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lounges provided companies. and the 18 I ROCK The Prehistory of Rock 'n' Roll I 19
Hank Williams represented for postwar country audiences the enduring Add some R&B-based drumming, too. I think you'll have a hit rock 'n' roll myth of the hard-living, hard-loving rambler. Although the details ofWilliams's record." And had Williams been interested, which is questionable, his name life seem in retrospect to have custom-designed him for legendary status, it is might well have been added to the rockabilly roster, perhaps even close to the important to realize that these were the actual facts of his life: born into crushing top of it. As it is, Williams's early death leaves us pondering what might have
poverty in Alabama, this son of a sharecropper learn~dto make his way at an been; but in any case, a song like "Hey, Good Lookin"' attests to the forward early age by performing on the street, learning a great deal from a black street looking character of his creativity. singer named Rufe "Tee-Tot" Payne. By the time he was sixteen, Williams, now called "the Singing Kid," had his own local radio show; shortly thereafter he THREE BIG HITS OF THE PRE-ROCK 'N' ROLL PERIOD formed a band, the Drifting Cowboys, and began touring throughout Alabama. We pause now to consider in detail three representative hit records from the Enormous success came to Williams by the time he was in his mid-twenties, but period under discussion. In doing so, we will not only become familiar with it did not come without its problems. By 1952 he was divorced, had been fired characteristic sounds of this decade but will also begin to develop skills in from the Grand Ole Opry (for numerous failures to appear), and was seriously listening critically to popular music, and to become familiar with terminology dependent on alcohol and painkilling drugs. He died on New Year's Day 1953 and concepts that will prove essential in our survey of the history of rock at age twenty-nine, having suffered a heart attack in the back of his car while en music. The conceptions of melody, rhythm, harmony, and form reflected in these route to a performance. examples have their roots in music that substantially predates these particular Along with a few ofWilliams's other records, the jaunty "Hey, Good Lookin"' hits. Yet the influence of these conceptions also extended far into the future, as was actually something of a minor crossover hit for him (Number 29 Pop, but will soon become evident. Number 1 on the Country chart-for eight weeks-in 1951). This should not seem surprising, given its danceable character and its pop-friendly AABA form borrowed from Tin The Weavers (Pete Seeger on banjo, Lee Hays, Fred Hellerman, Ronnie Gilbert). Courtesy Library of Congress. Pan Alley models. With its prominent steel guitar and fiddle parts, not to mention the character of Williams's vocal, there's still no mistaking the record's basis in country music. What is most arresting here, however, is the specific targeting of a youthful audience. The lyrics address cars, dancing, and young romance, and the use of terms like "hot-rod Ford," "soda pop," "go steady," and "date book" create what would-about five years later-have been called a "teen-friendly" piece of material. In a sense, "Hey, Good Lookin"' came a little too early, and Hank Williams of course died much too young. Had Williams been able to bring this same song, or something like it, to a savvy record producer in late 1955 or early 1956-to a producer aware of the noise being made by the young Elvis Presley or by Carl Perkins (of "Blue Suede Shoes" fame) at the time-that cynical producer might Hank Williams performs, while Chet Atkins-soon to be have said something like this: "Hank, you've got a hugely influential figure in country music himself, as a something there. Please throw out those fiddles, guitarist and producer-looks on admiringly. Ernie Newton is playing bass. Courtesy of Country Music Hall of Fame though-too hillbilly. And replace the steel guitar and Museum. with a regular electric guitar played R&B-style.
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20 20 "Goodnight, "Goodnight, The Prehistory of Rock 'n' Roll 23 22 I ROCK I
n LISTENING TO "GOODNIGHT, IRENE" LISTENING CHART "GOODNIGHT, IRENE" Written by Huddie Ledbetter (Leadbelly) and performed by The Weavers; recorded 1950 closer look at the opening of "Goodnight, Irene" the phrases of the melody in this song all extend over FORM LYRICS will help introduce some basic examples of a duration four bars in length. Thus a great consistency Brief Instrumental Introduction melody and rhythm. This opening section characterizes the rhythmic patterns of this song at every A Chorus 0.14 Irene, goodnight ... (following a brief instrumental introduction) consists of level: a regular beat; constant three-beat measures; words and music that are repeated regularly together as phrases that are all four measures in length (with Instruments, background voices repeat the chorus tune 0.34 a unit throughout the song; such a section is called a cadences occurring regularly at the end of every other Stro11he1: Verse 0.54 Last Saturday night . . . chorus. The chorus may readily be subdivided into four phrase); a four-phrase melodic chorus. Such regularity phrases, brief building blocks of the melody that are is typical of popular music, since it results in easily Chorus 1.15 Irene, goodnight ... separated from one another by breathing spaces (pauses remembered, reassuringly predictable patterns that lend Stro11he2: Verse 1.35 Sometimes I live ... or rests): themselves readily to singing and dancing. Of course, too much regularity would result in boredom, so most popular Chorus 1.55 Irene, goodnight ... Irene, goodnight; [vocal pause] - songs tread a fine line between what is predictable and Stro11he3: Verse 2.15 Stop ramblin' ... Irene, goodnight; [vocal pause] what creates novelty and interest. Goodnight, Irene, goodnight, Irene, Chorus 2.36 Irene, goodnight ... If we look now at the overall structure of the Weavers' [brief vocal pause] recording, we will be able to appreciate additional Chorus is repeated, fading out 2.56 I'll see ... dreams. [vocal pause] aspects of "Goodnight, Irene"; see the Listening Chart Each phrase has an individual pitch structure, that follows. (This is the first example of the charts that remains consistent and completely predictable in terms record. An additional factor, which brings interest to are presented regularly throughout this book to facilitate sometimes going higher and sometimes lower, in patterns of both words and music, and another section in which the successive vocal choruses, has to do with the that mimic the natural inflections of spoken words; in-depth discussion of some particularly significant the words change, revealing a new event or twist in the aspect of music musicians call harmony. In a very basic recordings. You may want to refer to the chart to reinforce phrases that "sing" naturally are generally a hallmark of developing story. It seems obvious why this verse-chorus sense, harmony deals with the interrelationships among effective songwriting. As is typical of most speech, the and supplement the discussion that follows, and also format became a favored approach to strophic form. different pitches in a musical piece. It may be heard, by vocal melody tends to fall in pitch at the ends of phrases. to use the chart as a visual aid while listening to the In practice, a performance of a strophic song may the time we reach the chorus following the first verse, Some phrase endings seem musically more conclusive recording.) The recurring chorus sections alternate with begin either with a verse or with the chorus. The Weavers' that the melody is being enriched here by having different than others; in the chorus of "Goodnight, Irene" this is verses. The melody for all of the verses is the same recording begins with the chorus, since this part would voices sing different pitches at the same time: While each time, but this verse melody is recognizably different true of the second and fourth phrases, both of which be immediately recognizable to anyone even vaguely the melody remains clearly in the foreground, the other from that of the chorus. What distinguishes the verses end on the same pitch. When the melody reaches such familiar with the song-a clever selling point!-and pitches heard simultaneously are creating chords, which a temporary stopping point-what we might call the end from one another is that new words are sung with each the vocal chorus is itself preceded by an instrumental provide the foundation for harmony in popular music. of a musical "sentence"-musicians call this a cadence. successive verse-while the words to the chorus sections, foreshadowing of the chorus melody, which clearly was The employment of three different solo voices to sing Now what about the rhythm? In the Weavers' recording of course, remain the same each time. Attentive listening designed to spur a feeling of anticipation, along with the three verses provides yet another source of variety. will reveal that each of the verses in "Goodnight, Irene" of "Goodnight, Irene" the musical instruments start to familiarity, in the listener. After the voices first sing the Notice here how apparent it is that the man who sings is constructed analogously to the chorus, insofar as each articulate the beat shortly after the record begins, and chorus with words, the music for the chorus is repeated verse 3 is not the same man who sings verse 1; it is the this regular beat then persists throughout the rest of the verse also may be divided into four phrases, with each without words, by instruments and background voices, specific individual "color; or timbre, of the two voices record, right through the fade-out. All beats are not equally phrase extending over four bars of the ongoing triple reinforcing this essential part of the song before the that allows us to differentiate them. meter, and with clear cadences occurring at the ends of intense, however, and a larger, regular rhythmic pattern is performance proceeds with the first verse. Performances The Weavers' "Goodnight, Irene" exemplifies both the second and fourth phrases. created by the significant accent given to every third beat: of strophic songs almost invariably end with the chorus, the strophic song and the adaptability of this form to In "Goodnight, Irene; one verse and one chorus One, two three; One, two three; One, two which brings a sense of comfortable, predictable various arrangements in performance and recording. In together form a larger structural unit: the strophe of this three; and so on conclusion, and indeed the Weavers' recording follows fact, strophic songs can be almost infinitely adaptable, strophic song. (The term strophe comes from literature, this anticipated procedure, even fading out as the chorus lending themselves to the spontaneous alteration of These groups of three beats, defined by the regular identifying a section of poetry that contains a certain repeats, literally bidding the listener "goodnight." lyrics and to the creation of additional strophes to fit accents, are called measures, or bars. (The three-beat number of lines, usually with a set pattern of meter and The Weavers' recording of "Goodnight, Irene" was new occasions, new contexts, new performers, and new bars-or triple meter-of "Goodnight, Irene" evoke the rhyme.) The alternation of verses and choruses creates designed to avoid the kind of absolutely predictable audiences-since everybody, presumably, either knows rhythm of the waltz, a dance whose popularity dates back a continuing source of variety and interest within the structure that would have made for an uninteresting the tune to begin with, or else can learn it in short order. to the nineteenth century.) It may also be noticed that strophic form, as each strophe presents one section that
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introduction introduction
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at at
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11 11
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twelve-bar twelve-bar
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proved proved
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trumpet trumpet
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follows follows
form form
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for for
and and
horns horns
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Ch'Boogie" Ch'Boogie"
enough enough
becoming becoming
pause pause
verse-chorus verse-chorus
in in
interludes interludes
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fact fact
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together together
to to
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the the
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created created
these these
blues blues
the the
and and
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blues-an blues-an
verses. verses.
instrumental instrumental
era, era,
integrates integrates
recognize recognize
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useful useful
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to to
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foreshadows foreshadows
rock rock
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blues; blues;
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creating creating
introduction introduction
its its
purely purely
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important important
is is
learn learn
the the
overall overall
how how
do do
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recordings recordings
been been
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variety variety
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straightforward straightforward
of of
also also
twelve-bar twelve-bar
twelve-bar twelve-bar
achievement achievement
in in
formal formal
to to
music. music.
in in
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into into
strophes strophes
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to to
of of
but but technical,
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in in
eighteen eighteen
very very
has has
occurrences occurrences
is is
and and
holding holding
twelve-bar twelve-bar
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those those
concluding concluding
blues blues
choruses, choruses,
roll. roll.
a a
listener listener
be.) be.)
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of of
hopefully hopefully
three three
popular popular
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illustrates illustrates
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understand, understand,
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entire entire
CH'BOOGIE" CH'BOOGIE"
relatively relatively
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of of
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styles styles
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was was
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in in
to to
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arranged arranged
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accompanying accompanying
all all
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following following
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the the
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are are
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apparent apparent
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hit hit
success success
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1946 1946
say, say,
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blues blues
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music music
introduce introduce
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pop pop
is is
during during
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corresponds corresponds
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of of
Ch'Boogie" Ch'Boogie"
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"CHOO "CHOO
simple~. simple~.
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the the
to to
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length, length,
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biggest biggest
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bars, bars,
music, music,
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in in
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in in
of of
chorus; chorus;
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commercial commercial
indicates indicates
a a
Choo Choo
songs songs
popular popular
phrase phrase
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artists artists
the the
TO TO
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rhythm rhythm a a
"Goodnight, "Goodnight,
into into
serve serve
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phrases) phrases)
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each each
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and and
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four-beat four-beat
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too too
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blues blues
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mainstream mainstream
over over
the the
to to
of of
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of of
24 24
three three
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Choo Choo
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may may
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four; four; three,
rhythm. rhythm.
of of
bars bars
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meter, meter,
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of of
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two two
bars bars
on on
Ch'Boogie" Ch'Boogie"
important important
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eight eight
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lyrics, lyrics,
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triple triple
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periods periods
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27 27
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rights, rights,
companies companies
songs; songs;
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songwriters songwriters
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of of
along along
quickly quickly
to to
as as
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on on
such such
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AABA AABA
the the
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serves serves
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constructed constructed
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ultimate ultimate
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song song is is
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designed designed
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to to
listener; listener;
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that that
single single
radio radio
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day. day.
attention attention
strong strong
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of of music. music.
heyday heyday
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record record
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pattern; pattern;
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length, length,
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because because
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assure assure
"Married, "Married,
Marriage," Marriage," Pan Pan
to to
to to
and and
to to had had
of of
sustain sustain
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and and
allowed allowed
behind behind in in
with with
style style
equal equal
sung sung
popular popular
return return
number number
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past past
"hook" "hook"
MBA MBA
and and
surprising surprising
Tin Tin
a a
They They of of
words) words)
some some
music music
music music
that that
then then
familiar familiar
to to
to to
and and
sitcom sitcom
accompanied accompanied
memorable memorable
time, time,
words words
appeal appeal
well well
vocal vocal
obvious obvious
introduces introduces
release--or, release--or,
not not
ASCAP ASCAP
presenting presenting
section section A A
industry industry
new new
continues continues of of
established established the
is is
a a
B B
taken taken
offers offers
idea idea
(presumably (presumably
principles principles
typical typical
arrangements arrangements
it it
each each
new new
of"Love of"Love
gratifying gratifying
forms forms
It It
the the
American American
1990s 1990s mind; mind;
sections sections
relationship relationship
music music
turned turned
popular popular
lasting lasting
become become
seem seem
performances. performances.
with with
The The
Heusen, Heusen,
music music
a a
had had
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from from
in in
created created
monopoly. monopoly.
of of
endured endured
the the
the the
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knowing knowing
called called
sections sections
Marriage" Marriage"
idea. idea.
have have
Marriage" Marriage"
song song
clever clever
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bridge bridge
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section section
words words
on on
have have
than than
musical musical
some some
for for
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has has
a a
A A
They They
forge forge
B B
form form
and and
with with
listener's listener's
quickly quickly
of of
hit hit
and and
and and
(usually (usually
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basic basic
construction construction
strategy strategy
presenting presenting
to to
and and
things: things:
identical) identical)
it it form. form. the
deviation deviation
song song
sections). sections).
the the
itself itself
rather rather
the the
it it
will will
publishers publishers typically typically
a a
repetitions repetitions
three three
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mainstream mainstream
A A
Jimmy Jimmy the the
1955 1955
suave suave
effective effective
different different
"Love "Love
frequently frequently
bordered bordered
in in
it it
used used
efficiently. efficiently. and and
standardized standardized
form form structure structure
for for familiar familiar
it it CONCLUSION CONCLUSION songwriters songwriters
songs songs an an restate restate is is
formal formal
two two
conclude conclude
with with
commonly, commonly,
by by
song song
Tin Tin
nearly nearly
while while
section section
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within within
lines lines
any-period. any-period.
and and theme theme the the
several several
venerable venerable elaborate elaborate
The The
The The
"Love "Love
of of
four four
chorus) chorus)
sound sound
first first
horns horns
(12-bar (12-bar
8-bar 8-bar
blues blues
the the
blues blues
blues blues
blues blues
whistle. whistle.
blues blues
the the
+ +
the the
bars bars
COMMENTS COMMENTS
bars bars
DESCRIPTIVE DESCRIPTIVE
bars bars
bars bars
bars bars
train train
8 8
10 10
blues blues
20 20
8 8 12-bar 12-bar
12-bar 12-bar
12-bar 12-bar
8 8
imitate imitate
bars, bars,
During During
a a
12-bar 12-bar
Horton: Horton:
12-bar 12-bar
1946 1946
' '
a a
in in
hack hack
the the
shack shack
back back
Vaughan Vaughan
alack alack
a a
the the
named named
smoke smoke
of of
ballin
with with
recorded recorded
my my
of of
to to
back back
through through
. .
and and
and and
the the
Jack. Jack.
top top
it's it's
Jack. Jack.
track track
on on
CH'BOOGIE" CH'BOOGIE"
clickety-<:lack clickety-<:lack
get get
man man
back back
fellows fellows
front front
Jack
the the
Five; Five;
Jack. Jack.
see see
alas alas
peep peep
a a
to to
the the
track, track,
clickety-<:lack clickety-<:lack
pack pack
when when
track, track,
beaten- the the the the but but of of a a a a can can a a from from railroad railroad rack, rack, Darling. Darling. in in track, track, the the I I CHOO CHOO the the of of needs needs in in whistle, whistle, to to ch'boogie ch'boogie from from ch'boogie ch'boogie the the with with the the to to the the Tympany Tympany a-rollin', a-rollin', democratic democratic paper paper in in rhythm rhythm ch'boogie ch'boogie by by LYRICS LYRICS to to Riley Riley open open whistle whistle back back Denver Denver rhythm rhythm back back choo, choo, choo, choo, of of a a compensation compensation the the with with train train destination, destination, "CHOO "CHOO station station woo, woo, back back back back down down situation situation the the lonesome lonesome life life that's that's right right right right the the choo choo choo choo love love morning morning the the transportation transportation hear hear stack stack Jordan's Jordan's your your woo woo some some the the I I right right the the a a the the me me job job right right of of Gabler. Gabler. hear hear me me around around for for settle settle it it the the just just crack crack jack jack black black I I choo, choo, choo, choo, to to CHART CHART watch watch me me live live woo, woo, read read only only need need take take reach reach pal pal hear hear Louis Louis take take when when put put tired tired Milt Milt take take the the the the back back knack knack the the stack stack Mac Mac from from love love by by Why, Why, So So So So And And Gonna Gonna And And So So The The You You You You And And You You Woo Woo Choo Choo Take Take Choo Choo by by So So I'm I'm I I Headin' Headin' And And And And lyrics lyrics 30 30 . 2.26 2.26 2.14 2.14 LISTENING LISTENING 1 1.19 1.19 0.45 0.45 0.17 0.17 performed performed ROCK ROCK and and I I as as tag tag 26 26 Intro Intro Music Music before] before] solo solo before] before] vocal vocal 1.58 1.58 FORM FORM 1.02 1.02 0.34 0.34 [as [as [as [as 3 3 solo solo brief brief 2 2 1 1 interjection) interjection) Instrumental Instrumental (with (with Chorus Chorus Verse Verse Saxophone Saxophone Chorus Chorus Plano Plano Verse Verse Chorus Chorus Verse Verse Instrumental Instrumental 28 I ROCK The Prehistory of Rock 'n' Roll I 29 that these venues demanded. The result was that non-mainstream musical LISTENING TO "LOVE AND MARRIAGE" forms-especially country and western and rhythm & blues-were able to be ; a simple matter to hear the AABA organization in particular example of AABA song form. It will be noticed more daring, more openly sexual, and more rebellious than mainstream musical 1e and Marriage; especially since each of the A that the music of the second A section is indeed identical forms. It is not difficult to see how this would be appealing to teenagers. And, ~tionsbegins with identical words: the words of the to that of the first A-with one small but important as teenagers became an increasingly dominant consumer demographic, they hich thus serve as a recurring verbal and musical exception: it ends on a different pitch from the first. This would bring this music with them into the mainstream, as rock 'n' roll. ice point for the listener. After a brief instrumental is significant because, as a result of this alteration in the 1ction, the song proceeds as follows: vocal melody (and in the accompanying chord), there is a cadence at the end of the second A whereas there was no A Love and marriage, love and cadence concluding the first A. In a sense, then, the first marriage, go together ... A section sets up the second A, which in turn musically A Love and marriage, love and rounds off the first. The beginning of the B section is marriage, it's an institute ... marked by a particularly striking new chord, which helps to B Try, try . .. A Love and marriage, love and set the music of this section strongly apart. The final A of marriage, go together ... "Love and Marriage" restates not only the music but also many of the words of the opening section. Monotony is •llowing the completion of the form, an instrumental decisively avoided in this case, however, for two reasons. :le presents the A music again, after which Frank First of all, this concluding section is extended beyond 1 reenters and sings the last two sections, B and the expected eight bars to reach a length of eleven bars. e more. A brief instrumental passage ends the Secondly, unlike the first A, this section does reach a ng. cadence (although we are, effectively, forced to wait for it), •Ve and Marriage" is typical of AABA songs of this so it provides a definitive feeling both of rounding and of insofar as it is organized rhythmically in regular conclusion to the overall form. Because of the differences ·at bars that are grouped into sections of eight- among the three A sections in "Love and Marriage; the 1gth. We may also call attention to a few formal form is perhaps best represented as A-A1-B-A2• Jes that lend 'interest and distinction to this that sold their music to the public. In short, they streamlined every aspect of the business, from songwriting to recording to promotion, in order to make it work as efficiently as possible. As the business model became more efficient, it naturally became more narrowly focused. Musicians and songwriters whose musical style or business model did not fit the norm were often excluded from participation. From its own point of view, this approach makes perfect sense: Tin Pan Alley publishers had created an extremely profitable industry, and they had little to gain by sharing it with other composers and musicians, especially those whose music and culture seemed strange and even threatening. From the outsiders' perspective, however, the picture looked very different: The mainstream music industry was preventing entire communities from having their music heard, and-not incidentally-reaping the profits that that could bring. At the same time, the fact that these artists were excluded from radio and mainstream performance venues meant they did not have to be concerned with the strict-and often overtly repressive-standards of propriety