water management problems, based on consensus among stakeholders.

· To develop and apply tools for water resources decision making, including demonstration projects, computer simulation models, conflict resolution tools, data management and sharing, and so on.

· To identify appropriate management actions to resolve observed problems.

· To assign responsibility for actions and costs for remedial measures.

· To agree upon acceptable timelines for implementation of management actions.

· To monitor the degree of implementation of management actions and progress toward water resources goals.

· To build the capacity of regional stakeholders for collaborative, consensus-based management of water resources.

· To build institutional capacity to work across jurisdictional, disciplinary, and sector boundaries.

· To achieve measurable progress toward improved water resources conditions.

Why IWRM?

Recently, many researchers and practitioners have suggested modifications, relabeling, additions, changes, updates, and specific regional applications to the basic concept of IWRM. A great deal of misunderstanding about what IWRM really is have proliferated or have been deliberately promulgated. It is NOT a prescriptive set of procedures that, if followed, will result in a management program for all situations. That is an extremely naive view of IWRM and if followed, is almost bound to result in failure to some degree.

Rather, IWRM is a set of flexible and adaptable principles (see Heathcote, 2002 above for an example) that guide in the development of an individual Integrated plan for managing water resources (and all their associated features such as land management, community action, legal and social frameworks, etc.).

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There are legitimate criticisms of IWRM based on the difficulties involved (see wh001mo001c001d850IWRMEXTRA.html) and Butterworth, J.; Warner, J.; Moriarty, P.; Smits, S. and Batchelor, C. 2010. "Finding practical approaches to Integrated Water Resources Management". www.water-alternatives.org Volume 3 Issue 1 - Local version: IWRMconcepts and practice.pdf.

The answer to "Why IWRM?" may best be explained by considering "What are the other choices?". Most other choices either fall short or are variants of IWRM in some other guise.

The relevance of the concepts behind IWRM can best be judged by the number of papers published about it, the groups of academics who have attempted to redefine it according to their own views, the many attempts to incorporate it under another banner so that particular practitioners can gain control of it and its very widespread acceptance in the field.

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Towards IWRM

Overview of Procedures for Implementing an IWRM Plan

How can IWRM be accomplished?

Four main areas are as important as data gathering and modelling exercises in IWRM.

These areas are: · Capacity Building · Information Exchange · An Enabling Environment · Cooperative Decision Making -- Involving Society in the IWRM Planning Process: Discussion

The goal of watershed management is to plan and work toward an environmentally and economically healthy watershed that benefits all who have a stake in it. The first step is to identify and involve the "right" people.All people with a stake in the watershed (stakeholders) should feel welcome to become a partner. Consider the following three distinct groups: · Those who are BOTH affected by and interested in watershed protection · Those who ARE affected, but NOT interested · Those who are NOT affected, but ARE interested

One way to involve society is to produce a matrix of available information and data and identify gaps. Fill those gaps if possible by:

Capacity Building Acquiring Information/Data: Available Information Local Information Indigenous Knowledge Enabling legislation and regulation

Build a Common Purpose

A carefully worded statement serves as a standard for decision making and measuring progress, and provides motivation for high quality. Make sure all partners are comfortable with the statement. Steps in developing a statement of purpose include:

Asking for ideas from all partners Discussing the ideas and drafting a statement Revising a draft based on discussion Writing a final statement based on consensus Soliciting statements of commitment from all partners

This process may not be easy and will take time. Potential conflicts need to be discussed and resolved. Remember, it is important to keep the statement general enough to encourage widespread support, but specific enough to identify goals and measure progress.

Gathering Information About the Area of the IWRM Plan

Some partners who can assist in data and information gathering and many other aspects of the IWRM planning process are:

Landowners Homeowners Local businesses Developers Recreational users Government agencies Elected officials file:///F|/Dropbox/WaterHealthNewFinal/Course1/discussion/wh001mo001c001d830TowardsIWRM.html[11/3/2014 5:18:47 PM] Towards IWRM

Media Teachers Civic groups Conservation groups Environmentalists Church groups Youth groups Others .

Successful IWRM Planning

All participants agree to and share a common set of goals for the study area. These are defined in advance and modified as required. Information and data are accessible and provided to all participants. There is a well-understood “core” of basic information, shared by all, about all aspects of the study area. Capacity building is targeted towards ensuring that all participants share a common set of basic knowledge, data and capabilities, especially in areas where they are not specialists. Genuine participatory decision making is the rule, not the exception. Conflict resolution procedures are available and used. Reporting is a collaborative process. Management and implementation are also collaborative. There is “targeted” capacity building and a “shared knowledge base”. There is an enabling environment. There is effective information exchange. There are processes for cooperative decision making and management.

Potential Benefits of IWRM

Consensus-based water management decisions with high implementation success Significantly improved community capacity for water resources decision making. Significantly improved institutional capacity for multi-stakeholder/multi-disciplinary water management. Reduced costs for governments, because increased partnerships share costs across stakeholder groups. Measurable and sustainable water resources improvements, as a result of community consensus as to a “best” course of action, including responsibilities and costs. A planning and management process that is ongoing, adaptive and iterative.

Summary of the Goals of IWRM · To develop a consensus-based vision of ideal water resources conditions for the area of interest. · To measure the distance between current and ideal conditions and, thus, define one or more water management problems based on consensus among stakeholders. · To develop and apply tools for water resources decision making including demonstration projects, computer simulation models, conflict resolution tools, data management and sharing, and so on. · To identify appropriate management actions to resolve observed problems. · To assign responsibility for actions and costs for remedial measures. · To agree upon acceptable timelines for implementation of management actions. · To monitor the degree of implementation of management actions and progress toward water resources goals. · To build the capacity of regional stakeholders for collaborative, consensus-based management of water resources. · To build institutional capacity to work across jurisdictional, disciplinary and sector boundaries. · To achieve measurable progress toward improved water resources conditions

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Progress towards IWRM?

IWRM has been a qualified success.

Studies reveal that:

· IWRM principles are internationally accepted but not yet truly applied to drinking water supply and sanitation). · Water source and catchment conservation is gaining recognition but requires further work. · True stakeholder involvement in water allocation decision making remains limited. · The framework to allow management at the lowest appropriate level is often not available. · Capacity building is promoted but not at all levels, and its effectiveness is not monitored. · Stakeholder involvement is growing, but is still too limited and too narrow in focus. · Efficient water use is gaining attention but requires much greater emphasis. · Water is increasingly viewed as having an economic and social value. · Striking a gender balance is often perceived to mean enhancing women’s involvement.

The identified Conditions for Success of IWRM were: There is a set of recurring conditions or decisions that are associated with successful IWRM projects. Not all successful projects have all of these conditions, but many of them are shared by many successful projects. They are:

· All participants agree to and share a common set of goals for the study area. These are defined in advance and modified as required. · Information and data are accessible and provided to all participants. · There is a well-understood “core” of basic information, shared by all, about all aspects of the study area. · Capacity building is targeted towards ensuring that all participants share a common set of basic knowledge, data and capabilities, especially in areas where they are not specialists. · Genuine participatory decision making is the rule, not the exception. · Conflict resolution procedures are available and used. · Reporting is a collaborative process. · Management and implementation are also collaborative

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Water Management

Integrated Water Resource Management

The process of IWRM has been described in many documents from many different sources, but the general consensus of most is based on the broadly accepted definition of IWRM as:

"a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems and the environment " The Global Water Partnership (Internet Access Required)

This evolved from the Dublin Statement and Conference Report [on CD] (1992) and express a holistic, comprehensive, multi-disciplinary approach to water resource problems worldwide. It is based on four “guiding principles” which cover environmental, social, political, and economic issues:

1. “Fresh water is a finite and vulnerable resource, essential to sustain life, development, and the environment. . .”

2. “Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach, involving users, planners, and policy-makers at all levels. . .”

3. “Women play a central part in the provision, management, and safeguarding of water. . .”

4. “Water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized as an economic good. . . .”

The emphasis of the Dublin Statement on the economic value of water rather than water as a universal right is highly contested by NGOs and human rights activists. Up till today it is still the only binding UN document that makes a statement on the issue. In November 2002, however, the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Internet Access Required) adopted General Comment No. 15, which was formulated by experts as a comment on articles 11 and 12 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. In this comment, water is recognized not only as a limited natural resource and a public good but also as a human right. This step - adopting General Comment No. 15 - is seen as a decisive step towards the recognition of water as universal right, although the document has no legally binding power.

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems and the environment.

Diagram of IWRM Interactions

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The diagram is an attempt to show the factors that impact developing an IWRM plan in a watershed or drainage basin.

The four main areas to be considered are:

1. The hydrologic cycle - the physical aspects of water transport and movement in the system 2. Watershed and land use - all the activities in the watershed that affect water cycling, use and quality 3. Economics, social interactions and institutions - human interventions, social and legal aspects, waste treatment, water control measures, and others 4. External Impacts such as global climate change, water transfers (including virtual water imported or exported in food and other products), and atmospheric pollution

There is an interesting summary of web-based documentation on IWRM done by Thelwall et al, that looks at all mentions of IWRM and related terms and determines the most referenced sites.

They list the Top 30 linked pages

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Most are United Nations, NGO or government sites (like the EPA in the USA) with only a few commercial or private sector sites in the top 30. They also analyzed the interlinkages between the Top 50 sites:

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Again, it is clear that a few sites "dominate" with many other sites linking to only a few "key" or "popular" sites. This is interesting since it can imply that:

These top sites are the best since everyone links to them or... Everyone copies everybody else's links or.... Looking at links does not quantify the "quality" of the information or ..... The "Top" sites started first or .... The top sites agreed to "swap" links to enhance their "Google" rating or ..... The Top sites are simply bigger with more opportunities for "in-linking" or ... Many other possibilities!

A simple map of links has also been done for the entire Internet at Lumeta Corp (Internet Access Required) Here is one such map from Lumeta Corporation:

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This is simply a map of linkages, with no assessment of the number of linkages within pages - but it does show the presence of massive concentrations of internet sites in certain places and regions (IP numbers)

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IWRM Problems and Issues

From: . Butterworth, J.; Warner, J.; Moriarty, P.; Smits, S. and Batchelor, C. 2010. "Finding practical approaches to Integrated Water Resources Management". www.water-alternatives.org Volume 3 Issue 1

Local version: IWRMconcepts and practice.pdf

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Summary

We have seen the central importance of water to life on Earth and how it is distributed and cycled through the atmospher, fresh and sea water.

It is an unfortunate fact that only a very small percentage of water is fresh water available for human consumption and use.

The population is increasing to 9 billion by 2050 and large parts of the Earth, mainly developing countries, will be under even more severe water stress than they are now.

The history of civilizations over the centuries is one of improvement in technologies of water management and supply, at even a fairly rapid rate during the Greco-Roman era, followed by a long period of dormancy until the Renaissance and the 19th century, when increasing populations spurred efforts to clean and supply water to the rapidly increasing city populations.

As the knowledge about the health issues surrounding water such as microbiological contamination and chemical pollution increased, more effort was devoted to water treatment and sanitation technologies. Eventually, chlorination of water supplies and safer distribution systems led to a drastic increase in the safety of the water supply leading to the eradication in developed countries of most water-borne infectious diseases. Even so, periodic outbreaks of protozoal and viral water-related diseases require constant vigilance.

Today, issues of governance, management and equity are extremely important to ensure efficient and equitable delivery of safe water and sanitation thoughout the world. It is estimated that for $40 to $50 billion dollars per year, safe water could be provided to all the world's population. For some perspective, in 2013/2014 the world will spend $1747 billion on military budgets and $66 billion on pet foods.

As a demonstration of the complex interactions involving water, Shell Oil recently completed a study originated in 2009 of the inter-relationships between water, energy and food (the Water-Energy-Food Nexus) and initially found over 300 iteractions. They simplified these to 100 interactions and the diagram below shows this Nexus.

Shell personnel commented that "Sectors tend to look at only at their own resources. There's an assumption that there will be enough of the other things you need to develop your thing. That was the reason to start working on the Nexus". Working with Eric Berlow (an ecologist and network expert from Berkeley, U. California) they developed a picture of these interactions.

By their estimates, by 2050 the gap between energy supply and demand could be as big as the total energy industry output in 2000. By 2030, water supply could fall short of demand by 40%. By 2030, the food required to feed the world might be up by 50% with demand for beef (highly water- and land-intensive) up by 80%.

Even if the numbers are not certain, this still very clearly shows that water issues and supplies cannot be viewed in isolation and that a complex interacting web of issues related to water, food, and energy need consideration -- and action!

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From: Shell Oil and WIRED magazine - UK Edition - September 2014

To provide a counterpoint to the scenarios described above, we must remember and acknowledge the tremendous progress that has been made in the past few decades.

According to Peter Gleick of the Pacific Institute, although we still need to address issues of water supply and quality for a large number of people, the situation today is much improved.

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In a talk at the Water Institute at the University of Waterloo, he set forth his ideas on where we have been, where we are today and what we need to do to address the outstanding issues of water and climate change.

It is available on YouTube at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ponjGxp7twk&list=PLawkBQ15NDEkajDjQxgbRZlqXCKXbvtJJ&index=5 (Internet Access required = Right-click and "Open in New window" for the best experience for most browsers)

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Reference Materials

The Concept and Discussion Pages are identical

Bibliography

On-line Bibliography for IWRM

There is a substantial (+3200 references) bibliographic database available for searching on all aspects of IWRM, including water-health issues, at the Mendeley Website http://www.mendeley.com/groups/search/?query=un+water (Internet Access Required)

Search for "UN Water Learning Centre" go to "Papers" in the left-hand section and you can then search that IWRM database for any one of hundreds of keywords.

Go directly there now (Internet Access Required)

Briefly, to perform a full search on the numerous "tags" in the Bibliography, download the up-to-date full list of "Tags" from http://www.colinmayfield.com/wlc/tagslisting.txt (Internet Access Required).

A local version of the listing of tags is here. This version may not be completely up-to-date.

Then, when in the "papers" section of the Group, click on any one of the "Top Tags" from the right-hand sidebar and replace its name in the URL bar at the top of the browser with the one you want to use.

The reason for this convoluted process is that Mendeley does not allow searches on all of the tags, only on a predetermined set of popular tags.

Extra Reading Materials on the CD - A selected List

If accessing this list causes problems (the browser does not return properly to the course materials), try right-clicking on the link and "open in a new window" or "Open in a new tag" or similar instructions in other browsers.

Disease

World Health Statistics - WHO 2012

Water-based diseases - Bachurova - IWA

Global health Risks - WHO 2010

Which Came First: Burden of Infectious Disease or Poverty? - Chase - PLOS 2010

Bibliography of Safe Water, Small Scale and Household Water Treatment - Microsoft Word

Drinking Water

Drinking Water Quality - Parker - IWA

Bibliography of Safe Water, Small Scale and Household Water Treatment - Microsoft Word

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History

A Brief History of Water and Health - Parker - IWA

Ancient Water Technologies - Mays - Springer

Building terrestrial planets Morbidelli, Lunine, O'Brien, Raymond and Walsh

Water Gods – From Wikipedia

Health

Health Impact Assessment for Sustainable Water Management - Parker - IWA

Health-related Risk Assessment - Parker - IWA

Bibliography of Safe Water, Small Scale and Household Water Treatment - Microsoft Word

IWRM

The Dublin Statement

Web Issue Analysis: An Integrated Water Resource Management Case Study - Thelwall, Vann and Fairclough

Practical Approaches to IWRM - Butterworth, Warner, Moriarty, Smits and Batchelor - PLOS 2010

IWRM at a Glance - GWP

IWRM Background - For sustainable use of water - Snellen and Schrevel 2004

IWRM Brochure - Guidelines at a River basin Level - WWAP - UINESCO

Finding Practical Approaches to Integrated Water Resources Management - Butterworth, Warner, Moriarty, Smits and Batchelor

Water Conflict Chronology Timeline - Pacific Institute

Water for Peace - WWAP - UNESCO

Patterns in International Water Resource Treaties - Hamner and Wolf 1998

The Millenium Development Goals Report 2012 - UN

Safe Water for the Community - CDC

Water for Peace - WWAP - UNESCO

Sanitation

Sanitation - Miller -IWA

Helping Sanitation Enter the Era of Sustainability - Miller - IWA

Bibliography of Safe Water, Small Scale and Household Water Treatment - Microsoft Word

Water Quality

Water Quality and Purity - Parker - IWA

Bibliography of Safe Water, Small Scale and Household Water Treatment - Microsoft Word

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