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HISTORY OF ANCIENT

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First Edition: 2017 Second Edition: 2018 Third Edition: 2019

© All rights reserved by MADE EASY PUBLICATIONS. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form without the written permission from the publisher. Contents History of Ancient India

Unit – I: Different Shades of Civilization Family Life...... 43 Social Life...... 43 Chapter-1 Social Divisions...... 44 Indian Pre-History...... 2 Religious Life of Aryans...... 45 1.1 Introduction...... 2 Deities of Early ...... 45 1.2 Age...... 3 3.7 Yagnas or Sacrifices...... 46 1.3 Age (9,000 BC – 4,000 BC)...... 6 3.8 Importance of this Phase...... 46 1.4 Age (9000 BC – 1000 BC)...... 8 3.9 Limitations...... 47 1.5 Age (2800 BC – 700 BC)...... 10 Advent of Aryans and Early Rig Vedic Phase: Important Facts...... 47 Chapter 2 Chapter 4 Indus Valley Civilization...... 14 2.1 Introduction...... 14 Later Vedic Phase...... 51 2.2 Geographical Extent...... 14 4.1 Introduction...... 51 2.3 Phases of Indus Valley Civilization...... 15 4.2 Geographical Expanse...... 51 2.4 Discovery...... 16 4.3 Systematic Expansion...... 51 2.5 Features...... 16 4.4 Reason for Expansion...... 52 2.6 and Contemporary Cultures...... 23 4.5 Political Condition...... 52 2.7 Important Sites...... 23 4.6 Economic Condition...... 54 2.8 End of Civilization Theories...... 27 4.7 Social Condition...... 54 4.8 Religious Practices...... 56 Chapter 3 4.9 Vedic Literature...... 57 Aryans and Early Rig Vedic Phase...... 35 Vedas...... 57 3.1 Aryans...... 35 Sutras...... 59 3.2 Theories: Home and Migration of Aryans...... 35 4.10 Vedic Philosophy...... 59 3.3 Aryans: Route of Migration, Spread and Nyaya Philosophy...... 59 Penetration in India...... 37 Vaisesika...... 59 3.4 Aryans Administration...... 39 Samkhya...... 60 3.5 Economic: Vedic Period...... 41 Yoga...... 60 Nature of Economy...... 41 Mimamsa...... 60 Major Occupations and Ownership of Land...... 42 Vedanta...... 60 ...... 42 Other Important Philosophies...... 61 Trade and Commerce...... 42 4.11 Epics...... 61 Transportation and Medium of Trade...... 42 Ramayana...... 61 Overseas Trade...... 42 Mahabharata...... 61 3.6 Aryan ...... 43 Later Vedic Phase: Important Facts...... 62

(iii) Unit – II: Consolidation of Empires Chapter 6

Chapter 5 ...... 79 Jainism and ...... 65 6.1 Rise of Mahajanapadas...... 79 5.1 Rise of New Religion...... 65 6.2 Reasons for Rise...... 79 5.2 Reasons for the Rise of New Religions...... 65 6.3 Changes with the Rise...... 79 Four-Fold Stratification of Society...... 65 6.4 Ancient Indian Republics...... 79 Rise of New Agricultural Economy...... 65 6.5 Sixteen Mahajanapadas...... 80 Growth of Cities and Trade/Commerce in 6.6 Location of Mahajanapadas...... 81 North-Eastern India...... 65 6.7 Empire...... 81 Material Life to Simple Life...... 65 Rise of Magadha Empire...... 81 Language...... 66 Reasons for the Rise of Magadha...... 82 Curiosity, Debates and Discussions...... 66 Mahajanapadas: Important Facts...... 83 5.3 Jainism...... 66 Tirthankaras...... 66 Chapter 7 Doctrines of Jainism...... 67 Iranian and Macedonian Invasions...... 84 Two Sects of Jainism...... 67 7.1 Iranian Invasion...... 84 Spread of Jainism...... 68 7.2 Importance of North-West...... 84 Main Followers of Jainism...... 68 7.3 Influence of the Contacts...... 84 Jain Councils...... 68 7.4 Alexander’s Invasion...... 84 Jain Literature...... 68 Alexander...... 84 Contributions of Jainism...... 68 Effects and Importance of Alexander's Invasion.85 Jain Architecture...... 68 Iranian and Macedonian Invasions: Contribution in Trade...... 69 Important Facts...... 86 Causes of Limited Spread...... 69 Causes of Decline...... 69 Chapter 8 5.4 Buddhism...... 69 Mauryan Empire...... 87 Gautama Buddha...... 69 8.1 Introduction...... 87 Social Orders and Legislation...... 70 8.2 Chandragupta Maurya (322 BC – 297 BC)...... 87 Five Events in Buddha’s Life...... 70 8.3 Imperial Organization of Chandragupta Maurya.88 Teachings...... 70 8.4 Chanakya...... 88 Doctrines of Buddhism...... 71 8.5 Bindusara (297 BC – 272 BC)...... 89 Spread of Buddhism...... 71 8.6 Asoka...... 89 Main Followers of Buddhism...... 72 Rise of Asoka...... 89 Special Features of Buddhism...... 72 Kalinga War...... 89 Sects of Buddhism...... 73 Impact of Kalinga War...... 89 Buddhist Councils...... 73 Asoka’s Dhamma...... 90 Administration during the Period...... 74 Asoka’s Inscriptions...... 90 Buddhist Literature...... 74 Contribution of Buddhism (Language, Sources of Pillar Stones...... 91 literature, and Trade etc.)...... 74 Language of Inscriptions...... 91 Causes of Decline...... 75 Extent of Asoka's Empire...... 91 Importance and Influence...... 75 8.7 Internal Policy and Buddhism...... 91 5.5 Similarities between Buddhism and Jainism...... 76 8.8 Later Mauryas...... 92 5.6 Differences between Buddhism and Jainism...... 76 8.9 Mauryan Administration...... 93 Jainism: Important Facts...... 77 Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers)...... 93 Buddhism: Important Facts...... 78 Espionage...... 93 (iv) Army...... 93 (335 – 380 AD)...... 109 Administration...... 93 Chandragupta II (C. 380 – C. 415 CE)...... 110 Tax Administration...... 94 Kumaragupta I (415 – 455 AD)...... 111 8.10 Economic Conditions...... 94 Skandagupta (455 – 467 AD)...... 111 8.11 Social Conditions...... 94 Later Guptas...... 111 8.12 Art and Architecture...... 94 10.4 Gupta Polity...... 111 8.13 Sources of Mauryan Empire...... 96 Decentralisation and Devolution of Power...... 111 8.14 Material Culture...... 96 Imperial Government...... 113 8.15 Reasons for Decline...... 96 10.5 Gupta Administration...... 113 8.16 Importance of Mauryan Empire...... 97 Administration at Central Level...... 113 8.17 Limitation of Mauryan Empire...... 97 Administration at Military Level...... 114 8.18 Later kingdoms...... 97 Judicial System...... 115 Mauryan Empire: Important Facts...... 97 Revenue Administration...... 115 Land Grant System...... 115 Unit – III: Regional Blocks of Power 10.6 Gupta Economy...... 115 Introduction...... 115 Chapter 9 ...... 116 Guild System...... 116 Post Mauryan Times...... 100 Economic Regulations...... 116 9.1 Introduction...... 100 Currency...... 117 9.2 Central Asian Contacts with India...... 100 Paucity of Coinage...... 117 Indo Greeks...... 100 Trade and Commerce...... 120 Sakas or Scythians...... 101 Nature of Trade...... 120 Satrap System (60 BC – 2nd Century AD)...... 101 Decline of Trade...... 120 Parthians...... 101 10.7 Science and ...... 121 Kushans (50 – 230 AD)...... 101 Astronomy...... 121 9.3 Central Asian Contacts: Impact...... 102 Mathematics...... 121 9.4 Central Asians: Polity...... 102 Metallurgy...... 121 9.5 Religion...... 102 10.8 Gupta Society...... 121 9.6 Disintegration...... 102 Religion...... 121 9.7 Indian Dynasties...... 102 Social System...... 122 Shunga Dynasty...... 102 Rise of the Landed Class...... 122 ...... 103 10.9 Gupta Art and Architecture...... 122 Mahameghavahana or Chedi Dynasty of 10.10 Gupta Literature...... 123 Kalinga...... 103 Satvahanas ...... 104 10.11 Gupta Inscriptions...... 123 9.8 Foreign Trade...... 106 10.12 The Huna Invasions...... 124 9.9 Importance of this Phase...... 106 10.13 Fall of ...... 124 9.10 Limitations of this Phase...... 106 10.14 Importance of Gupta Empire...... 125 Post Mauryan Times: Important Facts...... 106 Gupta Age: Important Facts...... 125 Chapter 10 Chapter 11

Gupta Age...... 109 and His Times...... 127 10.1 Introduction...... 109 11.1 Introduction...... 127 10.2 Rise of the Guptas...... 109 11.2 Maukhari Dynasty...... 127 10.3 Gupta: Important Figures...... 109 11.3 Naga Dynasty...... 127 Chandragupta I (C. 319 – 335 AD)...... 109 11.4 Magha Dynasty...... 127

(v) 11.5 Vakataka Dynasty...... 127 Sangam Revenue Systems...... 145 Pravarpura-Nandivardhana Branch...... 128 Sangam Economy...... 145 Vatsalguma Branch...... 128 Sangam Society...... 146 End of Vakataka...... 128 Position of Women...... 146 Legacy of Vaktataka Dynasty...... 128 Sangam Religious Beliefs...... 146 11.6 Pushyabhutis...... 129 Beginning of Brahmanism...... 146 11.7 Harshavardhana...... 129 Sangam Literature...... 146 Introduction...... 129 Sangam Art and Architecture...... 147 Polity...... 129 End of Sangam Age...... 147 Administration...... 129 Importance of the Period...... 147 Religion...... 131 12.3 Chalukyas of Badami (543 AD – 755 AD)...... 149 Literature of Harsha...... 131 Introduction...... 148 Buddhism during Harsha’s Rule...... 131 Important Rulers...... 148 11.8 during Harsha...... 132 Polity...... 149 11.9 Economy...... 132 Administration...... 149 11.10 Society...... 132 Religion...... 149 11.11 Hiuen Tsang Account of Harsha’s Rule...... 132 Revenue...... 150 Polity...... 132 Economy...... 150 Administration...... 133 Society...... 150 Religion...... 133 Literature...... 150 Economy...... 133 Art and Architecture...... 150 Society...... 133 Importance of the Dynasty...... 152 Education System...... 133 12.4 Chalukyas of Kalyani (973 AD – 1200 AD)...... 152 11.12 Abhiras Dynasty...... 133 Introduction...... 152 11.13 Sakas of Mahisaka...... 133 Important Rulers...... 152 11.14 Traikutakas Dynasty...... 134 Polity...... 153 11.15 Rashtrakutas Dynasty...... 134 Administration...... 153 11.16 Kalachuris Dynasty...... 136 Religion...... 153 11.17 Gangas Dynasty...... 137 Economy...... 153 Society...... 153 11.18 Palas Dynasty of Bengal...... 138 Literature...... 154 Legacy of Palas...... 138 Art and Architecture...... 154 Administration under the Palas...... 139 Importance of the Dynasty...... 154 Polity...... 139 12.5 Pallavas of Kanchi...... 154 11.19 Senas Dynasty...... 139 Introduction...... 154 11.20 Limitations of the Phase...... 139 Pallavas: A Background...... 155 11.21 Importance of the Phase...... 140 Some Important Rulers...... 155 Pushyabhuti or Vardhana Dynasty: Important Facts...... 140 Polity...... 156 Administration...... 156 Chapter 12 Economy...... 156 Society...... 157 South India...... 142 Religion...... 157 12.1 Early Times to Megalithic Culture...... 142 Literature...... 157 12.2 Sangam Era...... 143 Art and Architecture...... 157 Introduction...... 143 Importance of the Pallava Rule...... 159 Three Dynasties...... 143 South India: Important Facts...... 159 Sangam Polity...... 144 Sangam Administration...... 145 CSE (Prelims) : Previous Questions �����������������161

(vi) I Unit

Different Shades of Civilization

1. Indian Pre-History...... 2 2. Indus Valley Civilization ...... 14 3. Advent of Aryans and Early Vedic Phase ...... 35 4. Later Vedic Phase ...... 51 1 Indian Pre-History

1.1 Introduction The term ‘’ means ‘before history’. It is used to denote both, the times and the events, before which man had invented writing of any form. Robert Bruce Foote was a British geologist and archaeologist he is considered as the father of Indian Pre-History. He was associated with the geological survey and documented the antiquities of the . Present archaeological system of the three main ages i.e., Stone-age, Bronze-age and Iron-age was developed by the Danish archaeologist Christian Jurgenson Thompson in 1820. Based on different type of and techniques, the stages of development in prehistoric period are described as the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age, the Mesolithic or , the Neolithic or New Stone Age and the Chalcolithic Age. During these ages, didn’t know how to write and lived in very primitive way. Also, the human fossils are rarely available beyond 10,000 BC and therefore we have to deduce their living and culture from the artefacts they used. These artefacts are found in various excavations and then studied by different experts. These artefacts, generally, contain the tools, weapons, , , crafts and other relics which are largely made up of stones and this is the reason why prehistoric cultures are known as lithic cultures.

Representation of Early Stone Age Life History of Ancient India 3 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group 1.2 Paleolithic Age • Nagari and Chittorgarh: Both are rich in artefacts and lie in Rajasthan. The term Paleolithic is derived from the Greek word • It is yet another important site in Rajasthan, ‘palaeo’, which means old and ‘lithic’ which means stone. Didwana: and lie in dry region. This region exhibits a mixture of Therefore, the term Paleolithic age refers to the Old Stone pebble tools with different types of choppers and other Age. It covers a long period of time and has undergone chopping tools. many climatic changes. Types of Paleolithic Age: According to the type of the South India () stone tools used by the people, this period has been This region comprises of Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra classifi ed into three sub-periods viz. Pradesh, Karnataka and . Of these, Kerala has so far not yielded any artefact. Types of Paleolithic Age • Tamil Nadu: and Vadamadurai on Types Time Period river Kortalayar near Madras. Early/Lower 500,000 BC – 50,000 BC • Karnataka: Kibbanahalli, Malprabha and Ghatprabha Middle 50,000 BC – 40,000 BC basin, Anagwadi and Shorapur Doab. Upper 40,000 BC – 10,000 BC • Andhra Pradesh: Banks of River Gundlakamma in Kurnool district, Nagarjunakonda on river Krishna. Lower Paleolithic • Maharashtra: Nasik (Nashik), Navesa and Pune. It is the earliest period of human existence and existed from the end of the First (Gunz Glaciation) up to the end The south Indian sites majorly contain the hand of Third Ice Age (Riss Glaciation). The climate during this and cleavers as a . Their precise function is yet to be phase was extreme and man had to struggle with the nature ascertained but some inferences can be made. along with the wild animals. The Indian Lower Paleolithic The chopping tools of north show that the Sohan people culture can be better understood if we take survey of the sites were simple food gatherers. The Hand axes of the southern from where the tools are found and then taking a view of the India were all purpose tools that could have been used for possible usages of these tools and the techniques employed and digging roots. in developing them. We will now geographically divide the sites to better understand them.

North India (Sohan Culture) Sites of this phase are found in valley of Soan or Sohan River in Punjab, now in Pakistan. Several sites are found in Kashmir and tools of this phase are also found in the Belan valley in Mirzapur District of . Chopping Tools

The chief tools of this period as far as is The raw material for these tools was mainly quartzite and at concerned were , hand axes and cleavers. These some points jasper was also used. It can be said that the chopping tools were prepared from pebbles. The tools Lower Paleolithic people were nomadic hunters and food were rough and heavy made by chipping the sides of the gatherers who organized themselves in very small groups. stone. These tools served the purpose of obtaining barks of trees and skins of animals. There are not many sites available for the study of this Central India phase and the key sites remain restricted to some regional pockets of India. The main region for the sites of this phase The region consists of Madhya Pradesh, , and is in the western and the southern India while there are Rajasthan. The banks of river Narmada is the important some small sites in the northern India. tract along which sites have been found. Important sites are as follows: The most important of Middle Paleolithic is the complete change of the raw material in nearly 90% of the • Bhimbetka : This is a group of around 700 and cases, as compared to Lower Paleolithic from Quartzite rock shelters about 40 Km north of river Narmada in to Chalcedony, Chert and Jasper. Many of the sites of Raisen district of MP. this phase coincide with the sites of Lower Paleolithic • Adamgarh: It is a , a few kilometres south phase and the fi rst site of Middle Paleolithic was found in of river Narmada in Hoshangabad. Maharashtra at place called Navesa. The other sites are as follows: 4 Indian Pre-History BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

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An initiative of Group • Karnataka: Taminhal, Bagalkot and Anagwadi. • Baghor II, is a site on the Son river in Uttar Pradesh. • Andhra Pradesh: Chittor, Kurnool, and Nalgonda. In the phase, new tools like blades, • Madhya Pradesh: Bhimbetka caves, Gonchi, Damoh scrapers and burins were used. and Sihora. • Other small sites are found in Luni valley of Rajasthan, Kangra Valley of Punjab, Belan Valley of U.P. The tools of this phase are called fl ake tools as these very small and made out of fl akes. The tools used were Blades, Point, Borers, and Scrappers. In some quantities bifacial Hand axes and other chopping tools were also found. The tools on fl ake were in majority, and so the Middle Paleolithic phase has been called as a Flake culture. The presence of many varieties of scrapers leads us to infer that some of them may have been used to scrape animal skin for clothing.

Art in the Paleolithic Age

Stone tool making

Upper Paleolithic The presence of the Upper Paleolithic phase in India has been in doubt until the tools of this phase were discovered in many sites of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. There are total of 566 sites in India of Upper Paleolithic phase. At this time of prehistory, the climate was less humid, as it coincided with the last phase of the ice age. The important sites of this phase are as follows: • Muchchatla Chintamanu Gavi (MCG) is site in Rock Painting Kurnool district of Andhra Pradesh. Here, the tools had a There are not enough evidences available of the art works 90 percent composition of bones while the remaining 10 of these people. The earliest form of art by humans belongs percent were made up of stones. to Upper Paleolithic period in the form of rock paintings. • Renigunta is a site on the banks of river Rallakalva in The caves of Bhimbetka have some of the rock paintings Chittor district of Andhra Pradesh. Here, blades and of this phase with the subjects of paintings being different burins form the largest group of tools which are made birds, animals, and human beings. The purpose of the of fi ne grained olive green quartzite. painting is still not clear as they didn’t have much of the • Bhimbetka caves, is a cave site containing around time left for painting owing to their nomadic life. However, 700 caves and rock shelters in Raisen district of an opinion could be made that these people depicted Madhya Pradesh. various wild animals to ensure control over them, as they needed to hunt them for their survival. • Belan Valley, is located in Uttar Pradesh. 2 Indus Valley Civilization

2.1 Introduction main region of the civilization as most of the settlements are in this region and show a lot of similarities. The area The middle of the third millennium BCE saw the rise of an formed a triangle and accounted for about 1.299.600 urban civilization, which came to be called as the Indus or square kilometers. Harappan Civilization (circa 2500-1900 BCE). It is called Surkotda and Sutkagen-Dor on the Makran coast, in the Harappan because this civilization was discovered fi rst in hilly region of Baluchistan formed the Western frontiers of 1921 at the modern site of Harappa situated in the West the Civilization. Bargaon, Manpur and Alamgirpur located Punjab provinces in Pakistan. in the Ganga-Yamuna doab of Uttar Pradesh formed the eastern frontiers of the Indus Valley Civilization. In India 2.2 Geographical Extent northern frontiers of the civilization were in the cities of Manda in Jammu and Ropar in Punjab. The Southern The epicenter of the civilization was in present day Pakistan frontiers of the civilization were in the cities Daimabad and North-Western India. From that, the civilization grew in Maharashtra and Bhagatrav in Gujarat. In Gujarat the in all the directions. Historians generally believe that Harappan settlements were fragmented over the areas of Harappa, Ghaggar, Mohenjo-Daro axis represents the Kutch and Kathiawar.

Remains of Harappa History of Ancient India 15 BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

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2.3 Phases of Indus Valley Civilization

Phases Time Era Signifi cance Settlements like and Kili Ghul Muhammad came up in Baluchistan and the Indus plains. Pre 5500 to Cattle rearing was main occupation with limited cultivation. This led to the Harappan Neolithic 3500 BCE seasonal occupation of the villages. phase Permanent villages emerged after some time with production surplus. There is evidence of mud houses, pottery and craft production. 16 Indus Valley Civilization BIG LEARNINGS MADE EASY

An initiative of Group Phases Time Era Significance Number of settlement increased in plains and hills. This era was marked by the use of copper and plough. Extra-ordinary range of pottery forms showing beginning of many regional traditions. This later converged to give a more uniform pottery tradition Early throughout the Indus Valley. 3500 to Harappan This era was marked by the development of religious consciousness 2600 BCE Period which can be supplanted by the origins of themes as Pipal, Humped Bulls, Cobras, horned deity in seals. A large number of buildings like , defensive walls were made during this period. Harappan Emergence of long distance trade can also be seen during this era. phase This era was marked by the emergence of new larger cities. Town planning with efficient drainage mechanism, road networks, uniform houses and walled cities was evidenced. This era was marked by the rise of the long distance trade on a large scale Mature and hence the need for trade related seals and uniform system of weights 2600 to Harappan and measures arose. 1900 BCE Period The art of metallurgy and alloy making grew in leaps and bounds. Abundant of Bronze are found in the Indus valley region. The Art of making the toys and jewelry reached its prime during this phase. This became one of the main articles of trade with other civilizations. A script was developed by now. This phase marks the decline of the Harappan valley civilization. In this phase many Harappan sites were abandoned. Post Late 1900 BCE Interregional trade exchanges declined. Harappan Harappan onwards City life was abandoned on a large scale. Phase Period The village cultures of Punjab, Sutluj-Yamuna divide and Gujarat imbibe the Harappan crafts and pottery traditions.

2.4 Discovery sites were eventually excavated revealing a fragment of India’s past. It brought to light an Indian civilization that In 1826, Charles Masson stood on the mounds of Harappa, could have been as old as the civilizations of Mesopotamia a village in Sahiwal district of Punjab. He mistook it as a and Egypt. place where Alexander had defeated king Porus in battle in the 4th century BCE. Alexander Burnes visited Harappa About the origin of the Harappa civilization many scholars but was unsure of its significance. In the 1850s Alexander have presented different throughts. According to E.J.H. Cunningham visited Harappa only to return in 1872 to find Mackay the origin of the Harappa civilization was due to the stone tools and ancient pottery but this did not intrigue him migration of people from Sumer (Southern Mesopotamia), too much. while historian D.H. Gordon and Martin Wheeler considered that Harappa civilization was the result of migration from It was by the efforts of Indian Western . Amlanand Ghosh is of the view that pre- archeologists Daya Ram Sahni Harappa culture matured to Harappa civilization. and Rakhaldas Banerji, the cities of Harappa (on Ravi) and Mohenjo-Daro or ‘Mound of the 2.5 Features Dead’ (on Indus) were V. Gordon Childe was one of the earliest to make discovered in 1921 and 1922 attempts to define a city in Harappa and Mohenjodaro. He respectively. In 1924 John described them as a symbol of a revolution that marked a Marshall sensed the new economic stage in the evolution of society. According significance of the to him this “Urban Revolution” was neither sudden nor Rakhal Das Banerji archeological findings. The violent. It was a gradual socio-economic change.