ISSN 1108-4170
TÇ EÚtupon X TeÜqoc 7, >Oktÿbrioc 2001 E TW Sfl AUTO TO TEUQOS:
^EnTEXna & ŁTEXna ...... iii Shmeiÿseic toÜ tupogrĹfou ...... iv Dhmătrhc Lènhc kai EÔh PÐnh X Arqaðkă tupografÐa: StoiqeiojetÿntATac ènaEqeirìgrafo pareljìn ...... L...... 1 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc bab Efarmogèc Anagnÿrishc ProtÔpwn: DÔo nèa sustămata gia thn suggrafă kai optikă anagnÿrish thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac ...... 25
Jukka K. Korpella el
A tutorial on character code issues ...... 47 Claudio Beccari Two new Greek font faces: the Lipsiakos and the dvips Roman ...... 79 Claudio Beccari An extension package for Hellenic philology ...... 83 TEXnikèc: DhmiourgÐa klimakwtÿn grafikÿn ...... 89 BiblÐo-ParousÐash ...... 91
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MÐa periodikŸ êkdosh toÜ DhmokriteÐou PanepisthmÐou JrĹkhc sà sunergasÐa mà tän SÔllogo
XANJH TÇ EÚtupon ISSN 1108-4170
EÚtupon (Eutupon) is a publication of Tä EÚtupon ĆpoteleØ mÐa periodikŸ êkdosh toÜ the Democritus University of Thrace DhmokriteÐou Panepisthmiou JrĹkhc sà suner- (Greece) in collaboration with the “Greek ∗ ∗ gasÐa mà tä SÔllogo
Tä EÚtupon stoiqeiojetăjhke mà tä LATEX.
ParorĹmata prohgoumènou teÔqouc (6, >AprÐlioc 2001)
StŸn sel. 17, tä {formulae} êgine {formulz} kaÈ stŸn sel. 63, éna {thc} êgine {thsv}.
EÖtupon TeÜqoc No. 7 >Oktwbrioc 2001 1
Arqaðkă tupografÐa: Stoiqeiojetÿntac èna qeirìgrafo pareljìn.
d r e i mti is lnis Evi Pini (Dhmătrhc Lènhc) (EÔh PÐnh) [email protected]
PerÐlhyh
A Se autì to Ĺrjro gÐnetai mia parousÐash twn dunatotătwn tou LTEX na stoiqeiojetăsei se arqaðkèc grafèc, merikèc apì tic opoÐec exafa- nÐsthkan prin apì 3000 qrìnia, me thn qrăsh twn grammatoseirÿn twn pakètwn archaic tou Peter R. Wilson kai copte tou Serge Rosemorduc.
1. Eisagwgă
PolÔ suqnĹ, ìsoi asqoloÔmaste me to TEX, akoÔme ă lème epiqeirămata u- pèr tou; epiqeirămata pou èqoun na kĹnoun me thn poiìthta tou ektÔpou, thn dunatìthta autìmathc arÐjmhshc exisÿsewn sqhmĹtwn kai pinĹkwn, th staje- rìthtĹ tou (se sqèsh me thn astĹjeia twn wysig antistoÐqwn), ton èlegqo sto apotèlesma k.lp. k.lp. NomÐzoume ìti ta epiqeirămata autĹ eÐnai asjenă: mpo- roÔn eÔkola (ă dÔskola. . . ) na antistrafoÔn, eĹn aÔrio kĹpoia megĹlh etairÐa (me mikrì kai malakì ìnoma) stajeropoiăsei kai beltiÿsei orismèna apì ta polÔ diadedomèna proðìnta thc (ja prèpei na prospajăsei polÔ, eÐnai h alăjeia). Gia ton prÿto apì touc grĹfontec, to basikì (kai entelÿc adÔnato na anti- grafeÐ apì opoiodăpote emporikì prìgramma stoiqeiojesÐac) pleonèkthma tou TEX`LATEX eÐnai h apÐsteuth eisbolă {Ĺqrhsthc} (toulĹqiston apì emporikă skopiĹ) epinohtikìthtac pou epitrèpei1. ’Etsi, lìgú thc eufuÐac pou epènduse ston eleÔjero qrìno tou kĹpoioc koc Wilson, to LATEX mporeÐ na kalÔyei (è- stw kai me kĹpoia kenĹ) kai ta 3500 qrìnia istorÐac twn ellhnikÿn grafÿn. MporeÐ epÐshc na stoiqeiojetăsei se alfabhtikèc kai sullabikèc grafèc Ĺllwn
1 Qarakthristikì pou moirĹzetai me ìla ta progrĹmmata {anoiqtoÔ} kÿdika, ex ou kai h ìyimh allĹ stajeră protÐmhsh tou prÿtou apì touc dÔo mac gia to Linux. 2 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
glwssÿn pou perièpesan se aqrhstÐa prin apì, ac poÔme, 3000 qrìnia, ă akìma ` akìma kai se aiguptiakĹ ieroglufikĹ, hlikÐac 5500 qrìnwn2. H tupografÐa qrhsimopoiăjhke exarqăc, apì thn epoqă tou Goutembèrgiou, gia alfabhtikèc grafèc. Prin apì autìn ìmwc, emfanÐsthkan kai, Ôstera apì diadromă qiliĹdwn qrìnwn, qĹjhkan pollèc alfabhtikèc ă mh grafèc. To LATEX dÐnei thn anadromikă dunatìthta se ekeÐnon ton grafèa pou pèjane prin apì treisămisu qiliĹdec qrìnia, na xanastoiqeiojetăsei tic pinakÐdec tou se qartÐ (ă sthn ojình tou). . . . EÐnai Ĺqrhsto, allĹ den eÐnai entupwsiakì?
2. Mikrì mĹjhma istorÐac
H dhmiourgÐa thc grafăc eÐnai sundedemènh me tic prÿtec pìleic pou Ĺrqisan na akmĹzoun sthn Mèsh Anatolă (sthn legìmenh {eÔforh hmisèlhno} ) perÐ thn èkth qilietÐa. EkeÐ ătan h prÿth forĹ sthn anjrÿpinh istorÐa pou to pleìnasma thc agrotikăc paragwgăc ătan eparkèc gia na sunthrăsei mia sqetikĹ poluĹn- jrwph tĹxh ierèwn, oi opoÐoi èginan kai oi diaqeiristèc autoÔ tou pleonĹsmatoc [1]. H katagrafă kai apojăkeush thc paragwgăc, h katanomă thc merÐdac twn jeÿn, to moÐrasma twn agrÿn, ătan h anĹgkh pou odăghse sthn epinìhsh thc grafăc. Aplopoiÿntac arketĹ, mporoÔme na poÔme pwc upĹrqoun treic kÔrioi trìpoi anaparĹstashc se graptĹ shmeÐa thc glÿssac:
To eikonografikì sÔsthma, ìpou kĹje lèxh anaparÐstatai apì thn eikìna
thc: Gia parĹdeigma, se polÔ arqaÐec epoqèc, to sÔmbolo m twn ieroglu- fikÿn mporoÔse na shmaÐnei {koukoubĹgia}. Profanÿc, to sÔsthma autì èqei polÔ periorismènec dunatìthtec, afoÔ qreiĹzontai tìsa shmeÐa ìsa kai ta ousiastikĹ miac glÿssac, enÿ eÐnai adÔnath h grafă afhrhmènwn ennoiÿn, rhmĹtwn, Ĺklitwn merÿn tou lìgou k.lp.
Ta {ieroglufikĹ} (to ideografikì sÔsthma), ìpou kĹje shmaÐnon (kĹje lèxh, kĹje ènnoia) aposundèetai apì thn Ĺmesh eikìna thc. Gia parĹdeigma
sta aiguptiakĹ ieroglufikĹ k shmaÐnei {esÔ}, m shmaÐnei {mèsa}, k.lp. Epiplèon mporoÔn na sunduastoÔn shmeÐa gia na dÿsoun nèec lèxeic.
2 Ta ieroglufikĹ stoiqeiojetoÔntai me to pakèto Sesh Nesout, epÐteugma tou kou Ser- ge Rosmorduc. Sthn plărh tou morfă eÐnai katĹ thn gnÿmh mac kuriolektikĹ farawnikÿn diastĹsewn. Edÿ ja deÐxoume mìno tic suntomeumènec dunatìthtec (perÐpou 70 ieroglufikoÐ qaraktărec) pou èqei enswmatÿsei o Wilson sto pakèto hieroglyph. Arqaðkă tupografÐa 3
To fwnhtikì sÔsthma, ìpou plèon grĹfetai o fjìggoc (o ăqoc). Gia pa-
rĹdeigma, kai pĹli sta ieroglufikĹ, ta shmeÐa k kai m mporoÔn na diabastoÔn wc aplÿc oi fwnhtikèc axÐec {k} kai {m} antÐstoiqa. Na sh- meiwjeÐ ìti upĹrqoun dÔo trìpoi fwnhtikăc grafăc: autìc pou ta sÔmbola anaparistoÔn sullabèc ( {sullabogrĹmmata} ) kai autìc pou ta sÔmbola anaparistoÔn aploÔc fjìggouc ` opìte milĹme gia alfĹbhta.
FusikĹ oi grafèc potè den emfanÐzontai se mia apì tic pio pĹnw kajarèc morfèc: apì polÔ nwrÐc oi ideografikèc grafèc eÐqan sullabikĹ stoiqeÐa, enÿ oi fwnhtikèc grafèc èkanan suqnìterh ă araiìterh qrăsh ideogrammĹtwn. A- kìma kai se mia entelÿc katastalagmènh alfabhtikă grafă san thn dikă mac emfanÐzontai suqnĹ ideogrĹmmata ;-) GenikĹ, mia ideografikă grafă qreiĹzetai èna terĹstio plăjoc shmeÐwn gia na kalÔyei ìlec tic ènnoiec. H ieroglufikă èqei perÐ tic 3500 shmeÐa (apì ta opoÐa ftĹnoun ìmwc 800 wc 1000 gia na kalÔyoun plărwc thn glÿssa, lì- gú tou gegonìtoc ìti h ieroglufikă èqei kai alfabhtikă qrăsh). Gia èna pio sÔgqrono parĹdeigma, stic arqèc tou 20ou ai. prin thn glwssikă metarrÔjmish, ènac morfwmènoc kinèzoc èprepe na xèrei toulĹqiston 10 000 ideogrĹmmata (apì ta perÐpou 40000 thc kinezikăc). EÐnai emfanèc to mègejoc thc duskolÐac sthn yhfiopoÐhsh tètoiwn grafÿn! Mia sullabikă grafă qreiĹzetai polÔ ligìtera, perÐpou 50 wc 100 sÔmbola, anĹloga me thn glÿssa pou anaparistĹ. FusikĹ, oi alfabhtikèc grafèc eÐnai oi aploÔsterec dunatèc: stic sÔgqronec glÿssec arkoÔn 22 wc 36 grĹmmata. H prÿth plărwc anaptugmènh grafă emfanÐzetai perÐ ta tèlh thc 4hc qi- lietÐac p.Q. sthn MesopotamÐa, h Soumeriakă sfhnoeidăc3. H grafă aută, pou qrhsimopoiăjhke apì pollèc glÿssec, metaxÔ twn opoÐwn h arqaÐa persikă kai h shmitikă thc OugkarÐt (grafèc pou ja doÔme parakĹtw), èzhse mèqri ton 1o ai. m.Q. Sqedìn tautìqrona, perÐ to 3000 p.Q. emfanÐzetai h aiguptiakă ieroglufi- kă pou èmeine se qrăsh mèqri ton 4o ai. H teleutaÐa ieroglufikă epigrafă naoÔ, pou brÐsketai sto nhsÐ Filè tou NeÐlou, qarĹqthke to 394 m.Q.4. Mia endiafè- rousa leptomèreia: AitÐa exafĹnishc thc aiguptiakăc grafăc ătan h qristianikă ekklhsÐa pou thn jeÿrhse ìrgano twn paganistÿn kai thn apagìreuse. EÐnai endiafèron ìti ` katĹ kĹpoio trìpo ` h arqaÐa aiguptiakă glÿssa epèzhse mèqri sămera lìgú thc Ðdiac ekklhsÐac: h leitourgÐa thc koptikăc ekklhsÐac gÐnetai mèqri sămera sta (exafanismèna apì thn kajhmerină omilÐa) koptikĹ, perÐpou ì- pwc h orjìdoxh gÐnetai sta arqaÐa ellhnikĹ sthn EllĹda, sta arqaÐa slabonikĹ sthn RwssÐa k.lp. H koptikă eÐnai o mìnoc Ĺmesoc apìgonoc twn aiguptiakÿn.
3 Prìdromec prospĹjeiec anĹgontai mèqri kai dÔo qiliĹdec qrìnia pio prin. 4 To teleutaÐo gnwstì keÐmeno se {dhmotikă} grafă, mia aplopoihmènh ieroglufikă gia kajhmerină qrăsh se pĹpuro kai ìqi lÐjinec stălec, qronologeÐtai sto 450 m.Q. 4 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
To endiafèron eÐnai ìti h diatărhsh twn ierÿn keimènwn sthn Koptikă apaitoÔse mia grafă, h opoÐa bèbaia den mporoÔse na eÐnai h apagoreumènh ieroglufikă. Ti pio fusikì apì thn Ellhnikă? To koptikì alfĹbhto proèrqetai apì to ellhnikì: ta prÿta grĹmmatĹ tou eÐnai ta A B G D E Z H È k.lp. Epeidă autĹ den ka- lÔptoun ìlouc touc ăqouc thc Koptikăc, prostèjhkan èxi qaraktărec apì thn dhmotikă ieroglufikă gia thn anaparĹstash twn idiaÐterwn fjìggwn thc arqaÐ- ac aiguptiakăc. ’Etsi to koptikì alfĹbhto perièqei kai ta èxi sÔmbola y f j Ð Ñ q Ó, pou eÐnai exèlixh antÐstoiqwn sumbìlwn thc dhmotikăc aiguptiakăc grafăc, dhladă aplopoihmènwn ieroglufikÿn. AnexĹrthta apì th sfhnoeidă kai thn ieroglufikă kai perÐpou qÐlia qrìnia argìtera, gÔrw sto 2000 p.Q., sthn Krăth anaptÔqjhke h krhtikă ieroglufikă, h opoÐa èqei afăsei elĹqista katĹloipa gia touc arqaiolìgouc. O peribìhtoc dÐ- skoc thc FaistoÔ, den eÐnai grammènoc se autăn thn grafă [2] ` Ðswc na mhn eÐnai kan ftiagmènoc sthn Krăth5. H krhtikă ieroglufikă kai h grafă tou dÐskou thc FaistoÔ, sÔmfwna me tic wc tÿra endeÐxeic, ja parameÐnoun anapokruptogrĹfh- tec gia pĹnta. ’Omwc apì to 1850 ` 1450 p.Q. perÐpou, oi krătec qrhsimopoÐhsan thn grammikă A, mia sullabikă grafă. FaÐnetai ìti toulĹqiston merikĹ apì ta shmeÐa thc teleutaÐac apoteloÔn exèlixh thc Krhtikăc ieroglufikăc. EÐnai polÔ pijanìn ìti sto Ĺmeso mèllon ja upĹrxei h apokruptogrĹfhsă thc, afoÔ upĹr- qei susswreumènoc ènac eparkăc ìgkoc tekmhrÐwn. Gia thn ÿra agnooÔme pia glÿssa krÔbetai pÐsw thc. Den isqÔei to Ðdio gia to epìmeno stĹdio, thn Grammikă B. H apokrupto- grĹfhsh thc teleutaÐac apì touc Chadwik kai Ventris (oi opoÐoi basÐsthkan sthn polÔtimh suneisforĹ thc Miss Cober pou spanÐwc anafèretai) eÐnai èna sunarpastikì anĹgnwsma gia ìsouc endiafèrontai gia thn kruptogrĹfhsh [4, ?, ?]. H Grammikă B eÐnai (ìpwc kai h A) mia sullabikă grafă. KĹje shmeÐo thc eÐnai mia sullabă. Gia parĹdeigma, to shmeÐo 3 diabĹzetai ti k.o.k. To endia- fèron eÐnai ìti qrhsimopoiăjhke gia thn grafă thc (polÔ prÿimhc) ellhnikăc glÿssac, apì to 1450 wc to 1200 p.Q. H grafă aută eÐnai mĹllon akatĹllhlh gia ta ellhnikĹ: den diaqwrÐzei braqèa kai makrĹ fwnăenta, den diaqwrÐzei to lĹmbda kai to ro oÔte to pi kai to fi, den mporeÐ na apodÿsei eÔkola sumfw- nikĹ sumplègmata6 k.a. Se tètoiec leptomèreiec den mporoÔme na epektajoÔme edÿ, dec [4, ?]. FaÐnetai ìmwc ìti ătan bolikì gia touc AqaioÔc pou katĹkthsan thn Krăth na {metatrèyoun} thn ădh upĹrqousa grafă tou nhsioÔ kai na thn qrhsimopoiăsoun. En eÐdei paradeÐgmatoc, na shmeiÿsoume ìti h lèxh 3OHD metagrĹfetai ti-ri-po-de-, dhl. {trÐpodec}. Perissìtera stoiqeÐa sthn §4 kai sto parĹrthma 5.
5 PĹntwc, autìc pou ton èftiaxe, ătan mĹllon propĹtorac tou Goutembèrgiou, afoÔ o dÐskoc eÐnai èntupoc! KĹje stoiqeÐo tou proèrqetai apì thn pÐesh mikrăc sfragÐdac . . . 6 aută h lèxh èqei dÔo: mpl kai gm. Arqaðkă tupografÐa 5
Dustuqÿc, apfl ìti faÐnetai, thn grafă aută thn qrhsimopoÐhsan apoklei- stikĹ gia dioikhtikoÔc skopoÔc, dhladă gia tic leptomereÐc katagrafèc twn apojhkÿn twn anaktìrwn. Bèbaia, oi pinakÐdec pou sÿjhkan eÐnai emfanÿc prì- qeirec katagrafèc, perÐpou san shmeiÿseic pou argìtera (Ðswc sto tèloc thc qroniĹc?) ja kajarografoÔn. Ta {kalĹ} biblÐa pou antistoiqoÔn sta {prìqei- ra} den èqoun brejeÐ. Profanÿc oi kanonikèc katagrafèc (kai pijanÿc Ĺlla, mh logistikĹ keÐmena) gÐnontan se {eugenă} ulikĹ ìpwc o pĹpuroc ă to dèrma. EÐnai mia eirwnÐa ìti ta {eugenă} autĹ ulikĹ, antÐjeta me tic tapeinèc pălinec pinakÐdec, den epèzhsan twn katastrofÿn tou tèlouc thc epoqăc twn Aqaiÿn. Thn epoqă perÐpou pou ston kurÐwc Elladikì qÿro gÐnontan autèc oi kata- strofèc, mia sullabikă grafă pou moirĹzetai merikĹ sullabogrĹmmata me thn Grammikă B, Ĺrqise na qrhsimopoieÐtai sthn KÔpro. EÐnai pijanì ìti, metĹ thn katastrofă twn mukhnaðkÿn pìlewn, oi AqaioÐ pou epoÐkhsan to nhsÐ èferan mazÐ touc kai mia tropopoihmènh morfă thc grafăc touc. H grafă aută èzhse apì perÐpou to 1000 wc to 200 p.Q. Qrhsimopoiăjhke gia thn grafă thc El- lhnikăc glÿssac. To gegonìc ìti exakoloujoÔse na qrhsimopoieÐtai akìma mia epoqă pou upărqe to Ellhnikì alfĹbhto, epètreye thn grăgorh apokruptogrĹ- fhsă thc to 1870, lìgú thc Ôparxhc epigrafÿn kai me ta dÔo sustămata grafăc (ìqi {dÐglwssec} allĹ ja lègame {dÐgrafec} epigrafèc, afoÔ kai oi dÔo grafèc diabĹzontai sthn Ðdia glÿssa). Tautìqrona me thn grammikă A, perÐ to 1600 p.Q., Ĺrqise na qrhsimopoieÐ- tai sthn Mèsh Anatolă o prìgonoc twn perissìterwn alfabătwn tou kìsmou. Prìkeitai gia thn palaioshmitikă grafă, èna pragmatikì alfĹbhto 23 grammĹ- twn. Sthn pragmatikìthta prìkeitai gia mia seirĹ apì diaforetikĹ alfĹbhta ta opoÐa sunantÿntai sthn bibliografÐa kai wc {palaiosinaðtikă} ă {palaioqana- anitikă} grafă7. ’Opwc ìla ta shmitikĹ alfĹbhta mèqri tic mèrec mac, den eÐqe fwnăenta, mìno sÔmfwna kai hmÐfwna. Pijanìn to arqikì alfĹbhto exèlixan kai dièdwsan eurÔtata se ìlo ton tìte gnwstì kìsmo oi FoÐnikec. To dikì touc ătan mia exèlixh tou prohgoÔmenou, 22 qaraktărwn. Ta prÿta dÔo grĹmmata tou FoinikikoÔ alfabătou ătan ta Ĺlef a kai mpèj b, (sugkrÐnete kai ta prwtoshmhtikĹ a b) lèxeic pou shmaÐnoun {bìdi} kai {oÐkoc}, antÐstoiqa mèqri kai sămera stic shmitikèc glÿssec8. To trÐto grĹmma eÐnai to Foinikikì g, to gimel. H lèxh shmaÐnei mèqri kai sămera {kamăla} stic perissìterec glÿssec tou kìsmou. ’Opwc eÐpame, den upărqan fwnăenta sta alfĹbhta autĹ, ggnc p smn t t fnnt nnnt (gegonìc pou shmaÐnei ìti ta fwnăenta ennooÔntai). MĹllon dÔskolo na
7 EÐnai pijanì ìti h idèa tou alfabătou xekÐnhse lÐgo pio prin me thn alfabhtikă sfhnoeidă A grafă thc OugkarÐt, h opoÐa epÐshc perilambĹnetai sta arqaðkĹ alfĹbhta tou L TEX. 8 Gia parĹdeigma h sunagwgă sta EbraðkĹ lègetai mpej salìm, oÐkoc eirănhc. KouÐz: man- tèyte ti shmaÐnei ElisĹbet! 6 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
katalĹbei kaneÐc ta EllhnikĹ se èna tètoio alfĹbhto! Autìc eÐnai o lìgoc pou oi ’Ellhnec èkanan mia polÔ shmantikă prosjăkh sto alfĹbhto9, ton 9o ai. p.Q.: Prìsjesan ta fwnăenta, qrhsimopoiÿntac gia thn apeikìnisă touc ta shmeÐa tou FoinikikoÔ alfabătou pou den eÐqan axÐa sthn fwnhtikă thc Ellhnikăc glÿssac. Gia parĹdeigma to foinikikì e, pou eÐnai aplÿc ènac dasÔc ăqoc (he), ègine e- yilìn, dhl. kanonikì fwnăen kai apèkthse Ellhnikì ìnoma (antÐstoiqa kai gia ta o, u, h k.o.k.). EpÐshc exellănisan ta onìmatĹ touc (Ĺlef → Ĺlfa k.lp). To ellhnikì alfĹbhto arqikĹ grafìtan ìpwc kai to foinikikì, âpÐ tĹ laiĂ, dhladă apì dexiĹ proc ta aristerĹ, argìtera boustrofhdìn (ìpwc pĹei to bìdi pou orgÿnei, prÿta apì dexiĹ proc aristerĹ kai metĹ aristerĹ proc dexiĹ) kai en tèlei ìpwc kai sămera. Apì to Ellhnikì alfĹbhto proèrqontai to Etrouskikì kai to Rwmaðkì, ta KurillikĹ alfĹbhta kai to Koptikì. Apì to Foinikikì proèrqetai to Aramaðkì, apìgonoc tou opoÐou eÐnai to Ebraðkì kai to Arabikì. Oi exelÐxeic sthn istorÐa twn alfabătwn anakefalaiÿnontai ston pÐnaka (1).
3. TEXnikèc leptomèreiec
3.1. EgkatĹstash
To pakèto archaic apoteleÐ mèroc tou TEX Live 5d, allĹ den sumperilambĹ- nontai ekeÐ ìlec oi grammatoseirèc (den ja breÐte tic sfhnoeideÐc, ta ieroglufikĹ kai thn prwtoshmitikă grafă). OmoÐwc den sumperilambĹnontai ekeÐ ta koptikĹ. ’Ola autĹ pĹntwc mporeÐte na ta breÐte sto CTAN. H egkatĹstash eÐnai aploÔstath: KĹje grammatoseirĹ perièqetai se ènan katĹlogo me to ìnomĹ thc. EkeÐ brÐskonta ta arqeÐa *.ins, *.dtx, try- font.tex, ìpou * to ìnoma thc grammatoseirĹc, p.q. greek4cbc, ta Ellh- nikĹ tou 4ou p.Q. ai. Trèqete apì to LATEX ta arqeÐa *.ins gia na pĹrete ta arqeÐa tÔpou sty, fd kai mf. To mìno pou mènei eÐnai na topojetăse- te autĹ ta arqeÐa se mèroc pou to TEX na mporeÐ na ta brei: ta sty kai fd gia parĹdeigma mporoÔn na mpoun se ènan katĹlogo .../texmf/tex/latex/- local/archaic, enÿ ta arqeÐa mf mporoÔn na topojethjoÔn ston katĹlogo .../texmf/fonts/source/public/archaic, ă kĹti parìmoio. An jèloume thn plărh tekmhrÐwsh (tìso gia ton trìpo qrăshc ìso kai ton kÿdika), tì- te prèpei na trèxoume mèsa apì to LATEX kai to arqeÐo *.dtx, tou opoÐou to apotèlesma ja eÐnai èna dvi arqeÐo me to manual thc grammatoseirĹc (kalì ` allĹ ìqi anagkaÐo ` ja ătan gia na trèxei swstĹ to *.dtx, to sÔsthmĹ mac na
9 Epìmenh (kai ousiastikĹ teleutaÐa) shmantikă exèlixh ătan h epinìhsh apì touc Buzan- tinoÔc antigrafeÐc ton 9o m.Q. ai. thc mikrogrĹmmathc grafăc. Arqaðkă tupografÐa 7
PÐnakac 1: H exèlixh twn alfabătwn. Oi antistoiqÐec sthn ekforĹ twn sumbìlwn den eÐnai pĹnta akribeÐc. p.Q. p.Q tikì 6oc 4oc t oshmi nikì glufikì nikikì Iero OugkarÐ Prwt Foi Ellhnikì Ellhnikì Etrouskikì Koptikì Neoellhnikì Lati
a a a A A a a A A, a A,a A, a b b b B B b B b B, b B, b B, b g g g G G g G g G, g G, g G, g d d d D D d D d D, d D,d D, d e e E E e E e E, e E, e E, e z z z Z Z z Z z Z, z Z, z Z, z h h h H H H H h H, h H, h H, h J i ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ T È,8i J, j i i I I i I i I, i I, i I, i k k k K K k K k k, k K, k K, k l l l L L l L l L, l L, l L, l m m m M M m M m M, m M, m M, m n n n N N n N n N, n N, n N, n X ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨ x Ê, É X,x o o O O o O o O, o O, o O, o p p p P P p P, p P, p P, p P p q q q Q q Q q Q, q r r r R R r R r R, r R, r R, r s s s S S s S s C, c S, c C,c t t t T T t t T, t T, t T, t v v U U u Y y U, u U, u Y, y u u U u U, u f F ˘ ˘ f ˘ F f , Ì, Ë F, f F, f x x X X x X X, x Q,q X, x ¯ ¯ ¯ Î, Í Y,y ˙ ˙ 8 W, w W,w 8 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
èqei egkatesthmènh thn efarmogă docstrip, dhladă to pakèto docmfp). Tÿra to mìno pou mènei eÐnai na enhmerwjeÐ to TEX gia tic allagèc pou èginan, dh- ladă l.q. se teTEX prèpei na trèxoume thn efarmogă texhash (isodÔnama thn grafikă efarmogă texconfig) kai se DOS/win to antÐstoiqo batch mktexlsr (ă na ekkinăsoume thn parajurikă efarmogă gia thn rÔjmish tou mikTEX).
3.2. Qrăsh
KĹje mia apì tic grammatoseirèc pou perigrĹfhkan wc tÿra mporeÐ na klh- jeÐ me thn antÐstoiqh entolă \*family ă, isodÔnama me thn entolă text* (dec pÐnaka 2), efìson ston prìlogo tou arqeÐou èqei fusikĹ mpei to antÐstoi- qo \usepackage. Oi entolèc kai ta onìmata twn pakètwn brÐskontai sugken- trwmèna ston pÐnaka (2) ` na shmeiwjeÐ ìti den orÐzetai koptikă oikogèneia kai ìti gia ta KoptikĹ ston prìlogo tou arqeÐou mac prèpei, ektìc apì thn \usepackage{copte}, na mpei kai h entolă \usepackage[COP,T1]{fontenc}, (kĹti pou dhmiourgeÐ kĹpoia mikrĹ problămata sumbatìthtac me kĹpoiec leitour- gÐec Ĺllwn grammatoseirÿn ` dec §3.2.4).
PÐnakac 2: Oi oikogèneiec grammatoseirÿn. Grafă Oikogèneia package ParĹdeigma
pmhgfamily hieroglf textpmhg{A} Ieroglufikă \ \ = A OugkarÐt \cugarfamily ugarite \textcugar{a} = a Palaiopersikă \copsnfamily oldprsn \textcopsn{a} = a Grammikă B \linbfamily linearb \textlinb{a} = a Kupriakă \cyprfamily cypriot \textcypr{a} = a Prwtoshmitikă \protofamily protosem \textproto{A} = A Foinikikă \phncfamily phoenician \textphnc{a} = a Ellhnikă 6oc \gvibcfamily greek6cbc \textgvibc{A} = A Ellhnikă 4oc \givbcfamily greek4cbc \textgivbc{A} = A Etrouskikă \etrfamily etruscan \textetr{A} = A Koptikă copte \textcopte{A} = A H koptikă qreiĹzetai epiplèon ston prìlogo thn entolă \usepackage[COP,T1]{fontenc}
3.2.1. EllhnikĹ, EtrouskikĹ kai KoptikĹ
Gia tic Ellhnikèc, thn Etrouskikă kai thn Koptikă grafèc ta prĹgmata eÐnai eÔkola: to keÐmeno Arqaðkă tupografÐa 9
AUTH EINAI H ELLHNIKH GRAMMATOSEIRA EKTOU AI˙NA, AUTH H GRAMMATOSEIRA TETARTOU AI˙NA, h grammatoseira tetartou ai˙na {ra˘} ETROUSKIKA ARISTERA PROS DE¨IA
aial at ipe akiksuorte
— — — Kai auta einai Koptika, grĹfthke me th seirĹ entolÿn:
\textgvibc{AUTH EINAI H ELLHNIKH GRAMMATOSEIRA EKTOU AI\TOmega{}NA}, \textgivbc{AUTH H GRAMMATOSEIRA TETARTOU AI\TOmega{}NA}, {\givbcfamily h grammatoseira tetartou ai\tOmega{}na} (({\givbcfamily ra\tPhi})) \textetr{ETROUSKIKA ARISTERA PROS DE\TXi{}IA} \begin{flushright} \textetr{aial at ipe akiksuorte} \end{flushright} \textcopte{Kai aut\=a e\=inai Koptik\=a}}.
KĹpoiec parathrăseic:
Oi arqaÐec Ellhnikèc grafèc ătan kefalaiogrĹmmatec. H givbcfamily perilambĹnei dÔo morfèc: thn smooth kai thn rough ( {raf} ), me mikrèc metaxÔ touc diaforèc. Tic kaloÔme, ìpwc sto parĹdeig- ma me kefalaÐa kai mikrĹ antÐstoiqa. ’Opwc eÐnai fanerì, se genikèc grammèc akoloujeÐtai h sunhjismènh an- tistoÐqhsh ellhnikoÔ kai latinikoÔ plhktrologÐou, me th diaforĹ ìti ta grĹmmata J, X, F, Y kai W dhlÿnontai me tic entolèc \TTheta, \TXi, \TPsi kai \TOmega, ÿste na mhn upĹrqei mpèrdema me ta antÐstoiqa grĹm- mata tou majhmatikoÔ keimènou. To F eÐnai to dÐgamma F kai to Q to kìppa Q, ta opoÐa ătan akìma se qrăsh ton 6o ai. Ta EtrouskikĹ grĹfontan {âpÐ tĹ LaiĹ}. Parfl ìla autĹ, ta EtrouskikĹ dÐnontai kai stic dÔo dunatèc grafèc: H entolă \textetr{M} dÐnei to apotèlesma M (aristerĹ → dexiĹ), enÿ h \textetr{m} dÐnei to m (dexiĹ → aristerĹ). FusikĹ, an qrhsimopoieÐte L/W den qreiĹzetai na grĹfete anĹpoda. . . 10 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
PÐnakac 3: Ellhnikì AlfĹbhto 4ou ai. p.Q.
Smooth Entolă Rough Entolă Smooth Entolă Rough Entolă A A a a N N n n B B b b ¨ \TXi ¨ \tXi G G g g O O o o D D d d P P p p E E e e R R r r Z Z z z S S s s H H h h T T t t ˆ \TTheta ˆ \tTheta U U u u I I i i X X x x K K k k ˘ \TPhi ˘ \tPhi L L l l ¯ \TPsi ¯ \tPsi M M m m ˙ \TOmega ˙ \tOmega
Ta KoptikĹ èqoun kefalaÐa kai mikrĹ. EpÐshc èqoun tìno pou dhlÿnetai me thn entolă \=. Kai edÿ upĹrqei parìmoia antistoiqÐa latinikoÔ ` {koptikoÔ} plhktrolo- gÐou.
Oi akribeÐc sunduasmoÐ plăktrwn gia kĹje grĹmma autÿn twn alfabătwn dÐnon- tai stouc pÐnakec (3) èwc (??).
3.2.2. ’Alla alfĹbhta
Edÿ ta prĹgmata eÐnai kĹpwc pio perÐploka, dedomènou ìti den upĹrqei Ĺmesh antistoiqÐa twn grammĹtwn touc me to Ellhnikì ă Latinikì alfĹbhto, eidikĹ sthn perÐptwsh tou alfabătou thc OugkarÐt. Autìc eÐnai o lìgoc pou o Wilson dÐnei gia merikèc apì autèc dÔo trìpouc kwdikopoÐhshc: Gia parĹdeigma to shmeÐo pou antistoiqeÐ sto hmÐfwno10 {a} eÐnai to a. To shmeÐo autì parĹgetai me opoiadăpote apì tic dÔo entolèc
\textcugar{a} \textcugar{\Ua}.
H duskolÐa ègkeitai sto gegonìc ìti se autăn thn grafă upĹrqoun l.q. toulĹqiston trÐa shmeÐa pou antistoiqoÔn se fjìggouc pou sta EllhnikĹ dia- bĹzontai ìloi wc {q} (Se mia glÿssa ìpwc ta GallikĹ den upĹrqei trìpoc
10 Prosoqă, den profèretai wc fwnăen allĹ wc hmÐfwno! Arqaðkă tupografÐa 11 metagrafăc twn fjìggwn autÿn!). Epomènwc, mia antistoÐqhsh me èna sumbati- kì plhktrolìgio eÐnai adÔnath. Oi fjìggoi autoÐ eÐnai oi: h H I. O prÿtoc eÐnai h daseÐa, o deÔteroc to {q} kai o trÐtoc to bajÔ laruggikì q pou dusko- leÔei idiaÐtera ìpoion dutikì prospajeÐ na mĹjei ArabikĹ ă ebraðkĹ. EÐnai pio eÔkolo na jumĹtai kaneÐc thn proforĹ touc parĹ ìti parĹgontai apì tic entolèc
\textcugar{h} \textcugar{H} \textcugar{I}.
Gia autì upĹrqoun oi enallaktikèc entolèc
\textcugar{\Uh} \textcugar{\Uhu} \textcugar{\Uhd},
(ìpou to \U shmaÐnei {OugkarÐt} ). ’Etsi to keÐmeno t: latiI: gra pi: Sphinidi stoiqeiojeteÐtai me thn entolă
\textcugar{\Ut : \Ul\Ua\Ut\Ui\Uhd : \Ug\Ur\Ua\Up\Ui : \Usa\Up\Uh\Ui\Un\Ui\Ud\Ui}.
Gia na doÔme pwc diabĹzetai, mporoÔme na dÿsoume thn entolă \translitcugar pou metagrĹfei to sfhnoeidèc keÐmeno se fwnhtikĹ sÔmbola. H
\translitcugar{\Ut : \Ul\Ua\Ut\Ui\Uhd : \Ug\Ur\Ua\Up\Ui : \Usa\Up\Uh\Ui\Un\Ui\Ud\Ui} ja dÿsei: t: latih. : grapi: śphinidi pou diabĹzetai (se polÔ eleÔjerh metagrafă), {to LATEX grĹfei sfhnoeidă}! O plărhc katĹlogoc twn entolÿn thc sfhnoeidoÔc thc OugkarÐt brÐsketai ston pÐnaka (4), enÿ stouc pÐnakec (5) kai (6) brÐskontai oi antÐstoiqec entolèc gia to prwtoshmitikì kai Foinikikì alfĹbhto, ta opoÐa eÐnai pio aplĹ sthn qrăsh touc.
3.2.3. Oi sullabikèc grafèc
’Opwc eÐdame, h antistoÐqhsh plhktrologÐou gia thn alfabhtikă grafă thc OugkarÐt, pou mazÐ me shmeÐa stÐxhc k.lp. èqei 31 sÔmbola, eÐnai dÔskolh. Gia tic sullabikèc grafèc, me ta perÐpou 80 èwc 90 sÔmbola eÐnai adÔnath! Autìc eÐnai 12 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
PÐnakac 4: To AlfĹbhto thc OugkarÐt Timă GrĹmma ASCII Entolă Timă GrĹmma ASCII Entolă a a a \Ua d D D \Udb b b b \Ub ¯n n n \Un g g g \Ug z. Z Z \Uzd h H H \Uhu s s s \Us d¯ d d \Ud ‘ ‘ ‘ \Ulq h h h \Uh p p p \Up w w w \Uw s. x x \Usd z z z \Uz q q q \Uq h. I I \Uhd r r r \Ur .t J J \Utd t T T \Utb y y y \Uy ¯g˙ G G \Ugd k k k \Uk t t t \Ut ś S S \Usa i i i \Ui l l l \Ul u u u \Uu m m m \Um `s X X \Usg : : : \Uwd
o lìgoc pou, an kai upĹrqoun ASCII kwdikopoiăseic gia autèc, h metagrafă se entolèc eÐnai mĹllon pio qrăsimh. Ac to doÔme me èna sugkekrimèno parĹdeigma, thn grammikă B (dec pÐ- naka 8). H entolă \textlinb{a} ja èqei to Ðdio apotèlesma me thn entolă \textlinb{\Ba}, to shmeÐo a. Mèqri edÿ ta prĹgmata eÐnai eÔkola; ìmwc u- pĹrqoun Ĺllec 12 sullabèc pou perièqoun to a, mÐa gia kĹje sÔmfwno, da, ja, ka, ma, na, pa, qa, ra, sa, ta, wa, za, qwrÐc na logariĹsoume tic pijanèc èxtra sullabèc me to a, eÐte difjìggouc, p.q. to a3 < (pou profèretai ai), eÐte pijanĹ dasèa: a2 = ; (profèretai ha, dhl. Ą; to latinikì alfĹbhto qrhsimopoieÐtai katĹ sÔmbash sthn metagrafă thc grammikăc B). EÐnai epomènwc pio eÔkolo na jumĹtai kaneÐc ìti h sullabă ni C dÐnetai apì thn \textlinb{\Bni} parĹ apì thn \textlinb{C}. Ta Ðdia isqÔoun katfl analogÐa kai gia tic Ĺllec sullabikèc grafèc, an gÐ- noun oi katĹllhlec antikatastĹseic, dhl. antÐ gia thn entolă \textlinb{}, oi antÐstoiqec entolèc tou pÐnaka (2) kai antÐ gia ton deÐkth \B, oi deÐktec \O gia ta palaiopersikĹ, \C gia thn Kupriakă sullabikă, kai \H gia thn Ieroglufikă (pou ìmwc eÐnai arketĹ pio perÐplokh). FusikĹ gia ìlec tic parapĹnw grafèc upĹrqei h entolă \translit*{}, ìpou * h oikogèneia. Ac doÔme edÿ to parĹdeigma pou dÐnei o Wilson sthn tekmhrÐwsh tou pakètou oldpersian. O Xèrxhc eÐqe bĹlei na qarĹxoun autăn thn epigrafă sthn eÐsodo tou palatioÔ thc Persèpolhc: Arqaðkă tupografÐa 13
PÐnakac 5: Prwtoshmitikì AlfĹbhto. Ta erwthmatikĹ shmaÐnoun Ĺgnwsth sh- masÐa. ’Onoma ShmasÐa Timă A→D D→A Entolă Entolă A→D D→A alpu bìdi A a A a A betu oikÐa B b B b B ?? xÔlo? G g g ?? yĹri? ? d D d D ?? ?? Z z z ?? Ĺntrac? ? e E e E wawwu agkÐstri W w w hotu frĹqthc H h H h H ?? ?? ? i i yadu qèri Y y Y y Y kappu palĹmh K k K k K lamdu boukèntra L l L l L mayyuma? nerì M m m nahasu fÐdi N n n enu mĹti O o O o O ?? ?? ? p p ?? pìdi? ? u U u U ?? futì? ? v V v V ?? kìmpoc? ? q Q q Q rasu kefĹli R r R r R ?? lotìc? S s s ?? ?? ? x X x X tawwu shmĹdi T t t 14 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
PÐnakac 6: Foinikikì AlfĹbhto ’Onoma ShmasÐa A→D D→A Entolă Entolă A→D D→A aleph bìdi A a A a beth oÐkoc B b B b gimel kamăla G g G g daleth jÔra D d D d he parĹjuro? E e E e vau nÔqi F ă V f ă v F ă V f ă v zayin egqeirÐdio? Z z Z z cheth frĹqthc? H h H h thet ˆ ˆ \TTheta \tTheta yod qèri I i I i kaph palĹmh K k K k lamed boukèntra L l L l mem nerì M m M m nun yĹri N n N n samech stÔloc ¨ ¨ \TXi \tXi ayin mĹti O o O o pe stìma P p P p tsade W w \Tsade \tsade qoph kìmpoc? Q q Q q resh kefĹli R r R r shin dìntia S s S s tav stÐxh T t T t
PÐnakac 7: Entolèc gia ta shmeÐa thc Kupriakăc sullabikăc a e i o u \Ca a \Ce e \Ci i \Co o \Cu u g \Cga g j \Cja j \Cjo b k \Cka k \Cke K \Cki c \Cko h \Cku v l \Cla l \Cle L \Cli d \Clo f \Clu q m \Cma m \Cme M \Cmi y \Cmo A \Cmu B n \Cna n \Cne N \Cni C \Cno E \Cnu F p \Cpa p \Cpe P \Cpi G \Cpo H \Cpu I r \Cra r \Cre R \Cri O \Cro U \Cru V s \Csa s \Cse S \Csi Y \Cso 1 \Csu 2 t \Cta t \Cte T \Cti 3 \Cto 4 \Ctu 5 w \Cwa w \Cwe W \Cwi 6 \Cwo 7 z \Czo 9 Arqaðkă tupografÐa 15
xSyarSa:xSayoiy:vzrk: xSayoiy:xSayoiyanam: daryvhuS:xSayoiyhya:puC: hxamniSiy:
H metagrafă tou parapĹnw me thn \translitcopsn dÐnei
xa-ša-ya-a-ra-ša-a-: xa-ša-a-ya-tha-i-ya-: va-za-ra-ka-: xa-ša-a-ya-tha-i-ya-: xa-ša-a-ya-tha-i-ya-a-na-a-ma-: da-a-ra-ya-va-ha-u-ša-: xa-ša-a-ya-tha-i-ya-ha-ya-a-: pa-u-ça-: ha-xa-a-ma-na-i-ša-i-ya-:
to opoÐo metafrĹzetai wc ¨ER¨HS MEGAS BASILEUS BASILEUS BASILE˙N UIOS DAREIOU AXAIMENIDHS.
3.2.4. IeroglufikĹ
Ta IeroglufikĹ, lìgú twn pollÿn diaforetikÿn trìpwn me touc opoÐouc mporoÔn na stoiqeiojethjoÔn kai tou megĹlou plăjouc touc, eÐnai me diaforĹ h pio dÔskolh apì tic grammatoseirèc11 pou parousiĹzontai. Katfl arqĹc h sunăjhc proeidopoÐhsh: ta fwnăenta esăqjhsan sthn grafă apì touc ’Ellhnec. Oi AigÔptioi den ègrafan ta fwnăentĹ touc. Ta fwnăenta twn pinĹkwn (10) kai (11) eÐnai eÐte hmÐfwna ă sÔmbash twn sÔgqronwn Aigu-
ptiolìgwn. Se ieroglufikĹ, to a ătan A mìno ìtan to qrhsimopoÐhsan gia na metagrĹyoun ta onìmata twn Ellănwn ă RwmaÐwn hgemìnwn. To a diabazìtan wc to hmÐfwno glwttidikăc stĹshc (glottal stop), (sumbolÐzetai z) kĹti Ĺgnw- sto stic dutikèc glÿssec, allĹ kontĹ sto a twn FoinÐkwn kai to antÐstoiqo ‘ Ĺlef ℵ twn EbraÐwn. Kai to A, (fwnhtikì sÔmbolo ` den eÐnai daseÐa) den eÐnai oÔte autì a, allĹ ènac hqhrìc tribìmenoc laruggikìc ăqoc, to o twn FoinÐkwn, san to arabikì {aðn}. ’Ara oi metagrafèc sto kai apì to alfĹbhtì mac den eÐnai kai polÔ akribeÐc12. UpĹrqoun dÔo entolèc gia thn stoiqeiojesÐa ieroglufikoÔ keimènou: h gnw- stă \textpmhg{} (dec pÐnaka 2) kai h \pmglyph{}. H prÿth aplÿc metagrĹfei to latinikì keÐmeno pou eÐnai to ìrismĹ thc, sÔmfwna me tic sumbĹseic tou pÐnaka (11):
11 ’Iswc o ìroc {ieroglufoseirèc} na eÐnai pio swstìc se autăn thn perÐptwsh. . . 12 Gia mia eÔlhpth eisagwgă sta ieroglufikĹ kai thn proforĹ touc, dec to [10]. EpÐshc (sta gallikĹ, polÔ pio eidikì keÐmeno) to didaktorikì tou Rosemorduc (gia tic anĹgkec tou opoÐou o teleutaÐoc sqedÐase ta ieroglufikĹ!) sto [11]. 16 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
\textpmhg{To LaTeX se Ieroglyfika} = To LaTeX se Ie roglyfika. H deÔterh kĹnei kĹti parapĹnw: mimeÐtai lÐgo tic diakosmhtikèc idiìthtec twn Ieroglufikÿn, diatĹssontĹc ta. ParĹdeigma: H \textpmhg{Kliopadra} KleopĹtra eÐnai = Kliopadra. ’Omwc to \pmglyph{K:l-i-o-p-a-d:r-a} K d dÐnei liopara: o sunduasmìc {K:i} shmaÐnei stoiqeiojesÐa tou K pĹnw apì to i, o sunduasmìc {p-a} ìti ta dÔo sÔmbola ja mpoun sthn Ðdia seirĹ k.lp. Epiplèon upĹrqei kai h Dèl- toc (agglistÐ kai gallistÐ cartouche), pou ătan ènac trìpoc shmatodìth- shc basilikÿn onomĹtwn. ’Etsi, h apokruptogrĹfhsh twn Ieroglufikÿn xe- kÐnhse ìtan o GiĹngk arqikĹ kai telikĹ o Sampoliìn paratărhsan ìti sthn p l stălh thc Rozètac to sÔmbolo toMys prèpei na ătan to ìnoma tou faraÿ PtolemaÐou EupĹtoroc. ’Etsi h ento lă thc dèltou autăc eÐnai h \Cartouche{\pmglyph{\Hp:\Ht-\Ho-\Hl:\HM-\Hy-\Hs}}. EpÐ tù eukairÐ- ø, \translitpmhg{\Hp:\Ht-\Ho-\Hl:\HM-\Hy-\Hs} =p:t-wz-l:m-y-s. Na kai ènac Alèxandroc: l nr zlks Êndrs. aksidS PĹntwc na shmeiwjeÐ ìti ta perÐpou 70 ierìglufa tou pakètou hieroglf eÐnai mìno èna paiqnÐdi. Gia na kĹnei kaneÐc sobară aiguptiologÐa qreiĹzetai to plărec pakèto sesh nesout tou Serge Rosemorduc me pĹnw apì 650 qaraktărec. H periplokìthta tou teleutaÐou allĹ kai to mègejoc thc douleiĹc autăc, mac upoqreÿnoun na kĹnoume mia ektenèsterh parousÐash sto mèllon.
Mia shmeÐwsh: Oi entolèc \translitcopsn,\translitpmhg k.lp. meta- grĹfoun kĹnontac qrăsh fwnhtikÿn sumbìlwn. Gia parĹdeigma sthn epigra- S \textcopsn{\Osva} ša- fă tou Xèrxh, to ( ) metagrĹfetai wc ., to a (\pmglyph{\Ha}) metagrĹfetai fwnhtikĹ z) k.lp. Dustuqÿc merikĹ tètoia sÔmbola eÐnai asÔmbata me to pakèto T1 tou fontenc pou qreiĹzetai gia ta koptikĹ. Epomènwc h tautìqronh qrăsh kopti- kÿn kai ieroglufikÿn, persikÿn ă Ougkaritikÿn, mporeÐ na prokalèsei kĹpoiec mikrèc asumbatìthtec. Arqaðkă tupografÐa 17
PÐnakac 8: Entolèc gia ta basikĹ shmeÐa thc Grammikăc B a e i o u \Ba a a \Be e e \Bi i i \Bo o o \Bu u u d \Bda d d \Bde D D \Bdi f f \Bdo g g \Bdu x x j \Bja j j \Bje J J \Bjo b b \Bju L L k \Bka k k \Bke K K \Bki c c \Bko h h \Bku v v m \Bma m m \Bme M M \Bmi y y \Bmo A A \Bmu B B n \Bna n n \Bne N N \Bni C C \Bno E E \Bnu F F p \Bpa p p \Bpe P P \Bpi G G \Bpo H H \Bpu I I q \Bqa q q \Bqe Q Q \Bqi X X \Bqo 8 8 r \Bra r r \Bre R R \Bri O O \Bro U U \Bru V V s \Bsa s s \Bse S S \Bsi Y Y \Bso 1 1 \Bsu 2 2 t \Bta t t \Bte T T \Bti 3 3 \Bto 4 4 \Btu 5 5 w \Bwa w w \Bwe W W \Bwi 6 6 \Bwo 7 7 z \Bza z z \Bze Z Z \Bzo 9 9 DeutereÔonta shmeÐa a2 \Baii ; a3 \Baiii < au \Bau = dwe \Bdwe > dwo \Bdwo ? nwa \Bnwa @ p3 pu2 \Bpuii \ pte \Bpte ] ra2 \Braii ^ ra3 \Braiii _ ro2 \Broii ‘ swa \Bswa { swi \Bswi | ta2 \Btaii } two \Btwo ~ ArijmhtikĹ ShmeÐa MonĹdec DekĹdec EkatontĹdec QiliĹdec 1 \BNi ¸ \BNx » \BNc fl \BNm & 2 \BNii ˛ \BNxx – \BNcc ffi 3 \BNiii ‚ \BNxxx — \BNccc ffl 4 \BNiv ‹ \BNxl \BNcd 5 \BNv › \BNl ‰ \BNd ! 6 \BNvi “ \BNlx ı \BNdc " 7 \BNvii ” \BNlxx \BNdcc # 8 \BNviii „ \BNlxxx ff \BNdccc $ 9 \BNix « \BNxc fi \BNcm % 18 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
PÐnakac 9: Palaoipersikă Sfhnoeidăc Timă ShmeÐo ASCII Entolă Timă ShmeÐo ASCII Entolă a a a \Oa na n n \Ona i i i \Oi nu N N \Onu u u u \Ou pa p p \Opa ka k k \Oka fa f f \Ofa ku K K \Oku ba b b \Oba xa x x \Oxa ma m m \Oma ga g g \Oga mi w w \Omi gu G G \Ogu mu M M \Omu ca c c \Oca ya y y \Oya ja j j \Oja ra r r \Ora ji J J \Oji ru R R \Oru ta t t \Ota la l l \Ola tu T T \Otu va v v \Ova tha o o \Otha vi V V \Ovi ça C C \Occa sa s s \Osa da d d \Oda ša S S \Osva di P P \Odi za z z \Oza du D D \Odu ha h h \Oha
Ierìglufa lèxewn ProforĹ ShmeÐo ASCII Entolă xš¯ayathiya X X \Oking dahy¯auš q q \Ocountrya dahy¯auš Q Q \Ocountryb bumiš¯ L L \Oearth baga B B \Ogod Auramazd¯a e e \OAura Ahuramazda E E \OAurb Ahuramazda F F \OAurc | : : \Owd Arqaðkă tupografÐa 19
PÐnakac 10: KwdikopoÐhsh Aiguptiakÿn Ieroglufikÿn \HAii \HNxxix \HAai (A2) I (N31) K (Aa1) C \HAxxviii \HNxxxv \HAaxii (A28) Y (N35) n (Aa12) M \HDi \HNxxxvii \HPWi (D1) Q (N37) z (PW1) x \HDii \HOi \HPWii (D2) q (O1) j (PW2) y \HDiv \HOiv \HFxxxi (D4) e (O4) h (F31) ´ \HDxxi \HOxxxiv \HGxxvi (D21) r (O34) S (G26) ˆ \HDxxxvi \HQiii \HGxxvis (D36) A (Q3) p (G26*) ˜ \HDxlvi \HRvii \HGxxvii (D46) d (R7) B (G27) ¨ \HDxlvii \HSxii \HGxxviii (D47) P (S12) v (G28) ˝ \HDliv \HSxxix \HZvi (D54) L (S29) s (Z6) ˚ \HDlviii \HSxxxix (D58) b (S39) ? \HExxiii \HSxli (E23) l (S41) c \HFi \HTiii (F1) X (T3) u \HFxxxiv \HTxiv (F34) G (T14) / \HFxl \HUxxxvi (F40) Z (U36) J \HGi \HViv (G1) a (V4) o \HGxvii \HVxiii (G17) m (V13) T \HGxxxvi \HVxxiv (G36) R (V24) U \HGxliii \HVxxviii (G43) w (V28) H \HHviii \HVxxxi (H8) O (V31) k \HIix \HWxi (I9) f (W11) g \HIx \HXi (I10) D (X1) t \HKi \HYiV (K1) F (Y1v) V \HMiii \HZi (M3) N (Z1) | \HMviii \HZvii (M8) E (Z7) W \HMxvii \HZxi (M17) i (Z11) + 20 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
PÐnakac 11: Alfabhtikă kwdikopoÐhsh Aiguptiakÿn Ieroglufikÿn \HA ‘ \Ha z \Hplus A A a a + + Êmy \HB b \Hb b \Hquery awt B B b b ? ? \HC \Hc \Hslash kmz C C c c / / . D \HD d d \Hd d | \Hvbar w ‘ D ¯ d | \HE š z \He \Hms ms E E e e ´ F \HF f \Hf f \Hibp dh. wty F f ˆ ¯ \HG \Hg g \Hibw bz G G g g ˜ \HH h \Hh h \Hibs H H . h h ¨ \HI \Hi \Hibl gm I I i i ˝ \HJ hm \Hj pr \Hsv J J . j j ˚ \HK k \Hk k K K . k k \HL \Hl l L L l l \HM m \Hm m M M m m \HN \Hn n N N n n \HO zst \Ho wz O O o o \HP \Hp p P P p p \HQ tp \Hq hr Q Q q q . \HR wr \Hr r R R r r \HS s \Hs s S S s s T \HT t t \Ht t T ¯ t U \HU wd u \Hu h. d U ¯ u ¯ \HV \Hv nbw V V v v \HW w \Hw w W W w w X \HX h x \Hx X ¯ x \HY \Hy y Y Y y y \HZ zw \Hz š Z Z z z Arqaðkă tupografÐa 21 4. Pìso kalèc eÐnai autèc oi grammatoseirèc?
MporoÔme na sugkrÐnoume thn di- plană pinakÐda13 me thn metagrafă thc se LATEX. To keÐmeno xekinĹei wc exăc: 1bg1Y, hRTR, xmTQ, 2HUhRTRQ: kr6HUQ: oG2hK: oGkPeWQ 3kh:n6b k.lp. Katfl arqĹc h metagrafă sto LATEX twn shmeÐwn thc grammikăc B (ìpwc kai twn perissìterwn apì tic grafèc pou exetĹzoume) den eÐnai aplă, ex ai- tÐac thc èlleiyhc tupopoÐhshc twn qei- rìgrafwn autÿn shmeÐwn ` pollÿ mĹl- lon pou to ulikì grafăc ătan o idiaÐ- tera dÔskoloc phlìc kai epiplèon prì- keitai aplÿc gia prìqeirec shmeiÿseic. ’Iswc sta {kalĹ} katĹstoiqĹ touc oi grafeÐc na qrhsimopoioÔsan mia pio tupopoihmènh grafă, kĹti pou ìpwc eÐ- pame pio pĹnw, mĹllon den ja mĹjoume potè.
To shmantikì eÐnai ìti h douleiĹ ìpoiou jèlei na kataskeuĹsei mia gramma- toseirĹ apì autì to prÿto ulikì eÐnai pio dÔskolh apì tou Goutembèrgiou14. EntoÔtoic, h prosferìmenh grammatoseirĹ grammikăc B èqei uyhlă anagnw- simìthta kai plhsiĹzei eparkÿc sto prwtìtupo. ’Iswc ja mporoÔse kaneÐc na parathrăsei ìti eÐnai kĹpwc pio gwniÿdhc apfl ìti ja èprepe, allĹ autì eÐnai
13 SÔmfwna me thn stĹntar arÐjmhsh eÐnai h PY Jn 929 thc PÔlou. Dec parĹrthma (5) gia leptomèreiec kai [2, sel. 132, 249] apfl ìpou kai h eikìna, gia plărh metĹfrash k.lp. 14 . . . o opoÐoc eÐqe ta se polÔ megĹlo bajmì tupopoihmèna qeirìgrafa thc epoqăc tou. 22 D. Lènhc & EÔh PÐnh
polÔ mikrì elĹttwma an analogisteÐ kaneÐc ìti ìqi mìno eÐnai h monadikă duna- tìthta pou prosfèretai gia stoiqeiojesÐa autăc thc grafăc, allĹ prosfèretai kai dwreĹn.
Parìmoiec parathrăseic mporeÐ na kĹnei kaneÐc genikĹ gia tic perissìterec apì tic grammatoseirèc pou parousiĹzontai. An exairèsei kaneÐc thn ieroglu- fikă kai thn sfhnoeidă (pou brÐskontan se suneqă qrăsh gia pĹnw apì treic qiliĹdec qrìnia kai ètsi apèkthsan ènan axioshmeÐwto bajmì tupopoÐhshc), den upărqe ènac monadikìc trìpoc grafăc. ’Olec oi grammatoseirèc eÐnai eparkÿc anagnÿsimec kai plhsiĹzoun arketĹ sta qeirìgrafa prwtìtupĹ touc. Mia mikră mìno antÐrrhsh: O Wilson, sthn tekmhrÐwsh thc Ellhnikăc 6ou ai. anafèrei: {Oi grammatoseirèc pou parousiĹzontai edÿ prospajoÔn na eÐnai qarakthristikèc twn ellhnikÿn qaraktărwn se qrăsh perÐ ton 6o p.Q. ai.}. Se autì mĹllon a- potugqĹnoun: ton 6o ai., ston elladikì qÿro ătan se qrăsh perissìtera apì trÐa alfĹbhta (kuriìtera to Attikì, to Qalkidikì kai to Iwnikì) [9], me arketèc diaforèc tìso metaxÔ touc, ìso kai me thn grammatoseirĹ gvibc, pou ètsi den apoteleÐ ton {koinì tìpo} twn alfabătwn autÿn. AntÐstoiqa, h palaioshmitikă grammatoseirĹ, ìpwc aută tupopoieÐtai, mikră sqèsh èqei me thn pragmatikìth- ta; toulĹqiston edÿ o Wilson lèei: {păra ì,ti apì tic phgèc mou ătan diajèsimo kai èftiaxa kĹti san mia ‘genikă’ prwtoshmitikă grammatoseirĹ}.
’Opwc kai na èqei, h prwtoboulÐa aută eÐnai axièpainh, dedomènou ìti ìqi mìno katafèrnei na fèrei se pèrac ton dedhlwmèno thc skopì na deÐxei thn exèlixh twn alfabătwn, allĹ kai diatijetai entelÿc dwreĹn. Epiplèon, mia prìqeirh èreuna sto diadÐktuo mporeÐ na deÐxei ìti den upĹrqei kanèna Ĺllo pakèto grammato- seirÿn pou tautìqrona na diajètei thn Ðdia plhrìthta kai poiìthta se arqaðkèc grafèc. KĹpoiec {Ellhnikèc} grammatoseirèc ` merikèc dwreĹn `, kĹpoiec sh- mitikèc kai sfhnoeideÐc mètriac poiìthtac, merikèc panĹkribec ieroglufikèc mìno gia windows ă macintosh (omologoumènwc kalaÐsjhtec, allĹ poiìc èqei 600 $?), autĹ eÐnai perÐpou ìla.
Epiplèon mporeÐte na epikoinwnăsete me ton ko Wilson sto peter.r.wil- [email protected] kai ton ko Rosemorduc sto [email protected] gia na touc ekfrĹsete parathrăseic, diafwnÐec k.lp.
Kai an kai autì den ftĹnei, mporeÐte na kajăsete kai na ftiĹxete tic dikèc sac grammatoseirèc gia LATEX.
K t dI u i Rdoos dI u e o Pidima,
Q:kO:faSKdY! Arqaðkă tupografÐa 23 5. H metĹfrash thc pinakÐdac thc PÔlou
Den ja dÿsoume edÿ fusikĹ plărh anĹlush thc pinakÐdac! O endiaferìmenoc ac anatrèxei sta [2, 4]. PĹntwc, h metagrafă thc arqăc thc pinakÐdac eÐnai 1jo-do-so-si-: ko-re-te-re-: du-ma-te-qe-: 2po-ro-ko-re-te-re-qe-: ka-ra-wi-po-ro-qe-:o-pi-su-ko-ke-:o-pi-ka-pe-e-we-qe- 3ka-ko-:na-wi-jo-...... Profanÿc, h epanaforĹ tou parapĹnw keimènou se EllhnikĹ ìpwc ta xèroume den eÐnai kai h pio aplă douleiĹ! Se akribă metĹfrash lèei: {’Etsi ja paradÿsoun oi ko-re-te-re- kai oi du-ma-te-, oi upo- ko-re-te-re- kai oi kleidoÔqoi kai oi upeÔjunoi gia ta sÔka kai oi upeÔjunoi gia ta ka-pe-a (Ðswc qwneutăria) qalkì twn naÿn. . . } MerikĹ stoiqeÐa: ko-re-te-re- (koretĺr?) Ðswc eÐnai o Omhrikìc {koÐranoc} (o arqhgìc) kai du-ma- Ðswc kĹpoioc Ĺlloc tÐtloc (dĹmar?). To prìjema po- ro- èinai to {pro} (h grammikă B den mporoÔse na grĹyei swstĹ sumplègmata sumfÿnwn!). ’Etsi o po-ro-ko-re-te-re- eÐnai o {prokoretĺr}(?), o ufistĹmenoc tou koretĺroc. To o-pi- shmaÐnei {âpÐ}. To ka-ra-wi-po-ro-qe- thc deÔterhc seirĹc eÐnai kla Şifìroikwe, dhl. {klabifìroi} (= kleidoÔqoi) kai to prìsfuma te ( {kai} ). OmoÐwc o-pi-su-ko-ke- eÐnai {âpÐsukoÐ te}, oi upeÔjunoi gia ta sÔka. H trÐth grammă lèei {qalkìn nawwion}, {qalkìn tÀn naÀn} (sthn grammikă B to O kai to W grĹfontai me to Ðdio sullabìgramma).
BibliografÐa
[1] V. G. Childe,
[2] M. S. Ruipérez, J. l. Melena, Oi MukhnaÐoi ’Ellhnec, Ajăna, InstitoÔto tou biblÐou ` M. KardamÐtsa, 1996.
[3] TIME-LIFE Pagkìsmia IstorÐa, oi Prÿtoi PolitismoÐ, Ajăna, Kapìpou- loc, 1989.
[4] John Chadwik,
[5] John Chadwick, Grammikă B, Ź prÿth
[6] Simon Singh, Kÿdikec kai mustikĹ, Ajăna, P. Traulìc, 2001.
[7]
[8] O. Neugebauer, OÉ jetikèc epistĺmec stăn arqaiìthta, MIET, >Ajăna, 1990. [9] EÔh PÐnh, Sta Ðqnh thc Grafăc, ekpaideutikìc fĹkeloc, ekd. UPPO, A- jăna 1997. [10] http://www.egyptvoyager.com/ [11] http://weblifac.ens-cachan.fr/~rosmord/ EÖtupon TeÜqoc No. 7 >Oktwbrioc 2001 25 Efarmogèc Anagnÿrishc ProtÔpwn: DÔo nèa sustămata gia thn suggrafă kai optikă anĹgnwsh thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac
BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
Panepistămio Ajhnÿn Tmăma Plhroforikăc kai Thlepikoinwniÿn Tomèac Thlepikoinwniÿn kai EpexergasÐac Sămatoc PanepisthmioÔpolh, KtÐria TUPA 157 84, Ajăna, EllĹda Email: [email protected]
PerÐlhyh
Sfl autăn mac thn dhmosÐeush parousiĹzoume dÔo efarmogèc pou en- tĹssontai ston ereunhtikì qÿro thc Anagnÿrishc ProtÔpwn: a) ’Ena nèo sÔsthma (s/w) to opoÐo mac parèqei thn dunatìthta na suggrĹfoume thn shmeiografÐa thc ellhnikăc buzantinăc mousikăc ston H/U. To nèo autì sÔsthma onomĹzetai BuzantinogrĹfoc 1.1 (Byzwriter 1.1) kai kataskeuĹsthke apì ton grĹfonta to 1996. b) To sÔsthma optikăc anagnÿrishc qaraktărwn (optical character re- cognition system) Buzantinìc Anagnÿsthc, to opoÐo anaptÔssetai me skopì na anagnwrÐzei thn èntuph {nèa analutikă} shmeiografÐa thc orjodìxou ellhnikăc buzantinăc mousikăc pou qrhsimopoieÐtai sthn Orjìdoxh EkklhsÐa apì to 1814 kai èpeita. Sto Ĺrjro perigrĹfoume thn domă tou nèou sustămatoc kai proteÐ- noume algorÐjmouc gia thn anagnÿrish twn 71 klĹsewn twn stoi- qeiwdÿn qaraktărwn, basismènouc ston metasqhmatismì kumatidÐ- wn, tic 4-probolèc, kajÿc kai se Ĺlla gewmetrikĹ kai statisti- kĹ qarakthristikĹ. Qrhsimopoiÿntac ènan aplì taxinomhtă konti- nìterou geÐtona, kajÿc kai èna sqăma taxinìmhshc pou akoloujeÐ mia dendrikă domă, epitugqĹnoume thn apìdosh twn 99.4%, qrhsimo- poiÿntac mÐa bĹsh deigmĹtwn qaraktărwn megèjouc 18.000 buzan- tinÿn mousikÿn sumbìlwn. 26 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
H anĹptuxh twn dÔo autÿn efarmogÿn parousiĹzei polÔ megĹlo en- diafèron gia thn epistămh thc mousikologÐac, eidikĹ sthn shmerină epoqă pou qarakthrÐzetai apì megĹlo pagkìsmio endiafèron gia thn buzantină mousikă, kajÿc kai gia thn spoudă kai mĹjhsh twn anatolikoÔ tÔpou mousikÿn morfwmĹtwn.
1. Eisagwgă
Oi diĹforec anjrÿpinec leitourgÐec kai h eukolÐa me thn opoÐa autèc epite- loÔntai apì ton Ĺnjrwpo apotèlesan tìso sto pareljìn ìso kai sămera ènan shmantikì pìlo èlxhc gia polloÔc epistămonec ereunhtèc pou prospajoÔn na katanoăsoun ìlo kai perissìtero autì to tèleio dhmioÔrghma, ton Ĺnjrwpo, kai eidikĹ sthn shmerină teqnologikă-hlektronikă epoqă, na prosomoiÿsoun me thn upĹrqousa teqnologÐa kajetÐ pou autìc epiteleÐ. Mèqri tÿra o episthmonikìc kìsmoc pou asqoloÔtan me thn montelopoÐhsh kai prosomoÐwsh twn anjrwpÐnwn leitourgiÿn èblepe thn kĹje leitourgÐa pou o Ĺnjrwpoc epiteloÔse wc xèqwrh kai autìnomh se sqèsh me tic upìloipec. Gia parĹdeigma, xeqÿrize thn leitourgÐa thc ìrashc, thc akoăc, thc afăc, thc anĹgnwshc, thc katanìhshc, anagnÿrishc antikeimènwn, thc kÐnhshc, thc omilÐac k.lp., kai kĹje mÐa apfl autèc apoteloÔse èna xeqwristì ereunhtikì pedÐo. Autìc o anagkaÐoc diaqwrismìc odăghse sthn katanìhsh se bĹjoc kai sthn montelopoÐhsh me touc sÔgqronouc H/U thc kĹ- je mÐac anjrÿpinhc leitourgÐac kai sthn dhmiourgÐa susthmĹtwn kai efarmogÿn pou eÐqan thn ikanìthta na blèpoun antikeÐmena, na anagnwrÐzoun antikeÐmena ă thn kÐnhsh, na diabĹzoun keÐmeno, na akoÔn ăqo, na milĹne k.lp. To sÔnolo ìlwn autÿn twn teqnologikÿn epiteugmĹtwn pou sqetÐzontai me thn katanìhsh kai prosomoÐwsh tou trìpou pou o Ĺnjrwpoc antilambĹnetai to peribĹllon tou onomĹsthke Anagnÿrish ProtÔpwn (Pattern Recognition) [1]. Wstìso, h shmerină èreuna ston qÿro thc anagnÿrishc protÔpwn paÐrnei mÐa Ĺllh kateÔjunsh. Kai aută den eÐnai Ĺllh apì thn enopoÐhsh ìlwn twn parapĹnw leitourgiÿn kai ton susqetismì thc mÐac me thn Ĺllh. Oi epistămonec ston qÿro thc anagnÿrishc protÔpwn parathroÔn plèon pwc eÐnai eukolìtero na mĹjeic èna sÔsthma na blèpei ă na diabĹzei, ìtan thn leitourgÐa aută thn susqetÐseic me thn leitourgÐa toÔ na akoÔei. ’Etsi, oi sÔgqronec efarmogèc pou anaptÔssontai ston qÿro thc anagnÿrishc protÔpwn sumperilambĹnoun rompotikĹ sustămata sta opoÐa enopoioÔntai ìlec oi parapĹnw leitourgÐec, kai ta rompìt majaÐnoun tautìqrona na blèpoun kai na anagnwrÐzoun antikeÐmena, na diabĹzoun, na akoÔn kai katanooÔn kĹpoia glÿssa, k.lp. H ekpaÐdeush enìc tètoiou rompotikoÔ sustămatoc basÐzetai sthn kataskeuă miac bĹshc gnÿshc gia ton kìsmo pou to peribĹllei, sthn opoÐa upĹrqoun qarakthristikĹ pou prosdiorÐzoun ta gÔrw antikeÐmena, touc ăqouc, tic eikìnec k.lp. kai susqetÐseic metaxÔ twn diafìrwn ăqwn kai twn antikeimènwn tou peribĹllontoc. ’Etsi, h anagnÿrish protÔpwn BuzantinogrĹfoc 27
odhgeÐtai plèon sto na kataskeuĹsei sustămata tètoia pou ja gnwrÐzoun to peribĹllon touc kai ja ekpaideÔontai apì to peribĹllon touc, kĹti Ĺllwste pou kai o Ðdioc o Ĺnjrwpoc stadiakĹ epitugqĹnei apì thn paidikă tou hlikÐa kai nwrÐtera [2]. Sthn ìlh aută anĹptuxh thc shmerinăc teqnologÐac thc anagnÿrishc pro- tÔpwn entĹssontai kai ìlec ekeÐnec oi efarmogèc pou prospajoÔn na proso- moiÿsoun thn anjrÿpinh leitourgÐa thc anĹgnwshc kĹpoiou alfabătou, kai o- nomĹzontai efarmogèc ă sustămata optikăc anagnÿrishc qaraktărwn (optical character recognition systems). Mèroc twn susthmĹtwn autÿn èqei na kĹnei kai me thn dhmiourgÐa katallălwn grammatoseirÿn pou qrhsimopoioÔntai, ÿste to anagnwrismèno keÐmeno na anaqjeÐ se mia antÐstoiqh grammatoseirĹ, ètsi ÿste na eÐnai plèon se anagnÿsimh kai ektupÿsimh morfă mèsa apì ton H/U. ’Ena tètoio sÔsthma optikăc anagnÿrishc qaraktărwn eÐnai kai autì tou BuzantinoÔ Anagnÿsth pou anaptÔsetai sto Tmăma Plhroforikăc tou PanepisthmÐou Ajh- nÿn, kai sumperilambĹnei èna nèo sÔsthma optikăc anagnÿrishc twn qaraktărwn thc shmeiografÐac thc orjodìxou ellhnikăc buzantinăc mousikăc [3, 4]. To sÔ- sthma autì eÐnai èna off-line optikì sÔsthma [5] pou anagnwrÐzei thn èntuph {nèa analutikă shmeiografÐa} thc buzantinăc mousikăc pou upĹrqei sta ekdo- jènta mousikĹ biblÐa apì to 1814 kai exăc. ParĹllhla me autì èqei anaptuqjeÐ kai to logismikì BuzantinogrĹfoc 1.1 me to opoÐo epitugqĹnetai h suggrafă mousikÿn keimènwn thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac ston H/U. Sthn paroÔsa loipìn dhmosÐeusă mac ja perigrĹyoume katĹ to dunatìn tic dÔo autèc nèec efarmogèc pou apoteloÔn èna ousiastikì ja lègame taÐriasma thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac kai thc teqnognwsÐac thc A- nagnÿrishc ProtÔpwn.
2. BuzantinogrĹfoc 1.1
ParousiĹzei idiaÐtero endiafèron to na parathrăsei kaneÐc kai na mĹjei to pÿc exelÐqjhke o trìpoc suggrafăc kai èkdoshc twn mousikÿn keimènwn thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac, allĹ kai genikìtera twn pantìc eÐdouc kei- mènwn, pou suggrĹfhkan anĹ touc aiÿnec. EÐnai mia poreÐa pou xekinĹei sthn arqaÐa epoqă me thn qrăsh prwtìgonwn mèswn suggrafăc, ìpwc o phlìc kai to mĹrmaro, exelÐssetai sigĹ-sigĹ sthn suggrafă pĹnw se pĹpuro, emfanÐzontai sthn sunèqeia ulikĹ ìpwc h pergamhnă (katergasmèna dèrmata) ă Ĺlla paro- moÐou eÐdouc, mèqri pou ftĹnoume sthn epoqă thc anakĹluyhc tou qartioÔ kai tou prÿtou tupografeÐou. Bèbaia mèqri tìte, h paragwgă biblÐwn ginìtan qei- rìgrafa kai diĹ thc antigrafăc. Apì ekeÐ kai èpeita akoloujeÐtai mÐa suneqăc exeliktikă poreÐa ìson aforĹ ton trìpo èkdoshc twn diafìrwn keimènwn, kajÿc kai autÿn thc buzantinăc mousikăc, h opoÐa sthrizìtane kurÐwc sthn gnwstă 28 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
se ìlouc mèjodo thc stoiqeiojesÐac, me ìlec tic sunepakìloujec duskolÐec pou aută parousÐaze. Qarakthristikì eÐnai to gegonìc thc duskolÐac pou sunĹnthse o Pètroc Manouăl o Efèsioc, gia na ekdÿsei to prÿto èntupo biblÐo buzanti- năc mousikăc, Tä >AnastashmatĹrio, to opoÐo ektupÿjhke me stoiqeiojesÐa sto Boukourèsti to 1820 [6, 7]. Me thn megĹlh bèbaia teqnologikă exèlixh pou shmeiÿjhke ta teleutaÐa qrìnia ìlec autèc oi kopiastikèc, gia to pareljìn, leitourgÐec suggrafăc kai èkdoshc èqoun plèon susthmatopoihjeÐ kai automatopoihjeÐ me thn qrăsh twn hlektronikÿn upologistÿn, twn ektupwtÿn, twn sarwtÿn uyhlăc anĹlushc kai Ĺllwn teqnologikÿn ulikÿn pou qrhsimopoioÔntai sămera ston {Kìsmo thc ’Ek- doshc}, se sunduasmì me thn qrăsh logismikÿn pou epiteloÔn me ton pio tèleio trìpo thn epexergasÐa enìc keimènou. Wstìso, o trìpoc grafăc thc ellhnikăc buzantinăc mousikăc èqei akìma parameÐnei merikèc dekaetÐec pÐsw kai h èkdosh twn mousikÿn biblÐwn gÐnetai me thn gnwstă stoiqeiojesÐa. Me to nèo sÔsthma suggrafăc thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac Bu- zantinogrĹfoc 1.1, pisteÔoume pwc epitugqĹnetai se èna megĹlo kai ikanopoi- htikì bajmì na sunduĹsteÐ o trìpoc suggrafăc kai èkdoshc thc buzantinăc kai paradosiakăc dhmÿdouc ellhnikăc mousikăc me thn shmerină teqnologÐa twn hlektronikÿn upologistÿn, kĹti pou mèqri tÿra èleipe pantelÿc apì ton qÿ- ro autì. O BuzantinogrĹfoc eÐnai èna oloklhrwmèno sÔsthma, pou parèqei thn dunatìthta na suggrĹyei kaneÐc ston H/U keÐmena thc buzantinăc mousikăc se opoiadăpote morfă kai mègejoc. Sto sÔsthma autì èqoume sqediĹsei ìla ta sÔmbola thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac kai ta qrhsimopoioÔme me thn morfă grammatoseirÿn. KĹje sÔmbolo mporeÐ na sunduĹzetai me ìla ta Ĺlla sÔmbola, ÿste na eÐnai efiktă h suggrafă ìlwn twn dunatÿn sunduasmÿn or- jografÐac pou sunantÿntai sta biblÐa thc buzantinăc mousikăc. ’Etsi, den eÐnai aparaÐthto gia kĹje diaforetikì sunduasmì sumbìlwn pou sunantĹme na èqou- me ulopoiăsei kai sqediĹsei kai thn antÐstoiqh anaparĹstasă tou se kĹpoia grammatoseirĹ, kĹti dhladă pou ja odhgoÔse se èna dÔsqrhsto sÔsthma. An- tÐjeta o trìpoc pou ulopoioÔme odhgeÐ se èna aplì kai bèltisto sÔsthma. ’Ena parĹdeigma suggrafăc me ton BuzantinogrĹfo faÐnetai sto Sqăma 1.
2.1. Perigrafă tou BuzantinogrĹfou 1.1
O BuzantinogrĹfoc 1.1 eÐnai èna prìgramma to opoÐo enswmatÿnetai ston gnwstì epexergastă keimènou Microsoft Word, pou trèqei se peribĹllon Micro- soft Windows. Me mÐa bèltisth antistoiqÐa twn stoiqeiwdÿn shmadofÿnwn thc Buzantinăc Mousikăc ShmeiografÐac (BMS), sta plăktra tou plhktrologÐou tou H/U mporoÔme eÔkola na suggrĹyoume buzantinĹ mousikĹ keÐmena mèsa a- pì ton epexergastă keimènou MS Word. ’Otan egkatastajeÐ to prìgramma autì ston upologistă, emfanÐzontai sthn ojình sto peribĹllon tou Microsoft W- BuzantinogrĹfoc 29
Sqăma 1 Buzantinì mousikì keÐmeno {TrisĹgioc Õmnoc} se ăqo plĹgio 0 a grammèno me ton BuzantinogrĹfo 1.1.
ord, mia ergaleiogrammă me 15 mikrĹ eikonÐdia pou epiteloÔn ìlec tic anagkaÐec leitourgÐec suggrafăc thc buzantinăc mousikăc (Sqăma 2). To pleonèkthma eÐnai ìti o qrăsthc tou progrĹmmatoc, pèra apì tic duna- tìthtec pou tou dÐnei o BuzantinogrĹfoc autìc kajeautìc, èqei epiplèon sthn diĹjesă tou ìlec ekeÐnec tic dunatìthtec epexergasÐac keimènou pou tou parè- qei o epexergastăc MS Word. ’Etsi, me ton sunduasmì autì, dhmiourgoÔme èna isqurì ergaleÐo epexergasÐac thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac, pou eÐnai eÔqrhsto kai apodotikì gia opoiondăpote gnÿsth thc buzantinăc mousikăc. Sto Sqăma 3 pou akoloujeÐ faÐnetai h ergaleiogrammă tou BuzantinogrĹfou 1.1. Sthn ergaleiogrammă aută, to prÿto eikonÐdio sthn seirĹ qrhsimopoieÐtai gia thn suggrafă twn basikÿn sumbìlwn thc shmeiografÐac. To deÔtero qrh- simopoieÐtai gia thn suggrafă twn marturiÿn. To trÐto qrhsimopoieÐtai gia thn suggrafă twn fjorÿn, twn dièsewn kai twn ufèsewn. To tètarto qrhsimopoieÐ- tai gia thn suggrafă twn isokrathmĹtwn kai to pèmpto, gia thn suggrafă tou lìgou, twn sullabÿn dhladă tou ellhnikoÔ alfabătou pou brÐskontai kĹtwjen thc melwdÐac. Ta upìloipa eikonÐdia qrhsimopoioÔntai tìso gia ton katĹllhlo qrwmatismì twn shmadofÿnwn (maÔro, kìkkino, mple), gia thn rÔjmish thc a- 30 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
Sqăma 2 To peribĹllon tou Ms Word gia Windows sto opoÐo ensw- matÿnetai to prìgramma tou BuzantinogrĹfou.
pìstashc thc melwdÐac apì ton lìgo, kajÿc kai gia thn rÔjmish tou megèjouc twn grammatoseirÿn. MporoÔme loipìn, me to prìgramma autì na suggrĹyoume ìlouc touc dunatoÔc sunduasmoÔc twn sumbìlwn thc nèac analutikăc BMS, pou brÐsketai se qrăsh apì thn Orjìdoxh Ellhnikă EkklhsÐa apì to 1814 kai èpeita. Ta ofèlh kai oi eukolÐec pou parèqontai apfl autì eÐnai pollĹ, ìpwc h duna- tìthta suggrafăc nèwn mousikÿn ekdìsewn, poiotikÿn, euanĹgnwstwn, ègqrw- mwn, kalogrammènwn, me megĹla ă mikrĹ sÔmbola, xefeÔgontac me ton trìpo autì, apì thn dÔskolh diadikasÐa thc èkdoshc biblÐwn me stoiqeiojesÐa, pou u- pĹrqei mèqri tÿra kai gia thn buzantină mousikă eÐnai arketĹ epÐponh. EpÐshc, o BuzantinogrĹfoc 1.1, eÐnai èna qrăsimo ergaleÐo gia touc mousikodidaskĹlouc thc buzantinăc mousikăc, ta wdeÐa ă opoudăpote alloÔ didĹsketai h buzanti- nă mousikă, mèsw tou opoÐou ja mporoÔn na grafoÔn askăseic gia majhtèc thc buzantinăc mousikăc, qorikoÔc yalmoÔc gia qorwdÐec buzantinăc mousikăc. MporoÔn epÐshc na grafoÔn dhmotikĹ paradosiakĹ tragoÔdia, ta opoÐa ja a- podÐdontai mousikĹ apì tic diĹforec qorwdÐec. ExĹllou, apì thn pleurĹ enìc majhtă thc buzantinăc mousikăc, o BuzantinogrĹfoc èqei epÐshc na prosfèrei pollĹ. H suqnă antigrafă mousikÿn keimènwn ston upologistă kĹnei ton majh- BuzantinogrĹfoc 31 tă na majaÐnei polÔ grăgora thn dÔskolh orjografÐa thc buzantinăc mousikăc. EpÐshc, tou dÐnei thn dunatìthta na apomnhmoneÔei eÔkola tic mousikèc frĹseic thc buzantinăc mousikăc, tic opoÐec grĹfei, kai epanalambĹnontai suqnĹ ametĹ- blhtec sta tropĹria. Epiplèon, h diìrjwsh twn mousikÿn keimènwn se perÐptwsh pou upĹrqoun lĹjh gÐnetai polÔ eÔkola kai grăgora. AutoÐ pou mporoÔn na qrhsimopoiăsoun ton BuzantinogrĹfo eÐnai kurÐwc oi ekdìtec biblÐwn buzantinăc mousikăc, oi diskografikèc etairÐec pou parĹgoun optikoÔc dÐskouc (CD), wdeÐa sta opoÐa didĹsketai h buzantină mousikă, oi yĹl- tec, oi mousikodidĹskĹloi, oi majhtèc buzantinăc mousikăc k.lp. Sto Sqăma 3a dÐnetai kai èna parĹdeigma suggrafăc tou polÔ gnwstoÔ ellhnikoÔ dhmotikoÔ paradosiakoÔ tragoudioÔ thc Kwnstantinoupìlewc {’Eqe geia PanagiĹ}.
3. Buzantinìc Anagnÿsthc
O Buzantinìc Anagnÿsthc eÐnai h deÔterh kai h ousiastikìterh efarmogă ston qÿro thc Anagnÿrishc ProtÔpwn. AforĹ èna sÔsthma optikăc anagnÿri- shc qaraktărwn to opoÐo èqei anaptuqjeÐ gia tic anĹgkec optikăc anĹgnwshc thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac. KĹnontac mia mikră anaforĹ sthn te- qnologÐa pou anaptÔqjhke tic teleutaÐec dekaetÐec gia thn klasikă mousikă, ja prèpei anafèroume pwc ta teleutaÐa 40 qrìnia èqei katablhjeÐ megĹlh ereu- nhtikă prospĹjeia gia thn anĹptuxh susthmĹtwn pou èqoun thn ikanìthta thc katanìhshc kai thc optikăc anagnÿrishc twn mousikÿn morfwmĹtwn tou pen- tagrĹmmou kajÿc kai thc mousikăc ektèleshc autÿn [8]. Wstìso, eÐnai h prÿth forĹ pou gÐnetai prospĹjeia na anaptuqjeÐ èna sÔsthma optikăc anagnÿrishc qaraktărwn gia thn shmeiografÐa thc ellhnikăc buzantinăc mousikăc [3, 4]. O stìqoc thc ergasÐac mac autăc eÐnai h parousÐash tou nèou optikoÔ sustăma- toc gia thn shmeiografÐa thc orjodìxou ellhnikăc buzantinăc mousikăc (BMS). H BMS, dhladă o trìpoc me ton opoÐo grĹfoume ènan yalmì ă èna tropĹrio, ìpwc onomĹzetai to mousikì keÐmeno thc buzantinăc mousikăc, parousiĹzei me- gĹlo endiafèron, ìqi mìno apì pleurĹc poikilÐac twn mousikÿn sumbìlwn pou qrhsimopoioÔntai, allĹ kai gia to ìti ta sÔmbola autĹ sunduĹzontai metaxÔ touc dhmiourgÿntac omĹdec sumbìlwn pou h kĹje mia èqei diaforetikă mousikă shmasÐa. To optikì sÔsthma anagnÿrishc thc buzantinăc mousikăc (OBMR, Optical Byzantine Music Recognition System) eÐnai èna optikì sÔsthma anagnÿrishc off-line kai suntÐjetai apì trÐa diaforetikĹ kai anexĹrthta stĹdia: a) to stĹ- dio tou diaqwrismoÔ (segmentation stage), b) to stĹdio anagnÿrishc (recogni- tion stage), kai g) to stĹdio anagnÿrishc twn omĹdwn sumbìlwn diaforetikăc shmasÐac (semantic musical group recognition stage). H dhmosÐeusă mac aută estiĹzetai epĹnw sto deÔtero stĹdio thc anagnÿrishc. Gia thn anĹptuxh autoÔ, 32 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
anaptÔqjhkan poikÐlec teqnikèc gèneshc qarakthristikÿn (features), ìpwc eÐ- nai o metasqhmatismìc kumatidÐwn (wavelet transform), oi 4-probolèc kai Ĺlla gewmetrikĹ kai statistikĹ qarakthristikĹ pou exĹgontai apì to perÐgramma twn qaraktărwn. To sÔsthma taxinìmhshc exelÐqjhke basismèno se èna sqă- ma protaxinìmhshc ierarqikăc dendrikăc domăc, kajÿc kai se ènan taxinomhtă kontinìterou geÐtona (nearest neighbour classifier).
3.1. H shmeiografÐa thc buzantinăc mousikăc
H buzantină mousikă eÐnai mÐa idiìmorfh fwnhtikă mousikă, h opoÐa èqei thn dikiĹ thc shmeiografÐa kajÿc kai ènan idiaÐtero trìpo ektèleshc. ’Ena parĹ- deigma thc morfăc kai thc domăc enìc yalmoÔ grammènou me thn BMS faÐnetai sto Sqăma 4. ’Opwc faÐnetai sto Sqăma autì, ènac yalmìc qwrÐzetai se trÐa kÔria mèrh: a) ton kÔrio tÐtlo, b) to kÔrio sÿma tou troparÐou, kai g) tic diĹforec eikì- nec ă sqămata. To kÔrio sÿma tou troparÐou parathroÔme pwc suntÐjetai apì zeÔgh grammÿn. Sta zeÔgh autĹ h epĹnw grammă antistoiqeÐ sto mèloc, thn melwdÐa thc buzantinăc mousikăc, enÿ h kĹtw grammă antistoiqeÐ ston lìgo sullabèc tou ellhnikoÔ alfabătou oi opoÐec yèlnontai apì ton yĹlth me bĹsh to mèloc. To mèloc suntÐjetai apì 71 stoiqeiÿdh sÔmbola-qaraktărec (PÐna- kac 1), ta opoÐa sunduĹzontai kai sqhmatÐzoun omĹdec sumbìlwn, kĹje mÐa apì tic opoÐec èqei diaforetikă mousikă ektèlesh kai mousikologikă shmasÐa. Sthn buzantină mousikă upĹrqoun perÐpou 2500 tètoiec omĹdec. Autì to eÐdoc grafăc antistoiqeÐ sth {nèa analutikă shmeiografÐa} thc buzantinăc mousikăc, h opoÐa oloklhrÿjhke kai qrhsimopoiăjhke epÐshma apì thn Orjìdoxh EkklhsÐa apì to 1814 kai èpeita.
3.2. Ta kÔria qarakthristikĹ thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac
Ta kÔria qarakthristikĹ thc shmeiografÐac thc buzantinăc mousikăc, pou aforoÔn èna optikì sÔsthma anagnÿrishc, eÐnai ta parakĹtw:
H buzantină mousikă grĹfetai apì aristerĹ proc ta dexiĹ.
Oi qaraktărec thc shmeiografÐac den diakrÐnontai se kefalaÐa kai mikrĹ (bl. PÐnaka 1).
Oi qaraktărec thc BMS den akoumpoÔn metaxÔ touc se èna mousikì keÐ- meno kai eÐnai pĹntote diaqwrismènoi (Sqăma 4). BuzantinogrĹfoc 33
Oi qaraktărec thc BMS sunduĹzontai ètsi ÿste na brÐskontai o ènac aristerĹ ă dexiĹ, epĹnw ă kĹtw, dexiĹ diagÿnia ă aristerĹ diagÿnia, tou Ĺllou. PolloÐ qaraktărec thc BMS eÐnai akribÿc Ðdioi sqhmatikĹ kai diakrÐnontai metaxÔ touc mìno apì mia gwnÐa peristrofăc 45◦, 90◦, 135◦, ă 180◦ (p.q. ta sÔmbola petastă kai elafrìn diafèroun katĹ mÐa gwnÐa peristrofăc 180◦. Epiplèon, sto Sqăma 1 kajÿc kai ston PÐnaka 1, faÐnetai ìti upĹrqoun qaraktărec (p.q. to klĹsma kai to olÐgon) pou diafèroun metaxÔ touc shmantikĹ sto mègejoc. Tèloc, kĹje mia apì tic omĹdec sumbìlwn thc BMS apoteleÐtai apì 2 èwc 10 ă kai perissìterouc qaraktărec kai antistoiqoÔn kĹje mÐa se mÐa diaforetikă nìta (fwnhtikă oxÔthta), ă h ektèlesh apì ton yĹlth gÐnetai me sugkekrimènh kÐnhsh sthn fwnă. Autì to qarakthristikì mĹc odhgeÐ sto sumpèrasma pwc to sÔsthma pou anaptÔssoume ja prèpei na exĹgei kai anagnwrÐzei tètoiec shmasiologikèc mousikèc omĹdec qaraktărwn.
3.3. Perigrafă tou optikoÔ sustămatoc anagnÿrishc thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac
H ìlh domă tou sustămatoc optikăc anagnÿrishc thc BMS (Sqăma 5) qw- rÐzetai sta akìlouja 3 stĹdia. ArqikĹ, h selÐda yhfiopoieÐtai sta 300 dpi kai sthn sunèqeia akoloujoÔn:
1. To stĹdio diaqwrismoÔ, to opoÐo upodiaireÐtai se trÐa mèrh: a) ston diaqwrismì oloklărou thc selÐdac tou mousikoÔ keimènou se zeÔgh grammÿn. b) ston diaqwrismì tou mèlouc apì ton lìgo se kĹje zeÔgoc grammăc, kai g) sthn exagwgă twn stoiqeiwdÿn qaraktărwn apì thn grammă tou mè- louc. 2. To stĹdio thc anagnÿrishc, to opoÐo paÐrnei san eÐsodo yhfiopoihmènec ei- kìnec twn stoiqeiwdÿn qaraktărwn thc BMS pou exĹgontai apì to stĹdio tou diaqwrismoÔ. ApoteleÐtai kai autì apì trÐa mèrh: a) Thn proepexergasÐa (preprocessing), b) thn gènesh twn qarakthristikÿn (feature generation), kai 34 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
g) thn taxinìmhsh twn qaraktărwn me bĹsh kĹpoio telikì diĹnusma qa- rakthristikÿn. To stĹdio autì antistoiqeÐ se kĹje eikìna qaraktăra ènan prosdioristikì arijmì cid.
3. To stĹdio thc anagnÿrishc shmasiologikÿn mousikÿn omĹdwn sumbìlwn, to opoÐo dèqetai wc eÐsodo touc prosdioristikoÔc arijmoÔc (cid) twn qa- raktărwn pou èqoun anagnwristeÐ sto stĹdio anagnÿrishc, kajÿc epÐshc kai plhroforÐa apì to stĹdio diaqwrismoÔ pou sqetÐzetai me thn topologi- kă susqètish twn qaraktărwn [9]. Basizìmenoi sfl autăn thn plhroforÐa, dhmiourgoÔme tic shmasiologikèc omĹdec sumbìlwn tic opoÐec kai anagnw- rÐzoume qrhsimopoiÿntac mÐa bĹsh dedomènwn pou antistoiqeÐ se mia gram- matikă gia thn BMS kai perièqei ìlec tic dunatèc omĹdec sumbìlwn thc BMS (Sqăma 5).
Tèloc, to telikì stĹdio thc metĹ-epexergasÐac, to opoÐo dèqetai sthn eÐsodì tou touc prosdioristikoÔc arijmoÔc twn anagnwrismènwn apì to prohgoÔmeno stĹdio mousikÿn omĹdwn kai dÐnei san èxodo to telikì apotèlesma, pou mporeÐ na eÐnai h metatropă se kĹpoia grammatoseirĹ ă, mellontikĹ, h mousikă ektèlesh thc buzantinăc mousikăc.
3.4. Perigrafă thc bĹshc dedomènwn thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac
H bĹsh twn sumbìlwn-qaraktărwn thc BMS pou anaptÔxame eÐnai aparaÐ- thto sustatikì gia na leitourgăsei to stĹdio thc anagnÿrishc. Apfl autăn thn bĹsh qrhsimopoioÔme deÐgmata gia na ekpaideÔsoume to sÔsthmĹ mac (deÐgma- ta ekpaÐdeushc) ă gia na elègxoume to sÔsthmĹ mac (deÐgmata elègqou), enÿ me autăn thn bĹsh perigrĹfoume plărwc tic parallagèc pou eÐnai dunatìn na upĹrxoun se mÐa klĹsh. MÐa tètoia loipìn bĹsh, h prÿth pou antistoiqeÐ sta shmadìfwna thc BMS, dhmiourgăjhke sta plaÐsia thc ergasÐac mac autăc. H bĹsh aută perièqei perÐ- pou 18.000 eikìnec deigmĹtwn sthn morfă arqeÐwn Windows bitmap (.bmp) twn 256 apoqrÿsewn tou gkrÐ (gray scale). ’Eqei mègejoc sunolikĹ 71 MB. Sthn bĹsh aută upĹrqoun 71 klĹseic, pou gia thn kĹje mia èqoume dhmiourgăsei 250 diaforetikĹ deÐgmata. AutĹ ta deÐgmata èqoun dhmiourghjeÐ me treic diaforeti- koÔc trìpouc:
1. PerÐpou to 15% me 20% twn sumbìlwn proèrqontai apì sĹrwsh pragma- tikÿn selÐdwn biblÐwn buzantinăc mousikăc. KĹje èna apfl autĹ ta biblÐa epilèqjhke ÿste na perièqei diaforetikì stul grammatoseirĹc kai diafo- retikì mègejoc sta sÔmbola. BuzantinogrĹfoc 35
2. ’Ena deÔtero uposÔnolo twn sumbìlwn autÿn, perÐpou to 13%, suggrĹ- fhke me to prìgramma suggrafăc thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac BuzantinogrĹfoc 1.1 (kataskeuasmèno apì ton grĹfonta), ektupÿjhke se ektupwtă kai sthn sunèqeia yhfiopoiăjhke me sarwtă ìpwc kai sthn prÿth perÐptwsh. Stic dÔo autèc loipìn periptÿseic èqoume yhfiopoiăsei kajarĹ èntupouc qaraktărec.
3. Tèloc, èna trÐto uposÔnolo twn parapĹnw deigmĹtwn, pou apoteleÐ kai to megalÔtero mèroc autÿn, èqoun sqediasteÐ me to qèri (qeirìgrafa), me prospĹjeia autĹ na omoiĹzoun sta antÐstoiqa èntupa deÐgmata twn dÔo prohgoÔmenwn periptÿsewn, allĹ na emperièqoun kai kĹpoio eÐdoc parallagăc.
Me touc treic autoÔc trìpouc èqoume dhmiourgăsei mÐa bĹsh shmadofÿnwn pou apoteleÐtai apì èntupouc kai qeirìgrafouc qaraktărec. Autì to qarakthristi- kì dÐnei sthn bĹsh mac mia diplă morfă, na eÐnai hmièntuph kai hmiqeirìgrafh. Qrhsimopoiÿntac autì to sÔnolo qaraktărwn, stìqoc mac eÐnai na kataskeuĹ- soume èna sÔsthma pou ja parèqei uyhlì posostì epituqÐac se èntupouc qa- raktărec. Wstìso, to ìti h bĹsh mac aută èqei to qarakthristikì na eÐnai kai hmiqeirìgrafh mĹc dÐnei thn dunatìthta na ekpaideÔsoume to sÔsthmĹ mac, ètsi ÿste autì na dÐnei ikanopoihtikĹ apotelèsmata kai gia thn perÐptwsh twn pro- segmèna grammènwn qeirìgrafwn buzantinÿn mousikÿn keimènwn. Sto Sqăma 6 pou akoloujeÐ parousiĹzontai merikèc apì tic pio antiproswpeutikèc klĹseic qaraktărwn pou emperièqontai sthn bĹsh twn shmadofÿnwn mac.
3.5. To stĹdio anagnÿrishc
To stĹdio anagnÿrishc apoteleÐtai apì ta akìlouja trÐa kÔria upostĹdia:
3.5.1. UpostĹdio proepexergasÐac
To upostĹdio thc proepexergasÐac èqei wc stìqo tou na diamorfÿsei tic yhfiopoihmènec eikìnec twn qaraktărwn thc BMS ètsi, ÿste na tic kĹnei a- metĹblhtec sthn metatìpish, thn megèjunsh ă thn smÐkrunsh. Wstìso, to na eÐnai oi eikìnec twn qaraktărwn ametĹblhtec wc proc thn peristrofă den eÐnai epijumhtì gia to sÔsthmĹ mac, kajìson upĹrqoun sugkekrimènoi qaraktărec pou eÐnai akribÿc Ðdioi, diafèroun ìmwc wc proc mÐa gwnÐa peristrofăc. Oi al- gìrijmoi proepexergasÐac pou qrhsimopoiăjhkan gia tic yhfiopoihmènec eikìnec twn qaraktărec thc BMS eÐnai oi akìloujoi:
DuadikopoÐhsh (binarization or thresholding) thc eikìnac apì 256 apo- qrÿseic tou gkri se antÐstoiqh maurìasprh. 36 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
ExĹleiyh twn diĹspartwn koukÐdwn kai opÿn sthn eikìna kajÿc kai exo- mĹlunsh tou orÐou tou qaraktăra (dot/hole elimination and edge smoo- thing). KanonikopoÐhsh megèjouc (size normalization) thc eikìnac, stajeropoiÿn- tac pĹntote to mègejoc autăc sta 72 × 72 eikonostoiqeÐa (pixels) [5].
3.5.2. Gènesh qarakthristikÿn
Gia to sÔsthma optikăc anagnÿrishc twn shmadofÿnwn thc BMS qrhsimo- poioÔme tìso gewmetrikĹ ìso kai statistikĹ qarakthristikĹ [5, 10].
GewmetrikĹ qarakthristikĹ
1. UpologÐzoume ton arijmì Euler (EN — Euler Number) tou qaraktăra. Autì to qarakthristikì diaqwrÐzei to sÔnolo twn 71 klĹsewn thc BMS se 3 mikrìterec upoklĹseic, me bĹsh ton arijmì twn eswterikÿn opÿn pou upĹrqoun se kĹje mÐa apfl autèc. 2. O upologismìc thc kateÔjunshc tou kurÐou Ĺxona tou qaraktăra (princi- pal axis direction). 3. O upologismìc thc analogÐac pleurÿn tou orizontÐou parallhlogrĹmmou oriojèthshc (ratio of HBR).
AutĹ ta trÐa gewmetrikĹ qarakthristikĹ (Sqăma 7) diaqwrÐzoun to arqikì sÔ- nolo twn 71 klĹsewn tou PÐnaka 1 se 19 mikrìtera uposÔnola, ta opoÐa empe- rièqoun katĹ mèson ìro 10 qaraktărec. DhmiourgoÔme ètsi èna ierarqikì sqăma protaxinìmhshc, aplopoiÿntac ton telikì algìrijmo taxinìmhshc, kĹnontĹc ton grhgorìtero kai pio apodotikì. To ierarqikì autì sqăma ekmetalleÔetai tic sugkekrimènec idiomorfÐec twn qaraktărwn thc BMS.
StatistikĹ qarakthristikĹ
Ta statistikĹ qarakthristikĹ pou qrhsimopoiăsame eÐnai:
1. o diakritìc metasqhmatismìc kumatidÐwn (DMK ` discrete wavelet tran- sform) [1, 11] pou efarmìzetai pĹnw sta dianÔsmata twn suntetagmènwn thc sunĹrthshc perigrĹmmatoc twn qaraktărwn, kai 2. o DMK pou efarmìzetai sto diĹnusma miac apì tic 4-probolèc tou qa- raktăra, sfl autăn dhladă pou antistoiqeÐ sthn kateÔjunsh klÐshc tou qaraktăra. BuzantinogrĹfoc 37
ArqikĹ, upologÐzoume to perÐgramma tou qaraktăra. Gia na elattÿsoume to posì thc paramìrfwshc pou upĹrqei sthn grammă perigrĹmmatoc, eisagĹgoume thn idèa enìc prosarmozìmenou shmeÐou ekkÐnhshc gia to perÐgramma (adaptive starting point), pou basÐzetai sthn timă tou arijmoÔ Euler. UpologÐzoume to aristerĹ diagÿnio shmeÐo ekkÐnhshc: eĹn EN = 1, to opoÐo eÐnai to prÿto pixel pou sunantĹtai, sarÿnontac thn eikìna diagwnÐwc apì aristerĹ kai to dexiĹ diagÿnio shmeÐo ekkÐnhshc; kai eĹn EN = 0, −1 ă −2, sarÿnontac thn eikìna diagwnÐwc apì dexiĹ. Epiplèon, qrhsimopoiÿntac san mèjodo prosèggishc tic gnwstèc kampÔlec Bezier, mporoÔme na stajeropoiăsoume proseggistikĹ, to măkoc L, thc sunĹrthshc perigrĹmmatoc, ÿste na eÐnai mia dÔnamh tou 2, p.q. 27 = 128 shmeÐa (Sqăma 8). H prosèggish aută ìqi mìno leiaÐnei to perÐgramma tou qaraktăra, allĹ sugqrìnwc eÐnai kai qrăsimh gia thn efarmogă tou DMK, o opoÐoc apaiteÐ h sunĹrthsh pĹnw sthn opoÐa efarmìzetai, na eÐnai periodikă kai na èqei perÐodo Ðsh me mia dÔnamh tou 2 [1, 11]. ’Etsi, to perÐgramma enìc qaraktăra mporeÐ na parastajeÐ wc mia kleistă parametrikă kampÔlh c sto migadikì epÐpedo C, dhladă: c(i) = x(i) + jy(i) i = 1, . . . , L − 1 (1) ìpou L isoÔtai me 128 shmeÐa kai j dhlÿnei thn fantastikă monĹda. MporoÔme na jewrăsoume pwc h sunĹrthsh c eÐnai periodikă me perÐodo L. Tìte o DMK (DWT) efarmozìmenoc sthn c ja eÐnai:
DWT[c(i)] = DWT[x(i)] + jDWT[y(i)] (2)
Katìpin, upologÐzoume tic 4-probolèc thc eikìnac tou qaraktăra stic tès- seric antÐstoiqec kÔriec kateujÔnseic, dhladă thn orizìntia, thn kĹjeth, thn aristerĹ-diagÿnia kai thn dexiĹ-diagÿnia (Sqăma 9). Sthn sunèqeia epilègoume thn probolă ekeÐnh pou brÐsketai sthn Ðdia kateÔjunsh me ton kÔrio Ĺxona tou qaraktăra. Gia parĹdeigma, sto Sqăma 9 pou o qaraktărac èqei kateÔjunsh dexiĹ diagÿnia ja epilegeÐ h dexiĹ diagÿnia probolă tou. Sto diĹnusma autăc thc epilegmènhc probolăc, to opoÐo proseggÐzoume me thn mèjodo twn kampÔlwn Bezier na èqei 128 shmeÐa, efarmìzoume ton metasqhmatismì kumatidÐwn (DWT). Gia ton upologismì tou DMK qrhsimopoioÔntai ta katwperatĹ kai anwpera- tĹ fÐltra db2 (Daubechies 2). O DMK efarmìzetai epĹnw sta dianÔsmata x(i) kai y(i), i = 0, . . . , 127, ìpou x, y antistoiqoÔn stic dÔo suntetagmènec thc su- nĹrthshc perigrĹmmatoc. EpÐshc, o DMK efarmìzetai epĹnw sto diĹnusma epi- legmènhc probolăc P (i), i = 0, . . . , 127, kai to telikì diĹnusma qarakthristikÿn pou parĹgetai èqei diĹstash 48 shmeÐa, ta opoÐa antistoiqoÔn se 16 + 16 = 32 suntelestèc kumatidÐwn apì thn diĹspash twn x, y dianusmĹtwn se 7 epÐpeda (wavelet decomposition), kajÿc kai Ĺllouc 16 suntelestèc kumatidÐwn apì thn diĹspash tou dianÔsmatoc P , epÐshc se 7 epÐpeda. Sto shmeÐo autì, ja prèpei 38 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
na tonÐsoume pwc o sunduasmìc twn parapĹnw qarakthristikÿn, statistikÿn kai gewmetrikÿn den èqei qrhsimopoihjeÐ potè prin sto pareljìn se kĹpoio an- tÐstoiqo sÔsthma anagnÿrishc qaraktărwn. Qrhsimopoiăsame, loipìn, autì to diĹnusma qarakthristikÿn twn 48 timÿn gia thn telikă taxinìmhsh twn qara- ktărwn, pou ègine me ènan taxinomhtă kontinìterou geÐtona (nearest neighbour classifier), se sunduasmì me to sqăma protaxinìmhshc pou perigrĹyame parapĹ- nw, o opoÐoc ekpaideÔthke kai elègqjhke me thn qrăsh thc bĹshc shmadofÿnwn thc BMS pou kataskeuĹsame.
3.6. PeiramatikĹ apotelèsmata
MetĹ apì ektetamènh èreuna, sthn opoÐa diĹforec teqnikèc sunduĹsthkan, katalăxame sto sumpèrasma ìti o parapĹnw sunduasmìc twn qarakthristikÿn exuphreteÐ to prìblhmĹ mac ikanopoihtikĹ kai dÐnei ta kalÔtera apotelèsmata. H qrăsh twn qarakthristikÿn pou perigrĹyame, mazÐ me ton taxinomhtă kon- tinìterou geÐtona kai to sqăma protaxinìmhshc èdwse wc mèsh apìdosh sto sÔsthmĹ mac to posostì twn 98.1%. Wstìso, parathrăjhke pwc kĹpoiec apì tic klĹseic twn qaraktărwn mac sugqèontan metaxÔ touc katĹ thn taxinìmhsh diìti omoÐazan se ikanopoihtikì bajmì kai èriqnan ètsi to posostì. ’Etsi, a- naptÔxame èna stĹdio metĹ-taxinìmhshc, sto opoÐo epilÔsame ìlec tic dienèxeic metaxÔ twn sqedìn ìmoiwn qaraktărwn [4]. H telikă ektÐmhsh tou sustămatìc mac epiteÔqjhke me thn qrăsh thc mejìdou cross validarion sthn opoÐa qrhsi- mopoiăsame thn bĹsh shmadofÿnwn thc BMS kai to telikì posostì epituqÐac anălje sto 99.4%. Tèloc, h mèjodoc pou perigrĹyame efarmìsthke se eikìnec pragmatikoÔ buzantinoÔ mousikoÔ keimènou, pou yhfiopoiăjhkan mèsw sarwtă apì biblÐa buzantinăc mousikăc kai to posostì anagnÿrishc kumĹnjhke apì 96% èwc kai 100%.
4. EpÐlogoc
Sthn dhmosÐeusă mac aută perigrĹyame èna nèo sÔsthma gia thn suggra- fă thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac thc orjodìxou ellhnikăc buzantinăc mousikăc, ston H/U. To nèo autì sÔsthma, to opoÐo onomĹsame Buzantino- grĹfo 1.1, egkajÐstatai sto peribĹllon tou epexergastă keimènou MS Word kai parèqei pollaplèc dunatìthtec gia thn poiotikă kai grăgorh suggrafă twn buzantinÿn mousikÿn keimènwn, kajÿc kai twn dhmotikÿn paradosiakÿn tragou- diÿn. ApoteleÐ èna qrăsimo kai dunatì ergaleÐo gia touc shmerinoÔc mousikodi- daskĹlouc kai majhtèc thc buzantinăc mousikăc, tìso gia thn didaskalÐa, ìso kai gia thn mĹjhsh autăc. EpÐshc, parousiĹsame èna nèo off-line optikì sÔsthma anagnÿrishc thc shmeiografÐac thc buzantinăc mousikăc to opoÐo to qwrÐsame BuzantinogrĹfoc 39
se 3 stĹdia kai anăkei ston ereunhtikì qÿro thc Anagnÿrishc ProtÔpwn. Gia to stĹdio anagnÿrishc tou sustămatoc autoÔ qrhsimopoiăsame tìso gewmetrikĹ ìso kai statistikĹ qarakthristikĹ ìpwc eÐnai o arijmìc Euler, h kateÔjunsh tou kurÐou Ĺxona tou qaraktăra, kajÿc kai h analogÐa pleurÿn tou orjo- gwnÐou parallhlogrĹmmou oriojèthshc tou qaraktăra, h efarmogă tou DMK epĹnw sta dianÔsmata twn suntetagmènwn thc sunĹrthshc perigrĹmmatoc kai sto diĹnusma probolăc touc qaraktăra pou brÐsketai sthn Ðdia kateÔjunsh me ton kÔrio Ĺxona tou qaraktăra. Gia thn taxinìmhsh uiojetăjhke èna ierarqikì sqăma dendrikăc domăc kai akoloÔjwc ènac taxinomhtăc kontinìterou geÐtona.
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Sqăma 3 Ergaleiogrammă tou BuzantinogrĹfou 1.1.
Sqăma 3a Paradosiakì dhmotikì tragoÔdi Kwnstantinoupìlewc grammèno me to nèo prìgramma BuzantinogrĹfoc 1.1. 42 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
Sqăma 4 MÐa selÐda buzantinoÔ mousikoÔ keimènou {Kateujunjătw Ź proseuqă mou}. BuzantinogrĹfoc 43
PÐnakac 1 Ta 71 stoiqeiÿdh shmadìfwna thc nèac buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac. 44 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
Sqăma 5 H domă tou optikoÔ sustămatoc anagnÿrishc thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac (BMS). BuzantinogrĹfoc 45
Sqăma 6 DeÐgmata apì thn bĹsh thc buzantinăc mousikăc shmeiografÐac.
Sqăma 7 a) KateÔjunsh tou kÔriou Ĺxona, EN = −1 (dÔo eswteri- kèc opèc). b) AnalogÐa twn pleurÿn tou orjogwnÐou parallhlogrĹmmou oriojèthshc (b/a), EN = 0 (mÐa eswterikă opă). 46 BelissĹrioc G. Gkezerlăc
Sqăma 8 a) H asprìmaurh eikìna tou qaraktăra {dèlta}. b) To perÐgramma măkouc L. g) H proseggistikă morfă qrhsimopoiÿntac tic 0 7 kampÔlec Bezier, me diĹstash L = 128 = 2 shmeÐa.
Sqăma 9 O qaraktărac {tetrĹgrammh dÐesh} kai oi tèsseric probolèc tou. EÖtupon Teuqoc˜ No. 7 — >Oktwbrioc 2001 47 A tutorial on character code issues
Jukka K. Korpella
Päivänsäteenkuja 4 as. 1 FIN-02210 Espoo Finland Email : [email protected]
1. The basics
In computers and in data transmission between them, i.e. in digital data processing and transfer, data is internally presented as octets, as a rule. An octet is a small unit of data with a numerical value between 0 and 255, in- clusively. The numerical values are presented in the normal (decimal) notation here, but notice that other presentations are used too, especially octal (base 8) or hexadecimal (base 16) notation. Octets are often called bytes, but in principle, octet is a more definite concept than byte. Internally, octets consist of eight bits (hence the name, from Latin but we need not go into bit level here. However, you might need to know what the phrase "first bit set" or "sign bit set" means, since it is often used. In terms of numerical values of octets, it means that the value is greater than 127. In various contexts, such octets are sometimes interpreted as negative numbers, and this may cause various problems. Different conventions can be established as regards to how an octet or a sequence of octets presents some data. For instance, four consecutive octets often form a unit that presents a real number according to a specific standard. We are here interested in the presentation of character data (or string data; a string is a sequence of characters) only. In the simplest case, which is still widely used, one octet corresponds to one character according to some mapping table (encoding). Naturally, this allows at most 256 different characters being represented. There are several different encodings, such as the well-known ASCII encoding and the ISO Latin family of encodings. The correct interpretation and processing of character data of course requires knowledge about the encoding used. Previously the ASCII encoding was usually assumed by default (and it is still very common). Nowadays ISO Latin 1, which can be regarded as an 48 Jukka K. Korpella
extension of ASCII, is often the default. The current trend is to avoid giving such a special position to ISO Latin 1 among the variety of encodings.
2. Definitions
The following definitions are not universally accepted and used. In fact, one of the greatest causes of confusion around character set issues is that terminol- ogy varies and is sometimes misleading.
character repertoire A set of distinct characters. No specific internal pre- sentation in computers or data transfer is assumed. The repertoire per se does not even define an ordering for the characters; ordering for sorting and other purposes is to be specified separately. A character repertoire is usually defined by specifying names of characters and a sample (or ref- erence) presentation of characters in visible form. Notice that a character repertoire may contain characters which look the same in some presen- tations but are regarded as logically distinct, such as Latin uppercase A, Cyrillic uppercase A, and Greek uppercase alpha. character code A mapping, often presented in tabular form, which defines a one-to-one correspondence between characters in a character repertoire and a set of nonnegative integers. That is, it assigns a unique numerical code, a code position, to each character in the repertoire. In addition to being often presented as one or more tables, the code as a whole can be regarded as a single table and the code positions as indexes. As synonyms for "code position", the following terms are also in use: code number, code value, code element, code point, code set value - and just code. Note: The set of nonnegative integers corresponding to characters need not consist of consecutive numbers; in fact, most character codes have "holes", such as code positions reserved for control functions or for eventual future use to be defined later. character encoding A method (algorithm) for presenting characters in dig- ital form by mapping sequences of code numbers of characters into sequences of octets. In the simplest case, each character is mapped to an integer in the range 0 - 255 according to a character code and these are used as such as octets. Naturally, this only works for character reper- toires with at most 256 characters. For larger sets, more complicated encodings are needed. Encodings have names, which can be regis- tered. Character Code Issues 49
Notice that a character code assumes or implicitly defines a character reper- toire. A character encoding could, in principle, be viewed purely as a method of mapping a sequence of integers to a sequence of octets. However, quite often an encoding is specified in terms of a character code (and the implied character repertoire). The logical structure is still the following:
A character repertoire specifies a collection of characters, such as "a", "!", and "ä".
A character code defines numeric codes for characters in a repertoire. For example, in the ISO 10646 character code the numeric codes for "a", "!", "ä", and "ı" (per mille sign) are 97, 33, 228, and 8240. (Note: Especially the per mille sign, presenting ı as a single character, can be shown incorrectly on display or on paper. That would be an illustration of the symptoms of the problems we are discussing.)
A character encoding defines how sequences of numeric codes are presented as (i.e., mapped to) sequences of octets. In one possible encoding for ISO 10646, the string a!äı is presented as the following sequence of octets (using two octets for each character): 0, 97, 0, 33, 0, 228, 32, 48.
The phrase character set is used in a variety of meanings. It might denotes just a character repertoire but it may also refer to a character code, and quite often a particular character encoding is implied too.
Unfortunately the word charset is used to refer to an encoding, causing much confusion. It is even the official term to be used in several contexts by Internet protocols, in MIME headers.
Quite often the choice of a character repertoire, code, or encoding is pre- sented as the choice of a language. For example, Web browsers typically confuse things quite a lot in this area. A pulldown menu in a program might be labeled "Languages", yet consist of character encoding choices (only). A language set- ting is quite distinct from character issues, although naturally each language has its own requirements on character repertoire. Even more seriously, pro- grams and their documentation very often confuse the above-mentioned issues with the selection of a font. 50 Jukka K. Korpella 3. Examples of character codes
3.1. Good old ASCII
The name ASCII, originally an abbreviation for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange", denotes an old character repertoire, code, and encoding. Most character codes currently in use contain ASCII as their subset in some sense. ASCII is the safest character repertoire to be used in data transfer. However, not even all ASCII characters are "safe"! ASCII has been used and is used so widely that often the word ASCII refers to "text" or "plain text" in general, even if the character code is something else! The words "ASCII file" quite often mean any text file as opposite to a binary file. The definition of ASCII also specifies a set of control codes ("control char- acters") such as linefeed (LF) and escape (ESC). But the character repertoire proper, consisting of the printable characters of ASCII, is the following (where the first item is the blank, or space, character) :
! " # $ % & ’ ( ) * + , - . / 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 : ; < = > ? @ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z [ \ ] ^ _ ‘ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z { | } ~
The appearance of characters varies, of course, especially for some special characters.
A formal view on ASCII The character code defined by the ASCII stan- dard is the following: code values are assigned to characters consecutively in the order in which the characters are listed above (rowwise), starting from 32 (assigned to the blank) and ending up with 126 (assigned to the tilde character ~). Positions 0 through 31 and 127 are reserved for control codes. They have standardized names and descriptions, but in fact their usage varies a lot. The character encoding specified by the ASCII standard is very simple, and the most obvious one for any character code where the code numbers do not exceed 255: each code number is presented as an octet with the same value. Octets 128 - 255 are not used in ASCII (This allows programs to use the first, most significant bit of an octet as a parity bit, for example). Character Code Issues 51
National variants of ASCII There are several national variants of ASCII. In such variants, some special characters have been replaced by national letters (and other symbols). There is great variation here, and even within one country and for one language there might be different variants. The original ASCII is therefore often referred to as US-ASCII ; the formal standard (by ANSI) is ANSI X3.4-1986. The international standard ISO 646 defines a character set similar to US-ASCII but with code positions corresponding to US-ASCII characters @[\]{|} as "national use positions". It also gives some liberties with characters #$^‘~. The standard also defines "international reference version (IRV)", which is (in the 1991 edition of ISO 646) identical to US-ASCII. Within the framework of ISO 646, and partly otherwise too, several "na- tional variants of ASCII" have been defined, assigning different letters and symbols to the "national use" positions. Thus, the characters that appear in those positions - including those in US-ASCII - are somewhat "unsafe" in inter- national data transfer, although this problem is losing significance. The trend is towards using the corresponding codes strictly for US-ASCII meanings; na- tional characters are handled otherwise, giving them their own, unique and universal code positions in character codes larger than ASCII. But old soft- ware and devices may still reflect various "national variants of ASCII". The following table lists ASCII characters which might be replaced by other characters in national variants of ASCII. (That is, the code positions of these US-ASCII characters might be occupied by other characters needed for national use.) The lists of characters appearing in national variants are not intended to be exhaustive, just typical examples. Almost all of the characters used in the national variants have been incor- porated into ISO Latin 1. Systems that support ISO Latin 1 in principle may still reflect the use of national variants of ASCII in some details; for example, an ASCII character might get printed or displayed according to some national variant. Thus, even "plain ASCII text" is thereby not always portable from one system or application to another.
Subsets of ASCII for safety Mainly due to the "national variants" discussed above, some characters are less "safe" than other, i.e. more often transferred or interpreted incorrectly. In addition to the letters of the English alphabet ("A" to "Z", and "a" to "z"), the digits ("0" to "9") and the space (" "), only the following characters can be regarded as really "safe" in data transmission: ! " % & ’ ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? 52 Jukka K. Korpella
dec oct hex glyph official Unicode name National variants 35 43 23 # number sign £ Ù 36 44 24 $ dollar sign • 3 64 100 40 @ commercial at É §Ä à 91 133 5B [ left square bracket Ä Æ ˚ â ¡ ÿ é 92 134 5C \ reverse solidus Ö Ø ç Ñ 1/2 • 93 135 5D ] right square bracket A˚ Ü § ê é ¿ | 94 136 5E ^ circumflex accent Ü î 95 137 5F _ low line è 96 140 60 ‘ grave accent é ä µ ô ù 123 173 7B { left curly bracket ä æ é à ˚ ¨ 124 174 7C | vertical line ö ø ù ò ñ f 125 175 7D } right curly bracket ˚a ü è ç 1/4 126 176 7E ∼ tilde ü ¯ ß ¨ û ì ’ _
Even these characters might eventually be interpreted wrongly by the re- cipient, e.g. by a human reader seeing a glyph for "&" as something else than what it is intended to denote, or by a program interpreting "<" as starting some special markup, "?" as being a so-called wildcard character, etc. When you need to name things (e.g. files, variables, data fields, etc.), it is often best to use only the characters listed above, even if a wider character repertoire is possible. Naturally you need to take into account any additional restrictions imposed by the applicable syntax. For example, the rules of a pro- gramming language might restrict the character repertoire in identifier names to letters, digits and one or two other characters.
The misnomer "8-bit ASCII" Sometimes the phrase "8-bit ASCII" is used. It follows from the discussion above that in reality ASCII is strictly and unambiguously a 7-bit code in the sense that all code positions are in the range 0-127. It is a misnomer used to refer to various character codes which are ex- tensions of ASCII in the following sense: the character repertoire contains ASCII as a subset, the code numbers are in the range 0 - 255, and the code numbers of ASCII characters equal their ASCII codes.
3.2. Another example: ISO Latin 1 alias ISO 8859-1
The ISO 8859-1 standard (which is part of the ISO 8859 family of stan- dards) defines a character repertoire identified as "Latin alphabet No. 1", Character Code Issues 53 commonly called "ISO Latin 1", as well as a character code for it. The reper- toire contains the ASCII repertoire as a subset, and the code numbers for those characters are the same as in ASCII. The standard also specifies an encoding, which is similar to that of ASCII: each code number is presented simply as one octet. In addition to the ASCII characters, ISO Latin 1 contains various accented characters and other letters needed for writing languages of Western Europe, and some special characters. These characters occupy code positions 160 - 255, and they are:
¡ 6 c £ • • | § ¨ c a { ¬ r ¯ 2 3 1 ˚ ’ µ ¶ · ¸ o } 1/4 1/2 3/4 ¿ À Á Â Ã Ä A˚ Æ Ç È É Ê Ë Ì Í Î Ï Ð Ñ Ò Ó Ô Õ Ö × Ø Ù Ú Û Ü Ý Þ ß à á â ã ä ˚a æ ç è é ê ë ì í î ï ð ñ ò ó ô õ ö ÷ ø ù ú û ü ý þ ÿ
The first of the characters above appears as space; it is the so-called no- break space. Naturally, the appearance of characters varies from one font to another.
3.3. More examples: the Windows character set(s)
In ISO 8859-1, code positions 128 - 159 are explicitly reserved for con- trol purposes; they "correspond to bit combinations that do not represent graphic characters". The so-called Windows character set (WinLatin1, or Windows code page 1252, to be exact) uses some of those positions for printable characters. Thus, the Windows character set is not identical with ISO 8859-1. It is, however, true that the Windows character set is much more similar to ISO 8859-1 than the so-called DOS character sets are. The Win- dows character set is often called "ANSI character set", but this is seriously misleading. It has not been approved by ANSI. (Historical background: Mi- crosoft based the design of the set on a draft for an ANSI standard. A glossary by Microsoft explicitly admits this.) Note that programs used on Windows systems may use a DOS character set; for example, if you create a text file using a Windows program and then use the type command on DOS prompt to see its content, strange things may happen, since the DOS command interprets the data according to a DOS character code. 54 Jukka K. Korpella
In the Windows character set, some positions in the range 128 - 159 are assigned to printable characters, such as "smart quotes", em dash, en dash, and trademark symbol. Thus, the character repertoire is larger than ISO Latin 1. The use of octets in the range 128 - 159 in any data to be processed by a program that expects ISO 8859-1 encoded data is an error which might cause just anything. They might for example get ignored, or be processed in a manner which looks meaningful, or be interpreted as control characters. The Windows character set exists in different variations, or "code pages" (CP), which generally differ from the corresponding ISO 8859 standard so that it contains same characters in positions 128 - 159 as code page 1252. (However, there are some more differences between ISO 8859-7 and WIN-1253 (WinGreek)). What we have discussed here is the most usual one, resembling ISO 8859-1. In December 1999, Microsoft finally registered it under the name windows-1252. (The name cp-1252 has been used too, but it isn’t offi- cially registered even as an alias name).
3.4. The ISO 8859 family
There are several character codes which are extensions to ASCII in the same sense as ISO 8859-1 and the Windows character set. ISO 8859-1 itself is just a member of the ISO 8859 family of character codes. Those codes ex- tend the ASCII repertoire in different ways with different special characters (used in different languages and cultures). Just as ISO 8859-1 contains ASCII characters and a collection of characters needed in languages of western (and northern) Europe, there is ISO 8859-2 alias ISO Latin 2 constructed similarly for languages of central/eastern Europe, etc. The ISO 8859 character codes are isomorphic in the following sense: code positions 0 - 127 contain the same character as in ASCII, positions 128 - 159 are unused (reserved for control characters), and positions 160 - 255 are the varying part, used differently in different members of the ISO 8859 family. The ISO 8859 character codes are normally presented using the obvious encoding: each code position is presented as one octet. Such encodings have several alternative names in the official registry of character encodings, but the preferred ones are of the form ISO-8859-n. Although ISO 8859-1 has been a de facto default encoding in many contexts, it has in principle no special role. And in practice, ISO 8859-15 alias ISO Latin 9 (!) will probably replace ISO 8859-1 to a great extent, since it contains the politically important symbol for euro. Notes: ISO 8859-n is Latin alphabet no. n for n=1,2,3,4, but this corre- spondence is broken for the other Latin alphabets. Character Code Issues 55
The parts of ISO 8859 standard Name of alphabet characterization ISO 8859-1 Latin alphabet No. 1 "Western", "West European" ISO 8859-2 Latin alphabet No. 2 "Central European", "East European" ISO 8859-3 Latin alphabet No. 3 "South European", "Maltese & Esperanto" ISO 8859-4 Latin alphabet No. 4 "North European" ISO 8859-5 Latin/Cyrillic alphabet (for Slavic languages) ISO 8859-6 Latin/Arabic alphabet (for the Arabic language) ISO 8859-7 Latin/Greek alphabet (for modern Greek) ISO 8859-8 Latin/Hebrew alphabet (for Hebrew and Yiddish) ISO 8859-9 Latin alphabet No. 5 "Turkish" ISO 8859-10 Latin alphabet No. 6 "Nordic" (Sámi, Inuit, Icelandic) ISO 8859-11 Latin/Thai alphabet (for the Thai language; draft (Part 12 has not been defined). ISO 8859-13 Latin alphabet No. 7 Baltic Rim ISO 8859-14 Latin alphabet No. 8 Celtic ISO 8859-15 Latin alphabet No. 9 "euro" ISO 8859-16 Latin alphabet No. 10 for Romanian and various other languages
3.5. Other "extensions to ASCII"
In addition to the codes discussed above, there are other extensions to ASCII which utilize the code range 0 - 255 ("8-bit ASCII codes"), such as DOS character codes, or "code pages" (CP) In MS DOS systems, different character codes are used; they are called "code pages". The original American code page was CP 437, which has e.g. some Greek letters, mathematical symbols, and characters which can be used as elements in simple pseudo-graphics. Later CP 850 became popular, since it contains letters needed for West European languages - largely the same letters as ISO 8859-1, but in different code positions. Note that DOS code pages are quite different from Windows character codes, though the latter are sometimes called with names like cp-1252 (= windows-1252)! For further con- fusion, Microsoft now prefers to use the notion "OEM code page" for the DOS character set used in a particular country. Macintosh character code On the Macs, the character code is more uniform than on PCs (although there are some national variants). The Mac character repertoire is a mixed combination of ASCII, accented letters, mathematical symbols, and other in- gredients. 56 Jukka K. Korpella
Notice that many of these are very different from ISO 8859-1. They may have different character repertoires, and the same character often has different code values in different codes. For example, code position 228 is occupied by ä (letter a with dieresis, or umlaut) in ISO 8859-1, by ð (Icelandic letter eth) in HP’s Roman-8, by õ (letter o with tilde) in DOS code page 850, and per mille sign (ı)in Macintosh character code. In general, full conversions between the character codes mentioned above are not possible. For example, the Macintosh character repertoire contains the Greek letter pi, which does not exist in ISO Latin 1 at all. Naturally, a text can be converted (by a simple program which uses a conversion table) from Macintosh character code to ISO 8859-1 if the text contains only those characters which belong to the ISO Latin 1 character repertoire. Text presented in Windows character code can be used as such as ISO 8859-1 encoded data if it contains only those characters which belong to the ISO Latin 1 character repertoire.
3.6. Other "8-bit codes"
All the character codes discussed above are "8-bit codes", eight bits are sufficient for presenting the code numbers and in practice the encoding (at least the normal encoding) is the obvious (trivial) one where each code position (thereby, each character) is presented as one octet (byte). This means that there are 256 code positions, but several positions are reserved for control codes or left unused (unassigned, undefined). Although currently most "8-bit codes" are extensions to ASCII in the sense described above, this is just a practical matter caused by the widespread use of ASCII. It was practical to make the "lower halves" of the character codes the same, for several reasons. The standards ISO 2022 and ISO 4873 define a general framework for 8-bit codes (and 7-bit codes) and for switching between them. One of the basic ideas is that code positions 128 - 159 (decimal) are reserved for use as control codes ("C1 controls"). Note that the Windows character sets do not comply with this principle. To illustrate that other kinds of 8-bit codes can be defined than extensions to Ascii, we briefly consider the EBCDIC code, defined by IBM and once in widespread use on "mainframes" (and still in use). EBCDIC contains all ASCII characters but in quite different code positions. As an interesting detail, in EBCDIC normal letters A - Z do not all appear in consecutive code positions. EBCDIC exists in different national variants (cf. to variants of ASCII). Character Code Issues 57
3.7. ISO 10646 (UCS) and Unicode
ISO 10646 (officially: ISO/IEC 10646) is an international standard, by ISO and IEC. It defines UCS, Universal Character Set, which is a very large and growing character repertoire, and a character code for it. Currently tens of thousands of characters have been defined, and new amendments are defined fairly often. It contains, among other things, all characters in the character repertoires discussed above. Unicode is a standard, by the Unicode Consortium, which defines a character repertoire and character code intended to be fully compatible with ISO 10646, and an encoding for it. ISO 10646 is more general (abstract) in nature, whereas Unicode "additional constraints on implementations to ensure that they treat characters uniformly across platforms and applications", as they say in the Unicode FAQ. Moreover, Unicode basically corresponds to "Basic Multilingual Plane (BMP)" of ISO 10646 (though there are mechanisms in Unicode to extend beyond BMP); however, other "planes" haven’t even been defined yet. The ISO 10646 and Unicode character repertoire can be regarded as a su- perset of most character repertoires in use. However, the code positions of characters vary from one character code to another. In practice, people usually talk about Unicode rather than ISO 10646, partly because we prefer names to numbers, partly because Unicode is more explicit about the meanings of characters, partly because detailed information Unicode is available on the Web. Unicode version 1.0 used somewhat different names for some characters than ISO 10646. In Unicode version, 2.0, the names were made the same as in ISO 10646. New versions of Unicode are expected to add new characters mostly. Version 3.0, with a total number of 49,194 characters (38,887 in ver- sion 2.1), was published in February 2000. The ISO 10646 standard has not been put onto the Web. It is available in printed form from ISO member bodies. But for most practical purposes, the same information is in the Unicode standard. The "native" Unicode encoding, UCS-2, presents each code number as two consecutive octets m and n so that the number equals 256m + n. This means, to express it in computer jargon, that the code number is presented as a two- byte integer. This is a very obvious and simple encoding. However, it can be inefficient in terms of the number of octets needed. If we have normal English text or other text which contains ISO Latin 1 characters only, the length of the Unicode encoded octet sequence is twice the length of the string in ISO 8859-1 encoding. 58 Jukka K. Korpella
It is somewhat debatable whether Unicode defines an encoding or just a character code. However, it refers to code values being presentable as 16-bit integers, and it seems to imply the corresponding two-octet representation. In principle, Unicode requires that "Unicode values can be stored in native 16- bit machine words" and "does not specify any order of bytes inside a Unicode value". Thus, it allows "little-endian" presentation where the least significant byte precedes the most significant byte, if agreed on by higher-level protocols. ISO 10646 can be, and often is, encoded in other ways, too, such as the following encodings: UTF-8 Character codes less than 128 (effectively, the ASCII repertoire) are pre- sented "as such", using one octet for each code (character) All other codes are presented, according to a relatively complicated method, so that one code (character) is presented as a sequence of two to six octets, each of which is in the range 128 - 255. This means that in a sequence of octets, octets in the range 0 - 127 ("bytes with most significant bit set to 0") directly represent ASCII characters, whereas octets in the range 128 - 255 ("bytes with most significant bit set to 1") are to be interpreted as really encoded presentations of characters. UTF-7 Each character code is presented as a sequence of one or more octets in the range 0 - 127 ("bytes with most significant bit set to 0", or "seven-bit bytes", hence the name). Most ASCII characters are presented as such, each as one octet, but for obvious reasons some octet values must be reserved for use as "escape" octets, specifying the octet together with a certain number of subsequent octets forms a multi-octet encoded presentation of one character. IETF Policy on Character Sets and Languages (RFC 2277) clearly favors UTF-8. It requires support to it in Internet protocols (and doesn’t even men- tion UTF-7). Note that UTF-8 is efficient, if the data consists dominantly of ASCII characters with just a few "special characters" in addition to them, and reasonably efficient for dominantly ISO Latin 1 text. The implementation of Unicode support is a long and mostly gradual process. Unicode can be supported by programs on any operating systems, although some systems may allow much easier implementation than others; this mainly depends on whether the system uses Unicode internally so that support to Unicode is "built-in". Even in circumstances where Unicode is supported in principle, the support usually does not cover all Unicode characters. For example, a font available may cover just some part of Unicode which is practically important in some Character Code Issues 59 area. On the other hand, for data transfer it is essential to know which Unicode characters the recipient is able to handle. For such reasons, various subsets of the Unicode character repertoire have been and will be defined. For exam- ple, the Minimum European Subset specified by ENV 1973:1995 is intended to provide a first step towards the implementation of large character sets in Europe. There are also three Multilingual European Subsets (MES-1, MES-2, MES-3, with MES-2 based on the Minimum European Subset). In addition to international standards, there are company policies which define various subsets of the character repertoire. A practically important one is Microsoft’s "Windows Glyph List 4" (WGL4), or "PanEuropean" char- acter set. Unicode characters are often referred to using a notation of the form U+nnnn where nnnn is a four-digit hexadecimal notation of the code value. For example, U+0020 means the space character (with code value 20 in hexadec- imal, 32 in decimal). Notice that such notations identify a character through its Unicode code value, without referring to any particular encoding. There are other ways to mention (identify) a character, too.
4. More about the character concept
An "A" (or any other character) is something like a Platonic entity: it is the idea of an "A" and not the "A" itself. – Michael E. Cohen: Text and Fonts in a Multi-lingual Cross-platform World. The character concept is very fundamental for the issues discussed here but difficult to define exactly. The more fundamental concepts we use, the harder it is to give good definitions. (How would you define "life"? Or "structure"?) Here we will concentrate on clarifying the character concept by indicating what it does not imply.
4.1. The Unicode view
The Unicode standard describes characters as "the smallest components of written language that have semantic value", which is somewhat misleading. A character such as a letter can hardly be described as having a meaning (seman- tic value) in itself. Moreover, a character such as ú (letter u with acute accent), which belongs to Unicode, can often be regarded as consisting of smaller com- ponents: a letter and a diacritic. And in fact the very definition of the character concept in Unicode is the following: 60 Jukka K. Korpella
abstract character: a unit of information used for the organization, control, or representation of textual data.
4.2. Control characters (control codes)
The rôle of the so-called control characters in character codes is somewhat obscure. Character codes often contain code positions which are not assigned to any visible character but reserved for control purposes. For example, in com- munication between a terminal and a computer using the ASCII code, the computer could regard octet 3 as a request for terminating the currently run- ning process. Some older character code standards contain explicit descriptions of such conventions whereas newer standards just reserve some positions for such usage, to be defined in separate standards or agreements such as "C0 controls" and "C1 controls", or specifically ISO 6429. And although the definition quoted above suggests that "control characters" might be regarded as characters in the Unicode terminology, perhaps it is more natural to regard them as control codes.
Control codes can be used for device control such as cursor movement, page eject, or changing colors. Quite often they are used in combination with codes for graphic characters, so that a device driver is expected to interpret the combination as a specific command and not display the graphic character(s) contained in it. For example, in the classical VT100 controls, ESC followed by the code corresponding to the letter "A" or something more complicated (depending on mode settings) moves the cursor up. To take a different example, the Emacs editor treats ESC A as a request to move to the beginning of a sentence. Note that the ESC control code is logically distinct from the ESC key in a keyboard, and many other things than pressing ESC might cause the ESC control code to be sent. Also note that phrases like "escape sequences" are often used to refer to things that don’t involve ESC at all and operate at a quite different level.
One possible form of device control is changing the way a device interprets the data (octets) that it receives. For example, a control code followed by some data in a specific format might be interpreted so that any subsequent octets to be interpreted according to a table identified in some specific way. This is often called "code page switching", and it means that control codes could be used change the character encoding. And it is then more logical to consider the control codes and associated data at the level of fundamental interpretation of data rather than direct device control. The international standard ISO 2022 defines powerful facilities for using different 8-bit character codes in a document. Character Code Issues 61
Widely used formatting control codes include carriage return (CR), line- feed (LF), and horizontal tab (HT), which in ASCII occupy code positions 13, 10, and 9. The names (or abbreviations) suggest generic meanings, but the actual meanings are defined partly in each character code definition, partly - and more importantly - by various other conventions "above" the character level. The "formatting" codes might be seen as a special case of device control, in a sense, but more naturally, a CR or a LF or a CR LF pair (to mention the most common conventions) when used in a text file simply indicates a new line. The HT (TAB) character is often used for real "tabbing" to some predefined writing position. But it is also used e.g. for indicating data boundaries, with- out any particular presentational effect, for example in the widely used "tab separated values" (TSV) data format.
4.3. A glyph - a visual appearance
It is important to distinguish the character concept from the glyph concept. A glyph is a presentation of a particular shape which a character may have when rendered or displayed. For example, the character Z might be presented as a boldface Z or as an italic Z, and it would still be a presentation of the same character. On the other hand, lower-case z is defined to be a separate character - which in turn may have different glyph presentations. This is ultimately a matter of definition: a definition of a character reper- toire specifies the "identity" of characters, among other things. One could define a repertoire where uppercase Z and lowercase z are just two glyphs for the same character. On the other hand, one could define that italic Z is a character dif- ferent from normal Z, not just a different glyph for it. In fact, in Unicode for example there are several characters which could be regarded as typographic variants of letters only, but for various reasons Unicode defines them as separate characters. For example, mathematicians use a variant of letter N to denote the set of natural numbers (0, 1, 2, ...), and this variant is defined as being a sep- arate character ("double-struck capital N") in Unicode. There are some more notes on the identity of characters below.
4.4. What’s in a name?
The names of characters are assigned identifiers rather than definitions. Typically the names are selected so that they contain only letters A - Z, spaces, and hyphens; often uppercase variant is the reference spelling of a character name. The same character may have different names in different definitions of character repertoires. Generally the name is intended to suggest a generic 62 Jukka K. Korpella
meaning and scope of use. But the Unicode standard warns (mentioning full stop as an example of a character with varying usage): A character may have a broader range of use than the most literal interpre- tation of its name might indicate; coded representation, name, and represen- tative glyph need to be taken in context when establishing the semantics of a character.
4.5. Glyph variation
When a character repertoire is defined (e.g. in a standard), some particular glyph is often used to describe the appearance of each character, but this should be taken as an example only. The Unicode standard specifically says that great variation is allowed between "representative glyph" appearing in the standard and a glyph used for the corresponding character: Consistency with the representative glyph does not require that the images be identical or even graphically similar; rather, it means that both images are generally recognized to be representations of the same character. Representing the character U+0061 Latin small letter a by the glyph "X" would violate its character identity. Thus, the definition of a repertoire is not a matter of just listing glyphs, but neither is it a matter of defining exactly the meanings of characters. It’s actually an exception rather than a rule that a character repertoire definition explicitly says something about the meaning and use of a character. Possibly some specific properties (e.g. being classified as a letter or having numeric value in the sense that digits have) are defined, as in the Unicode database, but such properties are rather general in nature. This vagueness may sound irritating, and it often is. But an essential point to be noted is that quite a lot of information is implied. You are expected to deduce what the character is, using both the character name and its repre- sentative glyph, and perhaps context too, like the grouping of characters under different headings like "currency symbols".
4.6. Fonts
A repertoire of glyphs comprises a font. In a more technical sense, as the implementation of a font, a font is a numbered set of glyphs. The numbers correspond to code positions of the characters (presented by the glyphs). Thus, a font in that sense is character code dependent. An expression like Character Code Issues 63
"Unicode font" refers to such issues and does not imply that the font contains glyphs for all Unicode characters. It is possible that a font which is used for the presentation of some character repertoire does not contain a different glyph for each character. For example, although characters such as Latin uppercase A, Cyrillic uppercase A, and Greek uppercase alpha are regarded as distinct characters (with distinct code values) in Unicode, a particular font might contain just one A which is used to present all of them. You should never use a character just because it "looks right" or "almost right". Characters with quite different purposes and meanings may well look similar, or almost similar, in some fonts at least. Using a character as a surro- gate for another for the sake of apparent similarity may lead to great confusion. Consider, for example, the so-called sharp s (es-zed), which is used in the Ger- man language. Some people who have noticed such a character in the ISO Latin 1 repertoire have thought "wow, here we have the beta character!". In many fonts, the sharp s (ß) really looks more or less like the Greek low- ercase beta character (β). But it must not be used as a surrogate for beta. You wouldn’t get very far with it, really; what’s the big idea of having beta without alpha and all the other Greek letters? More seriously, the use of sharp s in place of beta would confuse text searches, spelling checkers, indexers, etc.; an automatic converter might well turn sharp s into ss; and some font might present sharp s in a manner which is very different from beta.
4.7. Identity of characters: a matter of definition
The identity of characters is defined by the definition of a character repertoire. Thus, it is not an absolute concept but relative to the repertoire; some repertoire might contain a character with mixed usage while another de- fines distinct characters for the different uses. For instance, the ASCII reper- toire has a character called hyphen. It is also used as a minus sign (as well as a substitute for a dash, since ASCII contains no dashes). Thus, that ASCII character is a generic, multipurpose character, and one can say that in ASCII hyphen and minus are identical. But in Unicode, there are distinct characters named "hyphen" and "minus sign" (as well as different dash characters). For compatibility, the old ASCII character is preserved in Unicode, too (in the old code position, with the name hyphen-minus). Similarly, as a matter of definition, Unicode defines characters for micro sign, n-ary product, etc., as distinct from the Greek letters (small mu, capital pi, etc.) they originate from. This is a logical distinction and does not necessarily imply that different glyphs are used. The distinction is important 64 Jukka K. Korpella
e.g. when textual data in digital form is processed by a program (which "sees" the code values, through some encoding, and not the glyphs at all). Notice that Unicode does not make any distinction e.g. between the greek small letter pi (π), and the mathematical symbol pi denoting the well-known constant 3.14159... (i.e. there is no separate symbol for the latter). For the ohm sign (Ω), there is a specific character (in the Symbols Area), but it is defined as being compatibility equivalent to greek capital letter omega (Ω), i.e. there are two separate characters but they are equivalent. On the other hand, it makes a distinction between greek capital letter pi (Π) and the mathematical symbol n-ary product (Q), so that they are not compatibility equivalents. If you think this doesn’t sound quite logical, you are not the only one to think so. But the point is that for symbols resembling Greek letter and used in various contexts, there are three possibilities in Unicode:
— the symbol is regarded as identical to the Greek letter (just as its partic- ular usage)
— the symbol is included as a separate character but only for compatibility and as compatibility equivalent to the Greek letter
— the symbol is regarded as a completely separate character.
You need to check the Unicode references for information about each individual symbol. As a rough rule of thumb about symbols looking like Greek letters, mathematical operators (like summation) exist as independent char- acters whereas symbols of quantities and units (like pi and ohm) are either compatibility characters or identical to Greek letters.
4.8. Failures to display a character
In addition to the fact that the appearance of a character may vary, it is quite possible that some program fails to display a character at all. Perhaps the program cannot interpret a particular way in which the character is presented. The reason might simply be that some program-specific way had been used to denote the character and a different program is in use now. (This happens quite often even if "the same" program is used; for example, Internet Explorer version 4.0 is able to recognize α as denoting the Greek letter alpha (α) but IE 3.0 is not and displays the notation literally.) And naturally it often occurs that a program does not recognize the basic character encoding of the data, either because it was not properly informed about the encoding according to which the data should be interpreted or because it has not been programmed to handle the particular encoding in use. Character Code Issues 65
But even if a program recognizes some data as denoting a character, it may well be unable to display it since it lacks a glyph for it. Often it will help if the user manually checks the font settings, perhaps manually trying to find a rich enough font. (Advanced programs could be expected to do this automatically and even to pick up glyphs from different fonts, but such expectations are mostly unrealistic at present.) But it’s quite possible that no such font can be found. As an important detail, the possibility of seeing e.g. Greek characters on some Windows systems depends on whether "internationalization support" has been installed. A well-design program will in some appropriate way indicate its inability to display a character. For example, a small rectangular box, the size of a charac- ter, could be used to indicate that there is a character which was recognized but cannot be displayed. Some programs use a question mark, but this is risky - how is the reader expected to distinguish such usage from the real "?" character?
4.9. Linear text vs. mathematical notations
Although several character repertoires, most notably that of ISO 10646 and Unicode, contain mathematical and other symbols, the presentation of mathematical formulas is essentially not a character level problem. At the character level, symbols like integration or n-ary summation can be defined and their code positions and encodings defined, and representative glyphs shown, and perhaps some usage notes given. But the construction of real for- mulas, e.g. for a definite integral of a function, is a different thing, no matter whether one considers formulas abstractly (how the structure of the formula is given) or presentationally (how the formula is displayed on paper or on screen). To mention just a few approaches to such issues, the TEX system is widely used by mathematicians to produce high-quality presentations of for- mulas, and MathML is an ambitious project for creating a markup language for mathematics so that both structure and presentation can be handled. In other respects, too, character standards usually deal with plain text only. Other structural or presentational aspects, such as font variation, are to be handled separately. However, there are characters which would now be con- sidered as differing in font only but for historical reasons regarded as distinct.
4.10. Compatibility characters
There is a large number of compatibility characters in ISO 10646 and Unicode which are variants of other characters. They were included for com- patibility with other standards so that data presented using some other code 66 Jukka K. Korpella
can be converted to ISO 10646 and back without losing information. The Uni- code standard says: Compatibility characters are included in the Unicode Standard only to rep- resent distinctions in other base standards and would not otherwise have been encoded. However, replacing a compatibility character by its decomposition may lose round-trip convertibility with a base standard. There is a large number of compatibility characters in the Compatibility Area but also scattered around the Unicode space. The Unicode database contains, for each character, a field (the sixth one) which specifies whether it is a compatibility character as well as its eventual compatibility decomposition. 2 Thus, to take a simple example, superscript two ( ) is an ISO Latin 1 character with its own code position in that standard. In ISO 10646 way of thinking, it would have been treated as just a superscript variant of digit two. But since the character is contained in an important standard, it was included into ISO 10646, though only as a "compatibility character". The practical rea- son is that now one can convert from ISO Latin 1 to ISO 10646 and back and get the original data. This does not mean that in the ISO 10646 philoso- phy superscripting (or subscripting, italics, bolding etc.) would be irrelevant; rather, they are to be handled at another level of data presentation, such as some special markup. The definition of Unicode indicates our sample character, superscript two, as a compatibility character with the compatibility decomposition "
A ligature occurs where two or more letterforms are written or printed as a unit. Generally, ligatures replace characters that occur next to each other when they share common components. Ligatures are a subset of a more general class of figures called "contextual forms."
4.11. Compositions and decompositions
A diacritic mark, i.e. an additional graphic such as an accent or cedilla attached to a character, can be treated in different ways when defining a char- acter repertoire. In the Unicode approach, there are separate characters called combining diacritical marks. The general idea is that you can express a vast set of characters with diacritics by representing them so that a base character is followed by one or more (!) combining (non-spacing) diacritic marks. And a program which displays such a construct is expected to do rather clever things in formatting, e.g. selecting a particular shape for the diacritic according to the shape of the base character. This requires Unicode support at implemen- tation level 3. Most programs currently in use are totally incapable of doing anything meaningful with combining diacritic marks. But there is some simple support to them in Internet Explorer for example, though you would need a font which contains the combining diacritics (such as Arial Unicode MS); then IE can handle simple combinations reasonably.
Thus, in practical terms, in order to use a character with a diacritic mark, you should try to find it as a precomposed character. A precomposed character, also called composite character or decomposable character, is one that has a code position (and thereby identity) of its own but is in some sense equiva- lent to a sequence of other characters. There are lots of them in Unicode, and they cover the needs of most (but not all) languages of the world, but not e.g. the presentation of the International phonetic alphabet by IPA which, in its general form, requires several different diacritic marks. For example, the character latin small letter a with diaeresis (U+00E4, ä) is, by Unicode defi- nition, decomposable to the sequence of the two characters latin small letter a (U+0061) and combining diaeresis (U+0308). This is at present mostly a the- oretic possibility. Generally by decomposing all decomposable characters one could in many cases simplify the processing of textual data (and the resulting data might be converted back to a format using precomposed characters). 68 Jukka K. Korpella 5. Typing characters
5.1. Just pressing a key?
Typing characters on a computer may appear deceptively simple: you press a key labeled "A", and the character "A" appears on the screen. You also expect "A" to be included into a disk file when you save what you are typing, you expect "A" to appear on paper if you print your text, and you expect "A" to be sent if you send your product by E-mail or something like that. And you expect the recipient to see an "A". Thus far, you should have learned that the presentation of a character in computer storage or disk or in data transfer may vary a lot. You have probably realized that especially if it’s not the common "A" but something more special (say, an "A" with an accent), strange things might happen, especially if data is not accompanied with adequate information about its encoding. But you might still be too confident. You probably expect that on your system at least things are simpler than that. If you use your very own, very per- sonal computer and press the key labeled "A" on its keyboard, then shouldn’t it be evident that in its storage and processor, on its disk, on its screen it’s invariably "A"? Can’t you just ignore its internal character code and character encoding? Well, probably yes - with "A". I wouldn’t be so sure about "Ä", for instance. (On Windows systems, for example, DOS mode programs differ from genuine Windows programs in this respect; they use a DOS character code.) When you press a key on your keyboard, then what actually happens is this. The keyboard sends the code of a character to the processor. The processor then, in addition to storing the data internally somewhere, normally sends it to the display device. Now, the keyboard settings and the display settings might be different from what you expect. Even if a key is labeled "Ä", it might send something else than the code of "Ä" in the character code used in your computer. Similarly, the display device, upon receiving such a code, might be set to display something different. Such mismatches are usually undesirable, but they are definitely possible. Moreover, there are often keyboard restrictions. If your computer uses in- ternally, say, ISO Latin 1 character repertoire, you probably won’t find keys for all 191 characters in it on your keyboard. And for Unicode, it would be quite impossible to have a key for each character! Different keyboards are used, often according to the needs of particular languages. For example, keyboards used in Sweden often have a key for the ˚a character but seldom a key for ñ. Quite often some keys have multiple uses via various "composition" keys. Character Code Issues 69
5.2. Program-specific methods for typing characters
Thus, you often need program-specific ways of entering characters from a keyboard, either because there is no key for a character you need or there is but it does not work (properly). Three important examples of such ways:
— On Windows systems, you can (usually - some application programs may override this) produce any character in the Windows character set (naturally, in its Windows encoding) as follows: Press down the Alt key and keep it down. Then type, using the separate numeric keypad (not the numbers above the letter keys!), the four-digit code of the character in decimal. Finally release the Alt key. Notice that the first digit is always 0, since the code values are in the range 32 - 255 (decimal). For instance, to produce the letter "Ä" (which has code 196 in decimal), you would press Alt down, type 0196 and then release Alt. Upon releasing Alt, the character should appear on the screen. In MS Word, the method works only if Num Lock is set. This method is often referred to as Alt-0nnn. (If you omit the leading zero, i.e. use Alt-nnn, the effect is different, since that way you insert the character in code position nnn in the DOS character code! For example, Alt-196 would probably insert a graphic character which looks somewhat like a hyphen. There are variations in the behavior of various Windows programs in this area, and using those DOS codes is best avoided).
— In the Emacs editor (which is popular especially on Unix systems), you can produce any ISO Latin 1 character by typing first control-Q, then its code as a three-digit octal number. To produce "Ä", you would thus type control-Q followed by the three digits 304 (and expect the "Ä" character to appear on screen). This method is often referred to as C-Q-nnn. (There are other ways of entering many ISO Latin 1 characters in Emacs, too.)
— Programs often process some keyboard key combinations, often in- volving the use of an Alt or Alt Gr key or some other "composition key", by converting them to special characters. In fact, even the well-known shift key is a composition key: it is used to modify the meaning of an- other key, e.g. by changing a letter to uppercase or turning a digit key to a special character key. Such things are not just "program-specific"; they also depend on the program version and settings (and on the keyboard, of course). For example, in order to support the euro sign, various meth- ods have been developed, e.g. by Microsoft so that pressing the "e" key while keeping the Alt Gr key pressed down might produce the euro sign - in some encoding! But this may require a special "euro update", and the key combinations vary even when we consider Microsoft products 70 Jukka K. Korpella
only. So it would be quite inappropriate to say e.g. "to type the euro, use AltGr+e" as general, unqualified advice.
The last method above could often be called "device dependent" rather than program specific, since the program that performs the conversion might be a keyboard driver. In that case, normal programs would have all their input from the keyboard processed that way. This method may also involve the use of auxiliary keys for typing characters with diacritic marks such as "á". Such an auxiliary key is often called dead key, since just pressing ít causes nothing; it works only in combination with some other key. For example, depending on the keyboard and the driver, you might be able to produce "á" by pressing first a key labeled with the acute accent (’), then the "a" key. My keyboard has two keys for such purposes: one with the acute accent and the grave accent (‘) above it (meaning I need to use the shift key for it) and one with the dieresis (¨) and the circumflex ( ) above it and the tilde (∼) below or left to it (meaning I need to use Alt Gr for it), so I can produce ISO Latin 1 characters with those diacritics. Note that this does not involve any operation on the characters ’‘¨ ∼ - the keyboard does not send those characters at all in such situations. If I try to enter that way a character outside the ISO Latin 1 repertoire, I get just the diacritic as a separate character followed by the normal character, e.g. " j". To enter the diacritic itself, such as the tilde (∼), I may need to press the space bar so that the tilde diacritic combines with the blank (producing ∼) instead of a letter (producing e.g. "ã"). Your situation may well be different, in part or entirely. For example, a typical French keyboard has separate keys for those accented characters which are used in French (e.g. "à") and no key for the accents themselves, but there is a key for attaching the circumflex or the dieresis in the manner outlined above.
5.3. "Escape" notations ("meta notations") for characters
It is often possible to use various "escape" notations for characters. This rather vague term means notations which are afterwards converted to (or just displayed as) characters according to some specific rules by some programs. They depend on the markup, programming, or other language (in a broad but technical meaning for "language", so that data formats can be included but human languages are excluded). If different languages have similar conventions in this respect, a language designer may have picked up a notation from an existing language, or it might be a coincidence. The phrase "escape notations" or even "escapes" for short is rather widespread, and it reflects the general idea of escaping from the limitations of a character repertoire or device or protocol or something else. So it’s used Character Code Issues 71 here, although a name like meta notations might be better. It is any case es- sential to distinguish these notations from the use of the ESC (escape) control code in ASCII and other character codes. Examples:
— In the PostScript language, characters have names, such as Adieresis for Ä, which can be used to denote them according to certain rules. — In the RTF data format, the notation \’c4 is used to denote Ä.
— In TEX systems, there are different ways of producing characters, possibly depending on the "packages" used. Examples of ways to produce Ä: \"A, \symbol{196}, \char’0304, \capitaldieresis{A}. — In the HTML language one can use the notation Ä for the char- acter Ä. In the official HTML terminology, such notations are called en- tity references (denoting characters). It depends on HTML version which entities are defined, and it depends on a browser which entities are actually supported. — In HTML, one can also use the notation Ä for the character Ä. Generally, in any SGML based system, or "SGML application" as the jargon goes, a numeric character reference (or, actually, just character references) of the form &#number; can be used, and it refers to the character which is in code position n in the character code defined for the "SGML application" in question. This is actually very simple: you specify a character by its index (position, number). But in SGML terminology, the character code which determines the interpretation of &#number; is called, quite confusingly, the document character set. For HTML, the "document character set" is ISO 10646 (or, to be exact, a subset thereof, depending on HTML version). A most essential point is that for HTML, the "document character set" is completely independent of the encoding of the document! The so-called character entity refer- ences like Ä in HTML can be regarded as symbolic names defined for some numeric character references.
— In the C programming language, one can usually write \0304 to de- note Ä within a string constant, although this makes the program char- acter code dependent.
As you can see, the notations typically involve some (semi-)mnemonic name or the code number of the character, in some number system. (The ISO 8859-1 code number for our example character Ä is 196 in decimal, 304 in octal, C4 in hexadecimal). And there is some method of indicating that the 72 Jukka K. Korpella
letters or digits are not to be taken as such but as part of a special notation denoting a character. Often some specific character such as the backslash \ is used as an "escape character". This implies that such a character cannot be used as such in the language or format but must itself be "escaped"; for example, to include the backslash itself into a string constant in C, you need to write it twice (\\). In cases like these, the character itself does not occur in a file (such as an HTML document or a C source program). Instead, the file contains the "escape" notation as a character sequence, which will then be interpreted in a specific way by programs like a Web browser or a C compiler. One can in a sense regard the "escape notations" as encodings used in specific contexts upon specific agreements. There are also "escape notations" which are to be interpreted by human readers directly. For example, when sending E-mail one might use A" (letter A followed by a quotation mark) as a surrogate for Ä (letter A with diere- sis), or one might use AE instead of Ä. The reader is assumed to understand that e.g. A" on display actually means Ä. Quite often the purpose is to use ASCII characters only, so that the typing, transmission, and display of the characters is "safe". But this typically means that text becomes very messy; the Finnish word Hämäläinen does not look too good or readable when written as Ha"ma"la"inen or Haemaelaeinen. Such usage is based on special (though often implicit) conventions and can cause a lot of confusion when there is no mutual agreement on the conventions, especially because there are so many of them. (For example, to denote letter a with acute accent, á, a convention might use the apostrophe, a’, or the solidus, a/, or the acute accent, a’, or something else).
5.4. How to mention (identify) a character
There are also various ways to identify a character when it cannot be used as such or when the appearance of a character is not sufficient identification. This might be regarded as a variant of the "escape notations for human readers" discussed above, but the pragmatic view is different here. We are not primarily interested in using characters in running text but in specifying which character is being discussed. For example, when discussing the Cyrillic letter that resembles the Latin letter E (and may have an identical or very similar glyph, and is transliterated as E according to ISO 9), there are various options:
— "Cyrillic E"; this is probably intuitively understandable in this case, and can be seen as referring either to the similarity of shape or to the translit- Character Code Issues 73
eration equivalence; but in the general case these interpretations do not coincide, and the method is otherwise vague too — "U+0415"; this is a unique identification but requires the reader to know the idea of U+nnnn notations — "cyrillic capital letter ie" (using the official Unicode name) or "cyrillic IE" (using an abridged version); one problem with this is that the names can be long even if simplified, and they still cannot be assumed to be universally known even by people who recognize the character — "KE02", which uses the special notation system defined in ISO 7350; the system uses a compact notation and is marginally mnemonic (K = kirillica ’Cyrillics’; the numeric codes indicate small/capital letter variation and the use of diacritics) — any of the "escape" notations discussed above, such as "E=" by RFC 1345 or "Е" in HTML; this can be quite adequate in a context where the reader can be assumed to be familiar with the partic- ular notation.
6. Information about encoding
6.1. The need for information about encoding
It is hopefully obvious from the preceding discussion that a sequence of octets can be interpreted in a multitude of ways when processed as character data. By looking at the octet sequence only, you cannot even know whether each octet presents one character or just part of a two-octet presentation of a character, or something more complicated. Sometimes one can guess the encoding, but data processing and transfer shouldn’t be guesswork. Naturally, a sequence of octets could be intended to present other than character data, too. It could be an image in a bitmap format, or a computer program in binary form, or numeric data in the internal format used in com- puters. This problem can be handled in different ways in different systems when data is stored and processed within one computer system. For data transmis- sion, a platform-independent method of specifying the general format and the encoding and other relevant information is needed. Such methods exist, al- though they not always used widely enough. People still send each other data without specifying the encoding, and this may cause a lot of harm. Attach- ing a human-readable note, such as a few words of explanation in an E-mail 74 Jukka K. Korpella
message body, is better than nothing. But since data is processed by programs which cannot understand such notes, the encoding should be specified in a standardized computer-readable form.
6.2. The MIME solution
Media types Internet media types, often called MIME media types, can be used to specify a major media type ("top level media type", such as text), a subtype (such as html), and an encoding (such as iso-8859-1). They were originally developed to allow sending other than plain ASCII data by E-mail. They can be (and should be) used for specifying the encoding when data is sent over a network, e.g. by E-mail or using the HTTP protocol on the World Wide Web.
Character encoding ("charset") information The technical term used to denote a character encoding in the Internet media type context is "character set", abbreviated "charset". This has caused a lot of confusion, since "set" can easily be understood as repertoire! Specifically, when data is sent in MIME format, the media type and encod- ing are specified in a manner illustrated by the following example: Content-Type: text/html; charset=iso-8859-1 This specifies, in addition to saying that the media type is text and subtype is html, that the character encoding is ISO 8859-1. The official registry of "charset" (i.e., character encoding) names, with references to documents defining their meanings, is kept by IANA at http://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets. Several character encodings have alternate (alias) names in the registry. For example, the basic (ISO 646) variant of ASCII can be called "ASCII" or "ANSI_X3.4-1968" or "cp367" (plus a few other names); the preferred name in MIME context is, according to the registry, "US-ASCII". Similarly, ISO 8859-1 has several names, the preferred MIME name being "ISO-8859-1". The "native" encoding for Unicode, UCS-2, is named "ISO-10646-UCS-2" there.
MIME headers The Content-Type information is an example of informa- tion in a header. Headers relate to some data, describing its presentation and other things, but are passed as logically separate from it. Possible headers and their contents are defined in the basic MIME specification, RFC 2045. Ad- equate headers should normally be generated automatically by the software which sends the data (such as a program for sending E-mail, or a Web server) and interpreted automatically by receiving software (such as a program for reading E-mail, or a Web browser). In E-mail messages, headers precede the Character Code Issues 75 message body; it depends on the E-mail program whether and how it displays the headers. For Web documents, a Web server is required to send headers when it delivers a document to a browser (or other user agent) which has sent a request for the document.
6.3. An auxiliary encoding: Quoted-Printable (QP)
The MIME specification defines, among many other things, the general purpose "Quoted-Printable" (QP) encoding which can be used to present any sequence of octets as a sequence of such octets which correspond to ASCII characters. This implies that the sequence of octets becomes longer, and if it is read as an ASCII string, it can be incomprehensible to humans. But what is gained is robustness in data transfer, since the encoding uses only "safe" ASCII characters which will most probably get through any component in the transfer unmodified.
Basically, QP encoding means that most octets smaller than 128 are used as such, whereas larger octets and some of the small ones are presented as follows: octet n is presented as a sequence of three octets, corresponding to ASCII codes for the = sign and the two digits of the hexadecimal notation of n. If QP encoding is applied to a sequence of octets presenting character data according to ISO 8859-1 character code, then effectively this means that most ASCII characters (including all ASCII letters) are preserved as such whereas e.g. the ISO 8859-1 character ä (code position 228 in decimal, E4 in hexadecimal) is encoded as =E4. (For obvious reasons, the equals sign = itself is among the few ASCII characters which are encoded. Being in code position 61 in decimal, 3D in hexadecimal, it is encoded as =3D.)
Notice that encoding ISO 8859-1 data this way means that the character code is the one specified by the ISO 8859-1 standard, whereas the character encoding is different from the one specified (or at least suggested) in that stan- dard. Since QP only specifies the mapping of a sequence of octets to another sequence of octets, it is a pure encoding and can be applied to any character data, or to any data for that matter.
Naturally, Quoted-Printable encoding needs to be processed by a program which knows it and can convert it to human-readable form. It looks rather confusing when displayed as such. Roughly speaking, one can expect most E-mail programs to be able to handle QP, but the same does not apply to newsreaders (or Web browsers). Therefore, you should normally use QP in E-mail only. 76 Jukka K. Korpella
6.4. How MIME should work in practice
Basically, MIME should let people communicate smoothly without hin- drances caused by character code and encoding differences. MIME should han- dle the necessary conversions automatically and invisibly. For example, when person A sends E-mail to person B, the following should happen: The E-mail program used by A encodes A’s message in some particular manner, probably according to some convention which is normal on the system where the program is used (such as ISO 8859-1 encoding on a typical modern Unix system). The program automatically includes information about this en- coding into an E-mail header, which is usually invisible both when sending and when reading the message. The message, with the headers, is then delivered, through network connections, to B’s system. When B uses his E-mail pro- gram (which may be very different from A’s) to read the message, the program should automatically pick up the information about the encoding as specified in a header and interpret the message body according to it. For example, if B is using a Macintosh computer, the program would automatically convert the message into Mac’s internal character encoding and only then display it. Thus, if the message was ISO 8859-1 encoded and contained the Ä (upper case A with dieresis) character, encoded as octet 196, the E-mail program used on the Mac should use a conversion table to map this to octet 128, which is the encoding for Ä on Mac. (If the program fails to do such a conversion, strange things will happen. ASCII characters would be displayed correctly, since they have the same codes in both encodings, but instead of Ä, the character corre- sponding to octet 196 in Mac encoding would appear - a symbol which looks like f in italics.)
6.5. Problems with implementations - examples
Unfortunately, there are deficiencies and errors in software so that users often have to struggle with character code conversion problems, perhaps cor- recting the actions taken by programs. It takes two to tango, and some more participants to get characters right. This section demonstrates different things which may happen, and do happen, when just one component is faulty, i.e. when MIME is not used or is inadequately supported by some "partner" (software involved in entering, storing, transferring, and displaying character data). Typical minor (!) problems which may occur in communication in Western European languages other than English is that most characters get interpreted and displayed correctly but some "national letters" don’t. For example, char- acter repertoire needed in German, Swedish, and Finnish is essentially ASCII Character Code Issues 77 plus a few letters like "ä" from the rest of ISO Latin 1. If a text in such a lan- guage is processed so that a necessary conversion is not applied, or an incorrect conversion is applied, the result might be that e.g. the word "später" becomes "spter" or "spÌter" or "spdter" or "sp=E4ter", to mention just a few possibil- ities. People familiar with such problems might be able to read the distorted text too, but others may get seriously confused.
7. Practical conclusions
Whenever text data is sent over a network, the sender and the recipient should have a joint agreement on the character encoding used. In the optimal case, this is handled by the software automatically, but in reality the users need to take some precautions. Most importantly, make sure that any Internet-related software that you use to send data specifies the encoding correctly in suitable headers. There are two things involved: the header must be there and it must reflect the actual encoding used; and the encoding used must be one that is widely understood by the (potential) recipients’ software. One must often make compromises as regards to the latter aim: you may need to use an encoding which is not yet widely supported to get your message through at all. It is useful to find out how to make your Web browser, newsreader, and E-mail program so that you can display the encoding information for the page, article, or message you are reading. (For example, on Netscape use View Page Info; on News Xpress, use View Raw Format; on Pine, use h.) If you use, say, Netscape to send E-mail or to post to Usenet news, make sure it sends the message in a reasonable form. In particular, make sure it does not send the message as HTML or duplicate it by sending it both as plain text and as HTML (select plain text only). As regards to character encoding, make sure it is something widely understood, such as ASCII, some ISO 8859 encoding, or UTF-8, depending on how large character repertoire you need. In particular, avoid sending data in a proprietary encoding (like the Macintosh encoding or a DOS encoding) to a public network. At the very least, if you do that, make sure that the message heading specifies the encoding! There’s nothing wrong with using such an encoding within a single computer or in data transfer between similar computers. But when sent to Internet, data should be converted to a more widely known encoding, by the sending program. If you cannot find a way to configure your program to do that, get another program. 78 Jukka K. Korpella
As regards to other forms of transfer of data in digital form, such as diskettes, information about encoding is important, too. The problem is typi- cally handled by guesswork. Often the crucial thing is to know which program was used to generate the data, since the text data might be inside a file in, say, the MS Word format which can only be read by (a suitable version of) MS Word or by a program which knows its internal data format. That format, once recognized, might contain information which specifies the character encoding used in the text data included; or it might not, in which case one has to ask the sender, or make a guess, or use trial and error - viewing the data using different encodings until something sensible appears. Jukka Korpela This text is an abridged version of the author’s document at http://www. cs.tut.fi/~jkorpela/chars.html, which contains some additional details as well as links to further information on the topics discussed. EÖtupon Teuqoc˜ No. 7 — >Oktwbrioc 2001 79 Two new Greek font faces: the Lipsiakos and the Roman
Claudio Beccari
Dipartimento di Elettronica Turin Institute of Technology Turin, Italy
Abstract
Two new Greek font faces belonging to the CB font set are described and samples shown. Some macros are also introduced so as to make use of such fonts.
After version 3.7 of the babel package has been released, the CB fonts have become the official default Greek fonts for both the Greek and the Hellenist communities of LATEX users. As you know, with babel v.3.7 the specification of the Greek language is done by means of the usual \usepackage[greek]{babel} command if you want to use the monotoniko spelling, while if you need to write in polutoniko, or if you are an Hellenist who is writing about ancient Greek, you now need to set a language attribute by means of \languageattribute{greek}{polutoniko}. Some Greek friends involved in humanities and many Hellenists around Europe and North America, who were used to typeset in polutoniko, and who frequently used the italic shape, asked me to design another shape for the italic Greek typeface, different from the one normally selected under babel with the \textit command; they preferred a typeface similar as much as possible to the Greek typeface used in the past century for classical editions and for the works on the classical Greek literature, especially those published by the Teubner printing company in Lipsia; the font is so well known in Greece that it is normally referred to with the name of “Lipsiakos”. An Hellenist friend sent me a critical edition of the Alcestis printed by Teubner [1] and containing a complete usage of the typeface so that it was sort of easy to imitate the typefaces by means of METAFONT. Dimitri Filippou revised every single glyph, giving me extremely valuable information for cor- rections; Paolo Ciacchi was one of the first ones effectively using the font, and 80 Claudio Beccari he suggested many important improvements in kerning and in the shape and position of accents, especially the circumflex, that did not meet the Teubner- ian standard. I thank a lot both of them for their help that I appreciated very much; the result is a very readable typeface that I hope will be appreciated by other Greek and Hellenist users of TEX.
ToÔtou qĹrin Ćpèlipìn se ân Krătù, Ñna tĂ leÐponta âpidiortÿsù kaÈ katastăsùc katĂ pìlin presbitèrouc, śc âgÿ soi dietaxĹmen, eÒ tÐc âstin Ćnègklhtoc, miŘc gunaikäc Ćnăr, tèkna êqwn pistĹ, mŸ ân kath- gorÐø ĆswtÐac ń Ćnupìtakta. deØ gĂr tän âpÐskopon Ćnègklhton eÚnai śc JeoÜ oÊkonìmon, mŸ aÎjĹdh, mŸ ærgÐlon, mŸ pĹroinon, mŸ plăkthn, mŸ aÊsqrokerdĺ, ĆllĂ filìxenon, filĹgajon. sÿfrona, dÐkaion, ísion, ânkratĺ, Ćnteqìmenon toÜ katĂ tŸn didaqŸn pistoÜ lìgou, Ñna dunatäc ŋ kaÈ parakaleØn ân tň didaskalÐø tň ÍgiainoÔsù kaÈ toÌc Ćntilègontac âlègkein. T. 1.5-9
Shortly before accomplishing this task on the Lipsiakos font, I had just finished generating a “pseudoroman” Greek typeface; I had just received from Greece an issue of the magazine Nemesis, where most articles were typeset with a modern Greek face where most if not all lowercase letters had serifs as well as the Latin roman ones do. I thought it was a good idea to have an alternative “roman” font to be selected when the command \textrm is issued. I know this is a drastic change according to the aplĹ typeface, but in any case the user has another choice and is free to chose, according to the particular document to be typeset. Here is a sample.
ToÔtou qĹrin Ćpèlipìn se ân Krătù, Ñna tĂ leÐponta âpidiortÿsù kaÈ katastăsùc katĂ pìlin presbitèrouc, śc âgÿ soi dietaxĹmen, eÒ tÐc âstin Ćnègklhtoc, miŘc gunaikäc Ćnăr, tèkna êqwn pistĹ, mŸ ân kathgorÐø ĆswtÐac ń Ćnupìtakta. deØ gĂr tän âpÐskopon Ćnègklh- ton eÚnai śc JeoÜ oÊkonìmon, mŸ aÎjĹdh, mŸ ærgÐlon, mŸ pĹroinon, mŸ plăkthn, mŸ aÊsqrokerdĺ, ĆllĂ filìxenon, filĹgajon. sÿfrona, dÐkaion, ísion, ânkratĺ, Ćnteqìmenon toÜ katĂ tŸn didaqŸn pistoÜ lìgou, Ñna dunatäc ŋ kaÈ parakaleØn ân tň didaskalÐø tň ÍgiainoÔsù kaÈ toÌc Ćntilègontac âlègkein. T. 1.5-9
If you want to replace the default italic shape with the Lipsiakos one you need insert in your document preamble or in a personal extension package the following commands
\makeatletter \def\GRencoding@name{LGR} New Greek Fonts 81
\input{lgrcmr.fd} \expandafter\EC@family \expandafter{\GRencoding@name}{cmr}{m}{it} {grml} \expandafter\EC@family \expandafter{\GRencoding@name}{cmr}{bx}{it} {grxl}
Likewise if you want to replace the normal upright shape with the pseudoroman one you need insert the following commands
\makeatletter \def\GRencoding@name{LGR} \input{lgrcmr.fd} \expandafter\EC@family \expandafter{\GRencoding@name}{cmr}{m}{n} {gmmn} \expandafter\EC@family \expandafter{\GRencoding@name}{cmr}{bx}{n} {gmxn}
You don’t need \makeatletter if you use a personal extension file to be input with \usepackage. You don’t need to duplicate the input command for file lgrcmr.fd if you use both replacements. Notice that the association of the Greek encoding LGR with a control sequence makes it easier to change it in just one place when eventually it will receive a definitive name. You may even define yourself some commands for switching back and forth between the two sorts of italic and/or upright shapes within the same document. The METAFONT files for these new fonts are already part of the CB bundle and are downloadable from ctan. I hope these fonts please your aesthetic taste; well, anybody who designs fonts would like to produce fonts that please the users’ aesthetic taste, and I am no exception. But for your convenience if you notice any glitches in these fonts, please report them to me and I try to provide for upgrades.
Bibliography
[1] Euripides, Alcestis, ed. A. Garzya, in “Bibliotheca Scriptorum Graecorum et Romanorum Teubneriana”, BSB B.G. Teubner Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig, 1980 and 1983.
EÖtupon Teuqoc˜ No. 7 — >Oktwbrioc 2001 83 An extension package for Hellenic philology
Claudio Beccari
Dipartimento di Elettronica Turin Institute of Technology Turin, Italy
Abstract This paper describes very briefly an extension package that has been designed so as to make it easy to typeset critical editions of Hellenic philology. Not only contains hundreds of commands for inserting special symbols, but it contains new environments for typesetting verses with various ways of verse numbering, and to typeset metric patterns for the correct rhythmic rendering of the ancient Greek poetry. Many useful features are still missing in order to typeset all parts of a critical edition, but what is available is already sufficient for many tasks.
1. Introduction
In Greece typesetting in Greek is obviously normal; outside Greece Greek typesetting is mostly used by hellenist scholars who would like to use Greek typesetting for writing articles, conference contributions, books, and the like, where the main object is the deep analysis of the Greek language and literature, mostly the ancient one. These scholars need a lot of symbols for marking up the text; for underlining what they believe should be interpolated in a certain way, or, on the opposite, for underlining what they believe to be material arbitrarily introduced by medieval copyists; for inserting letters that are missing from the “normal” 24 letter alphabet, especially when they transcribe the lettering and wording deciphered on archeological specimens, such as, for example, the numerous “ostraka” that are being uncovered everyday. They need to represent the rhythmic patterns of the ancient poetry; they need to superimpose series of accents, even on consonants, or to put “illegal” accents on some vowels, such as, for example, a circumflex on a short vowel. All these tasks required a complete analysis of most of the signs, so as to see if it would be possible to put them together by picking them up from the 84 Claudio Beccari existing alphabets of the CM (Computer modern), EC (extended computer modern), TS Text symbol companion), CB (CB Greek fonts) sets, including the math symbols. Many of these needed both the upright and the inclined version; many diacritical marks had to be placed indifferently over Greek as well as Latin glyphs; many were missing and had to be created from scratch. In order to cope with the above requirements, set forth by a PhD graduate student in Greek philology and classical Greek Literature, Mr Paolo Ciacchi, studying in the University of Trieste, I had to put together or to polish new fonts, in particular the Lipsiakos one [1], to write down something close to 300 macros, mostly available to the end user for typesetting purposes, to design a completely new font for poetry metrics; eventually this font collected also many glyphs that are consistent with the philological requirements but have nothing to do with metrics.
2. Symbols
The extension package teubner.sty takes care of making available a whole lot of macros for inserting unusual symbols in the philologically edited text. The package in documented TEX form (extension .dtx) is available from ctan in folder tex-archive/macros/latex/contib/supported/teubner; this folder contains file teubner-doc.pdf which should be printed and read before do- ing anything else; follow the exact order: first printing, second reading. The necessity of printing first arises from the fact that for the moment there are no CB fonts available in PostScript form, at least not the latest version with the new glyphs, the new typefaces and the poetic metrics font. It is well known that raster fonts are poorly rendered by PDF viewers, but these viewers have no problems in printing them especially if they were embedded at 600 dpi. Therefore first print and then read, please.
3. Kernings
With the Lipsiakos font all ligatures and kernings are carefully taken care of, but the accent-letter mechanism intrinsic to the CB fonts (as well as with most if not all the other Greek fonts that may be used with LATEX) breaks up the kerning information embedded in the font metrics: compare aÔ and aÔ . The former is what you get by resorting to the embedded ligatures, while the latter is what you should get with proper kerning. In a general modern text typeset with monotoniko spelling you hardly no- tice this glitch; and if you type while using the Greek keyboard and the modern Teubner Package 85
monotoniko encoding described in file iso-8859-7.def there is no glitch, be- cause put characters are directly mapped directly to the internal TEX character codes, so that no accent-vowel ligature takes place. But hellenists around the world hardly have a Greek keyboard and in any case they have to type polutoniko spelling; this means they have to resort to the Latin-Greek keyboard mapping initially established with the appearance of Silvio Levi’s Greek fonts back in the late eighties. Moreover philologists are generally quite fussy about the quality of what they are getting into type, whether it is themselves who key in the text to be typeset or it is a professional typographer. For this reason I defined several dozen macros so as to make a direct reference to the internal TEX character code, without resorting to ligatures; instead of keying in a’u you key in a\ua. The whole list of these macros appears in teubner-doc.pdf. In any case they are quite easy to remember; these control sequence names are made up of at most four characters in this order:
1. one of the vowels a, e, h, i, o, u, w (compulsory), followed by at least one of the following optional letters in the specified order:
2. d, r, s, diaeresis or rough or smooth spirits;
3. a, g, c, acute or grave or circumflex accents;
4. i, iota subscript;
so that in the previous example \ua stands for upsilon with acute, and \asgi produces Ŕ . This accent-ligature problem could be solved if the prefix notation was aban- doned in favor of the postfix notation for accents; some other inconveniences would show up, therefore for now it is necessary to cope with what is available.
4. Verses
Several new verse environments have been designed for philological pur- poses; they differ in the way verses are numbered and in part in the verse layout; I’ll show a few examples that contain also specimens of other commands. 86 Claudio Beccari
56 57 Meropis fr. 3 k. [aÐ nÔ] ken >Hreaklĺa katèkt[anen,] eÊ mŸ >Ajănh 58 59 lĹbron [âpebrìn] thse d‘i’àg nefèwn ka[tabaffl ] sa . . . 68 69 Meropis fr. 4 ênjfl å màn e[Êsplh] jÌn Merìpwn kÐen. Ź [dà dia] prä 70 aÊqemĺi sjĺtoc [êlassen.] ç dfl âxèqutfl; oÎ gĂr [åmoØai] 71 72 [Ć] jĹnatai jnhtaØsi bol[aÈ katĂ] gaØan Łsin. 73 74 prh[[m]]n[ĺc d...... ] thse. mèlac dà perie.[.....] rw
BAQULIDOU DIJURAMBOI
ta; prìsje qeirÀn bÐan de[Ð]xomen; tĂ dfl âpiìnta da[Ðmo]n srineØ. tìsfl eÒpen Ćrètaikmoc ąrwc; t]Ĺfon dà naubĹtai f]wtäc ÍperĹfanon j]Ĺrsoc; 5. Metric patterns A new font, whose METAFONT files are included in the same folder together with instructions for their installation, has been designed so as to make it easy to typeset the poetic metric patterns and to define new patterns by means of the elementary symbols and/or some already defined pattern; therefore instead of writing down the 12-18 single long and short marks, one can define a single command for specifying a hexametre by using long, short and anceps marks. A specific environment is defined for grouping metric variants with a large brace, and everything may be used within any verse environment, from the standard LATEX one to the new ones defined in the package. blbblbbll blbll z { lbblbbll lbll lbl|| lbblbbll lbblbbl o bbld||| Teubner Package 87 kèlomai polÔstonon ârÔken Õb rin; oÎ gĂr Ńn jèloi- mfl Łmbroton ârannän >Ao [Üc ÊdeØn fĹoc, âpeÐ tinfl Žðjè [wn | } sÌ damĹseiac Ćèkon- ta; prìsje qeirÀn bÐan de[Ð]xomen; tĂ dfl âpiìnta da[Ðmw]n krineØ.“ tìsfl eÚpen Ćrètaiqmoc ąrwc; t]Ĺfon dà naÔbatai f]wtäc ÍperĹfanon j]Ĺrsoc; Figure 1: Yet another example! 88 Claudio Beccari 6. Conclusion In order to keep this contribution short enough, I will not go further in presenting other commands and environments. The interested philologist may found full documentation in teubner-doc.pdf [2], together with the necessary pieces of software. The work is still in progress; what is still missing from the package is the possibility of formatting text and footnotes according to the style normally used in critical editions. I am working on this, but the problem appears to be very difficult to solve if one refrains from modifying the LATEX output routine, so if I ever find a solution, it will not be in a short time. Bibliography [1] Beccari C., “Two new Greek font faces: the Lipsiakos and the Roman”, EÖtupon, this issue. [2] Beccari C., teubner.dtx, teubner.ins teubner-doc.pdf, teubner.txt, gmtr.mf, cbmetre.mf, in any ctan archive in folfer /tex-archive/ macros/latex/contrib/supported/teubner. EÖtupon TeÜqoc No. 7 >Oktwbrioc 2001 89 TEXnikèc: DhmiourgÐa klimakwtÿn grafikÿn Apìstoloc Surìpouloc 28hc OktwbrÐou 366 671 00 XĹnjh E-mail: [email protected] Se pĹra pollèc periptÿseic eÐnai nai toulĹqiston 2,5 forèc megalÔterec aparaÐthto na bĹloume se èna èggrafo apì tic kanonikèc. Sto epìmeno băma (Ĺrjro ă biblÐo) mia eikìna thn opoÐa metatrèpoume to arqeÐo PostScript se parĹgei to parĹjuro kĹpoiou progrĹm- morfă PNM me to prìgramma Gho- matoc. To prìblhma me tic eikìnec au- stscript afoÔ prÿta perĹsoume to ar- tèc eÐnai h anĹlusă touc h opoÐa ìso qeÐo mac prÿta apo to fÐlto fitps. H megĹlh kai an eÐnai den eÐnai arketă entolă pou prèpei na dÿsoume, se pe- gia ektupÿseic megĹlhc eukrÐneiac. ’E- ribĹllon Unix, eÐnai h exăc: tsi h mình lÔsh eÐnai h metatropă tou qartografikoÔ (bitmap) arqeÐou gra- gs -sDEVICE=pnm -r300 fikÿn se klimakoÔmeno (scalable) ar- -sOutputFile=x.pnm x.ps qeÐo grafikÿn. An kai upĹrqoun empo- rikèc efarmogèc pou epitugqĹnoun to en lìgw apotèlesma, emeÐc pistoÐ sto Sto epìmeno kai teleutaÐo băma per- eleÔjero logismikì, ja parousiĹsoume nĹme to arqeÐo pou parăgage to prì- GhostScript mia mh-emporikă lÔsh sto prìblhma au- gramma apì to prìgramma tì. autotrace Ac upojèsoume ìti èqete thn ei- autotrace -filter-iteration 9 kìna tou parajÔrou enìc progrĹmma- -output-file x.eps x.pnm toc apojhkeumènh se kĹpoio qartogra- fikì arqeÐo grafikÿn. Thn eikìna mpo- roÔme na thn apoktăsoume me to prì- Tÿra èqete pia sta. . . qèria sac èna gramma gimp se peribĹllon Unix, enÿ mh-qartografikì arqeÐo PostScript to se peribĹllon Windows prèpei na {paÐ- opoÐo mporeÐte na qrhsimopoiăsete xete} me thn. . . zwgrafikă! Thn eikìna se ektupÿseic megĹlhc anĹlushc qw- aută prèpei tÿra na thn metatrèyoume rÐc kanèna fìbo. Sac to lème emeÐc se morfă PostScript1 ìpou oi diastĹ- pou. . . idrÿsame mèqri na mĹjoume thn seic tou thc eikìnac ja prèpei na eÐ- TEXnikă pou mìlic sac perigrĹyame! 1 Sthn pragmatikìthta prìkeitai gia arqeÐo EPS. . . 90 Apìstoloc Surìpouloc EÖtupon TeÜqoc No. 7 >Oktwbrioc 2001 91 Bibl´io-Parous´iash Dhmătrioc >A. FilÐppou KĹtw Gatzèa 385 00 Bìloc Duä lìgia giĂ tŸn Bibl´io-Parous´iash ∗*∗ * N. E. SkiadŘc, Qronikä tĺc állhnikĺc tu- pografÐac, tìmoc a0, 1476`1828: SklabiĹ` Diafwtismìc`>EpanĹstash, b0 êkdosh, Gu- tenberg, >Ajăna 1982. Sel. 325. QwrÈc ISBN. TimŸ 14,67 ‰ (5.000 drq.). , Qronikä tĺc állhnikĺc tupo- grafÐac, tìmoc b0, 1829`1862: Maqìmenh tupografÐa`SÔmmikta, Gutenberg, >Ajăna 1981. Sel. 395. QwrÈc ISBN. TimŸ 14,67 ‰ (5.000 drq.). , Qronikä tĺc állhnikĺc tupo- grafÐac, tìmoc g0, 1863`1909: Maqìmenh tupografÐa`SÔmmikta, Gutenberg, >Ajăna 1982. Sel. 428. QwrÈc ISBN. TimŸ 14,67 ‰ (5.000 drq.). DiatÐjentai Ćpä íla tĂ bibliopwleØa. Tän NÐko SkiadŘ tän Ćnafèrame stä 2o teÜqoc toÜ EÎtÔpou śc tän suggra- fèa toÜ monadikoÜ Òswc állhnikoÜ biblÐou mà stoiqeiÿdeic kanìnec tupografikĺc deontologÐac.1 VOmwc å NÐkoc SkiadŘc, âktäc Ćpä palaÐmaqoc tupogrĹfoc mà 1 NÐkoc E. SkiadŘc, GiĂ tŸn tupografikŸ deontologÐa, >Ekdìseic Gutenberg, >Ajăna 1992. Sel. 95. ISBN 960-01-0340-2. 92 Dhmătrioc >A. FilÐppou Łpoyh giĂ tŸn aÊsjhtikŸ toÜ biblÐou, eÚnai âpÐshc gnwstäc śc suggrafèac pai- dikÀn biblÐwn kaÈ kurÐwc śc Éstorikäc tĺc állhnikĺc tupografÐac. Tä prÀto tou biblÐo, mà tÐtlo Qronikä tĺc tupografÐac, kuklofìrhse tä 1966. VEna qrìno metĹ, tä biblÐo âkeØno katasqèjhke Ćpä tÈc >Arqàc tĺc Di- ktatorÐac (łtan Łrage tìso Ćnatreptikì?). Mà bĹsh tä prÀto tou biblÐo kaÈ mà tŸn ânjĹrunsh toÜ Giÿrgou DardanoÜ, Édrutĺ tÀn >Ekdìsewn Gutenberg, å SkiadŘc kuklofìrhse tä 1976 éna nèo biblÐo mà tÐtlo Qronikä tĺc állhnikĺc tu- pografÐac, stä åpoØo perigrĹfei tŸn ÉstorÐa tĺc állhnikĺc tupografÐac Ćpä tän 15o aÊ. éwc tŸn Ñdrush toÜ prÿtou ĆnexĹrthtou állhnikoÜ krĹtouc tä 1828. Tä biblÐo aÎtä gnÿrise tìsh âmporikŸ âpituqÐa, źste tä 1982 bgĺke kaÈ sà deÔterh êkdosh. VEnan qrìno prÐn, tä 1981, å SkiadŘc eÚqe kukloforăsei énan deÔtero tìmo mà tŸn ÉstorÐa tĺc állhnikĺc tupografÐac stĂ qrìnia tĺc BauarokratÐac (1828`1867). Tèloc, tä 1982, å SkiadŘc kuklofìrhse tän trÐto kaÈ telikä tìmo tĺc ÉstorÐac tĺc állhnikĺc tupografÐac, å åpoØoc kalÔptei tĂ Õstera qrìnia toÜ 19ou aÊ. éwc tä 1909. EÒmaste tuqeroÈ poÌ kaÈ tĂ trÐa aÎtĂ biblÐa âxakoloujoÜn nĂ kukloforoÜn, giatÈ prìkeitai giĂ biblÐa âxairetikĺc tupografikĺc mastoriŘc mà polÌ ímorfec eÊkìnec, kosmămata (biniètec) kaÈ prwtogrĹmmata (letrÐnec). TĂ biblÐa eÚnai dà stoiqeiojethmèna stŸn monotupÐa tÀn >AfÀn PalhbogiĹnnh kaÈ êqoun selidopoi- hjeØ mà tŸn âpimèleia dÔo paliÀn tupogrĹfwn: toÜ suggrafèa kaÈ toÜ âkdìth, poÌ ki aÎtäc proèrqetai Ćpä tä tupografikä sunĹfi. StÈc selÐdec aÎtoÜ toÜ trÐtomou êrgou, å Ćnagnÿsthc majaÐnei pÀc kuklofì- rhse Ź GrammatikŸ toÜ KwnstantÐnou LaskĹrewc stä MediolĹno (MilĹno) tä 1476, pÀc plărwse å siatistinäc tupogrĹfoc Geÿrgioc PoÔlioc tŸn sunergasÐa tou mà tän Răga FeraØo, pÀc êsthse tĂ prÀta tupografeØa tĺc âleÔjerhc ∗*∗ * >E. Q. KĹsdaglhc, Tä Ćglaìteqno tupografeØo tÀn ĆdelfÀn Tarousì- poulou, ^Agra, >Ajăna 1990. Sel. 81. QwrÈc ISBN. TimŸ 7,34 ‰ (2.500 drq.). DiatÐjetai Ćpä íla tĂ bibliopwleØa. Tä tupografeØo poÌ Ñdruse stĂ tèlh toÜ 19ou aÊ. å Stèfanoc N. Tarousìpouloc stŸn Kastèla toÜ PeiraÐa Ípĺrxe éna Ćpä tĂ shmantikìtera kalliteqnikĂ tupografeØa tĺc Mà lÐga lìgia, prìkeitai giĂ éna mikrä biblÐo âxairetikĺc tupografikĺc poiì- thtac mà Ćnekdotologikä kurÐwc qaraktăra. SunistŘtai sà ÉstorikoÌc tĺc tu- pografÐac kaÈ lĹtrec toÜ prosegmènou biblÐou! ∗*∗ * Stanley Morison, Letter Forms — Typographic and Scriptorial: Two Essays on Their Classification, History and Bibliography, Hartley & Marks, Vancouver, Canada 1997. Sel. 128. ISBN 0-88179-136-9. TimŸ 19,95 dol. HPA (perÐpou 25 ‰). DiatÐjetai Ćpä bibiopwleØa xenìglwsswn âpisthmonikÀn biblÐwn. Tä înoma Stanley Morison mporeØ nĂ mŸn lèei pollĂ stoÌc perissìterouc Ćpä âmŘc, ĆllĂ sÐgoura íloi mac kĹpou kĹpote eÒdame ń kaÈ qrhsimopoiăsame tä dhmioÔr- ghmĹ tou: tŸn grammatoseirĂ Times New Roman. Morison. PisteÔoume íti tä biblÐo aÎtä jĂ faneØ qrăsimo sà ísouc ĆsqoloÜntai mà tŸn ÉstorÐa tĺc grafĺc kaÈ tĺc tupografÐac, kajřc kaÈ mà tän sqediasmä grammatoseirÀn. ∗*∗ * Bernard Desgraupes, LATEX : Apprentissage, guide et réference, Édi- tions Vuibert Informatique, Paris 2000. Sel. 760. ISBN 2-7117-8658-7. TimŸ 44,06 ‰. DiatÐjetai Ćpä bibiopwleØa xenìglwsswn âpisthmonikÀn biblÐwn. ∗*∗ * Erik T. Ray, Learing XML, O’Reilly, Cambridge, Massachusets, USA 2001. Sel. 368. ISBN 0-596-00046-4. TimŸ 34,95 dol. HPA (39,35 ‰). [>EpÐshc sà gallikŸ metĹfrash: Erik T. Ray, Introduction à XML, Éditions O’Reilly, Paris 2001. Sel. 368. ISBN 2-84177-142-3. TimŸ 34 ‰ (233,03 gal. frĹgka).] DiatÐjetai Ćpä bibiopwleØa xenìglwsswn âpisthmonikÀn biblÐwn.2 2 TĂ mèlh toÜ Sullìgou ∗εϕτ∗ mporoÜn âpÐshc nĂ promhjeujoÜn tĂ sugkekrimèna biblÐa sà meiwmènh timŸ ĆpeujeÐac Ćpä tän âkdotikä oÚko O’Reilly (www.oreilly.com). GiĂ perissìterec 96 Dhmătrioc >A. FilÐppou GiĂ tä sugkekrimèno biblÐo, å >Apìstoloc Surìpou- loc grĹfei: {’Ena akìmh biblÐo gia thn XML apì ton ekdotikì oÐko O’Reilly. To biblÐo den pro- spajeÐ na mac eÊsagĹgei se ìlo to eÔroc thc sqetikăc me thn XML teqnologÐac, allĹ parousiĹzei mejodikĹ me paradeÐgmata ìla ta basikĹ qarakthristikĹ thc XML. EpÐ- shc parousiĹzei ta legìmena fÔlla Ôfouc (stylesheets), touc orismoÔc tÔpou eggrĹfou (document type defi- nitions), enÿ parĹllhla dÐnontai pragmatikèc efarmogèc XML, ìpwc èna fÔllo Ôfouc XSLT to opoÐo metatrèpei èna èggrafo grammèno sthn DocBook se èna èggrafo HTML. PisteÔoume ìti to biblÐo au- tì ja apodeiqjeÐ qrăsimo se ìpoion jèlei na kĹnei ktăma tou thn XML.} plhroforÐec giĂ tä pÀc jĂ kĹnete tŸn paraggelÐa sac, âpikoinwnĺste mà tän SÔllogo stŸn dieÔjunsh H/T: [email protected]. Bar Code Type ISSN Scorpion BarCode Version 1.60 07> 9 771108 417007 Scorpion BarCode, Copyright © 1996 - 2000 Scorpion Research Limited, All Rights Reserved Worldwide.