DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 372 971 SO 022 758

TITLE Research Reports and Teaching Materials Prepared by the Participants of the Department of Education-Fulbright Hays Summer Seminar (, , June-July, 1990). INSTITUTION American Univ., Cairo (Egypt). SPONS AGENCY Center for International Education (ED), Washington, DC. PUB DATE [90] NOTE 429p.; This "best available copy" contains numerous pages with faint or nearly illegible type. PUB TYPE Guides Non-Classroom Use (055) Reports Descriptive (141)

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC18 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Ancient History; ; Cultural Education; Foreign Countries; *Foreign Culture; Higher Education; *Instructional Materials; International Relations; *Middle Eastern Studies; Secondary Education; Sccial Studies; *Teacher Developed Materials; *Travel IDENTIFIERS *Egypt; Fulbright Hays Act; Global Education

ABSTRACT The 20 items included in this document were prepared by teachers from the who traveled to Egypt in 1990 to participate in a seminar. The items are as follows: "Egypt and the Demographic Transition" (J. Bannister); "The Educational System: The Situation and the Challenge" (R. Bush); "Teaching ' 'Midag Alley'" (J. Eret); "Islamic Art" (T Ferraro); ": The Five Fundamental Themes" (E. Fletcher); " in Egypt: Lessons for the Middle School" (N. Haberhauer); "The Book Publishing Industry in Egypt: An Informal Study" (R. Johnston); "Understanding Egyptian Culture" (S. Knight; G. Trogoitti); "Egyptian Painting and Relief" (L. Kreft); "French in Egypt, On-Site Research in Cairo: Suggestive of the Current Status of French Language Instruction in Egypt" (C. Leggett); "A Lesson Plan for Discussing the Problem of Housing: An Egyptian Example" (J. Manzo); "Views on Egyptian Women in Arab and Islamic Culture" (G. Nolan; L. Louis, L. Prior); "U.S. Policy in the : Some Possible Implications for Egypt" (G. Olson); "A Teaching Unit on : A Teacher's Question-And-Answer Guide" (K. Penick); "A Lesson on Arab Society and Culture" (P. Petrianos); "Egyptian Journalism: An Overview" (J. Piro); "Contemporary Egypt: Peace without Prosperity" (B. Predmore); "Suggested Sources: A History of the Modern Middle East" (F. Sakon); "Cairo as the Center of the World of Trade and Commerce During the Middle Ages" (E. Santora) ;and "Factors Related to Employee Productivity in Egypt: A Case Study" (j. Smith).(DB)

Reproductions supplied by EARS are the best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** RESEARCH REPORTS AND TEACHING MATERIALS PREPARED BY THE PARTICIPANTS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION-FULBRIGHT/HAYS SUMMER SEMINAR, JUNE-JULY, 1990.

THE AMERICAN UNIVERSITY IN CAIRO in cooperation with THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office al Educattanal Reaear0 and improvement EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) 1,Th Id document has been reproduced as l'eCeved from the person or organization ortgmatIng It r' Minor changes have been madeto improve reproduchon duality

Points of view or opiniOns stated in thisdocu- ment do not necessarilyrepresent official OERI position or oolIcy

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCETHIS MATERIAL HAS BEENGRANTED BY OPrfa- L.c.,_,ur

TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERICI."

4ESTCOPY NIMBLE Research Reports and Teaching Materials Prepared byParticipants of the Department of Education-Fulbri4ht/HaysSummer Seminar, June-July, 1990

1. Egypt and the Demographic Transition by Jerry Bannister.

2. The Educational System: The Situation and the Challenge byRuss Bush.

3. Teaching Naguib Mahfouz' Midas Alley by John Eret.

4. Islamic Art by Tatiano Ferraro.

5. Ancient Egypt: The Five Fundamental Themes by Erin Fletcher.

6. Agriculture in Egypt: Lessons for the Middle School by Nancy Haberhauer.

7. The Book Publishing Industry in Egypt: An Informal Study by Robert C. Johnston.

8. Understanding Egyptian Culture by Sheri Knight and Glenda Brogoitti.

9. Egyptian Painting and Relief by Linda Kreft.

10. French in Egypt, On-Site Research in cairo: Suggestive of the Current Status of French Language Instruction in Egypt by Carleen S. Leggett.

11. A Lesson Plan for Discussing the Problem of Housing: An Egyptian Example by Joseph T. Manzo.

12. Views on Egyptian Women in Arab and Islamic Culture by Gail Nolan, Linda Louis, and Linda Prior.

13. U.S. Policy in the Middle East: Some Possible Implications for Egypt by Gary Olson.

14. A Teaching Unit on Islam: A Teacher's Question-And-Answer Guide by Karen Penick.

15. A Lesson on Arab Society and Culture by Paul Petrianos.

16. Egyptian Journalism: An Overview by Joseph Piro.

17. Contemporary Egypt: Peace Without Prosperity by Bill Predmore.

18. Suggested Sources: A History of the Modern Middle East by Fred Sakon.

19. Cairo As the Center of the World of Trade and Commerce During the Middle A4es by Ellen M. SantOra.

20. Factors Related to Employee Productivity in Egypt: A Case Study by Jane Smith. JERRY BANNISTER (Associate Professorof Anthropology, Western Connecticut State University, Danbury, Connecticut)

EGYPT AND THE "DEMOGRAPHICTRANSITION"

Background information for Teaching SecondarySenior High School Students College Freshmen or

Population is a significant dimension Inthe efforts of developing countries,Ilke Egypt, to meet the social heeds of theirpeople. Afthough the relationshipsare often complicated, birth and death ratesmay be used to illustrate population trehdscow long periods of time. The most famous Illustrativemodel of population trends in Northernand Western is called the "DemographicTransition". it should- be noted that the Demographic transition was originally offeredas a predictor of the direction of world population trends. However, it Is used hereto illustrate, and to compare and contrast the context of European changes in birth-deathrates and size of population with thevery different context of the Third World, withEgypt representing a case example. Demography simply refers to the study ofpopulation; the increases/decreases due to birtWdeath/migration rates, and thecompositionsuch as gender and ageofthe population. In the phrase "demographictransition", the word "transitionrefers to changes from relatively high birth-deathrates to relatively low birth-death rates. Data for the European demographic transitionis obtained for the 1600's from Scandinavian rmords and froma wid range of rezords for the period 1700 to the present Both the birth and deathrates are averaged annual ratesper 1000 in the popu lation.

Question: What kind of population changewould you expect to be associated with the birth rate for 1600 to 650? Answer Gradual increase. Question: Human kind has beenon earth for a feN million of years. The agriculture revolution occurred a little over 10,000years ago. Would any one like to guess when the earth achieved its first billion? Answer About 1810. Question: What is the population of the earthtoday? Answer About 5 billion. Question: What kind of population growthwould you associate with theyears 1650 to 1800? Anwar Rapid growth. Accounts for 1810 bringthe year of the first billion. Question: What idnd of population growthwould you associate with the period from 1800 to today? Anwar: Gradualcompletes the "transition'. Historically global population increase isnot due to people having more children but to the fact that more children survivethan was previously the case. The twoage groups in a population that have the highest deathrates are infants and adolescents. In the 16001 a gradual but significantsecond agricultural revolution was taking place. Intenshm agriculture hadtended to take place along flood plains. Floods replenished farming soil. Farming outsideof flood plains tended to followa slash-and- burn pattern: bum a piece of the forest,plant for one or two years, and thenmove on to

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the next area to be burned. In short planting mined nutrientsfrom sail, and when these nutrients were gone, crop productivity failed. However, in Northernand Western Europe between 1400 and 1800a pattern of crop rotation slowly emergedwhich utilized dtfferent crops beinggrown in the same fields at different times, season of no planting. Different and with at least one cr:ps take out different materials andput back other nutrients. Trial-and-error resutted in crop rotation schemes thatmade high productivitya possibility even away from floodplains or irrigated fields. Monasteries also played a major role In the second agriculturalrevolution. Gardening was emphasized withinmonasteries and experimentationwith hybrid seeds, restating gradually in greater grainyields.

Question: What do yousuppose might explain the fall in death rates? Ammar Not medicine;mass medical procedures deveiopedlater in time. Rather, it is the greater availability of food. Gumption: Haw does food makean immediate and dramatic impact in the rate? death Amor Remember that theage group with the highest deathrate 13 infancy. Malnourished pregnant women havea high probability of giving birth toan infant who will die. Food forpregnant women greatly enhancesthe chances that their infants will live Question: Examine the graph'sdropping birth rate arki time frame.What historical event is associated with 1750? Anwar The Industrial Revolution.The Industrial Revolution hada major impact on the redistribution of population inWestern Europefrom decentralizedrural villages to centralized, industrialcities. Among the firstcustomers of the industrial productivtty were landlordswho found that entering Intoa market economy using mechanized devices allowedgreater productivity with fewer cultivators. City factories neededlabor a combination of 'pushand pull* factors brought people to the cities. Question: What effect did theindustrial revolution haveupon the birth rate? Ammer In the village a large familymakes economic sense. Childrencan always b employed, particularly at harvesttime. When the parentsare elderly the children will care for them.

in the industrial city a large family doesnot Tr &s well as in the village.The employment of children is marginalat best. For those families whobecome part of the industrial work forcemoney factors work towards a decisionto limit the size of their families. Education is the majorroute to mobility. The fewer the childrenthe better the educational investments thatcan be made, so that the childrenwill have better opportunities than their parents.(See Graph concerning population world.) growth in the third

Question: What kind of populationgrowth is shown on these two graphs? Mosier Very rapid. The worldreached its first billion around1810; by 1990 the population has passed the 5 billionmark with China havinga billion and with to achieve a billion by theyear 2000.

Annual growth rates for theThird World nations vary between2 to 4%. Egypt's annual growth rate Is 2.8%. (Agrowth rate of 2% doubles populationin just 22 years.)

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In the °Demographic Transition* Graphthe third stage at European population change is associated with the growthof an industrial, urban society. Inthe third world, societies are still largely rural, andindustrialization may Involvesome sectors d the population and ignore the majority. Thistype of industrialization is often referredto as &dual economies", or *enclave developmenr. IContrasted to the Demographic Transitional Europe, the Third World deathrate fell primarily because ofmaw population preventive health practices,such as using DOT against malaria-bearingmoaquitces or drilling village tube wellscapped with a hand pump to protect villagewater from contamination from surfacedrainage. Improvenent in food supplies, intact, came in the 1970'sas part of the *Green Revolution° productivity increases.Income disparity still makes mainourishmentcommon place, and a leader In thecauses of infant mortality.

Queatiort Why is the birth rate for Egyptand the Third World not droppingas sharply as the death rate? Ammer Although there is signiftcantmigration to the cities, the populationsin question are largely rural.

Egypt's rural population is 58%. Moreover,in the cities economic disparityplaces a significant part of the population inpoverty. Often kin are the only kind of assistancethat may be available to the urban poor. The graphs for Egypt and the ThirdWorld both indicate a gradual declinein population between the 1970's andthe 1980's. There are severalapparent reasons: (1) the decline in the death ratedue to morlical and health practice,coupled with (2) an increase in food grains for pregnant women (even with maldistribution). Both factorsare enabling parents to see that they donot have to have so many children inorder to ensure having the number they want live tomaturity. Egyptian and Third Worldparents are making decisions to limit the size of their families. Egyptian and third world countiesgenerally have established °family planning* programs designed to assist families to have thenumber of children they want Oftenthe programs also attempt to persuade people to havefewer children; and, sometimes,as in China, coercivemeasures may be adopted against families whohave more children than the state wants them to have. Egypt and the third world generaltyhave family plan ngprograms that fccus on women as their target audience, as opposedto men. Most d the women theseprograms serve have already ''had their famitya and theyare looking for the prevention of future births. Younger women do nottend to come to family planning clinics forassistance with actual planning of when to have childrenand how many to have. Traditional rural societies givemen a pm-eminent position, but theyare largely ignored by family planning educatorswho, in turn, are ignored (or ridiculed)by men. Men often keep their wives fromgoing to the clinic. Also, the clinicseams to be something of an immodest andintimidating environment foryoung, illiterate women, particularly traditional Muslimwomen in Egypt. But these are problems whichcan beand to a degree are beingdealt withby family planning education. A far more difficultarea to change is the economic cf:parity of Egypt andthe Third World. The Demographic Transitionseems to most dearly show that a society which gives its population economic opportunities and a sense ct at least generationalmobility (children doing abetler than theirparents) will be a society characterized byfalling birth

*Si dinMOLE 4 rates. To address that challenge, Egypt and the Third World andinternational agencies must work together to developeffective ways to generate ruraland urban employment WOrkire Bibliography °Briefing Book of World Demographic Data° (Center for InternationalResearch, U.S. Bureau of Census, Washington,D.C., 1989)

°Egypt Demographic and HealthSurvey° (Egypt National PopulationCouncil, 1968)

°Population Policies in the ThirdWorld: Issue and Practice° (CairoDemographic Centre, 1968)

°Statistical Year Book° (CentralAgency for Public Mobilization and Statistics,Arab Republic of Egypt, 1989)

Yankey, David. "Demography: TheStudy of Human Population° (StMartin's Press, 1985) RUSS BUSH:

THE EGYPTIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM: THE SITUATION AND THE CHALLENGE

Background

To understand the educational system In Egypt today, one must true the history of modem Egypt. Prior to the 1952 Revolution, the British controlled Egypt. They educated their own and were not concerned with educating , aithough the wealthy Egyptians did seek to educate their children. After the 1952 Revolution, Gantt Abdei Nasser, Egypt's President from 1953 till 1970, initiated a socialist program that instituted mass education. Everyone was to receive an education free from first grade through the University, if they met certain standardsthe passing of the National tests. If they graduated from the University, the government promised them a job. A minister of education under Nasser stressed that Nationalism and education go hand in hand. Thay both teach independence and education create an upward mobility for the masses. It was an ideal method for Egyprs modernization process orso Nasser thoug ht.

Levels of Educati01

There are four levels in the Egyptian educational system. They are: the Primary, Preparatory, Secondary, and University.

Primary Education

The primary levels include grades one through six., and attendance is compulsory by law in Egypt A fine can be levied against a parent for failure to make his childcome to school, but this law Is not strictly enforced. the basic subjects that are taught In most countries of the world at this levelare also taught in Egypt One distinction that stands out is that of class. Ifyou are Muslim you would attend an Islamic religion class. If you are Christianyou would have your own Christian class also. In some schools they start a second language, English, around the fourth grade level. In the past passage to the next grade in the primary level was basedon attendance. This has changed drastically since the 19701s. General tests are given at the end of each year and passage to the next grade is determined by the results of this test Failure of a required subjectand they may fail severalnecessitatesa re-examination in August Failure of the re-examination means repetition cA that grade. At the end of the sixth grade year the first of the three national tests a student must take during his educational career is administered. Failure of this test means repetition of the grade. The Ministry of Education does not have a set score to allowpassage as it may change the score every year. In rural schools, especially, failure of the first test sometimes means the end of the student's educational career as parents feel their child could be more helpful In the fields.

Preparatory Education

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Until recently the Preparatory level included gradesseven through nine and was very similar to our junior high system In America. The Ministryof Education is now implementing a program that has thepreparatory level Including only grades sem and eight These too years are used toprepare or find out the particular skills a studentmay have and start guiding him in the directionof technical training or general (academicor college prep) training. The cuniculum is expanded In the Preparatoryschool to Include more technical or vocational clams along with the general studies.Some schools begin the second language at the level although,as I mentioned above, others start at the primary level. At the end of the hist year of Preparatory school,the second of the three national tests is given. Test scores on this test will determinethe covree of study in the Secondary school. The higher scores will guide the student inthe direction of general studies and lower scores will point the student in the directionof technica' training. it is at the end of the Preparatory level that compulsoryoducation ends, and this is where most ci the students who drop out, doso. Secondary Education

It is at the beginning of the secondary level that thetechnical and general studies programs separate and go to their own buildings of instruction.The implementation of the new government reform has changed thegrades of the Secondary level from ten through twelve, to nine through twelve. In thepast, all sbidents at the Secondary level had one year of general studies; now they willhave two. Upon completion of these two years the student will pursue their area of interest Duringthe two years of general studies a third language, usually French, is introduced. The technical curriculum ,;onsists of Agriculture,Industry, Economics, and other vocational avenues. The general curriculum brarches offinto several avenues also: Arts and Languages, and a Math or Sciencesavenue. This curriculum is a basic ooliegeprep cou General tests are again givon eachyear and at the end of the twelfth grade year the last national test and the toughezt is given.This test, for the college prep curriculum, is called the Thanswiyys Ammathe 1.1eneralSecondary°. This test basically decides the future for the student Failure of the testusually means immediate entrance Into the job market. Passage of this test allowsyou to enter a University. The Ministry of Education assigns certain avenues of studyat the University to certain test scores. The highest scores usually are channeled intothe field of medicine, then law andso on down the line with certain scores associated withcertain programs. A student dces have the right to choose an avenue of studywhose comparative score is lower than theone he achieved. The reverse is not permitted.Again, the score tor passing this test isset by the Ministry of Education and thescore changes every year. The technical schools havean exam similar to the Thansw6ya Arms, but based on technical material.

University Level

In the past, graduates of the secondary lext,ihave only had three universities to choose from: one in and two inCairo. Now there are eleven other regional universities scattered throughout Egypt.As in most countires, some Universitiesare 3

much better than others, and the topscorers on the Thenewlwe Amens get selected to attend the best universities. The students who centinue their technicalor vocational training receive two more years of training to complete their education. The academic students pursue a variety of degrees similarto our four year courses of study in the r,inited States.

Public Schools

Before discussing the public schools themselves,one must look at the major problem facing Egypt todaythe population explosion, which inturn has a tremendous effect on education. One million babies are born every nine months In Egypt today.Egypt will have a population of over seventy-five million by the turn of thecentury. Cairo, the capital of Egypt, is growing by a thousand peoplea day. Nasser said "I am a believer In calling on people to exercise birthcontol by choice or persuasion.° He also commented that we would do better to directour efforts to expanding the area In which we live insteadon concentrating or. how to reduce the population, we will soon find the solution. He was wrong! In Cairo's most crowded districts thepopulation density has reached over 240,000 people per square mlie. The UnitedStates has spent sixty-seven million dollars trying to help Egypt developa family planning program, but to little avail. Barely 25% of married Egyptians useany form of contraception. Half the population is under fifteen, and despite more education, illiteracy is increasing. The biggest problem facing public schools today Isovei crowding. As recentty as 1980 some schools had three sessionsa day. Today, several schools, mostly rural, have two sessions a day. Most, however, meet justonce a day. For the schools that have two sessions a day a student may receive only four hours ofinstruction daily. The schools that meet once a day have school days similarto the length of one school day in America. Student enrollment In classes varies greatly. In talking with publicschool teachers, and with a state inspector, I found that the average class sizeIs between fifty and sixty students. The Minister of Education stated that class sizewas one of his priorities, and he would like to see the number decline to forty studentsper class in the future. With the population growth rate the way It is, I would believe that this willbe a very tough goal to achieve. At the University level things are not much better.One graduate from said that he had over 6,000 students inone of his classes. Students were standing in the aisles, sifting on the window sills, andlined up outside the classroom to hear the teacher. What kind of educational environmentdoes this create? tt has been said that some students never do attenda lecture, but just she* up to take the test, and thus get their education in absentia. The large classes in public schools today have limitedthe use of effective teaching techniques. Rote teaching has been the only effectivemethod to convey the material and keep the students quiet The discipline In theseschools Is not very good. The rooms are overcrowded, and there is no air-conditioning. The furnitureis old and there are few visual aids. Free education for the masses has placed limitationson Teacher pay is low. Materials are scarce. Teacher supportand teacher training have been limited. Discipline in a hot, confused, blankroom is not conducive to good 4

education. The government has placed quotason the number d students who can move from one level to the next, but they still have toomany students for the facilities. The differences between urban public schools and ruralpublic schools are immense. Several years agoa teacher with a secondary education or just two years of college training could teach at the primary levelor in rural schools. They were paid less than urban teachers, received little professional support,and were not competent enough to benefit the educational process. The public school system must undergo a re-direction if It Is goingto stop the rise of illiteracy, because the environment it has created willnever educated the masses. Private Schools

I found many different nationalities of private schools In Egypt. Someof these language schools", as they are called,are French, German, Italian, Greek, British, and AmericanJust to name several of them. Most Egyptian families, if they can afford if, send they childrento private schools. There are three basic types of private schools and theyare 1. Old Private School* These schools were established before 1980and are usually run by religious orders. The annual fee is betweenLE 300 and LE 400 and they are not in usiness to make a lot of money. 2. Mem Private Schools: These schools have been establishedwithin the last two years and charge from LE 800 to LE 2000 annually and are definitely in the businessto make money. These schools also charge an acceptance fee whichcan be as high as LE 1,000. 3. International Schmitt These schools exist for foreign strdentsonly, atthough a few well-to-do Egyptians will pay to send their children tothem to obtain a purely foreign- style education. Usually, the parents of the students whoattend these schools are working in Egypt for a short period d time. The cost isbetween five and eight thousand dollars. The students are educatedas tf in their native country and will seek further education abroad one completing their studles here. Admission to private schools requires bothan interview with the parents and the child, but the instttution retains the right toaccept or reject the child. The Old and New Private Schools must buygovernment boolz that are direct translations from to their language of Instruction.The only exception to this is Social Studies, and that must be taught in Arabicbecause of the cultural implications. Most of the private schools supplement thegovernment books with their own, lvt have little extra time to use them. All students buy theirown books. The gwernrnent checks on these schools by sending inspectors who evaluatethe teachers and ask the students questions to see if they are being taught thecorrect information. Tuition can only be raised up to 10% per year, so with Inflationand the rising cost of school materials, the Old Private Schools are struggling. Most of the private schools teach four languages: Arabic,English, French, and their language of instruction. They administer and their studentstale the same national tests as the public schools. When talking to a teacher who taught ina private school about America's lack of bilingual success, he said "Englishis the universal language, and [the United States does not] need to learnany others.: He werd on to say that Arabic will r3ver gain world popularity, and that he thought that the schools shouldconcentrate more on English and French. The private school cuniculum is supplemented by othertextbooks and enhanced by smaller classes. Its highest studenttaacher ratioI heard about was thirty-five, with most classes being twenty-five or less. Better pay and smaller classesattract better teachers and produce pride in the educational institution. In talking to several groups of eleven, twelve, and thirteenyear olds from private schools, I found out several interesting facts.First of all, they likedschool! Some even loved it.I asked them about homework and, like their Americancounterparts, they said they had too much of it My most interesting inaightwas when I asked them about audio- visual aids, maps, and bulletin-board materials. Thestudents from the Old Private Schools told me that their families would donatea map, bulletin board Items, a tape recorder, or other materials for use in the classroom. In interviewing several parents a/ private school children Iget a sense of the tremendous pride they have in their son'sor daughter's education. I talked with an A.U.C. employee whose daughter attendsone of the Old Private Schools run by American nuns. He said that they taught love and disciplinewith a dedication as great as their faith. He said that that dedication certainly would not be found Inthe public schools. Although the parents are supportive, the private schools teachers pointedout that they do not hesitate to criticize when they want things changed. In comparing private and public achools,one has to Accept the reality and conclude that the public schools cannot p..ssibly educated theaverage Egyptian student as well as the private schools. The sheer multitude of students, the lack of financial support, overcromded facilites, few supplies, poor discipline, and frustratedteachers indicate why In spite of mass education, Illiteracy is rising.The competitive tests at the end of the primary, preparatory and secondary levelsare designed as a weeding mit mechanism of those who choose not to or who cannot beeducated, but that is hardly fair: if one falls in general studies he is pushed toward technicaltraining. There are no remedial; classes and only one public school for the giftedat the national leveland it is for boys only. Finally, If a student graduates froma university, the possibility of finding a job is minimal. In all fairness, the private school facilities do notmeasure up to the American public schools, but stand in sharp contrast to the public school environmentin Egypt Teachers

Teachers in the public school system average LE 108a month in salary, or the equivalent of about $40.00 per month. Basepay for a beginning teacher is LE 60 per month, or less than $25.00. A high score on the national Secondary Exam is notnecessary to pursue a teaching career. Therefore, one concludes that thegovernment does not support the teaching field as an important professionor, at least,as a profession as important as medicine or engineering. The differences in the educational background of teachersis vast. In the past, primary and rural secondary teachers only neededto have a secondary education in order to qualify as teachers. Later, theywere required to complete a two-year teacher training program at the University. Today, thegovernment requires tour years of university education regardless of what levelone teachers. Upon graduation, a new teacher's name is, for all practicalpurposes, thrown into a for the drawing of assignments. The prospectiveteacher is given an assignment and has a week to make a decision about whetherto accept it Rejection of the offer will require that the graduate seek employment independentty. The life of a public school teacher is difficult. Little,pay, little respect, large classes, shortage of materials, and lack of supportcreate a chaotic situation. School teachers are observed by a person called an Inspector, whose job is to evaluate the teacher and to find out if the students are learning the necessary information. Today, these inspectors set up teacher training workshops to help the teachers. How many of theee workshops are set up and how effective they will be remains to be seen. Many teachers have other jobs to supplement their anemic pay. Tutoring, driving taxis, and waiting tables MOM to be the most frequently chosen fields of outside employment, at least as regards those whom I interviewed. Many new programs are being talked about with regard to trying to help the teacher, but if the students and parent do not respect the profession, then there is going to be a long, up-hill struggle ahead for the teachers. The private school teachers, on the other hand, have It much better. Old Private School teachers get paid only a little more than the public school teachers, but their worldng conditions are much better. One of the Old Public School teachers I talked to made LE 203 a month ($74.00), but had been teaching for twenty years. The New Private School teachers do much better. The owner of a New Private School saki that she paid her teachers a base of LE 200 per month with an Increment of LE 0 added for each year of experience. Much better pay, better working hours, more materials, a better quality student, and a much more desirabie educational environment makes the private school teacher the model for Egyptian public school teachers.

Future Prospects

Every year 400,000 Egyptians enter the job market to compete for jobs that do not exist, and every year 40,000 students are graduated from 's universities. Most graduates do not find meaningful employment and are forced to take low-paying jobs in the government in the Ministry of Agriculture alone, there are 2,000 Ph.D.'sthe majority of whom sit at empty desks without telephones or typewriters or notepads. Until 1986, every university graduate was guaranteed a government job by law,a policy started by Nasser. As a result, the bureaucracy has grown from 370,000 to two million in three decades' time. Today,,a graduate may have to wait five years for a government job. Why all this bureaucracy? The answer lies In Cairo. When Nasser centralized the government, he centralized everything by locating all of the ministries in Cairo. If an Egyptian needs a passport or has a question about his war pension, he must come to Cairo. Industry, government, education, and commerce are all concentrated here. One in four Egyptians lives here. Cairo is Egypt, in many ways; and little of significance involving the government happens outside of the capital. What does the future hold in store for young Egyptians? More than one million Egyptiansone out of every eight aduitshave left their countru to work abroad,many as laborers and technicians in the oil-producing countries, others as professionals in cities ranging from to Jiddah. The remittances they send home eachyear now represent Egyprs largest source of foreign exchange. Egyptian teachers are the backbone of 's educational system; Egyptian doctors keep the hospitals in and functioning; Egyptian academics, economists, and buisinessmen have become prominent In dozens of American and EurOpean cities. Most expatriates give this reason for leaving: the limited opportunities at home, where per capita income is only $560.00 and where promotions and advancement are often basedon loyalty, not ability.

The Government's Response

,

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The information is from an open interview conducbdby Dr. Fell Serour, the Minister of Education, with the 1900 SummerDOE/Fulbtight group. The Minister opened the interview with thestatement that nationalism and education go hand in hand. Nationalismteaches independence and Is a large and important part of Egyptianhistory. He went on to quote Taha Hussaynswho said °Education is like air and water you must give itto everyone.° The Minister continued by saying thatwe must have reform before his educational goals are to be reached for Egyptas he calledit, "a fair education for Egypt' As vAth every programin government,one of the Ornery problems is finances. The Minister stated that three billion dollarswas allotted to education by the government Onethird of this moneywent to the University level,which has 800,000 students, and two-thirds to the other three levels, whichserve 11.4 million students. The Ministers Five-Point plan for reforming educationin Egypt is summarized as follows: 1. Continue democratization of education A. Free and fair education for ail B. The building cft more schools, which MI helpto achieve this goal 2. Quality education,not quantity education A. Must change the cuniculum B. Use modem technoiogy in education C. Createan educational research center D. Create an organization forthe buildingand designing of new schools E. Create a center for the development oftests and testing F. Meet the needs of giftedas well as remedial students 3. Give more attention to technical education A. The goal is to get 70% of the students whofinish preparatory school to go to technical training schools B. The goal is for 30% of the students toenter the general or college prep curriculum. C. Must change the curriculum D. Need for more equipment (the Minister notedthat the financial budget places many restrictions on the technical schoolsare creates many challenges 4. Create a good teacher A. At first there were two different levels ofteachers, primary school teachers (with two years of university education) andsecondary school teachers (with four years of university education) B. Now, everyone has to completea four-year course for their teaching degree C. Creation of teaching centers for both primaryand secondary teachers D. Creation of teaching centers for industrialteachers 5. Reform of Secondary Education A. Two years of general studies rather thanone (as the ninth grade is taken from the Preparatory level and placed Inthe Secondary level) B. A marriage between Technical and Generaleducation for the ninth and tenth grade years C. Bring the class slze down to forty students Ina class D. Have all the schools have justone session a day E. Bring in foreign experts in education tohelp design a new curriculum a

The Minister was very sincere and open about the problems in Egypt/andis trying to carry out reform in a country where change is not accepted easily.His openness was refreshing. He knows that reform is the answer to improvingeducation in Egypt U.S. Assistance to Egyptian Education

In an interview with a member of the U.S. AD educational staff located inCairo, I was able to find out how America Is supporting the Egyptian educationalprogram. A program designed by and implemented by RonaldReagan has helped the Egyptian educational system immensely. Started in 1981, 190 milliondollars was to be spent over eleven years in Egypt. The monies were designated to support basic education in Egypt, from grades one to eight The program's primary focus is on building public schools in rural Egypt To date, 1400 schools hive been built, and at the present time theyare constructing 1.21 schools each day. The schools consist of six, nine,or twelve MOM& They are two-story buildings with two staircases. There is a room for the director andone for the staff, plus a separate building for the bathrooms. Basic furniture such as student desks, benches,blackboards, and a desk and chair for the teacher is provided. Forty million dollars' worth of equipment, including such itemsas maps, chemistry kits,preservationmaterials, home economic type cookware, and audio-visual equipment, was purchased for these schools. Several basic problemssurfaced initially, but these problems were solved with education. American-made itemsthat had voltage and current differences were being ruined. Some teachers couldnot read the manuals because they were written in English. Mother factor was that ifa piece of equipment brok.e while a leacher was using it, that teacher would haveto pay for itItis unreasonable to expect a teacher who mak.es between $30 and $40per month to pay to repair or replace a piece of equipment that costs $103.00; for thatteach It is mot worth the risk to use it Recently, U.S. AID has begun to train teachers, inspectors,and directors in the proper use of this equipment, and to date, 14,000 teachershave reoeived such instruction. In the last five years, U.S. AID has buitt 80% of thenew rural schools in Egypt, which are located in every governorate except Cairo and Alexandria.Under the present Minister of Education in Egypt, education has been evaluatedby foreign countries, and the United States has been a major consulting partner. The discussionsinvolve avenues or directions that education in Egypt might take; paths of thinking; and the planningand designing of new programs. it is frustrating but exciting to work with the Egyptiangovernment, I was told by an AID official. Like the American government, the Egyptiangovernment features a huge bureaucracy. This official believes that it is notso much the faith in the system that makes the U.S. AID program go, but his faith in Egyptian friends who work withinthe system. He said that the Egyptians were a people who value friendshipand that this is what make progress possible. The U.S. AID and the Egyptian government plan to continueco-operating after this eleven-year program runs out in 1992. The two governmentsare already set for phase two, a five-year plan with a price tag of $200 million. Has the United States helped Egyptian education? Theanswer has to be yes. We am not just building physical structures, but planning, designing, and co-ordinating many different aspects of the Egyptian educational system, includinga major revamping of the curriculum. 9

Bibliography

Boktor, Amir. The Deyelopment and Expansion of Education in the (The American University In Cairo Press, 1983) Lacouture, Jean. Nasser. A Biography (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983) Lamb, David. The Arabs: A Journey beyond Ahe Mirage (New York Vintage Books, 1987) !Menden

(1) Dr. Fathl Serour, Minister of Education in Egypt (2) Peter Kresky, U.S. Agency tor International Development (AID) Educational Expert in Egypt (3) Dr. George Gibson, PrOv03t of the American University in Cairo (AUC) (4) Dr. Waguida El Bakery, Associate Director, Educational Programs, AUC (5) Mrs. Aieya el-Kerdany, English instructor, AUC (6) Mrs. Ma'aly Kera, Principal of a Private School in Cairo (7) Mrs. Fayza Fauzi el-Gawli, Former Senior Inspector In the Egyptian Public Schools (8) Professor Angel Boutrous 'an, Professor Emeritus, Cairo University (9) Nagulbai Kama!, Private School Teacher (10) Freres St. Jean, Private School Teacher (11) Tahani Samy, Seven year-old student in a private school (12) Three random interviews with individual staidents aged four, eight, and twelve (13) Three small group interviews with members of the AUCsummer program (14) Mr. Ezzat Naguib, for a parent's point-of-view (15) Mrs. Mary Kickham-Samy, for a parent's point-of-view Fulbright Project 12Y-22LIE-EaL

Teaching Naguib Mahfouz' MIDAQ ALLEY

The intention of this project is to presenta teaching unit based upon the Mahfouz classic Midaq Alley. This unit may be used in teaching courses relating to modern fiction,world history, multicultural literacy, Arabic studies,or any area of the humanities. The unit is not designed for any discipline in particular, rather it is intended to be usedas a foundation upon which individual teachers may build or use as theysee fit for their instructional purposes.

I) ABOUT THE AUTHOR: NAGUIB MAHFOUZ Naguib Mahfouz, an Egyptian author born in 1911,was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1988. He was the first successful Arabic novelist. Mahfouz grew up in the heart of and went off to study philosophy at theUniversity of Cairo. At age twenty-five he decided to devote himselfto writing. His artistic history has followed the pattern ofthe development of the European novel. He began writing historical romances in the style of Victor Hugo, and his first novelwas published in 1939. Mahfouz' next direction was to social real- ism. His five novels published between 1945 and1949 all picture life in lower middle class Cairo during the1930's and 40's. MIDAQ ALLEY is one of these books./Mahfouz'sculminating work in social realism was his CAIRO TRILOGY. These three novels trace the saga of a Cairo family from the1919 Revolution to World War II. This trilogy established Mahfouz's reputation in the and beyond. His works since the CAIRO TRILOGY have been varied and experimental is style, placinghim in the mainstream of modern Arab literature. He is considered by many to be Egypt's greatest writer. 2.

II) ABOUT THE BOOK.: A BRIF OUTLINE OF MIDAQ ALLEY This summary of the plot Midaq Alley is taken from pp.215-16 of The MODERN EGYPTIAN NOVEL by Hilary Patrick. Ellaa2_11:12122aa This novel has no central plot, but is the story ofan alley in the Al-Husain quarter of Cairo, during the period 19,3-44. The main character is Hamida, a beautiful, illiterate,sharp- witted and insolent girl, who is admired by thepoor good- natured barber, Abbas Al-hilu. Hamida realises that he is the only man in the neighbourhood who would bea suitable husband for her, but is disgusted by the prospect of poverty, toiland an endliess succession of children. Abbas is persuaded by Husain, Hamida's foster-brother, to work in a Britisharmy camp outside Cairo and make some money, and before leaving he persuades Hamida to become engaged to him, although she is not enthusiastic.

After he leaves, Salim Alwan, a rich merchant whoowns a flourishing store in the alley, shows an interest in her. Although he is already married he wantsa young and attractive girl to be his second wife, and Hamida and her adoptedmother accept his offer, ignoring their previouspromise to Abbas. But Salim suffers a heart attack and isno longer fit for marri- age, so Hamida's hopes of a wealthy home are frustrated.

Her contempt for the alley and its peoplegrows stronger, and she is determined not to marry Abbas. A handsome outsider, Ibrahim Faraj, comes to the alley andsees her, and he skilfully prevails upon her to desert her home andcome to live with him. She finds out that he is a pimp whoowns a 'school' for training girls to entertain the foreign soldiers, and beforelong she becomes one of its most assiduous pupils.

On his return, Abbas hears that his fiancee has disappeared, and although the people of the alley know nothing ofher where- abouts he learns that she has eloped. By accident he comes 3. across her in her new clothes and make-up and reproaches her, but she, seeing in him a useful tool in her planto revenge herself on Ibrahim whom she now hates, persuades himto meet her in a few days time so that he maysee and kill the man who has deceived her. Before that day, however, Abbas notices her with a group of drunkes English soldiers ina tavern, and attacks her with a bottle. The soldiers turn to him and beat hin to death.

Other characters in the alley include: Muallim Kirsha, Husain's father, the homosexualowner of the alley's coffee house. His eternal hashish smoking, his frequent affairs with young men and his continuous squabbles with his wife punctuate the novel.

Zita, a resident of the gutter, whose profession is to counterfeit diseases and deformities on the bodies ofpoor people who wish to become beggars, so that theymay gain the pity of passers-by.

'Doctor' Bushi, the self-styled dentist of the alley,whose treatment is cheap enough for the poor people around him. It transpires that he gets his artificial teeth by digging in the graves with Zita's help. The two are caught -handed. r r i 41114: o or. t !'y .11,hn Eret

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f. i n trn,:t) 1(./ s.r unher.. r.;) p: ed in1 he f ol 1 nwi nq 1 i . The depth of stildr.n1 -non-.e to the cliAnst nns will re-f4.,1ct. the studpnt s imider:;tandino far better than any f actual quizzes. Thr writionprn,..i Hesan opportunity tores.pond nh.41 ahr f inds inzrinoing xn the novelandoffers ar r, I I igal .thinki.no -1-.11s.In addltion, the jourral qu -lions and their responses may be the basis for clDe Thi!4-inn ahont the questions in advanre shonld the students more willino to state their opinions ,And :4.W.t1 to defend them. Juir!,wd_ or-runtoNOUEP,TIONG: The follewing 11. of tnpirs doe,-Y no+ pretend to becomprehensive, -tthoritati,r,r)r.c,:.141pi.-1e.There are numerous guestirn-z nh,rh may be forninI,Ited about the issues dealt witflIns, the tit ..1.

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innF.Wtry do thy, ch:)r ar rrr; wan+ to leave hr,P11 r Hh,)" ar.:i the forces: orr.o/od ogoinst their c.,,urre Arr 4orc.,s. eternal or internal? Why are they ultimately

r be ,,aid that e'en those characters who don't h to physically leave life in the alley are also trvinq ir "the cnndi .i.rtn7:(IfkJ:oil 11..."--7of:iorne I (tr any ,7[1,711.-Acters 41-tf:ut whom you would c-ay that s 1.! o " ne thel r ncti ons.

` Hus,F.ein is ono of the few admirable characters in hrol.. Do you thint. hi n views on life are the corrr- t 4 ciu.7. Do yo.) Hu=sein's views closely mirror theist- n' 7tothor? What do /ou see as Hussein's role in the

PI ilmori! an woff,en od, claim to be "repressed" in a male nAI-d ,,.3.1cirty. women would say that the situatIon wors. Amuri,,, during WW II. How do you view the p(. nf tlom(4,1,1 Midaq Alley? Do you see similar-It], th/- pcc,:ition nf unmon in America at that time' Wh:41- (1,1r( th)yolA nonition of the women in the -Ole/

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orn HO( y Ibn Abd PO 1 ah n-fthr- (kr c, 14,:. fn1, Et; , hor n thp cit'i Mrr r ain 1 o A. meditating in a cave on a hilt ri dn Lihf vi si on of an angel (5ahr i= whri c:11':11 C'-I) him the 4-i st..ent r:mces of the F:oran (the hol v how f ,1 --Am ) ThEr. i s simpl e"There is nn 4.nd hut " (74nd Ill Ii-th f or- Muth nmmad s his prophet . :. + ) 44 miller of men throitqhf.nut. CAncli t,1 pr nphe+ Abt aham., Moses. and Jesus,ft.+ N144. I 1 'I.,- 1111.- he] i.flyeth,:11111..,vimmod s the last prnphet. (-.- t.I ("? pr. oi ():'Fts heavon, and Goi.-1 re I r 1.1' [ile I .11 ar. 1 tI I .1 t Pri lohammed. 1: 0 he (.1-4 ::"1111.1 3 t E, 1111,1)1 Its] am car

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IT! ft tOUC"i GUYERNINH DIET AND DK:3S

titirlim,, are forbidden to drinl: any intmicatingboveradeP anC

!,,,rb forbidden to por!,.

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wumEN AND MARRIAOF

for-nn statc- mr.,a and women are equalin the eee:,, et Womrn, like mi-H,orr, independentresponsible beinoz flnlitiod ait on her own behalf to wor.to ,-ihd to (w::o14q..;. her ,iwn affairs.Sex within the br:-' of mnrit-1 1.)tm. hot. -tet: outside of marriage a ..1 our erime. Marriage is important most Amert I. . CerrMW''N.!cd intAle t.oran. Dating trai ne,et n;-urs. Marriageis an offer of m,oriadr + t t totri,"I -Arc1-,-1tpdin F r on t of;a nften arramged. If the couple {init..: L,11 -iqes n .11 e ir.cnmp:11,to the marriage tai.oh placr. the mA:,,, hp nff. A girl should not he comnellr,! h-r will.Et is possible for a Muslim m.-)n However, the wives must allhe, mnrr th,Fin one wi4a. r .qually. The 1 re:7ponsihie for taking home and rli,lino the +f.1.,41 cnr.+ uf m-;nit,ining the +147, right to -111mony +M~ of her childt;:n to orqtrtain age. Women who .,,re ,.4i ;I ,r1 . thout anv 5,7

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OIVI-J;FOUND rtirnri!,-.Ttun6nouTBRITISH COLONMLICH IN ricerT

In 1081 pc,ssosion of the Ottoman Empirr 'rnm l7lT,h..ad found itseli in a state of turmoil as a reeull- ni flnanr3a1 debr incurrc,-1 from the building of the ! f:Inal And -kti:Lmpted Aii7ation, a nationalist revolt. .-Ind inL-uvrection thr.Aro.%'. The Turkish ruler. theKhedive. the British, who had a considerable financialstale in F(.1..pt,to intervene +(I help him keep controlof the country. Thr, invadrA.di-eated the , and 5tlynd until 1954. 1092.tho Eft-i+1h had made over 100promises to lea,..n tighten their control. The C.c.)-°*, hu'L ohlv r:ontinne'l to dit-mr,t,,, of Fgyrtian nationalists, was 4-lin . ,tinPrv, to f-rip for the Dr,tish. Thrre were aseries of insurrection: and ,o limited independence to EQ.pt in nriti7Th rontinued to control the511n;' Hilwever,thr right 4m 71,,finh,Pd tine:41c- tri Egypt.maintainedihp 11-14:A.,rfor In ,ifiairs to protect foreion intero-"t7:

(117:-..f frnm aggrei:sqon.

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Islamic Art

Tatiana Ferraro I. Introduction What is Islamic Art

II. Monmments and Buildings

A.

B. Tombs and Mausoleums

C. Citadels

D. Homes and Palaces III. Decoration

A. Purpose

B. Types

C. Techniques

D. materials

IV. Bibliography

V. Lesson Plan

VI. Important Events VII. Photo descriptions

VIII.Vocabulary and Materials

IX. Background Notes

1. I.

I. Introduction

A. Characteristics of IslamicArchitecture 1. Interior and enclosed spaceslivei'more

attention than exteriors.

2. Function of a buildingcannot be easily identified from the form.

3. Forms can be adopted formultiple purposes,

for example, a four-iwancourtyard can bs used for

a) palace

b)

c)

d) bath

e) caroNanserai

f) private home

B. Characteristics of Islamic Art

1. Use of non-representationaldecoration a. arabesques

b. geometric patterns

2. Use of calligraphyas a form of decoration C. Reasons for distinctart

Need to differentiate fromJewish and Christian Churches

II. Monuments and Building:,

A. Mosques

1. Types

a. Individual-it can consist ofa or part of a room

b. Congkgational-this is used mainlyfor Friday prayers

c. Community-used for entire communityfor special feast days.

2. Forms

a. primitivemosque (example Ibn Tulun) mosque)

1. Characteristics

a. made of brick

b. has pointed arches

c. entrance faces the quibla

b. cruciform mosque (example SultanHasan) mosque.

1. made of stone 2. main enlarged iron containsmi rab, pulpit

3. madrasa-built upwards

4. entrance-indirect with a mastaba vestibule

C. Turkish style

1. one main dome surrounded by many semi- domes (example Mohammed Ali Mosque)

2. Slim slender

3. Common Elements of Mosques

a. open interior courtyard

b. fountain

c.

d.

e. pulpit

f. -place where person repeatsprayers

and sermon for the people outsidethe mosque

B. Tombs and Mansoleum (example SultanFarag Ibn Barguq)

1. Regarded as a dwelling place, therefore,they assumed forms of houses 2. Expressed the power. wealth andprestige of the deceased

3. Characteristics

a. vault

b. axial burial at right angleto the

quibla in such a way that thedeceased would face M cca if hewere turned on his side.

c. incenses or an elaboAely decorated

squat pillar with the scoOped out to receive frankincense

d. may be domed

e. may have a textile tomb cover

f. may be located as a separate structure or as part of a mosque

g. has a detached headstone bearingthe epitaph

C. Citadels (example citadel of Cairo)

1. Purpose

a) to defend the city (all earlycities had fortified walls for protection

b) a residence for the ruleror commander 2. Characteristics

a) Massive walls with towers

b) Wallways-exterior and interior

c) crenellations

d) Gates

1. Types

a. straight gate with massive doors

b. bent entrance

2. Techniques used for construction

a. used seluinches, pendentves

b. based vaults withcross vaults

3. Can be used as a gaLge of themost common method and materials used in that period

4. Decoration

a. used as a symbolic statement of

power

b. used as magic to protect

inhabitants

D. Homes and Palaces

1. Characteristics

a. Austere exterior and a relaxedinterior b. separation of privateand publicareas 1. male receptionarea

2. harem, the family SettiCtor).

2. Features

a. courtyards-one semi-publicand an inner private one

b. fountain or pool whichservesas a decoration as wellas a method of cooling the house

c. fenestration-windows extendingto the street covered withiron or wooden grills

d. use of mashrabiyyascreens to control

light, insure privacy,decorate areas. e. mag'ad-sitting room overlookinginner

courtyard from the firstfloor facing prevailing breezes fromthe north f. roofs

1. flat roofs were usedas extensions of living space

2. storage areas for food

3. drying areas for foodstuff

g domed roof-usuallyover bedrooms

providing light andventilation h. rooms had multiple uses, especially

the semipublicones 4. Types

a. gra'a arrangement

1. open courtyard or when covered served as a reception hall

2. fountain centrally located

3. could be multistoried

b. rab'apartment house complex

1. constructed above a row of shops

2. apartments consisted of 2 floors 3. windows opened onto the street c. palaces

1. essentially the same plansas the

single pnvate home but withlarger proportion

2 major decorations

a. stain glass stucco windowsand domes

b. stalactic over portals

c. polychrom!2'marble dadoes

d. painted and gilded wood for

ceilings

8 e. inscriptions of poetry

f. tiles

3. furnishings

a. carpets and wall hangings-

for summer, woo)in winter

b. built in shelves often inlaid

with ivory or mother of pearl

c. brightly patterned cushions

d. bronze lamps and candlesticks

9. III. Decoration

A. Purpose-to cover a corematerial with an outer

skin using complex andintricate overlays to create

1. an illusion of space and weightlessness

2. a sense of serenity by resolutionof tensions

3. an appeal to the intellect ratherthan emotions

4. a symbol of the singleness of Godand His omnipresence

B. Types

1. geometric designs especiallythe star

2. use of calligiaphy-k fic (angular), Naskhic, Thuluthic (cursive)

3. floral and figural motifs-usedmainly in

manature paintings and indecorating secular objects and buildings 4. Arabesque

5. use of water and light-used mainlyto create layers of pattern

10 C. Techniques

1. repetition of architectural forms(series of arches, domes, columnS ).

2. manipulation of planes

3. use of positive and negative contrasts

4. continuous formulations of motifs and designs

5. changing the scale of motifs

6. interlaying and overlaying different patterns

D. Materials used for decoration

1. brick

2. stucco

3. stone and marble

4. metal

5. glass

6. tile and ceramics

7. wood

8. mother of pearl and ivory

9. paints

10. textiles

11 IV. Bibliography

al-Farugir, Ismael R. and Lois Lamymal Fa ;ifed.Cultural Atlas of Islam, Macmillan, 1986.

Arrnanjani, Yahya Middle East. Past and Present Prentice-Hall, 1970.

Behrens-Abouseif, Doris, in Cairo: An Introduction. American University in Cairo Press, 1990.

Cragg, Kenneth and R. Marston Speight, eds. Islam from Within: Anthology of a Religion Wadsworth Publishing, 1980.

Eickelman, Dale F. The Middle East: An Anthropological Approach, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, 1989.

Ettinghausen and Oleg rabar. The Art and Architecture of Islam 650-1250. Viking Penguin, 1987. Holdschmidt, Jr. Arthur. A concise History of the Middle East, 3rd edition. Westview, 1988. grabar, Oleg. The Formation of Islamic Art, revised and enlarged edition, YaleUniversity Press, 1987.

Hayes, John R., ed. The Genious of Arab Civilization: Source of Renaissance, ased. The M and T Press, 1983.

Hoag, John D. Islamic Architecture. Abrams 1977.

Hodgson, Marshall GS. The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, University of Chicago, 1974.

Lewis, Bernard, ed. Islam and ,the Arab World: Its History and Social Meaning. Knjaf; 1976.

Martjn, Richard C. Islam: A Cultural Perspective. Prentice Hall, 1982.

12 Michell. George, ed. Architecture of the IslamicWorld: Its History andSocial Meanina. Themes and Hudson, 1984. V. Lesson Plan

Aim: To have students appreciate thebeauty

and intricacyof Islamic Art. Objectives:

1. To have students be able tosee the underlying feature of Islamic architecture.

2. To have students recognize various

patterns in Islamic Art.

3. To have students evaluate the

significance of Islamic Art Motivation: Show slides or photographs of different

types of architecture and art objects

either from those testedor ones of your own choosing. Topics for discussion:

What kinds of patterns can be seen?

(Geometric, florai, stag-5 , script, repetitive motifs)

Wry did these patterns develop?

Influence of geography, need forseparate Islamic Identity.

1 4 How has religion inflaced the typesof patterns? Religiobelief in the unity of God and His Omni- presence, prescription against fig r representation.

Evaluation: Here students list common elements of mosques and reasons for having them

Here students write an essay on how Islamicreligion affected the patterns of Islamic Art.

1 5 VI. Important Events

610-632 AD-Period of Revelations to Mohammed

622 AD- Hijirah. beginning of Islam

639 AD- Concp4est of Egypt by the CaliphUmar's Generat 'Amr Ibn al- 'As'

641-2 AD- Foundation of al-Fustatas city and capital of Egypt

661-750 AD-Umayyad ,

750-125gAD-Abbasid Dynasty. Baghdad/Samara

868-905- Tulunid Period/ApmadIbn Tulun (becomes governor of Egypt) 969-1169 Fatimid period

1096- First Crusade begins

1169 al-Din al Ayyubi takes controlof Egypt.

1171-1250 Ayyubid period

1250-1382 Bahri period

1382-1517 Circassian Mamluk period 1517-1914 Ottoman period

1805 Mohammed Ali expels the last of the Ottomans from Egypt

1 6 VIII. Vocabulary:

mosque place of worship

mihrab niche indicating the direction ofMecca minbar pulpit

leader in prayer

v.Ocxn an enlarged niche

madrasa school attached to themosque warehouse, inn and marketplace mastaba stone bench

shahid martyr, one who witnesses the truthof Islam with his blood

Materials:

Slides, postcards, prints

Film: Patterns of Beauty (Traditional Worldof Islam Se es)(1976) 30 min.-examines Islamic traditions in art, architecture and colligraphy.

Mathematics of Islamic Art (1975) Metropolitan Museum of Art, N.Y. N.Y.

17 IX. Background Notes

Islam plays an important role inevery aspect of

Muslimsocietyand has profoundly affected the fitidsof

science, literature, art and architecture. Most Moslems

are very familiar with the Koran which is regardedas the word of God transmitted verbatumto his prophet Mohammad in Arabic. It is considered the final and complete

scripture superceding all previous scriptureswhich are regarded by as inaccurate, fallibleand incomplete. Therefore, everyword, punctuation mark remains unaltered and the Arabic language attainedspecial stahLre_. Since the Koran can only be in Arabic. Arabic hasbecome a commonunifying element for all Islamic countries.

The most impotent beliefscan be summarized by the

Five F llars of Faith: the shahada, "There isno Go, but

God and Mohammed is his prophet",prayer five times a day, almsgiving, fastingduring the Ramadanandhajj-the pilgrimage to . Besides the Koran there are other sourcet for behavior and beliefs of Moslems suchas the

Sunna (examples of practices of the origianl Moslem community) the Hadith of the prophets (Mohammad'snon- prophetic statements).

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ANCIENT EGYPT: THE FIVE FUNDAMENTAL THEMES

Introduction

The state of geography education In American schoolshas been severety crittized in recent years. However a review of the literaturereminds us that criticism of this type is nothing new. The need for more geographicknowledge among our populationwas pointed to as early as 1933. Lack cif geographical knowledge about placesamong geography students made national headlines and the televisionnews in 1963 when the shocking results of a survey were announced. This news spawned other suchsurveys, and it was found that the ordinary U.S. citizen hadvery little knowledge about places of critical importance throughout the world. Indeed, *geographic illiteracy"has become a cry of alarm about a wry serious problem. This heightened awareness has stimulatededucators and geographers to re- examine the basic context of the discipline thategeographicaliy literate* person should possess. Traditional forms of presenting geography have been regionalor topical. However, regional courses at the global level oftenhave attempted to include everything that could be mapped or described aboutan area. The most recently agreed-upon approach to introducing geography to non-geographerswas carefully constructed by a committee of academic geographers and classroomteachers. These representatives combined the unique essence of geographic thinkinginto five fundamental themes which have met with unprecedentedsuccess in catching the attention of the public and geography teachers across the nation. The themes lend themselves to the study of almostany place. Taken together they utilize the advantages of both topical and regionalapproaches to geographic thinking and minimize their limitations. The following definitions for the five themesare taken directly from Guidelines for Oeographic Education by the Association of AmericanGeographers and the National Council for Geographic Education.

(1) Location: Position of the earth's surface. Absoluteand relative location are two ways of describing the positions of people and placeson the earth's surface. f2) Plasm Physical and human characteristics. Allplaces on earth have distinctive tangible and intangible characteristics that givethem meaning and character and distinguish them from other places. Geographersgenerally divide places by their physical and human characteristics.

131±fumenzEndminertinkractiALBefatorthlutLAMIn_21§=1. All Placeson earth have advantages and disadvantages forhuman settlement For example, high population densities have developedon flood plains where people could take advantage of fertile soils, water,resources, and opportunities for river transport By comparison, population densities usuallyare low in deserts. Yet flood plains are periodically subjected tosevere damage, and some desert areas, such as , have been modified to support large concentrations.

grs1 COPY AVARAPIT 1.4LIMMMentilkiMarlairttaracting_m_the_multHuman being bccuPy Places unevenly across the face of the earth. Somelive on farms or in the country; others live In towns, Alleges,or cities. Yet these people interact with each Wier. They travel from one place to another,they communicate with each other,or they rely upon products, information,or ideas that come from beyond their immediateenvironments. The mostvisible evidences ofglobal interdependence and the interactionof places are the transportation and communication lines that link every part of theworld. Throe demonstrate that most people interact wfth other places almostevery day of their lives. This may involve nothing more thana Georgian eating apples grown In the state of Washington and shipped to by railor by truck. On a larger scale, international trade demonstrates thatno country is self-sufficient (5) Regions: How they form and change. The basic unit of geographic study is the. region, an area that displays unity interms of selected criteria. We are all familiar with regions showing the extentof political power such as nations, provinces, countries, or cities, yet thereare almost countless ways to define meaningful regions, dependingon the problems being considered. Some regions are defined byone characteristic such as a governmental unit,a language group, or a landform type, andothers by the interplay ofmany complex features. For example, Indianaas a state is a governmental region, Latin America is a region where Spanishand Portuguese as major languages define a linguistic region, and the RockyMountains as a mountainrange define a landform region. A geographer may delineatea neighborhood In Minneapolis by correlating income and educationallevels of residents with the assessed variation or property or tax rate,or distinguish others by prominent boundaries such as freeway, park, or business districtOn another scale we may identify the complex of ethnic, religious, linguistic,and environmental features that delineate the Arab world within the MiddleEast or North . This resource unit for teachers is intendedto be just thata resource from which teachers will, It is hoped, develop theirown lesson plans and activities. The purpose of the unit is to intoduce students to the fivefundamental themes in geographyand to apply these themes to the study of Ancient Egypt

QI2j%tim.: Stidents will (1) Be able to locate places bymeans of mathematical co-ordinates anda grid system. (2) Be able to describe location In termsof relationships with other locations. (3) Be able to explain how location influancesactivities. (4) Know the locations of major woderbodies and land masses regarding Ancient Egypt (5) Know that placesare distinctivein terms of their physical and human characteristics. (6) Describe several ways in whichpeople inhabit, modify, and adapt culturallyto physical environments. M Give examples of ways to evaluateand use natural environments to extract needed resources, grow crops, andcreate settlements. (8) Describe ways in which peoplemove themselves, their products, and their ideas. 3

(9) Explain why human activities require rnmement. (10) Understand that regions are basic units of geographicstudy. (11) Explain hew regions may be defined by cutturalor physical features or a combination of both.

ANCIENT EGYPT: THE FNE FUNDAMENTAL THEMES

J. Location: Position on the Earth's Surtace (1) Absolute: 24 degrees and 36 degrees eut longitude,and 22 degrees and 31 degrees north latitude (2) Relative: Egypt lies In the northeastcorner of the continent c4 Africa, bordered on the north by the and on the east by the . To thesouth lies the country of and to the west lies andthe Libyan Desert Place: Pboical and Human Chatactesks Egypt is a country of approximatelyone million square kilometers (06 600,000 square miles). Ninety-five percent of this territory is desert with onlya 5% area which is cultivable. The fertile valley of the isa natural oasis within the Egyptian deserts forme:I by the Nile River. The Nile Valley a unique and enormous oasis, a garden in the wilderness. The Nile flows ncAt-, to Egypt for 4,000 miles,from its rise in the vast lakes in the African interior to the Mediterraneansea. On each side of the winding ribbon of water in Egyptruns a narrow carpet of soil which supports a teeming population. The oontrastbetween the soil of the Nile Valiey and the barren desert is sharp and striking. For fivehundred miles, from to the edge of the Delta, the river forces itself througha steep-walled cleft in the rocky of the . This five-hundred-mile stretch isknown as The environs of Memphis and the Delta comprise LowerEgypt, which is flat and marshy; it differs in scenery and atmosphere from the aridseverity of Upper Egypt is short In length and broad in width; UpperEgypt is long and narrow. By the time of the unification of ,the tribes of the dynastic race, both in the north and the south, worshipped the sky-god Horusas their supreme deity, while the descendants of the indigenesappear to have acknowledged Set as their chief god. In early times, these Set-worshippingpeople were a powerful section of the population of the Nile Valley, occupyinga large area of Upper Egypt Other gods of the dynastic people, mostly local andtribal in origin, were soon absorbed into the circle of sky mythology, but themass of the population still gave their allegiance to the tribal gods of theirancestors, and above all to Set. There were other major cutts, notably of Reat Heliopolis, Ptah at Memphis, and Osiris at Busiris. Other deities of lesserImportance are known to have been worshipped in Archaic times. Anubis,a god of the dead and a protector of the Necropolis, was also an important figure. Hathorwas a sky and cow goddess who in later times was considered to bea patron of love and joy. Whatever his religious beliefs, the Egyptian firmly believedin life after death, and whether he trwelled with the sun-god in the'heavens or dwelt with Osiris in the underworld he believed that a certain vital part of himcontinued to exist in the neighborhood of the body. The bodymust therefore be preserved so that this vital force could return to it and be sustained Inevery comfort by food and drink, games, 4

furniture, and weapons. In fact, all the objects which made life comfortable were to supply the same service In ths after-life. The tomb was desigred as the deceased (iet alke in the after-life) person's housea sub-structure was built below ground level and was covered by a brick superstructure In the form d an oblong rectangular platform built in imitation of the dwelling houses or palaces of the period. Archaeologists speak c4 these superstructures as Nrnastabas". The whole of the exterior of the mastaba was painted in gay colors in designs which imitated the network which adorned the outside d the dwelling places of the living; for of course, the tomb was a copy of the house or palace of the owner in life. laikiL1MathErWitIMMODUlliereCtic=_BellitQl1thiall_tettieeflEtagal Herodotus said, °the Egyptians live In a peculiar climate on the banks of a river which is unlike every other river, and they have adopted customs and manners different in nearly every respect from those of other men." The civilization of Ancient Egypt owed much of its character to the climate and curious configuration of the Nile Valley. For Egypt, the Nile is its source of life and its chief means of transport. In the Pharaonic Period, the Nile Valley was the only part of Egypt capable of sustaining a population of any size. it was Herodotus who noted that Egypt was egift of the Nile.: The Nile flood determined the farmer's seasons. The control and utilization of the flood waters of the Nile was effected in a number of ways: by the building of dikes to protect certain parts of the countryside from flooding, such as gardens and villages; by the construction of enclosed areas or °basins* to hold the flood-waters which would be released at the right moment by the piercing of the dams; by the laying out of canals for distributing and conducting water from the °basins" for irrigation purposes; and finally, by sinking wells and using the shaduf, a water-raising appliance, for the irrigation of gardens. The river began its annual flood every summer in June, over-flowing its banks and leaving water and a light layer of silt over much of the river valley.By late October the flood had receded and the peasants were able to plant crops in the newly-irrigalsd lands. The Ancient Egyptians farmed the land with skill and energy. Every available foot of soil was under cultivation. For this reason, the villagers were willing to set back their huts from its precious earth on to the edge of the desert They knew only too well that they we dependent on Haapi, the Nile god. A meager Nile would cause , while an excessive Nile would damage the dikes and canals. The Nile dwellers early developed a close acquaintance with the habits of their river. They measured its rise and fall and entered the figures in a written record. Thus, through the Nile and its flood, the Nile Valley in Egypt became a land of abundant harvest DLAMMarilitimanlintetacting_mtbtlailh There is ample evidence of well-organized internal trade in Egypt during the Archaic Period, and an examination of non-Egyptian materials shows that the exchange of goods with her foreign neighbors was extensive in the earliest times. For example, in the important industry of stone-vessel manufacture, alabaster probably came from the Eastern Desert of Egypt and from an area behind ; basalt from the Fayyum; diorite from the Eastern Desert, from Aswan, and (a special variety of this stone) from an area forty miles northwest of in ; 5

dolomite from the Eastern Desert;marble and porphyric rock from the RedSea coast area; and rock crystal from the Eastern Desert. Afthough in building It was usualto use local stone, the transfer of stonefrom areas far afield was not unknowneuchas the granite from Mwan which was used in the early dynastic tomb of Udimu at Abydos.In transporting the product of the quarries overland the early Egyptians must haveused sledges, for the cart was unknownto them, aithough its use had been discoveredby their contemporaries in Mesopotamia. Once it was on the banks of the Nile,the stone could be easily transportedto its destination, for all importantcenters were within easy reach of the river.Of areas outside cA' Egypt proper, Sinaiwas a source of various raw matedals, themost important of whichwere copper, malachite, and turquoise. At this earlyperiod, foreign imports, although limited Innumber, were indispensable, particularly timberfor building purposes. Undoubtedly,a great lumber trade already existed in the First Dynasty, for the architects and boatbuilders depended on the import of considerable quantities of cedar andcypress from and . Ebony,ueed in the embellishment of fumitire,was also imported from the far south, wherea certain amount of elephant ivory was also obtained.Other important materials of foreign origin wens obsidian and lapis-lazulifrom Western Asia and resin from thefar south. Little is known of Egypt's exports,but Egyptian-made stone vesselshave been found in , , , andeven on the Greek mainland at Mycenae and t.sine. So that, by the time of theSecond Dynasty, as wellas.raw materials Egypt was exporting the products of her craftsmento distant lands. The trade routes were probably thesame as in later times: by sea to Byblos for the Syrian trade; by the El-A* roadacross northern Sinai to Palestine; throughthe Wadi el-Tumilat to southern Sinai;through the Wadi el-Hamamet to theRed Sea and then south to and the Arabiancoasts; and finally by the Nile to the Sudan. V. Regions: How They Form andChange Archaic Egypt wasas Egypthas always beenan agriculturalcountry dependent on the Nile for the richproducts of het eoll. Due to severalgeographic factors, Ancient Egyptwas influenced little by cultural developmentsoutside the Nile Valley. To the east and the west laythe great desert, which could becrossed with only the greatest diffictetyparticularly sincethe camel, the so-called uship-of-the-deserr was not present in Ancient Egypt; indeed,there is no evidence of thepresence of camels in Egypt before 700 B.C.. TheMediterranean Seaon the north was not a link with the countries along itscoasts, for there were no good naturalharbors or ports along the Egypt littoral to facilitatetrade and communication. While thelack of good harborages did not prevent tradeand contact completely (indeed,as noted above, Egypt received woods and other itemsfrom Lebanon and Syria, and thesecame into the Nile Valley primarily by sea),the fact remains that this lack madetravel by sea to Egypt difficult and dangerousandthis, in turn, necessarily limitedthe scope of sea- borne commerce. Making thingsmore difficuit yet is that fact that the watersalong Egypt's coasts were shallowand featured strong cunents whichwere dangerous for ancient ships. Within historic times the unification of the two lands, Upper and Lower Egypt(the Nile Valley and the Delta) followedfrom the emergence ofa flourishing agricultural civilization dependentupon the Nile's bounty. The land of Egyptwas created by the rich alluvium brought down by theNile which served to constantlyrenew the valleys fertility. This was lefton the fields by the annual rising of the Nileas a deposit contrasting sharply with the reddish-buffdesert areas on either side.

5,"; The oases of the we're always regarded as frontier zones. Except for thew oases, this area was lithe used; but the Eastern Desert, lying between the Nile and the Red Sea, was extensively exploited. It was a mountainous region, full of minerals and rocks which we collected and mined. Sinai was similarly exploited, being rich In copper and turquoise. Egyptian Civilization, from the earliest times, was based uponan extremely effective agricultural system. This in turn relied upon irrigation andwas dependent for Its effectiveness on the annual ficciding of the Nile.

Bibliography

Emery, Walter B. Ambik_Egypt (, Maryland: Penguin Books, 1961)

Hardwick, Susan W. and Hottgrleve, Donald G. Patterns on Our Planet Concepts and Themes in Geography (Columbus, : MacMillan Publishing Company, 1990)

Kees, Hermann. Ancient Egypt A Cultural Topography (Chicago, Illinois: Universityof Chicago Press, 1961) Lambert-Karlovsky, C.C. and Sabloff, Jeremy A. Artgbrit_QMfizatigattar_fast andMtsAmejtka (Menlo Park,California: Benjamin(Cummings Publishing Company, 1979)

While, J.E. Manchip. Ancient Egypt Its Culture and History (New York: Dover Publications, 1970) AnR1rULTURE IN EGYPT

LE571M7 Frn THE MIDDLE SCHOOL

BY

NnNCY HABERHAUER

FULPRIPHT SUMMER SEMINAR 1990 Agriceltere ef Egypt

:re this lesson I intend to enplain theba.ckground of the Velley, clarify the teens of aid givento the Egyptian feemere by the United 1-ztetes andeNplain the background of tee Aenreian Peforms and theAswan High Dam project. 1 have 7 mainr objectivee: 1. Gi.)e the students background information on the development ofthe Nile Valley andfarming those r,,ethede in Egypt so that theywill be able to compare meLhede with thoee in theU.S. epecifficaly in their own 2. Enable the etedents tobe aware of how the reeiene. in terms of 1.e7ei::: involved in aidingthe qovernment of Egypt ,-JeeernMent and private pregrams toequip the farmerswith techniques. 3. Equip the ieereved methods, eyr4teme and Dam project F.tt,dF.r,t.F. with ae understandingof the Aswan High Feel the problems and;eelutions associated withit. eemple lessons which ateacher 1. will else inrlude =eee modifications reeld peesibly uee inteeir classroom with some ulaeereem situtationand age level. eeeend.;.no on their bibliography of texts Fellewing the le=sen=ir ee anotated eed iecereetione...eilehle en these sources. ruhre-ideas Fer le,ree~will be developedin the future. ee eeed en theinformation from the Theee lreeeee will and &Rad feeil; - /villagesfrom the Hepkins eed Nergen4 develnp leesee= Prceuee ef tieer.ees!eaints I will and referencesfrom theee trete_ lee-ee ee e'ricee ersignments and orelhistory ey e,e ffeeF, vejfieg crem tere_ 0.1,e eheteerephs takieeof verieus stey in Feye will be used for+he =tudent-= te 1-t-eeeeeet lands.. te,ed heel ferereecerrently farm their

e: e, eei-ft; i rff tei re! Itt'eer- ree-e vrtem in theworld. i, the lnele-! its mouth etthe Deft.71 rm crem a enereeie r'erendi to 7,975-4 million sqkm. ie r:e7yrt. The Nile dreier Although it isthe leeeft land ere-, ec;"%trice. ;,-nth (4 the basin of theNile i= rivrr in theworld, the Miseiesippi, endft.e eflro 'The l'eseie7on. "if'S l'eerthlergeet arry morewetsrie 1!e renge), and at 7" r. ;er eivere c neurce of ayear. the Nile risesin a rainferre-t Ihe meet dietant =eew;!:- e'f north paesino Frem hirt- theriver flows eeer AheFeeetne. terraie inthe'southern Peden theeeeh seh-erepic_el before enteringa the ef the :lehera few eed trevering 'iere-ie regimein the last eem4-erid Mediterraecee the ht.-fern itedischarge enters teller!' ed k4lemetere riyer crosses somanydifferent Ne without receivinn Mediterranean. e'err riverflows so far rlieetic zenee: ne The head ofthe Nile is' tribeteeiee. the envperenneil of streamsthat drain :.,preeented by aleree eeet..er the twobranchee ef ef the lendtee'.eined between

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.7; He, African Rift system Feet Afriea. These streams flew taffe Virtoria, a shallrw trdy of vjater that i7 the second lar;e=+ fr,-,41-oaterlake in terme of area. nouth o.ier Ripon Fall= andflnwr., e 1:*!)

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hr Nils flew= nut c,f wf-st end of Lake Kioga andpltin:17:s ernmatic gorge of Merrhieen :!e!qr, eteep elepe threeeh the fleer ef the weetern rift. There it entere oe te the Another arm of the nerth end of lekeMehetu(Leke Albert). the upper ekle eetersthe south end of LakeMobutu, (Lake Idi heeing peeeed through (eL,eeGeorge and Edward Amie) Nile water remaine for along time in the great The Nile (Bahr el-Gebelat this f eleme ef LakeMobute. few km west reieLl leaves the eerthend of Lake Mobutu only a leke Kioga'e outlet. Ttthen flows down ontothe alluviel 3uden. This is the area known asthe elein of the central floating Fiefm, en enormoue eweepehoked with is ands of veeetation this is thPler-gest fresh water swampin the . ehtere the Sudd fromthe west, werld. The Bahr form the east, off weile the Sobat riverflewe into the swamp the eeuthweet flankeef the Ethiclep ian highlands. the more arid The White Nile leeveethe Sudd and flows across where it is joinedby its principal terrain to Khartoum from Lake tritiutery, the BlueNile, The Blue Nile rises tehleland of Ethiopiaand Joins the Tene, on the velceeic canyon that wasnut White Nile aftertrevereing an awesome Below Khartoum theNile enters eeplored until 19An. Below the etreteh of siereter:ete: the AtbaraRiver. M,,'Pr, the Nilereceives no further eeuth of the Atbara the extremely raredesert ieflew (eeteept ferthe reeoff from though its reerhee theMediterranean, even c-term) ehtil it tributaries. reeli ee ismarked hi meeyweil-develeped irr claws and a ee-ee of light There arepresently gnality in the Hite water. Preeent water t'erreees managing tnrms rf salinity. The weter Pile generall,/ g,r,d in leaves Aswan. Thie of di,,,eivedeolids as it eerries 220 ppm at Cairo. There is cr,nrern figure increasesto eL.ret 700\zepm Nile before qualitty might he aeroblem in the thet water Peth Egypt andSudan are iere,e. fer reei quantity becomes an -,eeneien Aridhave e]ees endergoingaericelterel deeendent epee ne-t deteer. troth ere heavily ierreatee in the Egypt'e levelsnf epplie-tlee fertilieers andreet:ciere, end ie the U.7. andBritain. 'F:zelinity ere hinherthan beth the e:tietinq andft,ttire is tn inruea,tine tn se.ieral rTrrr Nile e-Tansion;increased tlem, ceetrel te hrieetreingof the Roseires eeeeeretien dee the Onngleiproject, end 1-he eeiet-e ef theeerrect ph.ee of increased een- in the MeeharMarsh project; eed a ne,e reeerveir Leke Kiogaand Lake Mobotu; eer!e etereeein the suspended solidsfrom the !I-rrse in thefilteriee ef There it: and the MacharMarsh. Nile'e weterin the Sedd

BEST COPYAVAILABLE vome loraliced pollution Oyu to sewage where population 15 high, mainly in the Delta wid Oinja areas. The fact that n!Olutinn is generally nr.nlicillbe is howe.,-..r due to the vast C;1:,lih allowed hy thr hiith wetc,.-hnrne such as ihr.rtoym re Itse their effluent eyfv- trcatm-ir-- irrioEtion.

pnpulatinn ;nrri-ising eairlv and increasing fu,od +ion to r:E.t i-hms omri3O'. PC the eitranding population is a pri..a.../ concern nr the govi,.rnment. Official strategie improvemont of 1,and and water use, increase in /ir.lds. and addition pr atleast 150,000 acres/year of aiiricul.tural land until the year 2000 in order to keep the alren,/ low per capital rhare from decreasing further. Prcductivity is already hinh at 1.7 crops/yearffeddan, and ovsr 29.5 percent of farmland isirrigated. Almost 99 nerrent of Egypt's population lives in the NileValley and 4hr Pel'-a, three-firth ef them are engaged in agriculture, h;,t th7r-e are plans to increase this figure to 5 percent by VE.,,r 2000.:

T".s. has been '.hp ef some of the most ambitious end 1,test rEhec.e.,-- et water-resource management in hii.ter In the FhL-Ira,:p.iL era, Egyptian hydraulicengineers cent-incted an eleticte r.,.stem of irrigationworks in the p:.rt c,f the lewer Nile hr.r-in where the riverflows on it hes C---re-it-7!. Pharpnic water-manauement f r ''f that arrived with the aunio'-i (.1. irrigation distributaries that einn speri,i1 luw-!-._Ievatinn drainageditches to 1.rmit the finalfr-w 7ercc.,ta,3er of the retainedflood waters tr.. drain thr,Jugh -nil the irrigated lands, carryinn accuoulat-ti +top and a carefully thr rr,hv vuyr, that allowedNilp water po-d Of ihe te flow over the luA divide the rivi,r ';:ta f7-yum der.ression, 6'3 kmWrt.t thi- Nile Valley. Thi w.-ttE,r was used to irrigate amajor develcom i- that vane/. The Romans who ente,-rd in the first century S.C. also accomplishedhvr!r,,,ttliNs-nnineers, but theyfailent arprrciate the sinn;rir,,rrerither of the low-elevation Pahr Yusuf. A major Roman town drainage ditches cr thr, Fayum was left U-$imar) built on the5hn,--r5C.4 the lake in the evaporativr, losses fromthe lake shortly high and dry by failed to aftrr it wasronstructerrthe Roman engineers maintain the Bahr Yusura7 a forumto provide sufficient annal inflow to the1.-0.e tr halanceevaporation losses. Britain controlledmuch c..f In the e.--ttrly19th coniu,, when of hy the Mile,water-controlled schemes the U7'rrain drained the Nile. They var/inu comr:lexity wereprenesed for parts of the high dischargeof the were rriircarilydevices tn retain c.ut to irrigationdevelopments :innual florid and parcel it ...lear thanPharaonic basin c,./pr ,-, longer portion r?r be implemrntrd irrir;,:tion had allewed. Th- first facility to

BEST COPY AVAILABLEcoe .. in the modern era was Darrage, a eyettem of two impoundments construatad 1.7, permitirrigation water to be throughout the Delta on a yearround basis in most planaing, construction on the r..ars. After nine yeaaa ('iewan High Dam began in 1'761. An emerciency spillway (the Taahka, or Sadat Canall tn carryflow from sa:cessive Nilr clonds into interior deprossionsof the Western Desert was raa-ireived in 1970 and rmpletedin 1990, after its ef !,rioir.ally planned si7e halved. Owing to the impact channele in the High dam, the totallength of irrigation at Fc3,,pt has increased from72,5000 in 1965 to 33,000 In'1981-serious debate about theimpact of the High Dam The High Dam's ecologicaland emercir,d openly in Egypt. and include snrial ramificationstranrend Egypt's borders the spread ofschistosomiasis, su7h negative factors as soil -Arain on economic resources(such as degradation of fertilizer application,which is very fellowed by intensive ecosystems (such as estpenm.ive), and theeffect on other coa7fline and theadverse impact on orncion of the.delta Most'aspects of theHigh antiMic life in theI-L,dityrran ean). and negative havebeen well Dam'e impactpesitiae from These oheoraationeneed to be protected documented. polititcal manipultationbefore international and domesatie real influenceof acaurate canclueinne ranhe drawn on the people. he T)am on theregions ar--1 its Sudan in 195"; reaehed betweenEgypt and the Thc agreement entire Nile system le f;Fgaring futuredeveloereat of the aa.aple of the qualityof cooperation ri,n,idnred an hietaric It is eAnificantthat pemr.ihle betweenriparian neighbors. agreement and riparian crantra wasinvolved in that aa caer under the politicaland cultural ihre:- the Sudan waevery muah ,laminmre of Egypt. A-fter the 1957Foaptian .r.he High PPMriW!'rf,'!,./: panreeded with thP rgypiaa a,--aann,ent aalainn the -ealpIicatinna to theirgypfian- n-cm proiertwhiih alaiad Hi#7.14 naa -!15, al.oragecapacity ef the a-ace which 70,000MCM weuld be "ar. f'scicriet 171'., l'am was eapectedte earnand aerage(uote7ahle%, faddane tn ronvert rHapt's cultivablelan0 perennial fedd-an- nf har-inirrigation into ana- 200,000 aemit multiplecropping andE.:1-rid irrigation. Thi5 tanuld given Egypt'e prndaction. animportant goal r,qricultural Aewan projecthowever, reopened hargeciningpopulation. issiteS. dehato onEgyptian-Sn4arliae conflictDam would be a Whether Ata,Aewan High that it Taeur nne: venture. Egypt claimed nrcooprratia, Sudan boughtinto the out the prnnram,in 1954 wruld carry challenged theEgyptian claim In that yea-Fludan of aen4-aara. the mostefficient way that the A5wanHigh Dam was that the storageof Nile watera,they argued water utiliaing the mcAre rationalapproach to thn waterconetit utrd a it had management. quotas. Egypt said 1,,,sue Two: Water sharing

`IEST COPYAVAILABLE crl.=r;. needs of the war,,r base onthe fact that the country F.ad nther altnrnaLiye water rnsourceand it population wa= depende,:t on thr mile. Egypt alcoclaimed that cldan popitlatinn !,-1!.! alterPaLie rrsrit!rces, ctnd that it= r,m,,,ller and ,/ac, ,p-nwing at a smallorrate than

Putian rejected thr ,orond issueclaiming that its pe.pulation c:ould nrt rrly onrainfed agriculture and that it entitlod to =hare in the storedwater at a larger rate than what Egypt wanted. Negotiations in 1954 were snon bro),en off because bothpart;ies were hardened bydomestic politcs 42.sp2ri ally in Sudanwhich was fighting independence it wc,n in 1956). Also respon!=itle W,74 .ft,r acquiescenre to ,:r..ncern of +heqitdanrmr-se go.iernment that demanthr woutd i;:tensifyunrest in the southern prbviprICPS, in Ihe criEis deterirliAtpdinto a military confrontation 195;? when Egypt dispatchF.d anunsuccessful expedition to dirL:puted border tEz!rritory. Relations between the two in 1959 when theSudanese abrogated r2untries re6cbed a nadir height of the Hil? 192? Agreement hyunilaterally raising the :,.nnar Dam. dispute Thrcinghc.ut the Lnnflict,Britain, owing to its demand for evacuationof the with PresidentNasser c:...nr his the Sudaneseposition; Sudan Canal Zone, supporte0 endorsing the reciprocated after the1'756 Suez war by promi5ed U.S. aidto any Middle Figfri-J,ower doctrino . Egypt, determined r:.astr--n cc.untry projF..ct, turned tothe. U.S. for to preed with LtIr2, Nasser turned ("naring, but to nb In frustration, ag,c:.-ell to providetke necessary to tid, thus adding acold war dimension ;ji,ncial and tcchnic,1 character of theNile dispute. z.tirrady inter-,:!.'n-,Al AF:won High Prim iT ! Tt wFis Fctecito rr-ri54IructiEq,- c,bjecti--7.: I) to prPtect Egyptian Ilyeral and periodicvariations in the c-!ric:ulture from bc.th multiple croppingalong the flnw of the Nile: 2} In r-ttend land 1-he total areaof cultivated Nile Valley; 7)to F--:pJ:ind fedi-fans frrr, feddans; ltnN-.onvert 800,000 by 17 million to generate10 billionkwh hiiTin to perennia4irriq,-(tion; 5) annually. through c,f electricity nem: 1)Massivelosses of water Problems with the (the storagefacility of onI uis, Nasser depriye r-urCace evaporation r.ilt in thela.&e that would the Diim; 2)trapping 6f necessitating of soilnutrients, thus 0,-2onr:tream users 3) waterloggingin soil wiUerprearl useof fertili7er s; and degradationof to tho ri=.eof salinity chaqnele leading coastline andincursion of quality: 4)bror7ibn of the watc..,- 51 spreadof schistosomiasis =i-awal-er intothe DeltF-,: parasitic diseasetransmitted lilharzia-ahighly drinn--rous "killermosquitos" from 6) proliferaiipn of the hy soail); malaria. the Eudanthat spre,Ad Egyptianagriculture ir Impact of the Impact on

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O. 3EST COPY AVAILABLE)-2-- perhaps the most significent dimension of the project. The records show that the major goal of dramatic improvement in Feeptien agriculture had not been attained. About 60 percent of the Egyptian population js employed in agriculture. Ferthermere Egypt's popeletion growth rate is1 million every pine menths. The ameunt refland the government hoped to reclaim and add to thP S million feddans under cultivation has fallen far ehnrt of e:pectetions. Official figures are veirod greetly and are eereliable, tending to mix marginal eith productive land in the statistics. About 350,000 to 4f-)0,00 feddans of land have been reclaimed. Owing in part to censiderations of labor! intensity, effort and resources were put into land reclamatien rather than into development of three agricultural technelogies that would.have increased prodectivity per feddan. Although Egypt has achieved imerencive yields for emme crops such as , wheat, maize aed rice, total preduativity cannot keep pace with local conaemption. In any eeent, any policies which trade off hiehee production forjeha or less of land ownership carry the ria 4 politieel eeheevel.

US ATI) to Egypt: US00.1) hoe made a long term commitment to eaajalenreEgypt in devraleeing and improving its agricultural eeater. USAID reterned te Egypt in the mid 1970's and hes centrihuted more than eq70 million. Agricultural and credit prreeame are with the Miniatry of Agriculture and Land Reclemetion 010A) and irrigetion with the Ministry of Public Werka and Weter Peaourcea(FWWR). The first agricultural USAID developed in the late1970's oentaieed 14 proiecta with a total USAID contributionof t7s70 elliee. Theee projecte were primarily targetedat the remetion of preductivty eraies and included emphasisip iech &"c'r-OF es pueltry, rearel ereins, farmand agriaelter-.1 herLitelli-ere, -fleaaeltere, weter mangPmr:nt, e'egrema rullertion and enelyeia "-:everal;Itt!,'im! 7--%:rdirt. received grEwit.u-tte keee-r theee err.i-44-a end literally thcsands a,-aeemir end in-reentrv trelnine. Seven major reeeerrh r erriment centerr,: wr-e huiltand a host of Egyptian eeereeent facilitiee were rreree:ted. More than $70 millien rf eariaulteral equipment eeaerecured and more than a deaee leberetories were equipped. The research carried out under theee "first generetien paeierts,"which were phased out hy 1qR7, have benefitted rnmohly1.4 million farmere who erenrt eeine high-wieldier) . The current pori.fel4e ef threemajor projerts has bree Ceveleeed with a tetel ref contrubution of $763 millien. the meier ohieatiae eia1erl:4nc; these three projectsis the develeement of the haaiaaeateineble agricultural system whirh wneld enehle f.e-e-erto nreerate the highestposeible return from their very smillfarms. The following three pregrams are 11 eericeltural Research Project (APC) (4ARP): 2) AgriculturalPr-eduction and Credit Project 7) Irrigation Mar,,,tgemt=ntSystems Project (IMS).

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, Mr.r4P: the purpose nf project is to improve Egypt's capribility to provide farmers with productivity increasing technologies in a snpportive policy envior.nment. The de=ign of this project emohar,..i:ns increasing crop And livestock yeilds by the crEtir:,n ;tind tranefer of appropriate terhnnlogie=, And by filci 1i titt ng a pn1 i cy envi ornment whi rh their ponerat;,-miuse and removes constraints to agr4rnituri productinn ;,nd marketing. The projecA's r-lrnliqy rails for enhancing the effctivene,ss and e'ttent c-fa broad range of public and private insitutinns iivc.1,/ed in Egypt's agricultural development. It was revised in September 1988 to include 5 a,.easof concern:1) aciricultural research; 2) agricultural policy analysis; 7) seed technology; 4) technology transfer; and 5) project .managpmentinew initiatives. APC:is a complementary approach to the NARP activities cnncent.rating on policy evolution and strengthening of farmer credit systems. The project has two elements: 1)a capital transfer component in whinh cash transfers are made to prcwide capital fnr the Principal Bank for-Development and Agricultural Credit (PEIDAC). Egyptian farmers now receive wnrld mar:ket level pr'iror: for several key crops, most crop- iThlivery quotas have 1:.een relEn:ed or eliminated, and wasteful c.ubsidies for imported annual feed have been phased out. 2) technical assistance component designed to assist the PEIDAC enhance its ability tn prrivide credit for Egypt's farmers and n-businesses. Thi= technical assistance will enhancethe Tinancial viability an0 effectiveness of PBDACfor supplying the credit needs of the rural sector. As part of the project the UP Center for Privati7ntion isworking with counterparts frnm the PBDAC to develnp aplan for the gradual phasing-in c4 private =ector portinipntionin the supply of agricultural innnt= which are nurvr.nfl..e:unnlied by PBDAC. TMP: i= a prnjnrt nnilh i= acemple umbrrila projr-ci ,,p1:1-inri7ed for $7.40 mili-n and is srheduled forrnmplPtinn in rptember 19?1. TIe 1,,,,I-ject:is comprised of ten rrofpnnents administered hy eightPWWR Project Directors. the ha= activities- n ail I? IrrigationDirectorates ,n0 fncuses on the si millinn fedtii4;cns of irrigatedold land= in accomplished Egypt. To date (14,-:n: 17)?RA,the prniect has maji.r activities invnlyndwith aiding the farmersdirectly throngh training and 1Y7r '! irrigation technology.(see Agricultural Briefing panur May1989, for specific cstails). iih the USAID Programthe American in conjunction Program whirh Hnivrr5sity at Cairo hac a!Insert Development Lechniques andstrategies for farmrrs dpveltf, nri4 in Cairo and has farmirig in the desert. Tt is headquartered 'w%0 acres in SouthTahrir,and twri e.:perims:ntalfarcro,; agriculture.facili.ties in laboratories andnon-ronventional profes!sional,-, The Center employs20 high-level r%dat City. personnel includingfield 70% re=parcher=,and 47 ,7,nppnrt and skill. they rn..ePra wide rangeof disciplines

I. _ 3E51 COPY AVAILABLE Areas r.f the Center's s.;...cals-:pertise may be combined under three broad categorist rlanning desertification control and fmrmplc7tting inteoreterl dcr=ert develmpment.programs; identification, apprais7,l, and implementation of desert Trc,jr.rt: and management of desert farms. Together, these a,-ear ccnstitute inti.i.gral elements of action plans for the development of the Sahara areas. In addition, the Center nfcerr upon request sperial training in its areas of competence. It riPpfl-mk7 nn grants and special fundings in nrner to maintain its opperations.(See Yearbook and long term plans for more specifi,c details)

F.AHP'F. LESSONS: THP rnILOWING LESSONS ARE SOME THAT COlTh..D SF U7ED TN A 6TH OR 7TH GRADE CLASS STUDYING EGYPT AND COULD WITH MODIFICATION PT: USED IN A 9TH OR 10TH GRADE CLASS.

1. (wter receiving hact-pround information on the Nile River, 7tttdents could 1.1r,mple assignments like the following: On a large blank man of Africa and the Middle East, locate Egypt. Thon'op a blank relief map of Eastern Africa including countries Egypt, Sudan, , Uganda, Kenya, Central African Republic, and Zaire; have themlocate the followinfl items: RedPF'A Mediterranean Sea White Nile Filue Nile Lake Victoria Lake Nasser Att,ara tst cataract 3rd cataract Pr,m 4th cataract 5th cataract f.t.aract Cairo Khartoum :ludd Fgypt Sudan Ethic.pir, Ken./a Uganda 7a i. re Central African Republic would he (H,:n Naff, and Waterbury books

an e: F--.1 ent refer en r Additionally: Uie rtudrni,,rnuid using a blank mapL4 Fclipt, locate the Nile Riverand all of the dams andwater projects mentioned in the harkgry.und have the Enllnw-up activit),: Aftnr finishing the maps, paper f.,n c:tudents compare the twnmapspd write a one page moy have had onthe reginns the effects which-the land mav have involved and how they.ceel the geography of the nf problems do they seethat thes,e changed. Also what l'indr could these dams could create andalv-, what kinds of benefits dams have on thevari,':ur rnuntries in theNi.le region. r:-mine the Photos ofthe Aswan High 7. Have the 9t.nderl. (4 it (use guidebooks and Waterhory ,-,nd the dimension', the Dam from hon!-s) Lnok for dimensionsand actual photos of t-syr, the studentsdescribe some of the In a one page paper, Egypt, Sudan advantages and disadvantagesto the people of Nubia, and Ethiopiawhich this dam may cause. evaluate the possitiveeffects of such Have the Students ww

/ A a memer project byuNpscn in undertaking the Abe Simbel Project. Is it worth the time, money, energyand cooperation which theee natione eeed in order to preservethis ancient eenement. They eheeld erite a one pege paperwith their rpi fltOfiS pressedCr-Tip6.1: ely

4. Write an eeeey rempering a rieersystem in the United S:tates C. MiesiaeLeei. Celerado,Miesouri) with the Mile. r-theeld the U.S. dem it te preventflecis or to help proide more water to people inthese regione. Be sure to include how this endeavor would affectthe enviornment end the natural ecosystems ofthe area. 5. Ueing the graphs andcharts in the USAID materials, eriefing Report, have the especially theAgricuitural data frem stueents interpret thecharts which compare the etudents project whyAgriculture is 1955 to 1970, have the Egypt and still the mostimpertant of the economy in fell from 34.4 percentin 1955 hae/e them explainwhy the GDP 1907 aed at the sametime why employment te 17 percent They 'could write this or fell free' 56 percentto 7e percent. graph it on a bargreph esing pfsgraph. to develop a plan Have the etedentewort! in small groups 6. with the farmers inEgypt. Given the te ,eelve the prebleme techonologies, what pelicies, institutines,resources, and change to help thefarmers producebetter eeuld the students should have one crepe in e moreefficient manner. Each group written pege onwhat they woulddo. describe the NARPand The Studentsshoeld he eble to They 7. of the variousprojects on a map. find the loeatione types of crops grownin pech c,heeld ee eblete elr,e liet the

,,4)le to write apeeve- abeutiee e,tudenttil. vhrq:10 is dieeesereeietant, vprir,i of rice which eeneiete ef A new Lnoking and P.=Itim..4 hee e highyield rAnd implemented by thele:(ll, Co;le (-4t-h- pie-area. being tei aeeeltLieclude: 1) How eould pruqrm underNeRP)Teey beneeit thepeeete F-uotoil, Hoe could it heerfit Egypt's it benefitthe fArmer7 living in cities,7) Hcw ru.-ttld they were aspr.,ciali7rs,d imvqihe that help thc- Have the student-7-, ti-elected to goto Egypt to who had bq,1.1 U.S. FFirmer rite e peperon thekinds of farmrrF... there. Heve tThre or whet roeld e;vele the farmers hii IhcAt thr:7 ehare withthem. (Thi- 'key reuld talk to farrucTr, iefcreetien/teehricawL,ateeleete wouldhave to weeldMr-7Arlthet tho accurate accountof whet te act an in the teei- r-eeeenite in the U.S.which work iecheicetea theFer,rerT he;e For .sur,/eyproceedures) tee. (:7es: the Yene1,1,r+ to be e.led a setof questions ti. 7-tudf-ntsnF:ed tu prepere

BEST COPYAVAILABLE 17,s1 farmers.i.e. much did they grow in their fields lar;t vrJar, how many head of cattle do they have?, What kind ri rortilizer dr they 'IF:FA'', how many people work on their rrr,s7 and then r=rrtrtrP it- tf7, thr information supplied by the Y7ATTI. Have the students:, make 8 graph comparing the two sets rfdat.71. iwNnTAFED DIPLTOGRAPHY: Pris:fing Paper.USAID Cairo-Egypt revieed Nay 1r-?09. Current status -Co Agricultural Aid projects frnm US tc Egypt. Describes programs in detail ie NARP, IMS, APC.

Pishov, Adli. ppg,ert Development Centers Ibe American

ynvorsityi_ in C_Eti_ro 1979:-1909 Regort.. Al-Abram Commercial Press of Cairo. 1929. Good details and photos of what the desert development center is doing in the,Sadat City and Tahrir sites. Background and accomplishments of the

programs. ^-.. Prown, Marshall: director. gtAtus B220ril.UAgag.ggDPIPig Assistance to Egypt, Npyember 1989 Agency 4or International Dey.elopmopt, Egypt De,Ek officer,Department of State, Was,hinntnn,D.C.. Good maps, charts,and descriptions of aid niven to Egypt. Dnscrihnr, all grant programs indetail large sectinn on.apriculture..

"(40-ir?rc;,-ocnd Follution ImperilsEgypt's Relirs" CI and C9. Tv, Nel.) Timo!y. Toe,sday, Jam 30, 1990 p article on pollution 'rrigation problems. Problems which oriF:,ing between Egyptologistsand the Ministry of Tnurism. Egypt Cniro: Hppl'ins, Nicholas S. Anarian Transfor.mation 0 in Cairo Press 1988. Description of thp American University in the villoge life and problemsin Tipper Egypt in Musha 7innar Pasin area. r:cellent maps, chartsand descriptions (-4 the area. arf,LM University Researchand ti:Areahall, David s. USAID F:.:tontion Center EtDalla7:. interview with reqard to project. (Editors) Water inthe Naff, thomas andMatson, W.uth C. Confligt12t: Cooperation,Boulder: Colorado: Midffl_p Eastk cooperation with the Wes.tview Press Inc.1904published in Institute, Universityof Pennsylvania) Mitidle East Research Chapter 6 especially gond background,c.:,cellenL maps. helpful on the NileRiver area. Social. HiLory of 2nAgrarian ReformCommunity :Mad, Poem. Science Vol 11Monograph 4, io Eu.i.pt Cairo 17,pors in 1909. Cairn: Thn AmericanUniversity Press Wiinter 1988. the izbetMorgani- a Graduate paperfield work with

11 BEST COPYAVAILABLE Eettlement. Excellent !'ground information andinterviews with villagers.

Uptr,n, Martin. P!frp T:zT-71 Man,agement Cambridge:Cambridge ilniversity Press, 1937. f.mpd and extensivebackground on what of farming techniquc,s are usedthroughout Africa and desrrihes the economic factors of farmproduction and irrigation procedure. Praphs and charts can be complicated at firnt hut help deirrmine thedecision making process of farmers in countries. Economic tables are complicated. Nr..thing too specific on Egypt,but rather generally on Africa. Hygrgpcl,itics gf the NileValley SyracuF.e: Waterbury, John. the Syracuse University PreFs,1979. Excellent background on development of th High Dam andthe Nile Valley systems. and Provides an historicalharkground of the water systems the construction of the dam.

Yann, W.Y. Metbodg. gf EIFTTIManagements Inyntigstions for lajLrgying farm product:.tvi.ty. Rome: : Food and . 1965. Agricultural origins of Lhe costs Etrkground informatir,n onfarming methods, opportuinty and farm surveyinformation. AUC Fulbrinht/DOE Summer 1q90 Pobsrt F. Johnston

THF PrIn!' PUBLISHING INnUflic,fTN FGYPT: An informal study.

":.3PVTFW Thrihir. fl.1:1'?allam, Dar al Shr,rouk 0.1,:.;.ng Co and bc:ok-hops.

The family publi7..hin-1 hruse wa= first started in thr pr.ried Tbrihim' father, Muharnmed undrr thF, na!nr-. Dar al Kalim. In 196 that house was nationalized bv thp^ t.!asser regime. Tn 1760 Nuhammed then started Dar al :.'hnrr2ui' publishing, witC1 presses in Cairo and Beirut. They or,c.ned bookstores in Fairo and Alexandria. Ibrihim r;ii.,eft his father in the business after graduating from thr Y.e:i,:er-ity oF Cairo with a degree in engineering. They were 1,H-r joined in the business by Ibrihim's younger brether, Adel runs the bookshop on Talat Harb Square, where the ini(:ryiew to!A place. Talat Harb bic.!!-shep is more like a privately owned bo-_-Pshop.in the U.S., than the larger chain c---.nr-eparts such as W.A0c.ys, Atlantic or Barnes and Nohle. Thp r_hrp was small, ahriut by a0', with high ceilings and t1:7.2:::ine second fl(-(,(in the back half. The shelves were wth boolfs floor to ceiling, in all languages Ar.Thic, Japanese, Eyglish, German, French, Italian), and on mayner of subjects ranging from childrens books to world 11i7--7.7,-tyre to Duranic literature to philosophy, computer -ris"rc and profesr-irnaln:-(-2ical and technical materials. Thr-rc, a staff nf deit,:n, all busy helping custower,= in Oiffer,-nt From the cc2nvrrsatic-..ns I '" strck 7.-iihjm alNu11,-9-. -h-o-actrri7,-,d by fricnds arM a dyn.q.!,- ,- -uk,Tr.ien force in 4hr, Friyoti2n r,r4

-

.r F.1 Cfic t t . ry, wherinthers 1-,F1' 1

.1r-in! in thc. sccond gcttinr kr a litte ahout each otLr,- tHr N,

?PP: rf I understand (rrrr,:-1-1.,,,you publish enly in Arabic. th.7..t correct?

We did publi-P'i Pnnlish and German, but very co,.9 1:itler: They were prims,,rilv children's books,but I tninl. the.' nn londrr and out of print. We had this r.r.pnr-e Yrrrc aye. NCJW we publish only in Arakir.

?PP: What is the rwlin fr(-,7 (.4your publishing now-'

TPRii-ii!4! We publish ii.nr,tly litcTFiture. Dy our standard, a very bron!:! 'flit:g. But,inaddition to literr-re

BEST COPYAVAILABLE aUC ',1hrieht/IN1E - 771ummer 1q90 Pekert Oehnston we publish n.cdrrr f'Irrir and Tslamic thoughts.

9D74: P:,ilosphy as well as,..

Tnr..T14TM: You can say it is Philosophy, you know new Age

PC-11:4: 'i!nuld this he ihp ,-mo type of New Aqe thinking thet we hri,r .,'.out in the !elte,1 '7:tat.esT

TF.:70!ITilt No, T is different. More like trying to 4-jrd bettnr w,=,y than thp more traditional approaches to our 7.-rphlems. But net only that. We publish mostly literati:re and rNildrens beoks.

T uederstand .::hildrens literature and childrens ,,r.e a oreat interer,4 of Egypt's firstlady, Mrs tl!inr.-r. Do you wIrk ,el.h her in any capacity?

1"4(.;:THTMt We di.dn't work eith her, but she comes to ourstand Shp a1s.n re,H Ii!es what we doing and appreciates it. 'F,MP of eur t4tIr.,,r for thebnokshops that she is

PrD: Hew de yell or, tle.oeing the titles that you r4r, T'm eure bP thousands of Enypti:.n me't woeen tr.,*-rp puhlished.

rener.-.11%. it a mi.):!-ure betweenselectino fer.pr, V:o are offersI w:eit we eummi ssion. (7ratetimes wr try in rehjects for only one title or e this. r7.pric.s. We have a (74,,,,mittee that decides

this, is it your staff c'e- PC19- The committer that. ,?ecides ee(Tie from outside therempany? Also, do you ever pay rtd,anres for manuscripte r,r-commissioned projects? We use outsider,- mstiv. We have FA7,me frt,m the 774FV.:1: that we are =74:aff. but it reallydepends on the subject fri,Qnds that are the hestin :iealing with. We ha...e A"...anees are rarely paidin Egypt, fields to help. =urh nrrul,-,lly only to e,:tremolvwell establi,shed writers Mahfouz. F6/p!, what is the publishing EOP; in general, in Are envirrement like, Dre-,y the government getinvolved? r4forFs to rc,ntr1 Hrrerfor? Are a lot of different thinns puLlished or on1 f.7f-rtain types ofmaterials? if c../erything is rr-lative,and relatively speaking in Egypt with therest of ths yr-,1 r7empare what the 1Post Pac-t and othee T-1,eir rntintries, we are arn prohibited,almost everythih'i 1;h-.,-.t. Very few titlei involvement, they --.- ir- ;.e!lished. AS' fee the qr,vernment

BEST COPYAVAILABLE AUC - Felhright/DOE - Summer 1990

Robert C. Johnston ' eeldem get involved, and eeee then, they must go through the reerts. In additioe, tt.e few rases that have gone to the ceert, the government ies. I can only remember one or two in the last five i-ere t.ht. have been prohibited.

Pnm, Thr..-e was a rreent in ebeut ;.leeeie Manfeuz, in which he vies critici7ed by a rival Feyptien author, Yousef Idris stated that Mahfour did eel Lake chances in what he wrote. Cen you comment on thet,

IP7THIM: I am aware of what's going on between Idris and Mehfeuz. I think that Idris is a talented writery but there is a real difference. It is really a matter of the taste of readcre. Some people like Mahfouz. Mahfouz is more le,eif Thr?rr, are also some political .;ifferencee between the !we. Naguib Mahfouz is in favor of eeece end Yousef Idris is againet whatis going on between Egypt and Israel. He believes that there is a great Jewish infleeere in the the Nehel prize, and that Mahfouz's,approval ef the Camp David eccerd7: were why he wonthe prize. nnr.! re, an eeide te my eeettion about government inte,entien, whtt t.c effect do the religious eetheeIties have en whetis eubliehed? Do they try to censor eekeriel, and if cc, are they successful?

teeTHPI: Yen know, -,emetimee theydo. But for me as a putAisher and ee a ue-mherof the Egyptian publishing from reedireF-te, T think eehedy is reelly suffering rel'eioue -rhr. ForF.ncrr-Ary and elnweessof eF,i,'fleee4inq hec-se eert. ereeterimpect. I think there e-e erehleme frem the eed net the religgees thet thry 0,1 1Ur, the het-Ike. In fent, If Pie chil.e..e i- ef er e eehfeer'e hooke, it c-,r,r, T'es .;id net endeeetand it when fc!rm, Nv.Nctt-I-Coc decided himeelf f,t the right time t.er it. I th;r0 he.frels this iF nnt h,tlle ee this.

ttir- M-rile we are on the re,dliejgpublic, I was eme-eed et kioeks, and stande thatI have eeen in eumber of bookshope, literate Pelee and Ale;:andria. Feeptians.must be A very people and mustread rnne,1 lnf1y.

don't enter with vne. I think the number ec TPRIHIN: I Out- in hee!.heos is too Utilefee the Egyptianpopulation. eer- few heokshops.in the towns end !he ,eentry there ore effertinn ei!leues. thin th:,ir ene ef the problems r-cd r!Hrktic:neyetem. Also, that there eitt.ishing ieduetry have eehlir lile- e ire The children do not *"-P veey few being accustomedtn arccss te reel de eel grew ep thr, educationalsystem in riypt rreelsne. T the -1.edeete to read alot. The scheel rit't enr:ourarliee and e let .,ystem concentretor eenederials for their courses,

3EST COPY AVAILABLE AHC Fulhright/DOE - Summer 1990 Roeert C. Johnston ef ereporization; and teet takes all thpi r time. Then there ie the long summer vecetien, four months, and they do nothing Hur-ir.g this time. There are very few programs for them.

r.leer the le=t for!y eeare, einre the revolution, heep there hose major rhannee in how the publishing industry hn= with the different leaders and regimeee

TeeTe7m: 11../prill, I think the effect on publiehing of tee hae nr,t !,cf? cleod. Before the revolution, eehliehing was opee and deeeloping and growing steadily. e47tre the revolution prohlems began, because they.were trying centrel all oF thr indeetries. There was great damage to !he r-rint.ing industry and they put restrictions on theimport r4 Thcre was also severe censorship in the there :las a lot of propaganda published in thceeeia and hool.e. Thie did a lot to drive people away r.r.ading.

FlOP: Pit what't.i.mc, did tt.i starttO loosen up, during eeeei 'etrqlure rrr,-40r,,f"

Ht,rinn 70s, and it has contineed to imeree elow]e wite Me.eteeerree. industry is not quite eeeel Viet said thet fee eeeliehing -cici,hinq at this ie that due to Egypt'snverall eennomic eituatien. -r reether ether factors? also the loes of the IPPTHieet Tn part feet ie 4ree, but rellern ae readere, fee the reaeensI mentioned before. eut leadere teere are other reaeone. The political and cultural end thny are not culteredand ell e--0 to be officere models to ietellre-tuale. Therefree the children have no repy, et leest inthie meeeer. hein,1 haye t..een ter-t-rihdby ottr cplleadikee ae ntepoken regardung thepnhliehiNg industry. Whet ii doing that it eertieelar would you li%+-ee eee the indnstry ie ere.. doing now? 'se from several probleme. TeR:HTM: Oh a lot! We el-- eufFering ie thet reading is not anational The moet important one necessity. hebite and that readier)ie not considered as a thaCeie of a problem,it is that theyjust Illiterery is not First, deri 'I. reed for many reasons. den't read, and they Second, it is very thr7e ere notbrought ep rreding. hroks. Third, there are very 'erV1 fer them te eey enough informetire Jr' eeele lieeeeiem. reer!h, there is not booes. Finelly, ell the preir eedmc-0;a ahntt iih 1i=hing and For booke areweak end ef tee dietvibeiinn OS fer Asimporting hOoi.c. Pnr eiter e--elem and this is in e--. t:!im rPgUir,h.trd4, .eign currency, ehei t eepple in

3EST COPYAVAILABLY-- AUC - Fulbright/DOE - Summer 19q0 Robert C. Johnston

However,I think the indurAry will continue to improve =lowly. There are efforts to increase reading, and the eronnmic situation is imprnving slowly. We are hopeful.

PART II

Tntrlview with Raymond 7,tnrt,, English AcqUisitions Editor anr1 Ammar, Assistant tn the Directnr of American University in Cairo Press July 16, 1990. The American Univesity in Cairo Press is the, publishing t.:4-the American Hni...ersity in Cairo. It was establish!:ed in 177-4, and in that ynar puhlished its first book on thethe (fir 1if-2rary's CreTrll c!,11ection on Islamic art and -r.ri-itr+ure. In the jii'7.,,ening 29 years, it has expanded nrr.7,ti.. During thn t';'=1--publishing season, it publiEhrd h.c".1 7 and and did 1,0,(100 L.E. in business. The cruPcs maihly ma!erials about Egypt and by Egyptian (Is part pf its e-pansion, it is currently itE T understand that Nir is the only non-Egyptian ti-i-Jerity in thn cinintry, is AUC Pressthe only foreign ruhlieher'7

(": Ph Thnr aee mapv, large and smallforpign a fr-.w, thnre Press, who just r.Ablished THr 9117 TO Ti17: rITInod ,Liv~r du , and alsoWilliam who publishes ri^,Tr:!.1 TODAYmagazine.

eign ot-irwd htishers do you have any special r-r-itrnr,ions or nuidr1innr. that perhaptthe lecal publiehres doal

t-Trme. of thn pvnr.01 presslaws, we both dEal with c:r the c'EIMP F.nr7, rfH)ings. There are certain r:topr book put-lished. t' must folloi,) in rr,ft-r to qet a H,tin,,Fting is that not mon,/people that publishactually that these formal and are writtPn when Ifircst z-t,,.-!od researchingthis, it turned t' the saille proceduresthe,: wo th,t these steps wern firrt always been following The bFisic press laws were L :7! i,gain in 1r-49 and later. Thn..., un in 1'756 apd nut what worc during theNasr.r and carefully spelled Hp.o.,,r, in 1974, duringSadat's rule, cPuld Le published. that said there was nil 1.hore 1-,as a nocrpri-i'rhip 1-w passed rrY-1.1-m is thatearlier laws were nnt rnneorship. The it11..e regulations. ann...illnd, so thern arr.,eirr,r-times conflicting thnuuh t1H rogularpublications submitthoir YLu ehould For instance, al- mitnrials. usuallyhr.fnrr distribution. FhPy submitmaterial after.it is CAIRO TODAY, 1 uhrk-1 Rarely is anything i,d121ished, but befnroit i distributed. c-tct,pv.Pd.

JEST COPY AVAILABLE AtIC Pnlbight/DOE - Summer 1990 Robert C. Johnston

POP: Co you have to de he same thing with what you publish.

Ynn have tn ne0,,et,tnnd that there are many different nlass that deal with concership. It'e not any one central clare. Drer,nding an tlh;,.t yciu have,',OHhave to deal with tho Pnet Office, Ministry nf Information, Ministry of Culture, nr ihr rereidnnt's effirn. There is also Al-Azhar for riliginus an0 Inlamic T thiulf that the subject of the rraC-ident and religinn are most carefully scrutinized. Actually the practjer of censorship in Egypt goes back to when the first printing press was introduced by.Napolern. He hadtwo censors. One for French and one for Arabic. The practice continued with Mnhammad Ali, the KhediveIsmail and intc], the 2Ottp century during the monarchy andthe war perinde. At each time the previous laws were lokkedat and mads better or worse.

BOP: From my discuseinns with other publishers, theperiod before the revolution was ,:ery open and free forpublication.

Ai!r: Cit that time there eere laws and they were applied,but ther7. ,,,s,more open disruasinn and publisherscould challenge tht- cr.nor and get there her!k published.

P-174: From what the nther publisherssaid, the government nrA get involved yery often and'when they do, they must qo through the courts. censored by the The.re have been rzr7rwhere a book was pornography, hut In this rase, eaid that it was the former lover of v.Itsn't. The hook waF. tvritton by of Fernritv. :old whatthey were trying tnOn !..hn F-f, etill aliveand en-n1 nerv the nEmw,,,,

, eyF,Iyothing you publis.h te some T-fl7.: yeu have to ,=111.17,.i. authority fro- nernyal.

r.l..!r; Yes. AUC Press tend not Most of the boole!hat I've.seen at P.OP: art and architecture tn be controversial,mostly histories, and nf course,Naguib Mohfo!nr... they let I tof the books that P,t1r. : me put it thi'7 |rt c.:Iroversial. We publish (ortry\ Ihrnuc:t: tend net tu ht. form of self ehnt think is gend. 0- de not practice any

has stopped youirnm you sayingthat the government

pyt--) i igc.) t of several Ph yca-, they fort,iddiz-n publication

BESTCOPY AVAIDBLE AUC Fulbright/DOE - Summer 1990 Robert C. Johnston eonks. For inetance, MUPARRAK'S EGYPT by Robert Springhorne, RFeIGI9US STRIFE TN ECefFT, EGYPT FROM NASSER TO MUPARRAK and epeerel others. There eoeks have since been published oieeide Egypt, but the hen forhids their import as well. The reneere don't always meke eense either, There was another book' teat was hannpH for remarks critical of the guvernment, when tee same remarks heti elready been published in the opeeeit.ion pepere. It ir hard to figure out. elle! Weet other typee ef problems do you run into with peeli:eing, paper neetee, supplies, things like that?

Are: niece we are net euheidizen, we have no restrictions or eeete en peeer, ink r.r the like. The most daunting problem i. lee rensership. eed sinre the law says there is no ceeeeeehip, we really eave no recourse. In addition, we also heye difieulty purreing iJ because of the special nature of tee eniyereity end its etetus as a non-politicalinstitution. ehs. &leo brings int.-, plev the question of whetherthe pehlietion of took is a political act. Could the argument he feeie hy the Egyptiene that we areviolating our charter by peeeiee thie iseue. Pereenally,I don't think that it would heeeeee to reeermieete ideas is partof the education eri_reee. Yeu cae't dier-p edecation from ideas. We dn not ere-eee ace/ political yiew. We do not censor any politcal ieres in the books. We de not take any political positien. We ei-y mere encernse vith it as aneducational act. Put theee ehe wish te, leneer will alwaysfind a way to ri-:,i--everi2p the mere nrreentation ofideas as a hostile ect. Tiem is the definitiee ef censorship. So we are somewhat r.etriried in cur ability to fiehtback. iC the Ueiyereity werepressed, would they not'he eile te, er eet he ifelierd totry to take somethinglike this te ceerte? As a publieeer Tt semethine thee- fft.,d'E, US hesitant. eee: ete7, to conte. we w,mil ee eueli,,hhet ee heye to go through is not to do aeything. New enerese Their initiel re:es-tine deeeneePeeit,I don't know whatthe/ if we went to thom eee out of the weeld say. The rcert;ee fer is "lete keep it ceerts" and "lets not pe elle on the line. perseinally to whoever ie PPP: Do you or anyeer elife ever qo reeenesible for theceiceerehip, and try to getdecisions f-heneee. Naeser's era that anypuhlieher etle: I t used to he derine knew why a honk was.censored. Even A had 4ee right te the Coptic welinieue bnok that ve.rseemitted to AI-Azhar or challenged. The publiehere Ceereh end wasceneered mild be to heeke er honks onIslam must submit-them cf any religieus But during of these eethe.ritiesfor approval. eee r, tic-4h the publisherhad a eer,ser's rule if abnnk wee censored,

7-3EST COPY kt.-Ettv--7 AUC Fulhright-/DOE - Summer 1990 Robrrt C. Johnston rioht to go to that authc,rity and discuss it, and find the roason why.

Novind on 1-!'$r rhd cF Lhe press, are mo,:t of

-our. sales insido rf c)r. rotide. ^,:irt Most rf inside Egypt be.:au.E:e we don't havo the rilhtr tn prblish abroad.Ws have various arrangrmrnts with oH-.F.rr-h1j.shers. and distributors for di='-rikution of rit- ahrrad. For instance Columbia Univc-rsity Press distribiAtes for us in North-America.

POP: I understand that yr-qi have the sole rights for *.inaguib Mahfolir's works in English.

Pii17: We have the undr:rly4rg rights to his works, we arealso hi= agents and have been for about 15 years. The first Lrntrat:t we had was 1R70, hut we had a relationship even hefore then. Two perple at AUC, Dr Ahmed Assawi and Dr Rodenheck both felt he wa= a great writer, and oneof them s..en said at ttle time thal he was apotential Nobel winner. Thim crntrart WFIF for Fnq3ish rights only. He was already a re=sre,:led writer in Egypt and had beenfor years. He had heen writing since the 1,tte 30sand already had an Arabic rublisher in Maktab al Mir-r. In addition, as his agent, we have =old the English translationrights for to Doubleday. We still pis iish our ownEnglish paperback r--7.nslaticins here in Poypt. There are also other published who have the rights out.:i,ieEgypt and North America. Mahfouz has chosen not topuhlish PPP: T understand ,-;t. :rL'-'Fr-N DP GEDALT. mo, actually it wa= hannod byAl-Azhar. After he wun muharrak said during a ceremcmi therp is hi, r ';;pin rciypt. Mr Mahfouzwi1, i-ri lipis quol-.rd as saying that rr-r-1 ruhl i tuntil it. He continued to so.: thrugh croci,1 and probably win, he felt !.

; :-.;n11.:,-*:$1e in Egypt in a"plain 4virt Ye=, in fact " what arr PPP: Tn tnr.ms nf upcLominnEnglish translations, ycur planc. due out at the cnO. Wr: The ==.iond nn,rlnr the trilogy is The wcring title isPALACE OF DESTRF. rf 1=?..70, I belive. har-4 Fztarted on thethird volume. There P,1,7:,, the translator

Jr- 3EST COPY DATABLE AUC - Fulhright/DDE - Summer 1990 Robert C. Johnston is al=r:1 a collection of ntories due out in 1991.

PIPLIOGRAPHY cq,d 7h,7c:thid, Naadiyr,h . publirt!ing induTtr-iy: an e.,..p.1pratc!ny arg,,7o;; prici.ng and charne(s pf ditritpn. AUC TheF;is Management, Cairo, 1971. "Thr:. Myptian PrEss Law: a translation." by Ford N. Burkh, Abdel Rahman. Documents on thg Eress in Egypt, UDC. Nn.1, June 1,

"The Fgyptian PrEss Law,1.790 (Law No. 148). Government n-f Frp/pt. Dpcuments on the ErLe!5s in ggypt, Doc. No. 3, June 1, 1995.

"Thu. P""r"..-:in Egypt: (..w7 aid Regulations".. A.R.E.State Dc2cmEnts on the Press in Egypt, Doc.

Jp,. 9, juDe 1,1997.

N.

7f3

.1 aro -REST COPY AVAILABLE UNDERSTANDING EGYPTIAN CULTURE

bY

Sherri Knight and Glenda Brogoitti

Ftlbright/Hays Summer Seminar, 1990

Egyp t UnclexaAnUng EgyPttinculture Ob'ectives 1. Students will have a bettor understanding of modernEgyptian culture with emphasison teenagers. 2. Although differences will be evident, similaritieswill be stressed to promote insight into andacceptance of a third world culture. Activities Divide class into small groups and allow each group to focuson questions to stimulate discussion to determineconcepts of teenagers in Egypt. aspect of this culture do (e.g. which you consider most positive?most similar to yours?) Allow time for discussion and write consensus on overhead. Then hand out copies of Interviews; to the groups and have them corrector confirm their previous opinions/ concepts.

Evaluation Have each student write how the interviews and class discussionaltered their concepts of modernEgyptian society.

TEACHER NOTES The following Information was gleaned from epeeches, interviews,lectures and informal conversation while studying at the AmericanUniversity in Cairo on a Fulbright/Hays scholarship,1990.

A good reference book for insight into the Arab World is TheArabs by David Lamb, Vintage Press, 1987. This book includesan excellent descrip- tion of life in Cairo. The teenagers interviewedwere urban middle or upper class. Without an interpreter itwas impossible to interview loWer socio/economic classes.

Education PUblic schools are organized into three divisions- elementary, preparatory, and secondary. Attendance through eighth grade iscompulsory, but many do not attend school at all. Part of the mandated curriculumincludes English classes, usually beginning inpreparatory school, and a third language in high school. added To receive academic secondarycertification, graduating seniors must pass a final exam, called Thanawiya Amma. Currently, there is a push to encourage at least seventy per-cent of all studentsto attend technical high sChools. Class sizes average fifty plusstudents withalbeginning teacher's salary of the equivalentof $25.00 per. month

Private schools aro flourishing as Egyptian parents (who can afford it)see education as the key for success for their children. Classes are smaller, (twenty to twenty-five par class)and these schools can attract thebetter teachers by offering higher pay and better working conditions. The opportunity for tutoring (extra money) isalso greater. Most of these schools are considered language schools withall sUbjects taught in that particular language (usually English, French,or German) excapt for social studies, which is taught in Arabic topromote cultural heritage. A pUblic university education isfree to all students whopass the Thanawiya. Amma. Large rumbers attend causing overcrowdingin classes. (Many have over one thousandstudents) Because of the lack of classroom space, many students take exams and graduatewithout ever attending class. s o CASIO The population is fifteen million(almost 1/3 of Egypt) and growing at a rate of 400,000 per year. Housing, transportation and publicservices cannot meet the demands of this expandingpopulation. Efforts have been made to move people to plannedsatellite cities using tax incentives but with few responding. Rents were frozen in the '50's inall then existing apartments which hasresulted in owners allowing buildings to deteriorate, while owners of new Apartments require large downpayments ($15,000 - $40.00) from those wantingto rent. Many young people now delay marriage while saving thenecessary money for housing. Although there is much poverty, thecrime rate is very low. Basic food (i.e. bread and sugar) is plentifuland cheap through government subsidies. Over 95% of Cairo is Moslem and less than5% is Coptic Christian. (In all of Egypt, 90% is Moslemand 10% Coptic Christian.) Despite its problems, poverty andnoise, Cairo and its peopleare unique and charming.

S I Name: Mona Mansour Age: 17

Although / was born in Kuwait,my parents are Egyptian and ws have lived in Cairo for the lastten years. my father is an engineer and wat educated at Cairo University,but has spent much of his life working in Kuwait. Both my parents speak Frendh andArabic. my brother and I speak Arabic, Frenchand English. my family is Muslim. my mother covers her hair but allowsma to choose, and I Choose not tocover mine. My father goes to the mosque on Friday. I attended private sdhools andgraduated from secondary school at 16. I had to take an exam, whichwas both multiple choice and assay,over each subject to get my secondary certificate. In my leisure time I go out with friends,male end female, to discos, movies or amusement parks. I have never dated it is not allowed. Oen I go out at night, I wear maka-up anddress up. At scbool, r frequently wear . Sometimes when I have fres time, I visitmr granamother tn Naar City. I presently attend American Universityin Cairo as a Dustman* sWdsr. When I graduate, I would like toreturn to Kuwait and establtailmrown business. my favorite food is foul and tai'mla Cheansi. I drink Pspsi and lemmonade (no alcohol). I don't have much time to veteh television because of studying but I do enjoy "Knot'sLanding. I do not news nor do I read a newspaper. my future mate, whom I'll meet throughfamily or friends, oust have a strong personality, be handsome, and, ofcourse, lova ma very much., I have never been to the USA, but r wouldlike to. I think American teenagers have more freedom thanwe do.

Name: Mohammed Seneh Age: 16

I live in Cairo with my father, motherand sister. I am a muslem. I go to the mosque on Friday withmy father. My mother and sister do not go. I go to a private English school. We study all subjects in English except fox social studies. Classes last for 45 minutes. We have three minutes in between classes. Our teachers change rooms, not the students. We have both men and women teachers. Last year I studied Arabic, math, social studies (world history),English and French. Sometimes students are not altraysdisciplined. Teachers take off on conduct grades or send them to theheadmistress. Students do not want their parents called. It is very embarassing. If they ever called my mother she would not speak to ma for days whichwould make 1114 feel bad. Although I would like to study inanother country, I will probably go to a university in Cairo. To study engineering, I will have toscore 75% on my secondary certificatexam. It covers all subjects.

62 BEST COPY AVAILABLE For fun, I watch T.V., playon my computer and read about lasers and scientific things. I go out with my friends to thesports club, restaurants and the movies. My favorite foods are Egliptian,such as molokia - a mint soup. I also like pizza, hamburgersand Pepsi. When I marry, I would likemy bride to bis intelligent, funny and someone I can talk to with understanding. I have traveled to Italy and Greece. I would also like to go to Germany, and America. I would like for Americans tooome to Egypt. They will find Egyptians to bevery warm and generous. The one big problem we have isthat too maw people live in Cairo. They move here instead of livingwhere they grow up. This needs to change. It is important V) keepour ancient monuments and protect them. This is of country andmy heritage.

Name: Mustafa Sawy Age: 16

I have always lived in Caironear the Citadel. I have three brothers and one sister but all are married and have left home exceptmy twenty- six year old brother. He cannot afford an apartment and hecan't get married until he can provide housing so he may be living at home fora long time. my mother has never worked outside thehome. My father makes metal door decorations and worksi inSaudi Arabia.He comes home for a few weeks each year. my family is muslim. I attend a pUblic sdhool where lastyear I studied English, French, Arabic, history, geography, mathand dhemistry. I play basketball in my p.e. class. (I am a fan of tha"Harlem Sixers.") My classes last forty-five minutes each. There ars only boys in my school. All the teadhers are male except for twowoman who teach German. The classrooms are crowded - about fifty in each class- and dirty. A few teachers seem interested in us but mostseem to be just interested in soliciting students for tutoring. If students do not likea teacher, the students aro loud, unruly and act like dogs. only one student owns acar. School starts in September and ends inMay. We have Friday and Satur- day off from sdhool. Ws also have several national and religiousholidays such as Ooteber 6th. During Ramadan we are supposed to go to school but . because of the fast, few actually attendthat month. I want to go to a university and studypolitics. First, I have to pass an exam to get my secondary certificate. It is difficult to pass the exam without tutoring. If I don't go to university, I haveto enter the army at age 20. The length of your service dependson your education. If you have university plans, you have toserve only one.year and it can be deferred. A prep school education means twoyears in the army and if you have never attended school,you have to serve for three years. In my leisure time, I go out with malefriends. I have never dated. - it is not acceptable. ay friends and I go to the cinema (SylvesterStallone is my favorite actor), listento rap music at a disco or play basketball at a government club for the handicapped. (Even though I'm not handAeappod they let us use the facilities.) I also watch television and read the newspaper. I do not talk on the phone becausemy family does not have one. 63 BEST COPY AVAILABLE All my friends smdke so I do too sometimes. I have drunk part of a beer before, but never a whole one. When I marry someday, I will look forsomeone who has good manners, It is not important that she is pxetty. I think American. teenagers got to spend timewith their girlfriends. They leave their families atago 16-18. They all have cars. Only OM student:in my school has a cax. I would like to visit America someday.

.84 LINDA KREFT

EGYP11AN PAINTING AND REUEF

Introduction and Background Notes:Relief and Painting page 1 Egyptian Painting and Relief Page 3 Ancient Egyptian Painting: Notes andClassroom Methods Multicultural Arts Guidelines Page 4 Style and Conventions of Egyptian Art Page 6 Slides Page 7 Plates Page 9 page 12 Bibliography page 13

Introduction and background notes

Much of what we kncw about the civilizationof ancient Egypt comes tous through Its art, particularly from its templesand tombs, which because of thefavorabie climate, has been preserved in large quantities.The Egyptians did notcompose 'art for art sake'. What are now regarded as their works of art were produced to fulfillspecific functions, either in religious or everydaycontexts. (The Egyptian MuseumCatalogue, Philipp von Zabem, p. 18) Thus the decorationof tombs and temples hada ritual purpose, whose aim was to depict the major figuresof the tomb owner, the king anddeities in the timeless, idealized worlds of thedead and the gods. Although thedepiction was conceived in terms of this world, bymaking the scenes independent of timeand space the artist was able to symbolizean eternal, abstract world; this gavea very formal and static character to religious art.By contrast, in the nobles tombsscenes that did not involve the major figure of the tombowner and in domestic art the artist often depicted scenes and actMtles that were part of the transiantworld around him with all the vitality and immediacy of everyday life. "Few artistic compositionscan be assigned to a particular artist, and althoughsome individual names have come downto us it is clear that the production ofartistic work was usually undertaken bya team of men working together. Each teamseems to have been led by a master draughtsman whoprobably conceived the original designand then oversaw each stage of production, correctingthe work of his men wherenecessary and perhaps adding the final touches".(Egyptian Paintirig and Relief by GayRobins; Shire . P. 7). The center of religious life In ancientEgypt were the temples. Many ofthese magnificent buildings still stand today.While the pyramids were built ina relatively short time, the temples grewup over hundreds of pars, andwere added to and altered. Some temples were built to honorthe dead, but most of themwere built for the gods. They were not places ofworship, like churchesor mosques are today. They ware places where the god actually lived.In each temple there wasa shrine containing the god's statue. Where was the god to be found? NotIn the entrance halls, courtyards,storerooms and towers around the outside. Toreach the shrine of the godycu had to make your way through a series of doors to thevery center of the building. Eachroom was smaller and darker than the one before. Thelast room was tiny and airless. It hadno windows. Here was the life-giving statue of the god. The statuewas rarely removed from the shrine. But

8 :3 2 aometimes a procession +mould be held, and the idol would be carriedthrough the streets in a boat made of paid. No one of the peasantrysaw the statue; only the priests and priestesses and the king would ever see the image ofa god. Every day the priests of the temple would wash, dress andeven make up the statues of the gods. People would give the priests food suchas bread, cakes and meat They would eat this on behaif of the god. The ancient Egyptians probe*had over 3,000 gods and goddesses. Each village had itsown, but some were more important than others. 'Many of them were linked with particular animals. By the pharaonic times,most had been partly humanized into animal-headed gods. Khnum,for instance, was shown with the head of a ram. Thoth had the head ofan ibis, and Anubis that d a jackal. Animals sacred to the gods we mummified when they died, justlike humans. As In ancient Greece and Rome, there we gods and goddesseswhich represented the sun (Ra), the sky (Nut), the air (Shu), and the earth (Geb), Mutwas the goddesaes of truth and justice. its freewheeling mastery d the sky and the fiercearrogance of its sharp beak and darting glance made the falconone of the major embodiments of divinity for the ancient Egyptians. There were a number of talcon gods, includingSokar, Nernty, and the warlike Montu. Foremost among them, andone of the most important of all Egyptian gods, was , in whom the majesty and lordliness of the birdwere preeminent Originally a sky god, Horus became the tutelary deity ofUpper Egypt From the beginning of Dynasty I, he was identified with kingship, both ina general sense and as embodying the divinity inherent in each reigning king, whosefirst title was always 'Horus.' Uke all the major gods, Haus had many aspects and couldbe represented as a falcon-headed man, as a naked child, or as Hatakhity (Horus of the Horizon, god ofthe sun in the daytime skya male figure, sometimes mummiform, witha bird's head crowned by a sun disk. When emphasis wason his role as the great national and royal god, however, he often appeared in his original, wholly animal form'.(EglaztjanAl, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pgs 4, 53). Why did the ancient Egyptians place so much importanceon death? Why did they fili their tombs with treasure and bury such beautiful thingsunderground? Over the ages, Egypt seems to have given its wealth to the dead rather than the living, Wny? A funeral procession was not in fact a sad occasion, foreveryone believed a new lite had begun when the person had died. Belief in lifeafter death was so strong, that it seemed only natural to take one's possessions alongon the final journey of all. Ancient Egyptians enjoyed life just as we do, but believed that ifthe funeral was arranged correctly, the dead person could live on in asunny, happy land. The Egyptians believed that every person had seieral souls.One of them was a personal spiritthe ka. When someone died, most of thesesouls left the body. In the afterlife they took on various forms, suchas that d a bird with a human head. The ka, however, stayed attached to the body, which it looked after. A dead body had to be preserved properly,or the ka would be destroyed along with the body. This was why the ancient Egyptians mummifieddead bodies. Corpses were prepared with special ointments and bandages. Embalmed in thisway, the mummies of humansand animals toohave survived forthousands of years. Tombs were filled with furniture, means of transportationsuch as and boats, with clothes, food and VOSSels in which to storethe food. There were weapons, and gaming boards to while away the time. "Representationof the tomb owner, along with his name and titles, were the most Importantfeature of any decorated Egyptian tomb. They were not only numerous, but also largerand often more carefully worked than the images of anyone else". ( EgyatianAd. The MetropolitanMuseum of Art. p. 8). 3

Adequate provisioning for the afterlife was a paramount concern to Egyptians of every eoclal and occupational class. While funerary offerings and activities d everiday life were most often portrayed in relief during the Old Kingdom, small painted models placed In the tomb became increasingly prevalent during the First Intermediate Periodas a more effective way of perpetually ensuring the necessities and pleasures d life.In the underworld as In everyday life, the Nile was the highway for commerce and travel, and riverine craft were therefore necessary equipment for the deceased. "Despite the variety of its content, all Egyptian funerary literature sewed the fundamental purpose of providing the deceased with a compendium of magical spells that would facilitate entry into the underworld. From the New Kingdom onward, these spells were written most frequently on papyrus and Included original compositionsas well as derivatives d the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. The spells sod their accompanying vignettes are collectively known as the ; only a selection occurs on any one papyrus, with the texts apparently arranged in random order. (EgratanArt, The Metropolitan Museum d Art. p. 45).

EGYFMAN PAINTING AND REUEF

GENERALIZATION

The art of a culture can communicate information about that culture.

CONCEPTS

ritual symbols temple art funerary art perspective

OBJECTIVES

1. To enable students to understand that the art of ancient Egyptcan be appreciated by understanding that works of art were produced to fulfill specific functions, either in religious or everyday contexts.

2.To introduce and develop the concept that few artistic compositionscane be assigned to a particular artist and that although some indNidualnames have come down to us it is clear that the production of artistic work was usualiy undertaken bya team of artists and craftsmen working together.

RESOURCES

A ilesources for teachers Egyptian Painting and Relief (Introduction and background notes)

The Style and Conventions of Egyptian Art . Slides (narrative of slides included) Bibliography Resources for Children Ancient Egyptian Painting Bibliography of Children's Books

87 4

PROCEDURE

Select images from the sli&3 list whichcan be found in The Egyptian Museum Official Catalogue or other souross of artworkfound in the teachers bibliography. Try to select art from the temples, tombs and objects usedin everyday life. Topics for discusaion from the sikies: Principles of representation Materials and techniques Formal scenes having a ritualpurpose Art in domestic life and informal contexts

Introduce the Style and Convendons of Egyptian Art1W having the students read: Aird1ftntfatilthirlellintinaLPALICEtietS2LBRIZMItittkel. Showcomparisons batmen the Plates and the lengesor Slides from the Nobles Tombs. Point cut various concepts used in EgyptianPainting: obiects shown two-dimenslonally use of the system of horizontal registers placed vertically aboveone another objects organized by a system of scale

ANCiENT EGYPTIAN PAINTING

PRINCIPLES OF REPRESENTAMON

Egyptian two-dimensional representationalacquired a distinctive character around the beginning of the Dynastic Period and, despitethe various changes and develop- ments that occurred, it remains distinctly Egyptian.Essentially, a set ct accepted symbols was used to enccde information forthe viewer to read, so that drawings of figures and objects can be regardedas diagrams of what they represent The artist showed things In what were regardedas their real forms, and there was no place for what would have been seen as the distortionof perspective. In this sense, Egyptian art is considered conceptual rather thanperceptual. Objects were usualty shown in their characteristic or most visually satisfyingaspect two-dimensionally on the flat drawing surface, without depth. (see plate 1 ) The schematicnature of Egyptian representation is cleat/ shown in drawings of gardens laidout around a pool (see plate 2). Thu water appears as a rectangle, on the surface of whichmay be drawing plants, birds, fish or boats; In real terms, some of theseare actually in the water, while others are floatingon it. The whoie Is actuallyan efficient plan of a garden which is readily understood and convertible into real terms. Originally,figures had been scattered In disorderover decorated surfaces. From the Early Dynastic Period,artists began to divide the drawing surface Into horizontal registers placedvertically above one another (see plate 3). The system of registers was a purelya method of ordering the material places upon it itwas never developed into spatial or time relationships betweenthe different misters; nor to develop pictorial der& by placing theobjects further or higher away from the viewer. In any one register, the lower register linewu used as the baseline for the figures within it Escape from the formaluse of registm developed in battle scenes, where forces associated with chaos rather thanthe ordered world were depicted (see plate 4).In

88 EST COPY IIVAILABH addition to the system of registers, material was organized according to thesystem of scale, which was used to encode the relative Importance of the figures. The larger the figure, the greater the importance of the figures. The king ()may overlook scenes in four or five registers and is also often shown larger than other members of' his family (see plate 5).

VOCABULARY

symbol

perspective

two-dimensional

.egisters

scale

MATERIALS

paper

grid paper

opaque tempera

brushes

STUDENT APPUCAMONS RESOURCES Begin a painting in the style of Egyptian Alsgkcil Aran! two-dimensional art by gridding the paper. Ewa. Draw figures using the system of registers Bellerophon Books and scale of the figuves as the Egyptians in the Eighteenth Dynasty. Egyptian Paintng Paint plants and animals as used anafailit. symbolically. Gay Robins, Shire Egyptology

EXPECTED LEARNER OUTCOMES

ART MAKING HERITAGE AESTI-IETICS CRMCISM Learn to oee and Perceive the Express Ideas InBe able to talk about create with lines, narrative a personal way a work of art based colors, texture, quality of art on Its visual content and shapes using the style and the

ti9 aesthetic of the Ancient Egyptians

TEACHER STRATEGIES M011VATIONS Introduction to flora Bring out in discussion Lead discussions on and fauna of Egyptian how the paintings visual content How the paintings. Talk about depict scenes of royal paintings can depict a the content, use of life, animals, plants in style of an artist or a group grids, registers and their environment, etc. of people using the same scale in Egyptian two- style and/or addressing dimensional art similar subjects EVALUATIONS

Did the students Can the student Can the student discuss their successfully depict narrate the scene? work in terms of content? composition using gods or royalty in the style and aesthetic of ancient art, yet express their own individual content and image?

MUUTICULTURAL GOALS

1. Knowledge: examination ofa variety of cultures, both past and present, at home and abroad, and knowledge of the tools(i.e., concepts) needed tocarry out such an examination; knowledge of history, thearts, and literature of our own and of other cultures; knowledge of the basic valuesexpressed in our nation's political, economic, and social institutions and those ofother cultures 2.Language: communication skills, includingawareness of and appreciation for languages other than English; multiple languagecompetencies within cultural contexts. 3. Geographic Literacy: knowledge of basicphysical and cultural geography. We must teach the dynamic nature of cultures. 4. Global Literacy: introduction to basicconcepts of social studies, such as interdependence,conflict,context, andmultipleperspectives;practiceinsocial interaction skills, including cooperative learningmethods and listening and looking at things from another point of view,that lay the groundwork for participation indemocratic decision-making. 5,Valats:activities that increaseawareness of beliefs and values, both the students own and those of other peoples.

Kraft, L. (1988). Multicultural art:a learning process. , Wisconsin.

MULTICULTURAL ARTS GUIDELINES

1. Examine cultural particulars beforemoving to universals. Teachers should help students to recognize that the studyof culture is inherently value laden. Oneusually

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perceives the values of another culture from theperspective of one's own values; this inhibits the understanding of the other culture'sart. Therefore, the more knowledge students can acquire, the less dominant will be that biasof perception and the more likely the students will recognize the validityof a particular art form. Moreover, the specific meaning attributed to an art object willbe distorted and/or incorrect if features universal to all cultures are used to provide meaningto the work of art.Students must be made aware of cultural particulars before studyinguniversals or they will miss the uniqueness of the art form.

2. Attempt to see the art forms of other culturesas creative expressions of individual artists. Teachers and students should placethemselves as often as possible in the position of the artist making the expression in orderto understand the cultural context in which the artist is communicating.

3. View culture as dynamic rather than state.Different fadors (people, places, and events) effect the development ofa culture in different ways. The dynamic nature of culture and the effect that it has on art forms should betaught. Every culture has a past, present, and future. The art of a culture shouldbe studied within and across critical periods and influences in the development of theculture.

4. Examine specific elements of the art objectswithin the context of the culture. Specific art forms of a culture, whether in thepast or present cannot be fully understood outside the context of the culture.

5. Recognize that the similarities andAifferenceswithin a culture as diverse as the similarities and differencesamong cultures. Just as there are similarities and differences among cultures, there are similarities and differences withincultures. The students must be made aware of the danger of stereotypinga total culture based upon the examination of one art object from that culture. Any culture consistsof numerous individuals each of whom views and values that culture from hisor her own perspective.

6. BsKegnJze_the_sLoneept_eLcultgaLealldlly. Anart object gains cultural validity when it is studied in relationship to geography, history,language and government. Each culture must be appreciated for itsown values and expression.

7. Discover that initial rejection ofan art object or an alternative cultural viewpoint can be overcome with persistence and new knowledge. Bias isnot taught but acquired by the experience of being born into, growing,and living within a particular culture. Because of bias is developedover a long period of time, it is very difficult to transcend. New Knowledge replaces Ignorance;persistence as a teacher In helping students to acquire this new knowledge will give thema higher level of sensitivity toward other culture's art forms.

Kreft, L. (1988). Multicultural art:a learning process. Milwaukee, Wisconsin.

THE STYLE AND CONVENTIONS OF EGYPTIANART Art in the works of man is the expression of an aesthetic ideal.All art, no matter what historical period it derives from, is distinguished by itsown aesthetic, rules and manner of exprerssion; in other words, its own style.In each artistic endeavor, the process of representation has a stimulating motive, and the objector theme reproduced has its own significance, for a representation aspires to fixan idea, a real or imaginary situation by means of pure figuration, of symbolsor of abstraction. Egyptian art, like all other art, was aware since its inception of itsown aesthetic, its conventions and objectives.If we understand art in this sense, then such statementsas: "Art for its own sake did not exist in Egypt" "Egyptian art is exclusivelyfunerary;" or even: It was intended only as a tool toserve the requirements of eternity," become unne- cessary. For if a concern for aesthetics, as we define art today, had not existed from the beginning, then Art itself would never have existed at all in Egypt However, let us take care to avoid the pitfall of claiming that Egyptian art is merely an "instrument- for serving the requirements of eternity. Judging from whatwe can glimpse, furtive as it might be, of life on earth,we know, for example, that the officials' houses at Tell el-Armarna we as richly decoratedas the Theban tombs, whose painted walls we admire so much. Furthermore, the workmen's villageof craftsmen and artists at Deir el-, far from being an agglomeration of huts, containscomfortable houses built of stone, decorated with paintings, and provided with attarsfor the worship of the gods. We know that the royal palaces gleamedevery bit as brightly as the divine temples, whose archaeological remains permit us to reconstruct their originalsplendor. In art, as elsewhere, form will ultimately depend upon function, and functionupon aim and purpose, and, paradoxicalas it may seem, the rigidly canonical character of Egyptian art was the logical consequence of the esotericpurpose imposed upon it as a result of its cultic functions. A substantial part of Egyptian art was never intended to beseen by mortal eyes, the manifestation of decorative and aesthetic qualitiescan not have been its principal aim, Which was undoubtedly of a metaphysical and magical nature. It was, in fact, a belief in the magical reality of art, its presumedpower to perpetuate on a fourth-dimensional plane beyond space and time, the life and existence of its models which gave impetus to the unparalleled artistic productivityof the Egyptians. Since all phenomena, animate as well as inanimate, hada common existence in the reality of art they were all 'alive' in their artistic manifestations;and no essential difference existed between them. All categories ofrepresentation were therefore subjected to the same basic law, thatno phenomenon should be represented in accordance with its momentary form of appearance in time andspace but as it would appear sub specie aeterni to an observer beyond time andspace. Wherever possible, each indMdual object and each detail shouldbe represented in its entirely, with all aspects accounted for, withno parts hidden or distorted by shifts of perspective, because parts omitted or notseen, were considered missing, and any deviation from the factual appearance of thingswas regarded as a natiral deficiency, bound to mar the eternal image of the objects they represented. Nowhere was the satisfaction of these demands consideredmore important than in the representation of the human body, throughout the history ofEgyptian art always the principal objective of representation, and the ultimateaim of artistic activity. Principal figures (kings) were consequently shown atan indeterminate age, neither old nor young, and in an impersonal form ofappearance, obviously conforming to a conventional conception of bodily health and vigour. Almost allrepresentations were distinguished by the insignia of their principal officesand the marks of their rank, obviously in order to secure their social status and positionin the cosmic! hierarchy.

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Egyptian artists always remained anonymous craftsmen with the significant exception of the Arrnama period, which, also from an artistic point of view, representsan explosive, and in the unparalleled, outburst of individualism. When describing works of art, the Egyptians frequently referred to themas 'true' with the obvious meaning of correctly proportioned; but otherwiseno contemporary source informs us about any personal attitude towards art. Creative artists have everywhere and at all times been faced with theproblem how to manifest and visualize their theories. Each theory presented its own Egyptian demand for standardized timeless reality, with complete proportionalaccordance of model and reproduction, led directly to the introduction ofa canonical system of proportion. As deduced from the monuments and the grids, ingeniouslyinvented for the practical application of the system of proportion, thetechnical and unspeculative character of the Egyptian canon is evident and indisputable; and likemost other systems of human proportions that of the Egyptians served butone basic purpose: that of making sculptural representations of the human figure conform to the natural proportionsof the body. Inits practical presentation the canon was, therefore, basedon remarkably accurate standardizations of the natural relations of the variousparts of human anatomy, such as the relation of thumb to fingers, of fingers to palm, ofpalm to fore-arm to height and breadth, expressed in simple numerical terms geometricallyreflected in grids based on the fist. In practice, the entire system had the great advantage that it couldbe directly applied to sculptural representations by any craftsman who hadbeen taught the correct placing of the various parts in the grids.

SLIDES

The Egyptian Museum Cairo: List of Slides Numbers in parentheses correspond to the Official Catalogue for the Egyptian Museum Cairo

Vase with painted decoration Predynastic Period, Nagada II, 3500-3100 B.C. A predynastic pottery having painted designs in redon a buff background. The motifs typically reflect a marshy river environment withbirds and a mysterious plant, tentatively identified as the Abyssinian banana tree. Amongthe natural features, like the jump antelopes, are those which suggest religious ritual.This seems the most likely interpretation of the boat with many oars and the dancingwomen. (Eayptian Art,Eva Wilson. Diagrams 16 and 17)

Jar with painted decoration New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty, reign of Ramses II,ca. 1290-1224 Pottery was not decorated in Egypt after the Predynastic Period,except during a brief period in the 19th Dynasty. Painted pottery enjoyeda wide popularity during the 19th Dynasty. The painting imitates, for funeraryuses, the floral arrangements with which such vessels were ornamented during the festivals. Theornament of garlands and flowers is painted in light blue on a cream with minordetails in black and red.

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Oval_Basket Coffin with rectanziler lid Archaic Period, 1-2 Dynasty Tarkhan near Kafr Ammar Most Egyptian baskets were made by thecoiling method. Baskets were usedas coffins In the Archaic period In Egypt

Fgur Canopic Jars of Inpuhotep (97) Sakkara, Middle Kingdom, 12th Dynasty,c. 1900 B.C. Canopic jars are urns of ceramicor stone which the Egyptians used from the Old Kingdom onwards to store the liver, lungs, stomachand intestines of the deceased.taken from the process of mummification. Theterm comes from the village named Canopus by the , once rich in vessels with stoppers inthe form of Osiris. At first the stoppers were used to seal the jars.Later jars were crowned with human heads;eventually taking the form of four separate headsof the four sons of Horus: Imsety, Hapi, Duamutef, and Qebsennuef.

Four Canopic Jars in limestone Intermediate Period, 22nd Dynasty.

Four Canopic_Jars Four sons of Horus Painted limestone, Middle Kingdom, 12thDynasty. Canopic Jars of Tutankhamon (1761 New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty

Faience tiles as a border design withpapyrus motif Tiles of faience with prisoners (226) New Kingdom, 20th Dynasty The Inlaying of tiles for the decoration of thepalace was a common practice under the rule of Ramses Ill. The tileswere used in both residential and ritual temples madeof polychrome faience inlaid into the walls, doorframesand columns. The favorite subjects chosen were cartouches, floral friezes, birds andnumercus bound prisoners. The first captive to the right isa Hittite with pale skin, hands tied behind his back, and striped sicull- with a dotted rim. Hewears a colorful short and a garment tied at the shoulder. The second figure isa Bedouin Shasu from Syria with wrists held fast in a handcuff. The central figure, with elbows boundup at shoulder height, is the traditional Asiatic. The fourth prisoner isa Nubian. He wears a dorated collar anda short kilt over a long plaited with dotted fringe and Thefifth captive is a tattooed Libyan with hands bound in front of his body.On the other side of the tilesare found the incised impressions of manufacturers marks;these tiles were produced in large numbers. Head of a falcon (66) Old Kingdom, 6th Dynasty This falcon's head in beaten goldwas found in the temple at Hierakonpolis. It belonged to a bronze statue of the falcon Horus,patron deity of this city, which was the predynastic capital of Upper Egypt. 11

Qstraoon with painted sketches New Kingdom, 20th Dynasty Figured ostraca (chips of limestone) often display simple sketchesor student's trial pieces; many times the first draft of an artist's design.

Ostracon of a prayirascribe (231) New Kingdom, 20th Dynasty This limestone plaque is decorated with drawings andInscriptions in the name of the scribe Arnenhotep. Amenhotep is represented kneeling, withshaven head, wearing a wide kilt with a scalloped front panel. to the god Thoth, the god oflearning and patron of scribes is written all around the kneeling figurein a cursive hieroglyphic script.

III estrations (232) Papyrus New Kingdom, 20th Dynasty Two illustrations appear on this papyrus: ladymouse served by cats, and foxes acting as shepherds. Drawings in which animals replacehumans are often found on papyrus and ostraca. They illustrate stories, fables or proverbs.

Amulets representing figures of gods Made of Faience: Harpocrates, Thoth and Ptah Soker

1-iorus During the sixth season Prof. Emery worked at Sakkarasearching for the tomb of Imhotep. He came across many galleries used in latertimes for animal burials (ibis, baboon and oxen) This mummified form is of the hawk,Horus. Funeral sledge otKhonsu New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty Among the mummies found in the tomb of Sennedjemwere those of his son Khonsu. This coffin which preserved, one within theother, the body of Khonsu are now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.This sarcophagus is one of the best decorated of its kind; paintings ofrare beauty accompany the texts of exquisitely multicolored hierog lyphs.

Stela of Djedarnonivankh Third Intermediate Period, 22nd Dynasty This monument is known for its beauty of its painting,the excellent preservation of its colors and the originality of the lower register.The scene In the necropolis represents neither a procession nor offering bearers.In the desolate desert, the slope of the cliff into which the tomb has been cut is painted pinkwith white specks. The structure ofa chapel is visible, surmounted by a pyramid anda staircase. In front are three more structures, each with a door. A crouchingwoman mourns her dead by tearing her hair. Behind her a sycamore and two date-palmsrepresent the garden in which the ba of the deceased hopes to find shade, fresh air and water. Anoffering table with bread and a basin of water has been set up between thetrees; on one of them a crow has begun to peck at the dates. The principal design above depictsa traditional adoration scene. The stela's owner, dressed in a transparent pleatedrobe and adorned with a broad collar and wig raises her delicate hands beforeRe-Horakhty,The falcon-headed god is 12

crowned with a sun-disk surrounded bya uraeus. The whole scene takes place under the sky sign bent in the form ofan arch and supported by two was-scepters. Shabti figugts and boxes A special class of model, the shabti figurewas originally intended to provide a substitute residence for the ka. Theearliest of these mummiform figureswere made of wax or wood and often had their own small coffins.By the New Kingdom times, the concept of a substitute body had beenexpanded to include the idea ofa substitute laborer. The figures then becamecarved of wood or stone and in additionto the deceased's name, they had directionswritten on them. Over time, increasingnumbers of shabtis accompanied burials,ultimately a figure for each day of theyear. Called ushabtis during the Late Period, thesemummified figures continued to be included in burials until the end of the dynasticperiod.

Sarcophus f (detail) Middle Kingdom, 11th Dynasty

PLATES

Canon and Proportions In EgyptianArt(ErikIverson, second edition fully revised in collaboration with Yoshiaki Shibata; Arisand Phillips Ltd. Teddington House, Warmin- ster, Wiltshire, BA12, 8P0, England, 1975.Plates printed in Denmark.

The sculptural canon used for proportioningof the human body in Egyptian artwas fully developed and regularly appliedto all main representations from the timeof the fourth dynasty.

Plate 1: (1) A typical Old Kingdom grid. (2)While working at during his(Lepsius) stay in Egypt between 1842 and 45, he discoveredon the walls of the tombs a number of figures inscribed In the original guide-linesused by the ancient craftsmen for their execution. Plate 2 and 3: Their heightwas not measured from the feet to thecrown of the head, but to the point at the hairlineof the forehead, along a verticalcenter- line passing through theear and the fork of the legs to a point dividingthe hindmost foot at the ratio of 1 to 2,thus dividing the trunk of the body into identical halves at the armpits.At intervals, identical to all figures belonging to this category, this center-linewas intersected by horizontal lines marking the knee, the wrist, and the seat, theelbows, the armpits, the nape of the neck, and the canonical measuringpoint at the hairline. Plate 4: In the position ofsome secondary details there are minor variations:the lower curve of the buttocks, placedat Ilne 9 on plate 3, is placed at 9 1/2on plate 4, the are of differentshape and therefore differently registered, 1 3

as is the position of the belts; and in the proportioning of certain horizontal IneaSU res. Plate 8: Originally, figures had been scattered in disorder over decorated surfaces. From the Early Dynastic Period, artists began to divide the drawing surface into horizontal registers placed vertically above one another. The system of registers was purely a method of ordering the material places upon it tt was never developed into a spacial or time relationships between the different registers; nor to develop pictorial depth by placing the objects further or higher away from the viewer.

BIBLIOGRAPHY (CHILDRENS BOOKS): ANCIENT EGYPT

Adams, Barbara. Egyptian Mummies. Aylesbury, Bucks, :Shire Publications Ltd. 1988.

Adams, Barbara. Predynastic Egypt. Aylesbury, Bjucks, United Kingdom: Shire Publications Ltd. 1988.

Ar_icient Egyptian A. B. C.Cairo, Egypt The Reader's Corner. 1989.

Glubok, Shirley and Alfred Tamarin. The Mummy of , The Life and Death of an Ancient Nobleman. New York: Harper and Row, Publishers. 1978.

Hall, Rosalind. Egyptian Textiles. Aylesbury, Bucks, United Kingdom: Shire Publi- cations Ltd. 1986.

Hope, Colin. Eayptian Pottery. Aylesbury, Bucks, Untted Kingdom: Shire Publi- cations Ltd. 1987. Katan, Norma Jean. Hierogyphs The Writing of Ancient Egypt. New York: Atheneum. 1982.

Leacroft, Helen and Richard. The Buildings of Ancient Egypt. New York: William R. Scott Inc. 1963.

Massa, Renato. Natural History of Egypt: Fauna of the . World Magazine. Pgs. 26 - 32. 1989.

Pace, Mildred Mastin. Wrapped for Eternity: The Story of the Egyptian Mummy. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1974.

Perri, Francois. Recycled papyrus. World Magazine. Pgs. 34-37. 1989.

Patrick, Richard. Egyptian Mythology. London: Octopus Books Limited. 1972.

Purdy, Susan and Cass R. Sandak. Ancient Egypt A Civilization Project Book. New York: Franklin Watts. 1982. 14

Reiff, Stephanie Ann. Secret of Turs Tomb and thePyramids. Milwaukee: Raintree Children's Books. 1977.

Robins, Gay. Egyptian Painting and Relief.Aylesbury, Bucks, United Kingdom: Shire Publications Ltd. 1986.

Swinburne, Irene and Laurence. Bebind the Sealed Door:The Discovery of the Tomb and Treasures of . New York: SniffenCourt Books. 1977.

Thomas, Angela P. 's Egypt Aylesbury, Bucks, UnitedKingdom: Shire Publications Ltd. 1988.

Thomas, Angela P. Egyptian Gods and Myths. Pkylesbury,Bucks, United Kingdom: Shire Publications Ltd. 1986.

Uphill, Eric P.Egyptian Towns and Cities. Aylesbury, Bucks, United Kingdom: Shire Publications Ltd. 1988.

Ventura, Piero and Gian Paolo Ceserani. In Search ofTutankhamun. Morristown, New : Silver Burdett Company. 1985.

Watson, Philip. and Mastaba Tombs.Aylesbury, Bucks, United Kingdom: Shire Publications Ltd. 1987.

Wilson, Eva. Ancient Egyptian Designs for Artistsand Craftspeople. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1986.

Wilson, Hilary. Egyptian Food and Drink. Aylesbury, Bucks,United Kingdom: Shire Publications Ltd. 1988.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bierbrier, Morris. The Tomb-Builders of the Pharaohs.Cairo, Egypt The American University in Cairo Press. 1989.

Gundlach, Rolf. Sennifer: Die Grabkammer desBurgermeisters von Theben. Germany: Verlag Philipp von Zabern. 1988.

Kemp, Barry J. Ancient Egypt: Anatomy ofa Civilization. New York:Rout ledge, Chapman and Hall Inc. 1%9.

Iverson, Erik. Caw) and Proportion in Egyptian An. England:Arts and Phillips Ltd. 1975.

Manniche, Liss. Lost Tombs A Study of CertainEighteenth Dynasty Monuments in the Theban Necropolis. New York: Routledge, Chapmanand Hall Inc. 1988. 15

Manniche, Use. The Tombs of the Nobles at .Cairo, Egypt The American University in Cairo Press. 1987.

Michalowski, Kazimerz. Art of Ancient Egypt New York:Abrams Books. 1978.

Romer, John. Ancient Lives: The Story of ttre Pharaoh'sTombmakers. London: 1984.

Soften, Reda Ali. The Theban Necropolis An Esoteric Guideto the Wez4 Bank at Luxor. Cairo: The Palm Press. 1990.

Wilkinson, C. K. and M. Hill. Egyptian Wall Paintings. NewYork The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 1983.

Zabem, Phillip von. IN2Egyptan_Itugm_msainx_DifiglaLcguilmig.Egypt: The Organization of Egyptian Antiquities, The Arab Republic ofEgypt 1987.

is3, FRENCH IN EGYPT: ON-SITE RESEARCH IN CAIRO SUGGESTIVE OF THE CURRENT STATUS OF FRENCH LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION IN EGYPT

by

(Dr.) Carleen S. Leggett Morgan State University Baltimore, Maryland, U. S.A.

(Research carried out at the American University in Cairo as part of a Senior Fulbright Scholarship for study in Egypt and , June - July, 1990)

fo6 FRENCH IN EGYPT: ON-SITE RESEARCH IN CAIRO SUGGESTIVE OF THE CURRENT STATUS OF FRENCH LANGUAGE INSTRUCTION INEGYPT

by

(Dr.) Carleen S. Leggett Morgan State University Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.A.

(Research carried out at the American University in Cairo as part of a Senior FulbriOt Scholarship for study in Egypt and Jordan, June - July, 1990)

The history of Egypt in thenineteenth and twentieth centuries has been definitively markedby the French influence whiuh began in earnest with theoccupation of the troops of

Nopuleon Bonaparte in 1798. and hisarmy never succeeded in achieving the absolute controlover the whole of Egypt which was their original intention. Thus, Egypt never actually became a French colony as did other areas of theAfrican continent. In fact, less than ayear after his arrival in the country, Napole,, himself left Egypt to return toFrance in preparation for his decisive c:oup d'etat.

The story has often been recountedof Napoleon's soldiers breaking off part of thenose of the great Sphinx at while using it for target practice. However, the French influencewas felt in more significantways, even after General Kleber had been

1401 2

assassinated and General Menou andhis troops had been run out

of the country in 1801. The great Egyptian leader MuhammadAli, as part of his program of reforms inthe early part of the

nineteenth century, hired Frenchofficers to help organize a

modernization of the Egyptianarmy. Muhammad Ali's son, Said, has been condemned for his gullibilityin allowing his friend, the French consul Ferdinand deLesseps,,to lead him into making

arrangements favorable to France butdetrimental to Egypt for the construction of the . In later financial disagreements,

the imbalance and injusticewere magnified, for Napol6on III wai.

jointly chosen by the Suez CanalCompany and the Egyptiangovernment

as arbiter of the dispute. By the end of the nineteenthcentury, an unfortunate pattern had been establishedof financial control of

Egypt by France, England, andother European countries. As Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid Marsot pointsout in his excellent historical summary, A Short ,the system which developed

--specifically the so-called "Lawof Liquidation"--"effected a stranglehold on Egypt, which fromthat moment on was unableto move without European permission."1

Even after the French semi-colonialpresence was largely supplanted by that of the British,France continued to have )ften negative entanglements withEgypt, particularly motivatedby the facts that the Suez CanalCompany was French and that thecanal itself had been designed and itsconstruction directed bya French engineer. Furthermore, during the Algerianwar for independence from France, the lattercountry became convinced that thematerial and moral support which Egyptwas providing was so decisive that 102 3

the Algerian rebels'resistance would collapse without it. After Nasser's nationalizationof the Suez Canal in 1956, Francejoined Britain and Israelin a military assault againstEgypt. French, along with Britishand other foreign residents, weredeported from Egypt in largenumbers after the resolution by theUnited Nations of the ill-conceived attack,and negativefeelings toward the French (andeven more toward the British) remainedand can be felt to persist tosome degree evennow. This is not tosuggest, however, that the relationshipbetween France and Egypthas been entirely _ negative. On the contrary,the unfortunate past quasi-colonial, military,and grossly unfair financial involvementof France in Egyptian affairs hasbeen accompanied byan active cultural interchange which hashad a marked influenceon the political and educational system ofFrance's African neighbor. When Napoleon Bonaparte firstarrived in Egypt, he brought with him not onlysoldiers, but , scholars. Thus began a French fascinationwith ancient Egyptian cultrewhich perhaps reached its zenithwith the work of the famousEgyptologist Champollion and the removal of anEgyptian obeliskto the Place de la Concorde, and which continuesto this day. The Egyptianlegal system is based, as thereader may beaware, not on Englishcommon law, but on the French system. The same is true for Egypt'seducational structure, oart'cularly throughthe first half ofthis century. As currentEgyptian Minister of Education FathySerour has pointed out,2 before Egyptianindependence in 1952, itwas French culture, rather than that ofthe British occupying Egypt,which influenced the leaders ofeducational 103 4

reform, many of whom earned degreesfrom France. This was the case with the well-known literary figure,Education Minister, and proponent of universalfree education, Taha Hussayn, whosewife was French and who hadobtained his advanced degree in France. The most recent curriculumreforms are being modeled on theAmerican system of education, and (as indicatedby Egyptian curriculum specialist Prof.Kaysar Kujuk3) USAID advisers are activelyinvolved in current planning. However, beforeindependence, the school system was definitively French-based. It was morecommon for the educated Egyptianto study French as a first foreignlanguage, and French was widelyconsidered the language of the eliteupper class. In recent times,of course, this situation has changed--tothe extent that evensuch a well-educated, trilingual (Arabic,English, and French) Egyptian citizen as Ezzat Naguib,4Coordinator of Special Programsfor the American University in Cairo,maintains that English isnow the lingua franca of the elitenative and foreign populationof 'is country. Certainly, the visitorto Egypt is struckby the almost universal current.useof English along with Arabicon street and subway signs, on formsand signs connected with businessand the foreign tourist trade,etc. Although it iscertainly not within the province ofthis study to d'.o.ri conclusionsabout the phenomenon, it does strikeany American visitor to Egyptthat the use of English mayvery well have psychological and/orsociological, as well as practical,motivations, since theopen friendliness toward and apparentlysincere fondness for American (asopposed to British--or French) touristsis so

104 5

very evident.

Despite the fact that theEnglish language is currently more widely written and spoken by large numbers of Egyptiansthan French, the presence of theFrancophone idiom is nevertheless

still very strongly presentin Egypt. It is, in fact, after English, the second most commonly used and studied foreignlanguage among the Egyptian populace, placing well ahead of otherfore-Ign

languages taught insome schools in the country, suchas German and Italian. An interview with MonsieurDenis Kohler, who is Attache Culturel Chargé des Problemes de l'Enseignementat the French Embassy in Cairo,5 revealed that approximatelytwo million students in public, government-run schoolsare presently engaged in the study of French, one million five hundred thousandof these pursuing French for three years (as their second foreignlanguage) and five hundred thousand taking French for sixyears (as their

first foreign language). There is, however,a serious shortage

of well-prepared foreignlanguage teachers in thepublic schools, as attested to by Mrs. Fayza Fawzi el-Gawli, a formerpublic school language instruction inspector.6 This is due largelyto the unfortunate combination of greatly overcrowdedclasses and low teacher salaries, which contribute to theflight of competent teachers from public toprivate school instruction. Most parents, Mrs. el-Gawli stated, prefer, if theyare financially able, to send their children, for primaryand secondary education, to private schools, which offer smallerclasses and higher quality instruction. This ser*iment wasconfirmed by Mr.

, 105 6

Naguib7--whohimself studied ata private Erench-language school, and who is now sending hischildren to a private English-language

school--and by Mrs. Mary Kickham-Samy,8whose daughter is studying

by choice at a privateFrench-language school. The principal of one such private language school, Mrs.Ma'aly Kera,9 pointed out that in addition to offeringan excellent general education, such

schools, by providing foreignlanguage fluency, open doorsto careers (such as in the tourist industry),which would otherwise be closed to the students.

The French Cultural Attaché"has pointed out that in addition

to private French language schoolsand religious (Catholic) schools

in which the instruction isin French (and in whicha second

foreign language--usually English--isalso required and a third

foreign language generallyoffered), there exist in Egyptfive lyc6es lauréat, in whichapproximately fifty thousand students

study virtually all theirsubjects in French (as in theother French-language private and religiousschools) and also study French language ana literature ina particularly rigorous and intensive

. When these students completetheir secondary training,

they are, Monsieur Kohler declared,truly Francophone. The French

government assures that the instructorsin these lyceesare French .ac well as French-speaking and thatthey remain closely in touch with Francophone culture.

At the university level, the difficulties of achievingdesirable oral and written fluency in foreign lany.Aages in the publicschools has been increasingly feltas the school-age population has continued 7

to grow. Dr. Angele Boutrous Samaan,Professor Emeritus of English Literature at Cairo University, 11notes a drop in efficiency in

foreign language learning,as well as a lack of intereston the

part of a growing number ofstudents. (Minister of Education Serour,12 in fact, remarked thatmany students had in recentyears complained about the difficulty of passing the Frenchexamination at the end of their secondary studies, and that theexam has, as a result, been made easier.) Dr. Samaan explained thatat Egypt's most prestigious institution of higher learning--CairuUniversity--

the overpopulation of classesand lack of sufficient-numbers oT

professors has becomea tremendous problem, as it hasat lower levels of instruction. Some faculties within theuniversity

require continued foreignlanguage study of 'inlyone or two years, while the humanities curricula require, in general,courses in foreign language during allfour years. So far as the status of the university study inEgypt of French, specifically,is concerned, .

Attache Kohler13 estimatesthe number of studentsof French at

Egyptian universities studyingthe language during theirfour years of advanced study to befive thousand. The French oovernment offers, in addition, a varying number of scholarshipsto qualifying students for post-graduatestudy of one to fouryears in France. One additional group should not be overlooked inthis brief survey--that of adult, non-universitystudents of the French language. The Directeur of theCentre Culturel Francais in Cairo,

Monsieur Claude Mazet,14maintains an annual enrollmentat the center of almost ten thousandadult students. He also pointed

1.07 8 out the fact that the language examinations aaministeredunder his supervision are the same ones used in Franceby the Alliance Française.

Even though in recent decades French has been supplanted by

English as the dominant foreign language studied and used invarious professions in Egypt, as in other countries throughout the world where French is not one of the official languages, thereseems at present no reason to suppose that the French language willsoon lose its very firm positionas the second most popular foreign language among Egyptians. Lawyers, for example, are still required at the University of Cairo to study French (in additionto English) for at least one year beyond their sixyears of secondary study.

Tour guides with university diplomas in thefield must be fluent in two foreign languages, by far most frequentlyEnglish and 15 French. One repeatedly finds that businessmen, hotelemployees, and others involved directlyor indirectly in the very imoortant

Egyptian tourist trade, are able to function inboth English and

French, as well as their native Arabic. Finally, the commitment of the French government to preserving and extendingFrancophone studies in Egypt is genuine, continuing, and enthusiastic,to the extent that France not only offers scholarships forstudy in

France, but itself pays the salaries ofmore than two thousand

French professors coming from France toEgypt to teach. This strong desire on the part of the French government toencourage and support "la prEsence r6elle" of Francein Egypt through direct and meaningful rapport between Frenchprofessors and their /

students,16as well as the firm position of French study inthe Egyptian educational system, strongly suggestthat the French presence in Egypt will continue to be definitelyand positively felt in the future. NOTES

1(Cambridge, NewYork, Port Chester, Melbourne, Sydney: Cambridge University Press, 1985),P. 70. 2 Lecture and question-and-answer session forSenior Fulbright Scholars. Cairo, Egypt: July 8, 1990.

3Lecture and question-and-answersession for Senirr Fulbricht Scholars. Cairo, Egypt: July 8, 1990.

4Interview. Luxor, Egypt: July 3, 1990. 5July 11, 1990.

6Former Senior Inspectorof English Language Instruction in Egyptian Public Schools, . Panel discussion and question-and-answer session for Senior FulbrightScholars. Cairo, Egypt: July 12, 1990.

7Interview. Cairo, Egypt: July 11, 1990. (See note number 4.)

8Assistant Directorof the Office of Special Academic Programs, American University in Cairo. Interview. Cairo, Egypt: July 15, 1990.

9Principal of thePyramids Language School, Cairo, Egypt. Panel discussion and question-and-answersession for Senior Fulbright Scholars. Cairo, Egypt: July 12, 1990. lOsee notenumber 5. // 11Panel discussionand question-and-answer session for Senior Fulbright Scholars. Cairo, Egypt: July 12, 1990. 12See note number 2.

13See note number5.

14Directeur, CentreCulturel Frangais, Cairo, Egypt. Interview. Cairo, Egypt: July 11, 1990.

10 .110 11

15The utility of fluency in both English and French was particularly noted in interviews with Mrs. Maha Ma'bed andMrs. Ekram Morgan, both very successful trilingual(Arabic, English, and French) Egyptian tour guides. Interview with Mrs. Ma'bed: Cairo, Egypt: June 29, 1990. Interview with Mrs. Morgan: Luxor, Egypt: July 2, 1990. 16See note number 5.

lii AUTHOR/SPEAKER BIBLIOGRAPHY

el-Gawli, Fayza Fawzi, Former Senior Inspector of English Language Instruction in Egyptian Public Schools, Giza Governorate. Panel discussion and question-and-answer session for Senior Fulbright Scholars. Cairo, Egypt: July 12, 1990. Kera, Ma'aly, Principal of the Pyramids Language School, Cairo, Egypt. Panel discussion and question-and-answer session for Senior Fulbright Scholars. Cairo, Egypt: July 12, 1990. Kickham-Samy, Mary, Assistant Director of the Office of Special Academic Programs, American University in Cairo. Interview. Cairo, Egypt: July 15, 1990. Kohler, Denis, Attache Culturel Charge des Problèmes de l'Enseignement, French Embassy. Interview. Cairo, Egypt: July 11, 1990.

Kujuk, Kaysar, Curriculum Development Specialist. Lecture and question-and-answer session for Senior Fulbright Scholars. Cairo, Egypt: July 8, 1990.

Ma'bed, Maha, trilingual tour guide. Interview. Cairo, Egypt: June 29, 1990.

Mazet, Claude, Directeur, Centre Culturel Frangais, Cairo, Egypt. Interview. Cairo, Egypt: July 11, 1990.

Morgan, Ekram, trilingual tour guide. Interview. Luxor, Egypt: July 2, 1990.

Naguib, Ezzat, Coordinator of Special Programs, American University in Cairo. Interviews. Luxor, Egypt: July 3, 1990; Cairo, Egypt: July 11, 1990.

Samaan, Angele Boutrous, Professor Emeritus of English Literature, Cairo University, Cairo, Egypt. Panel discussion and question-and-answer session for Senior Fulbright Scholars. Cairo, Egypt: July 12, 1990.

al-Sayyid Marsot, Afaf Lutfi. A Short History of Modern Egypt. Cambridge, New York, Port Chester, Melbourne, Sydney: Cambridge University Press, 1985.

12

1. .1.2 13

Serour, Fathy, Minister of Education ofEgypt. Lecture and question-and-answer sessionfor Senior Fulbright Egypt: July 8, 1990. Scholars. Cairo,

_

: .113 114 JOSEPH T. MANZO (Concord College;Athens West Virginia)

A LESSON PLAN FOR DISCUSSINGTHE PROBLEM OF HOUSING:AN EGYPTIAN EXAMPLE

LEARNING OUTCOMES METTHISPLAN FURTHERS: (1) Understanding of other cultures (2) Understanding of sub-cultures (3) Understanding of a worldwideproblem (4) The use of critical thinking skills (5) The connections between people (6) Development of spatial and historicalknowledge M An understanding of the importanceof geography (8) An understanding of people-placerelations INTRODUCTION AND PURPOSE

Major world cities, from Hong Kongto Rio de Janeiro, are experiencingproblems in housing for an ever-growing urbanpopulation. In July of 1990 Mitch Snyder,a leader in the movement for housing the homeless in the United States, committed suicidein frustration over the lack of action in thisarea. Egypt has been experiencing this problem in Cairo for several decades. Anexamination of the housing situationin the area can provide insight intothe problem and its solutionon a global basis. The purpose of this lesson is to stimulate discussionon the subject through an Egyptian example.

METHODOLOGY

Data for this lesson plan were gathered through library research and fieldwork.Library work at the American University inCairo provided government reports,theses, and secondary materials on housing in theCairo area. Fieldwork consisted of citytours led by Dr. John Swanson, Housing Officecontacts facilitated by Dr. Salwa Gomaa,and interviews with U.S. AID officials. BothDr. Swanson and Dr. Gomaaare faculty at the American University in Cairo.

BACKGROUND FOR THE LESSON

Most people are familiar with Egypt'sgrand and glorious past. The Pyramidsat Giza, the temples at Luxor, and the monumentsat Abu Simbel are called to mindby most people when they hear the name Egypt. Overlayingthese antiquities is the Nile Riverariver longer than the United States fromcoast to coast. There is, however, at leastone other Egypt: a contemporary country witha capital city that exhibits many of the benefitsand drawbacks found in all major citiestoday. This section providesa general background to Egypt as a context for discussinghousing. History

115 2

Rather than repeat themany written histories available on Egypt,a chronology of events will be provided. Ofcourse, it must be kept in mind that dates provided lre not precise. for Ancient Egypt

6000 B.C.: Pre-dynastic Period ofNarmar, the Scorpion King.Between 6000-6000 B.C. Egyptians adopt agriculture inthe Nile Valley. 3100 B.C.: Archaic Periodthe timein which the basic patternsand forms of early Egyptian high culture took shape.The major surviving monumentsare tombs at Saqqara and Abydos. 2650 B.C.: The Old KingdomPrincipal figures include Zozer, Snefru, andKhufu. The Step-Pyramid at Saqqaraappears at this time. The Pyramids at Giza begin with the Fourth Dynasty. 2150 B.C.: First Intermediate PeriodThis is a time of several competingdynasties. No major works of architecture survivefrom this period. 2050 B.C.: The Middle KingdomSenusret III and Amenemhet III are the rulersof note. The center of gravity was at first inthe Luxor area and later shiftednorth, back +./3 the Memphis area. This isthe time of the emergence of Amunas a great patron deity of the state. 1770 B.C.: Second IntermediatePericdThis includes XIIIto XVII. This was once again a time of competing states. TheXVIlth. Dynasty re-unified 5gypt under its control. 1550 B.C.: New KingdomThis was the most powerful and prosperous of theancient Kingdoms of Egypt 1070 B.C.: Third Intermediate PeriodAnera of decentralization. Basically, the south was ruled apart from the north, although therulers of the souththe high priests of the Cult of Amunacknowledgedthe suzerainty of the northern kings. 750 B.C.: Nubian PeriodTheNubian kings brought most of theNile Valley under their rule by 700 B.C. and reignedas the XXVth. Dynasty until expelled by the Assyrians, who conquered Egyptafter 670 B.C. 660 B.C.: Saite Periodlf Egyptianart and architecture was influentialin the development of Greek art and architecture,it was probably due to this dynasty, the XXVIth., which ruled Egyptfrom its capital at Sais in the Delta 341 B.C.: Last native dynasty falls;Egypt is occupied, in turn, by the (who had earlier ruled Egypt from 525to 400 B.C. before being forcedout), the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines,and the Arabs 1250 A.D.: The Mamluk Empirerules Egypt and Syria, followed bythe , who conquer Egypt in 1517 / 1796 A.D.: Napoleon leads the Frenchinvasion of Egypt; the Britishoccupy Egypt in 1882 1940 A.D.: Britain fights Italy andGermany from Egyptian territory.Egypt, in the late 1940's, joined the first Arabwar against Israel 1952 A.D.: On July 23a revolution led by the "Free Officers" forcesKing Farouk to abdicate.General Muhammad Naguibbecomes president. Later, he is forced out of power by Gamal Abdul-Nasir. 1960's AD.: Eighty percent ofEgyptian industry is nationalized. In 1967Israel captures the and the GazaStrip. 1970's A.D.: Anwar as-Sadat becomespresident of Egypt when Nasir dies. TheAswan High Dam is completed in thisdecade. It provides water to irrigatemore than a million acres of land. It alsoprovides hydro-electric power. 3

1980's A.D.: Sadat cracks downon fundamentalists and opposition forces.He is assassinated and Hosny Mubarak succeedshim as president. 1993's A.D.: Egypt merges as a broker in theIsraeli-Palestinian issue.

(Thanks to Dr. John Swanson for hishelp in constructing this chronology) GEOGRAPHY

The thread which ties these cultural occupations at ! events together is Egypt's geography. Approximately 386,650square miles (1,001,758 sq. km.) in physical about the size of Oregon and Texas area combinedonly 4% of this total is habitable.Except in rare instances the only cultivableland is adjacent to the Nile, andso is the country' population. Add to this very little rainfall(1 inch per year) and the result ishigh urban densities. Thus, while cultureshave come and gone, an environmentwhich has remained basically thesame for the last 10,000 years (since the end of thePleistocene era) has been a formidable obstacle to easier growth and development. This iscertainly evident with regard to the east-westexpansion of Cairoa subject pertinentwith regard to the question of identifyingareas of growth for the Cairo region. CAIRO

Cairo is one of he world's super cities. In 1987 it was the seventeenth largest cityin the world. It is the largest city in Africa and inthe Middle East. One thousand peopleper day are added to the population of Cairo,so rapid is Its growth. The average population density is 27,092 people persquare mile, bur in and around the medievalquarter of the city the population density reachesalmost 250,000 per square mile. As withother primary cities in the developingworld, itis becoming increasingly large. Cairo,the capital, center of education, media, andmoney, is most attractive to the ruralpoor.

The city of Cairo itself dates to itsfoundation by the Fatimid Dynasty in 969as "al- Qahira""the Victorious City". The FatimidDynasty ruled for so long hat Cairocame to engulf already existing communities inthe area, including al-, the urbancenter of Egypt from 700 A.D. to 1000 A.D.Today, the medieval core lies approximatelythree kilometers east of the modern city.Overall Cairo has continued togrow in a north/south direction. (See Figure 1.)

There are eight basic sections in modernCairo. (1) The Medieval core is hometo lower- class and lower-middle-class people. (2)An initial expansion around themedieval core includes the neighborhoods of Abbasiya,Ataba, Azbekiyya, Abdin, Zoghli, and Sayyida Zaynab. These are areas of lowermiddle-class and middle-class people.(3) The present central business districtdeveloped in a sixty-year period between1880 and 1950. This area houses theupper and upper-middle class. (4) Lower and lower-middle class districts were incorporated intoCairo as the city surrounded earlieragricultural villages. Modern well-to-do residentialzones grew up between 1930 and 1950. (5) Upper class and middle classdesert communities developed in Heliopolisand . (6) Beginning in 1950 lowerclass communities grew in the west, north,and south. (7) After this time the cemeteriesin the desert to the east of the medievalcore also grew as residential areas. (8) Finally, II-Haram ("thePyramids") near Giza and Muqattarn City to the east of the cemeteryzones were developed as upper class and upper-middle class communities.

117 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THECAIRO APEA, 1800-1990

1200-1800: 1112; Population: 500,000- Population: 1,000,000 750,000 Utter Area: 20 sq km Urban Area: 10 sq. krn.

11.21 Pop: 14,000,000i Ana: 400 sq. km

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In the year 1800 thepopulation of Cairo was approximately 2753000.Presently approximately nine to fifteen millionpeople live in Cairo, and growing at a rate of the city's population is 3.6% per year (orslightlyless,depending upon one's source).Unfortunately, Cairo hasan infrastructure capable of three million people. By supporting approximately the year 2000 there will bean unfilled demand for around million housing units.Therein lies the three crux of the problem. Cairo has beenout-growing itself since the end ofWorld War II. In orderto meet the demand for allowed the development of housing it has what is called informalhousing. This may take theform of people living on roof-tops,squatting on governmentland or maintaining the cemeteries. All of this a residence in housing is illegal since itmeets none of the codes andhas none of the services that housingshould have. It is estimated Cairo is informal. that 50% of the housing in

What makes informal housing interesting is that Egypthas institutionalized theprocess and now is working todeliver services to the housing. A major occupants or to move them into"legal" reason for the lack of housing hasto do with rent control codes effect soon after the revolution put into in 1952. Rentare frozen at the level of paymentat the time of initialoccupancy. Moreover, apartments can be passed on to children. Theresult is that there is littleincentive for landlordsto rent out or to maintain Currently, rent control regulations their buildings. aim at charging 20% ofa family's monthly incomeor a minimum of LE 10per month. However, the majority per month. of Cairenes earn lessthan LE 20

The government is attempting to help correct this situationby the creation of around the city and the creation a "" of a minimum of ten satellitecities which would absorb many of the people living in informalhousing. It appears, however, in need will not be able that the very people to afford such housing. Thishousing is not attractive to theupper classes either. Sadat City,located about 100 kilometers main Cairo-to-Alexandroa northwest of Cairo along the desert highway, is tenyears old and has room for people. But only 2,000 live one million there on what amountsto an artificial oasis inthe desert. Cairo, as with third worldprimary cities, containsmost of the opportunities and available in he country. amenities Moreover, there isa feeling on the part ofsome individuals who understand the situation thatthe upper class Egyptiansin charge of housing to relate to the needs of are not able the poor. It should alsobe noted that empty living However, they are being unit do exist. held by the owners for theirown families. Thus, homeless people can be seen sleepingon he ground across from the Nile of modern Cairo. Hilton Hotel in the heart

A second problem that exists In providing incentivesfor an entrepreneurialclass of landlords is that of financing.Wealthy people pay cash. equivalent of the long-term There is basically no Egyptian mortgage except whatoccurs in the form of government subsidization. Agreement on land usually involves thefull purchase price beingpaid over a twelve year period withan interest rate between 10% final payment must be and 20%. In somecases made when the housing unit,if new, is only 80% complete. financing plan involves the One "Cairo Company". Thisgroup sells equity in soon-to-be- started housing to peoplewho will become the the "Arab Contractors", eventual purchasers. Anothercompany, encourage foreign investors withtax breaks. They focuson upper, middle, and high incomegroups. However, the track record of families' abilities to low income pay is not good. In the mid-1980's,the cheapest, legal public

119 housing cost I,E 2,500 ($900) per year. This price was beyond the reach of 90%of the population. One interesting proposal hasbeen that of the late Egyptian architectHassan Fathy, who suggested a return to basicfolk architecture. This would be possiblebecause of an annual rainfall regime ofno more than one inch. Hence unfinishedmud-brick would hold up.

There are a variety of other recommendationsto deal with informal housing.These include the following: (1) Expand assistance to informal housingareas and people (2) Provide utilities (3) Enforce building codes (4) Gradually raise rents (5) Build new cities

This represents a sketch of the housingproblem in Cairo. Teachers should consider using questions that followas a jumping off point tor classroom discussion. DISCUSSIO QUESTIONS

1. How widespread is the problem ofthe homeless or those with inadequateshelter? How is it in your area? 2. How could the idea of rent control beimproved? 3. It will take a considerable amountof resources to cure the housingproblem in Cairo. Discuss the notion that "what Is good forCairo Is good for the rest of the country". 4. What is the impact of letting Cairogrow to the north and the south? 5. Why are people attracted to Cairo? 6. What role could use of birth controlmethods play in lessening crowded conditionsin Cairo? 7. Why are not people moving to the satellitecities? BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abu-Lughod, Janet. Cairo; 1001 Years ofthe City Victorious (Princeton, 1971)

Arab Republic of Egypt and U.S. AID.Urban Landuse in Egypt: Report of theJoint Land Policy Team (August, 1977)

The Egyptian Gazette. "458,000 LowCost Housing Units to be completed thisYear," July 10, 1990, p. 2

Gardner, Donald and Von Huyck, Alfred."The Helwan Housing and Community Upgrading Project for Low-Income Egyptians,"(PADCO, Inc., prepared by U.S. AID, Cairo, Egypt; February 1990)

Hyland, A. D. C., Tipple, A. G., and Wilkerson,N., editors. "Housing in Egypt" (University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, School ofArchitecture Center for ArchitecturalResearch and Development Overseas, 1986)

Middle East Report. "Egypt's CriticalMoment" (No. 147, July-August 1987)

120 Oldham, Linda; El-Hadidi, Haguen and Tamaa, Hussein. "InformalCommunities in Cairo: The Basis of a Typology' (Cairo Papers in Social Science,Volume 12, Monograph 1, Spring 1989)

Shorter, Frederic. "Cairo's Leap Forward: People, Households, andDwelling Space," (Cairo Papers in Social Science, Volume 12, Monograph 1, Spring1989)

U.S. AID. "Report of the Joint Team for Housing Finance in Egypt," (August,1977) Fulbright-Hay,,, Si,minat

!71triosr.

Views on Egyptian Women inArabic and Islamic Culture

Gail Nolan Social Studies Dept. Chair George Mason High School Virginia 'FALLS cova4)

Linda Louis - Principal The Johnson Preparatory School Brooklyn, New York

Linda Prior - Teacher Brockbank Elementary School Spanish Fork, Fulbright-Hayls Seminar

Views of Egyptian Women in Arabicand Islamic Culture

Introduction

The primary focus of this lessonplan unit is to examine the role of women in Egyptian lifewithin the context of Arabicand Islamic culture. There is included an introductionto Arabic and Islamic culture, backgroundand primary writings, anda bibliography. There are four sample biographies of Egyptian women rom whicha variety of classroomuses can be drawn. Ideas are given for their use as well as suggested follow-upactivities.

We have chosen a cross sectionof women from the left wing, Nawal El-Saadawi, to avery right wing Muslim conservativeleader, Zeinab al-Ghazali al-Gebali. We understand thatour focus is limited in that it pertains to educated,middle to upper class Egyptian women. However , these women portray importantideas about what a woman's role should or should notbe in this society. The biographical sketches were drawnfrom interviews,(Mrs. Mona Kamel and Ms Zeinab El-Ghazali). as wellas books written either by and/ or about these women,(Nawal Saadawi and Jihan Sadat). It is our hope that students willcome to appreciate the richness of the cultural diversity found in Egyptas well as the political struggle of women to define their rolewithin this cultural diversity.

Student Oblectives:

1. Students will gain insights intoIslamic and Arabic culture which will allow them to appreciate andunderstand this culture.

Students will examine the differingpoints of view of women ina changing Egyptian societyas expressed by the women themselves.

7. Students will examine thepolitical and social roles ofwomen in Egyptian society. Fulbright-HayOs Seminar

Egyptian Women in ArabicCulture

In any discussion concerning theroles of Egyptianwomen, it is difficult to separate Arab culturefrom Islamic cultureas they are inextricably interwoven ina manner which often overlaps insuch a way that distinctions are not clearlydefined. However there are some aspects concerning women's rolesin Arab cultu: - which,although attributed to Islam, have in factarisen out of the historical background of the area. This discussion will focuson three of these misconceptions and will attempt todiscuss some reasonsmany contemporary women have beenable to successfully maketheir mark in present-day Egyptian economicand/or political affairs.

Long before the birth of Islam,the Pharoanic Erawas one example of a patriarchial male-dominated society in whichwomen were relegated to a lesser role. Westerners, in general, tend toperceive Egyptian women as submissiveand attribute this to theeffects of Islam. In reality, those who havestudied this culture knowthat this attitude pre-dated Islam.Many Egyptian women, both fundamentalists and feminists,have pointed out tous that the Koran does indeed provideequality and fairness towomen. They state that it is the manipulation ofthese principles for self-serving political and capitalistic ends thatresult in its misinterpretation on a socio-economic level.

It is interesting to noteat this point that twoof the women we have researched and/or interviewed and who are at oppositeends of the political spectrum, Nawal El Saadawiand Zeinab al-Ghazali both grant that to varying degreesthis is the case. For example, the wearing of the face was introduced by the Ottomansduring their ascendancy in the Middle East. It was not an inherentpart of Islam but was incorporatedas a model for women through political expediency.

Islamic historian, ThomasPhillips, adds credence tothis philosphy as pointed out in this quote from his article,"Feminism and Nationalist Policiesin Egypt": "The debate over the emancipation of women ori.ginatedamong Muslim reformist. It was their contentionthat an Islam correctly interpretated andset free of traditionalballast was able to provide a viable systemof beliefs and valueseven under the changed circumstancesof modern times. Thus, they felt that the position ofwomen had suffered, not through the commands o+ the original Islam, but by a mis-interpretationof the Ouran and later un-Islamicadditions."

The third mis-conception attributed to Islam but which hasits roots in ancient Arab cultureis that of the practice of female circumcision. This custom hasbeen dealt with by women in theArab world (and incidentally inmany other areas) long before the advent of Islam. Many of todays leading Egyptian r)c women have spoken out Fulbright-HayOs Seminar

against this heinous practice,but even thoughmany educated families seldom participate, it is farfrom being wiped out inespecially in rural areas and/or stronglytraditional homes.

What factors have precipitatedthe emergence ofsome women into the political and businessscenes of the Arab culture7 Our readings about and conversations withsome of these women showed thatseveral significant commonalitiesappear in the experiences of Arabwomen who have successfully participatedon a very public level in the professions, businesses, andgovernment of the present-day Arab world.

With few exceptions, they hadfamilies and /or fathers who encouraged them to excell justas a boy would. They were reminded to. bring "honor to the family" bymaking their mark in the worldof work-an attitude most unconventionalconsidering the expections for women typical of their day.

Secondly, most of thesewomen received very good education-both private and public. They tended to scorevery highly in competitive exams and be rated well by theirteachers. The quality of their. studies reflected intelligence,ambition, and industry.

A third factor whichseems significant is that most successful women delayed marriage until theirmid-twenties. By this time, they had generally completed the formaleducation including advanced degrees. Once married, they seldom hadmore than three children generally spaced more than twoyears apart.

Finally, and very significantly,these women tended to have unusually supported husbands whowere very successful in their nwn right. Not feeling threatened, theyencouraged and facilitated their wives involvement in business and politicaladventures. They were willing to share responsibilitiesat home and were proud oftheir wives' achievements.

This very brief discussion dealingwith only a few situational roles and issues faced bysome Egyptian women in their interaction with and traditionis but the "tip of the iceberg". We would encourage you to read andstudy the books in this bibliography as well as the large number of bookson this subiect available in libraries. The emancipation of Egyptianwomen within the parameters of Arab and Islamic mores has made great strides, andprogress is being noted on political, social,economic, educational, and psychological levels. It involves dealing with Arabcustoms as well as clarifying interpretations of Moslemtraditions. The incredible, intelligent, well-educated andfar-seeing women with whomwe have spoken here in Egyptassure us that this process, which while challenging and wrought withobstacles, is in capable and hands. e::cellent

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Egyptian Women in Islamic Culture

In studying the role ofwomen in Islam, it is important to understand that one cannot speakof a group. Women'sroles and lifestyles differ fromone society to the next, and fromone socioeconomic class to the other. Therefore the concentrationof this study will focuson urban Egyptian women from low middle to upper class. class

It seems that Islam has providedan unifying force within the Egyptian Society. It has not only beenan important element in defining the traditional roles ofwomen, but Islam and Islamic symbols have helped topreserve their national identity and culture.

Islamic thinkir has taken several directions. Thetwo distinct directions referred to inthis.research are progressive and fundamentalist. The progressives look at thechanges that have occurred in modern life cnd attemptsto institute legal reformsthat would reflect and support these changes. The fundamentalistssee the Islamic Society deteriorating,and so the hope for a betterfuture means returning to a more religiousway of life which is interpreted by the teachings of "The Prophet". Both groups have takena long hard look at the society, and bothsee separate solutions to the problem.

Legally, women have thesame rights as men. In the most important public areas, women have theright to vote (althoughmany still don't exercise thisright) the right toown and administer property, and the right to equalpay. Therefore, the progrecisives have focused on reforms designed to givewomen a more secure place within the family. The Personal Status Lawswere laws that regulated marriage, divorce, and childcustody. Before the reformswere enacted, the minumum age fora girl to marry was 14,a man could marry more than one wife, the man'sfamily took custody of the children in a divorce, and itwas difficult for a woman to divorce her husband, although thiswas not the case when a man wanted to divorce his wife. In 1979, some revisionswere made in this law. According to Amine Al-Said,one of Egypt's leading feminists and iournalists, a woman now has theright to secure a divorce withinone year of her husband taking a new wife, anda divorced woman now has the custody of her children. Once the male child reaches 15years, he goes to court and decideswhich parent he'd prefer to livewith. Historically, fundamentalistgroups were grass roots movements which appealed mainly to the lowermiddle classes. The members were mostly in their 20's whowere usually the first generation in their families to obtain a college education. They became convinced thata better education would notnecessarily provide a suitableJob with a sufficient income. As women continued the strugglebetween traditional and modern values.Islam and it's code of behaviorhelped them put things in theirproper perspective.

In the 1970's therewas an increa:ae of veiled or semi-veiled women in the streets and public places of themajor cities in Egypt. It began as scattered acts bya few college women from the urban middle classes, but soon it turnedinto a movement that cutacross Fulbright-Haybs Seminar

classes and ages. Today the largest concentrationof veiled women are still in the colleges and universities. Traditionally, the veil was elitist and destinguishedthe ur t. n aristocracy from the lower class. Today Islamic dress is intendedto erase any social or economic differences among itswearers. The Islamic features of women's dress require that theydress modestly withno elements designed to draw attention to her. There appears to be threebasic types of dress:

Type 1: This type consists ofa headscarf covering all of the hair and ordinary western clothes.

Type 2: This type consists ofa long, wide opaque dress with long sleeves and a headdressoutlining the face and coveringthe dress at the front and back downto the waist.

Type 3: This type consists ofa face veil usually made of the same color and cloth as the headdress.

Today there are several versionsof Islamic dress whichseem to be motivated less by culture or religion and more by fashionand/ore economics. There is no need fora whole wardrobe of matching clothes and accessories, and since thehair is hidden, women avoid thehiah cost of haircare as wellas the time it takes to go to the hairdresser. More importantly, EgyptianIslamic women are enthusiastic about wearing thesestyles of dress. It is voluntary and not a response to malepressures. There seems to be no consistent pattern of Islamicdress in Egypt, so it is difficultto determine the level ofa women's religious or politicalcommitment from observing her dress. Zeinab al-Ghazali,a well respected advocate of greater religiousconservatism, in a recent interview, stated that women who weartheveil should do so out ofreligious committment and not politicalideology.

A large maiority of theyoung women involved in the fundamentalist and/ or progressivemovements, have educational degrees and many are married andemployed. They understand that modern conditions require thatthey be in a better positionto tale care of their families. All Muslims envisiona better society and a more stable family with the woman havinga protected role. Each group works towards this goal in itsown way. The progressives work towards this goal through legalreforms in Personal Status Laws give women a more which secure place in their homes and withtheir children. The fundamentalists worktowards these goals byre- emphasing the special role ofwomen in a society based on Islamic Law.

Widespread education and employmentof women is rapidly breaking down the strict segregation ofgender roles. In 1985 a draft law was presented to the Egyptian Parlimentcalling for women to quit their lobs while retaining half oftheir salaries. It was felt that working women were neglectingthe care of their children. This was said to cause juvenile deliquency and drug addiction among theyoung. It was felt by many that thiswas a stratagy used by the government to reduce the number of workingwomen in the work force, especially during times of . Generally, women who work have twojobs, one at home, and one outside. These kinds of demands causesome 5127 Fulbright-Hayls Seminar

women to accept iobs that do not require muchresponsibility and are not very demanding. These iobsare not usually well paid, but because the reasons for takinga iob vary, it is found that the amount of income earned is not always the major concern. Not only does an extra . income support the family financiallyby allowing women to buynicer clothing for their children andpay for their education and trips. More importantly, it gives thema positive feeling of accomplishment. Husbands have generallly supportedtheir wives working as lonaas it does not interfere with their responsibilitiesas a wife and a mother. Both parents understand that the familyhas to be stromi with educated men needing educatedwomen to run the household and raise the children.

In 1979 thirty seats in Parliamentwere reserved for women in orderto help them to playa more visible role in the political arena. By 1982, forty two women wereamong the 600 members of Egypt's legislature. This attests to the fact thata growing number of Arab Egyptian womenare becoming important in politics. The women who have served in parliament tend tohave come from privileged families where educationwas stressed for both male and females. These women were almoet alwaysencouraged to seek a career outsideof the home. "Seventy percent of them have earnedat least one degree and one third of that group has received at leastone advanced degree." The majority of thewomen in Parliament have had practical eXperience working in grass roots political organizations before becoming members. They generally agree with the ojectives ofthe party on most issues although thereare a few women who have criticired or questioned some actions takenby the government. They almost always unite on feministissues such as the Personal Status Laws, although Zeinab al-Ghazali,mentioned earlier,(page 2) was one notable exception. She believed that therevisions were not justified because Islamic law does not restrict woman'srights. The maiority of the women in Parliament are Muslim. andapproximately twelve of them are veiled. The women who are veiled generallycome from the roral parts of Egypt. Their attitudes and the attitudes of theother women are not much different. All the women are opposed to legislation that would discriminate againstwomen. They have become very successful in their work because they havemastered the Arabic language °and have made great contributionsto the making of laws. They are extremely intelligent andloyal. They've also participated in several political coalitions.

Egyptian Islamic women are far from thepassive and oppressed group that has been proiected by mostly misinformationand hearsay. They are professional, non-elitist andIslamically veiled. These things are consistent with their heritageand Islamic traditions for which they are very loyal. More 7And more, both men andwomen bellee.,e in the equality of thesexes, and that there is no difference in the intellectual ability of men andwomen. The value of a person does not depend on gender, andmore importantly, each person is capable 04 directing themselves. Islamic women are making these assertionsand feel comfortable doingso.

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The following are briefdescriptions of four Egyptianwomen who have made an impacton the role of women inan Egyptian society. Their goalisthe same. They all believe that therights of women should remain secured. Their methods for achieving differs. this goal

Biographical Sketch of Nawalel-Saadawi

Nawal el-Saadawi was born in 1931 in Egypt. Herfather was a university graduate, andher mother was educatedin.French schools where her father taught. Dr. Saadawi's parents continue her education. encouraged her to Although her parents statedthat boys and girls were equal, Saadawi felt that that was notalways the case in practice. When she questioned.her parents "It is so". on this, their answer was, In 1955, Miss Saadawigraduated from Medical She pursued a career in school. Egypt as a doctor eventuallybecoming Egypt'sDirector of Public Health. As such, she continuedher dogged pursuit as an advocate ofArab women's rights. Due to her outspoken political activism during theSadat presidency, shewas dismissed as Director of Public Health. Dr. Saadawi continued tocriticize the policies of President Sadat'whichincluded issues not onlyregarding women's issues, but foreignpolicy as well,(The ). As a result of her politicalactivities, she was imprisoned period of time by President for a Sadat. She is the author ofnumerous books and acticles dealingwith the rights of Arabwomen. Dr. Saadawi's politicalphilosophy centers aroundher own experience as a female growingup in a very prominent patriarchal system which had done everything possible to subiugatewomen. Her involvement beoan with herown circumcision at theage of six which left her traumatized for many years. She does not believe thatthis patriarchal system isor was a strictly Arab world trait,but rather a world view where men have dominatedwomen. "The oppression ofwomen, the exploitation and social pressures to which they are exposed,are not characteristic of Arab or Middle Eastern societies... Theyconst an integral part of the political,economic, and cultural system, preponderant in mostof the world." Nawal El Saadawi "The Hidden Face of Eve" Page 1 She has movedaway from a religious approach to problem, to a more secular solve women's approach. She is a Moslem. Before Islam appeared in the 7th century,the Arab worldwas already a male dominated, patriarchal world. She does not necessarilyhold Islam itself responsibl e...for the problems of Arabwomen, but rather its misinterpretation by this male-orientedsociety. She condemns the west for exploiting thirdworld countries which hasthus promulgated and exacerbated the problemsof the third world. She often sounds angry and/ or bitter in her writingbut one needs to read Dr.Saadawi for himself or herself,particularly her book,, "The Hidden Eve". Face of We have included the prefaceto her English edition. In this, we can see that she blames two externalfactors for the plight of women; namely, the western powers, (including the United States),and Fulbright-Hays Seminar

the nature of thepatriarchal system as evidencedon a world scale. She does remaina Moslem, but one who believes the have not been accurately Prophet's words and correctly interpreted. Islam was merely made to fit into the culture of an Arab, male-superiorsociety. She continues har struggleas an advocate of women's rights.

Biographical Sketch of Jihan Sadat

Jihan Sadat was born in thesouth of Cairo in the villageof Beni Suwaif in 1971.5. Her father, Safwat Rarof,was married to Gladys Cotren at Cambridge where thetwo met. They were married in 1927 and had five children.

Jihan was married to Anwarel-Sadat in 1949. At that time Zadat was a rebel officer in thearmy and Jihan was only sixteenyears old. She took a leading part in organizing relief, aid andassistance whenever and wherever needed. Lona beforeshe married Sadat, she organized a feminist movementin her village with theaim of securing rights for women. In the beginning, theladies who participated in Jihan's movementwere those who did not enioy much At Jihan's initiative, harmony at home. an aid center was established inthe village to help those neglectedwomen who were unwanted by their did not have any husbands and means of supporting themselves. She secured about twenty-five sewing machines forthe aid center which taught tailoring and other handicrafts. women The center is flourishingtoday with the number of machinesat three hundred. It now provides assistance to as manyas three thoudand families. It also pays the educational expenses ofover one thousand school and students. university

After her four children were married, she returned toschool in order to prepare herself fora professional career. received her master's In 1980 she degree. She then began to teachat the University of Cairo whileworking on her doctoral wanted to set a good example dissertation. She for other women and in theprocess, helped other womensee that they could getan education if they wanted to. She was the wife ofPresident Sadat from 1970-1981. presidency, she encouraged During his women to become educated, work outsideof the home, and express theirpolitical opinions. She joined several women's associations and inmany cases became their leader. She was very influential in the efforts toreform The Peronal StatusLaws, which regulated marriage,divorce, and child custody. In spite of the revisions whichgave women more freedom in theseareas, she still believes in the husband beingthe traditional head of the familywith the wife as his strong supporter. She also believes in a mutual understanding of the respective functionsof husband and wife. She convinced President Sadat of the needto reserve a specified number of seats for women in Parliament,and continued to secure women's rights through the passage ofcomprehensive laws. She believes that - 9 - %RN., . ../ - Fulbright-Hayws Seminar 1 the freedoms that women continueto strive for should not be confrontational, and should be foughtwithin the overall frame work of the country's traditions andcustoms. She also believes thatone should create an atmosphere ofmutual assistance with bothmen and women recognizing their.spedial fields of workand responsibility. After President Sadat's assassinationin 1981, the revisions made to the Personal Status Lawswere declared unconstitutional under the new Mubarak administration. In 1985, a newly revised lawwas submitted and accepted. Mrs. Sadat was not involved withthe passage of these revised laws, but didsupport its passage. Her influence in the women's movement diminished underMubarak's administration. although her active participation did not.

By promoting a generalawareness among women concerning literacy, and laws affectingwomen and the family, as well as laws regarding the participation of.women inpolitics, Jihan Sadat has helped change the life of the Egyptianwomen.

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A Biographical Sketch ofMona Kamel

Mrs. Mona Kamel was bornand raised in Cairo. Her both w,.11 parents were educated. Her father was a universitygraduate in elec+.rical engineering, andat one time, he headedthe Wauqf Ministry in Egypt. Her mother came froma well- to- do family and made Mona had a proper education. sure She attended private schoolup until twelve years of age and thenreceived private tutoringat home in French, Arabic and piano. Mrs. Kernel was the eldest by a brother and two sisters. child followed She felt that her brother,because he was a male, received preferentialtreatment. She was especially close to her father who encouraged her independenceand sent her to a private English schoolrun by the Franciscan Sisters. After attending Cairo Universityfor one year, her family further education decided that was unnecessary and she shouldreturn home, where she continued studyingEnglish Literature. Because she scored exceptionally well on theexams, the Dean recommended shebe allowed to complete her universityeducation on campus and her She graduated with family agreed. a degree in Englieh Literatureand a translation diploma.

Mrs. Kamel. once aciain, defi^d 1-st_arc:d the. work force. She worked for the Ministryof Culture during Nasser's Presidency after which sheworked in the educationdepartment of Egyptian Public Television.She later marrieda well- educated Egyptian man, received an M.A. in Arabic, and beganteaching at The American University at Cairowhere she has been fortwenty three years. Mrs. Kamel, a widow withtwo grown children, within the international socializes both and Islamic communities. This allows her greater freedom of movementand expression.

'73h9 ie very concernedabout the plight ofwomen and believes that education for women should be a top priority. With education women could better protect their rights, understand the needfor family planning, and hopefully escape the overwhelming povertywhich exists. Politically, she feels thatwomen have many equal rights. (e.g. equal pay for equal rights), and that Egyptiansociety is in transition. Women do have the franchiseand they sit in the legislative body. She does not , however, think that Egypt for a female head of state. is ready

Insofar as Islamic influencesare concerned, she does not think the influence of is any differentthan the impact of religion inany country. She is a practicing Moslem, believee and as such 1-1at Islam in nota hinderance to the progress of women, but rather a protectorof moral principles whichserve as guidelines for a society. She thinks there has been "The West" of Islam some misinterpretation by and that much of what "TheWest" interpretes as Islamic culture is in facta result of Arabic historical influences. Today, Mrs. Kernel continues toteach Arabic at The American University in Cairo in herown unique and vivacious style. Fulbright-Hayes Seminar

A Biographical Sketch ofZeinab al-Ghanali al Gebali

Before the impact of westernination,Islam permeated all aspects of life in Egypt and moetArabic coentries. All customs and traditions were religious. Most people unquestioninglybelieved what their traditions told themto believe, and they obeyedthe rules as well. Zeinab al-Ghazaliwas born in Eyypt in the early 1900's very religious family. into a Because of their weelth, shewas educated at home by tutors from Al-Anhor. She had serious obiections to President Nasser's supportof a secular society and spentmuch of her life rebelling against thepoliticel system. She started the Muelim Women's Association in 1977,which wee officially recngni:!edby the Ministry of Social Affairein 1757. She believes that the rights women are eseential and of are an netnrowth of the treditinnalvalues of Islam. She also believes thatwomen'e rights are well protected under The Laws, and eees i.he revision of those lewsas "unislamic".

There were attempts tomerge The Muslim Women'e Association-with The Muslim Brotherhond bet ehe wente(.I her organiz,aionto remain independent sn as not to beharreeeed by the gevernmeet. When the Mus)im Brotherhend wo,; dibandod hy 1,4w ill 1917, cuni-inued to support their efforts. Her secret work with thisorgarlizatinn woe diecovered in 19.).5. Thi; led ho 11.:Ar s-Averal others. 2he was sentent:ed to 25.E..Aors, in joil on i.hritgpA, of ;.Ittempting to overthrow I.he(Jov,-?rnmenL. Sho where =he was sevHrly y(-.,o-; in ioil torturcH on0 roppd, but 1 i 1 .hu- 1 u,f1tLd (.1 rthande her views. She r(-,mained until her rel,,,A-5e in 1971 by PreT:ident Sadat. Her politico)--Activity deulined H'fik,ther release, although she stillspeae on college campuses throughout Fgypt. 21'ue publically uppoeed 197q end 1985 chongee inThe Personal Status Laws whichshe believed to be agaieet TheSheria L?ws. Zeinab el-Ghanali understandethe importence in invrovingthe status of women as longas it is compatable with Teleiti. She feels it ie neceseery for women to return to i.heir traditiciriol peeiLionunder Tslem and reassume the traditionlAr,Ah women' dlite includinu the veil and the ankle lengthdrese with luny eleevee.

The freedom ofwomen will m6jee Fgyptian society, and willcmntilim- 4M rerHi,,P '-0.ronu ohjeLtionsfrom the Muslim-Arab (7onservative,;(1,:hp' -A; defflou,;Lr,Alld by M. Al-

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133

11 Fulbriyht-Haye 6eminar

Methodology

rhere are a number otways in which to eti1j7e. the information colleeted. IL is hoped that teachers willtake some or all of this information to adopt to theirown needs and teaching etyles. The euggeeted methods areas follows:

students a xeroeed copy of thebackground information on the general role o+ womenas it pertains to "Arab Culture" and "Islamic Culture". You can givethem classtime to read the informatiun, or it can be assignedfor homework. Once read, the teacher may then pursuea line of questionina which initially checks fur comprehension.(Ex: List or give two factsabout Islam. Describe the Arab attitudeconcerning women.) Then you should continue by'asking questions that are more analogousin nature. (Ex: How is Islam similaror dissimilar to and ? How would you account forthis?) You can allocate two to three class periodsdepending on the depth of underetandino you wish toacnieve and/ or class ability. Once the initial introduction iScomplete, the next step wouldbe to hand out the set of biographicalsketches to the class. Ask studenta to initially identif..:More on the political/relinious spectrum these women might beend ,...k,5k each studeet to justify their ansv,rs. ma/ t-) 17.scin sp2ur clite--;tioning U; eneeeing for comprehension. first

eecond metnod whicn miceitbe useful would begin withdividing the ,:lass into fouryroups. Hand out a different biographical s71.tchtrn c-ach grup. Give the group classtime todigest the in.formaCiun. Encourage thestudents in each group todialogue among themselves the importantissues and ideology presentedin

in the . statch. As a facilitator, askquestions of each group to to 1-eeo the discussionflowing. During the following class period, have eachgroup e.:plainl!ve'ir understanding of each woman's nosition. This activity should generatemuch discussion. It is incumbentupon the Leaun.1to keep the disLuasion focused on the points expressed in the2togrephies. Following this ectivity, hand out all thePluereenical sketches to eachgroup. You can also hand out thecoplela of eeroxed information from the books on thelaws concerning7'i.erce, oppositionwomen, etc. Aeain, give the student .EArpl .F. time to rA and digest the material. Allocate aS muchLlaestime as you need tu disscussthe information throughly. qin. begin by asl'ing questionsto insure the student has comprehendedthe information. esing more analyticel Proceed by questions, possibly referringto Bloom's Taeunomy to analyze. Once this has been accomplished,ask each eruup to select the woman'spoeition he or she feels most comfortaele with. The studentehould be able to substantiate or her position. his

134 . a Fulbright-H:Ayes Seminar

Lvaluati on .md .11uw-up 1-71L tios

1. :)1.1 (.7)n which woman's gositinn idrntify with and why. they most

2. Oroonize class debate basedon two (or all four) women's positions and require the remainder of the class tovote on who NOrl. They should substantiatetheir position fully. Have students read Naadawi's and or Jihan badat'swork. They ld do an oral or writtenevaluation. 4. students rpad the book "Guestof the Sheik" by Elizabeth W.arnock Fernea. It is an anthropologicallook at the Islamic life of wQmen livingin a 5mLillIraqui village in the 1950's. Most 3tudent3 'Mould findthi-i book interesting reading. and enioyable

r-; Have students compare andcontrast the roles ofwomen in the United States versu,i thos in Egypt.

6. .6cudents con nlE,ct do resarch on other witn Irab -?nd stereoLypes associated

PiPlIranraphy

1. Hlturki, *Loraya El- Camillia. "Studying Our Own Society W'ab Women in lnu (imeriLan Univt.t.ityin L Iro Press, 1939.

2. Hill, Enid, "Mahkama BLl..Jjt. in the Egy'pLian Legal SysLEM". Ithaca Press, London 15?.

. _ . Soha Abdel, "Eq?ptin Womenin a Changing Society 1899- 11.37". Lynne Rienner Publishers,Inc. 1987. 4. Ni.ravan. Col. B.K.. "Anwar El-Sadat:Man With a Mission".Vikas Publihing House PYT LTO 1977.

5. Pcti. Raphael, "The ArabMind". Macmillan Publishing l'urk 1?3. Co. New

6. RUW14 Andria B,"Family in ContemporaryEgypt". Syracuse University P1'955 1986.

7 El Nwal, "Thr_: Hidd:rn -7Acr. of Eve:Women in the Arab Wuvid". Zed rrc-Iss Lnndon1980.

35- REST COPY AVAILABLE

_ Fulbriaht-Haves Seminar

8. Sullivan, Earl L, "Women inEo...ptian Public Life". Syracuse University Press 193.

1. Lzinab al-Ghazali al-Gebali: am activist who Ovocatesa society based on Islamic Law.

Dr. Selwa Gomaa: Professor of Political Science atThe American University of Cairo.

Z. Ilona Kamel: Senior Lecturer in theArabic Language Department at The American University of Cairo.

4. Amina al-Said: Pl.hli=her of =e,2era) Egynfianmaga=ines. The irst woman Egptian Publisher.

13 - re, 114 0 1cp E5(jptetn Ict vng LOorpier7 H-ctiztb Opposition Women THE POLITICAL OPPOSITION IN EGYPT righteousness,ity, characterized and restrained by diversity, UHITE!) ONLY cal opposition in Egypt has been by its stance vis-a-vis the a penchant for hyperbole and self- rich in talent and eccentric- government, the politi- nists,Someberitself. of seekingtheopposition For opposition most mainly politicians of hasEgypt's been some short-term personal advantage, but postrevolutionarymay have history, been beingas charlatans often by theand dangerousfear of force but as satisfyingby force to the soul. opportu-a mem- liticalots,mentionedof prepared the morality. leaden toin have makeInthis a chapterbeen considerable honest consider sacrifices country which places a high premium in their opposition. All of the themselves to be sincere petri- for their version of on con-women most po- necessarymembersothersensus, because of someto the consider of havepostrevolutionary their been brieflyopposition jailed two and general all have Before discussing the women selected to represent the kmak to politicalor criticism opposition of the government. in Egypt, it is suffered in one way or an- 137 orconcernedin theEgypt?framework major Aswomen? issues awithin corollary that Second, which have the whattended political is to this question: what specific issues have to arouse the ire of the oppositionthe basic institutional opposition hasquestions. functioned? First, what are structure 111111111.11111111111.11111.11111.1111111111111111.111111111111"..7 103 133 .. . rebellion,What104 groups, rejection, parties, or orcriticism? forums have existed for the expression of WOMEN IN EGYPTIAN PUBLIC LIFE bybarak. considering Another inadequacythe case of theof the lkwan conventional al-Muslimeen OPPOSITION WOMEN framework is illustrated 105 stoodology,not intendedoutsidethe other of to with thebe institutionsacontext comprehensive of history.and organizations, study What of followsthe oppositioncannot Theseis brief be two inunder-and Egypt. sets is of questions, one dealing with motivation or ide- ticularBrotherhood,governmenthood). leaderIt has since thebeenof the issue its partmoment. formation has of thebeen Its opposition by members Hassan al-Banna in 1928.0 To more the system itself than the par- to supportthe Egyptian the establishment system of (Muslim Brother- the politicallogicalIt is included and oppcaition institutional in order have to provide milieumoved readers withinsince 1952.which with some the women senseWhy of in rebel?the Egypt's ideo- More specifically, why rebel in Egypt after the Free supportersticallamicof an stance, Islamiclaw. However,were accordingstate jaikd and there or government toexecuted whohave is been inunder according significant Nasser. Under Sedat, power. Some of its members or to the principles of Is-variations to its tac- others temptedgrams,system,Officers' but whileRevolutionto bringmany others about people of denounced 1952? change found Some througha onlygreat rejected specific dealorganized tothe policies, anger legitimacy movements, them. people of Some the or asso- pro-new at- denttionwere Mubarak with jailed an or, essentiallyhas contradictorily, allowed secular them oppositionpermitted topolitical publishIdeological confusion also characterizes the opposition, to participate in an electoral coali- party, the New Ward.a magazine. Presi- as iUus- candidatesciations, or and parties. challenged Others the worked system as as writers independents or stood rather as political than as , trated1978 by as the leftist, Socialist but whose Labor prerevolutionary Party, which has been thought of since riodisfactorymembers could understanding ofbe athought party until of of as partiesthe divided opposition became into the in legal Egypt.Nasser in The 1979.period post-1952Neither (1952-70), a chronological pe- nor an ideological approach yields a sat- siderthatwas its time.3once diverse thought ekmentt of as in fascist. the context Its program of the has changedA profitable little way to think about the opposition in predecessor, Young Egypt, major historical forces Egypt is to con- since blocksthaninthe 1981.a Sadatpersonalistof time. Another period The framework, first,form(1970-81) 1952-76, of , would and was the divide oneMubarak using thein which 1952-84 anperiod, institutionalthe eraregime which into began mo-tworather which have dominated Egyptian political life The Free Officers' Revolution itself and its self-appointed since 1952.3 These are: heirs; published.partiesnopolized1976-84, were political Ideologically, markedformed, activity theand beginning itoppositionand would no opposition be of newspapers possible political was toliberalization: brooked. thinkand magazines of EgyptianThe opposition second, were po- tionalistTherevolutionIndividuals Ward political Party,better and party;whichthan groups did was thewho the believed major they government; prerevolutionary, na- represented that cluonologicalmunist,slightlylitical forces more fascist, incomplicatedframeworks conventionalor anarchist. oversimplifyversion, termsThe conservative,problem of the right, Egyptian is left that libend, and politicalall center,ideological socialist, landscape, and or, in a com- munists,OtherwhichThe Muslim haspolitical but advocated Brotherhood, have forces not an which hod Islamic as have great state existed, and Large religious-political mmement an impact on the com- opposed secularism;such as the Com- dent,ityeven hasbut though manybeti characterized oppositioneach casts leaders some by support lighthave onconcentrated for, Egyptian or opposition politics. theirPresidents ireto theon spe- presi- do dominate the system and much of political activ- theThe period first group of time can in question.be thought The of other four, munity at large. as the government, regardless of 133 tocific Lawsthe policies president has ornot laws innecessarily power. and have For meant notexampk, formulated opposition opposing their to Nasser, theideas Personal as Sadat, opposition Status or Mu- thesefigusresminor categories groups, of importance ofare people the in opposition Egypt have havebeen discussed organized, been members of organized in this chapter.including Some of the140 relatively but not all political move- 106 WOMEN IN EGYPTIAN PUELIC LIFE ingments many or of parties. the women. Some have preferred to remain ,independent,Over the course of the 1952-84 period, several major issues have includ- butwere over to have sixty provided independent a channel candidates for all succeeded legitimate in political activity; OPPOSITION WOMEN winning seats in 107 togreatple beenachieve objected many perennial goals. were to the Thus,highlightsupset direction underabout of of Nasser, theEgyptian change, methods people oppositionothers the objected governmentto has the used pace, politics.while a Some peo- to "too much' andthe in leftgovernmentPeople's 1979 only the Assembly.two." ASU party, was Toformally the surprise abolished. of UnderIn 1977, a new law permitted the formation of political won, while the right gained twelve scats and no one, the center, that is, the terms of the panics, and,objectionsandsitionsocialism; that especially figures they were under arecomplain after registered still Sadat, the 'Waiting that Camp d'too against he much"forDavidhas Mubarak."the been capita/ism.Meaty,American the With too slow to make decisions, Before the early 1970s, presenceopposition in Egypt, has fo- Mubarak, oppo- governmentpartiesbe 1977approved mustEgyptian whose bystate a members law, Committeetheir revised support are for appointedin for 1979Political such and byprinciples Party 1983,the president. political All legal Affairs, a part of the as national unity parties must alitybyrationcused kftists and onof Egypt'sadvocatingmuch as well of Arab asEgyptian lslamicists,more links. support politics There that for has since Egypt Palestinian been 1977, has lostwhen a growing sense, shared rights and the resto- its Arab person- Sadat went to forcesties,andtionsBy social not 1984, in for allthese peace, parliament.fivepotentially elections. opposition and parties importantDue Most parties basedto notable the restriction were legalized and four contested elec-on religiongroups or dass participated are proscribed.* as organizedwas the absence of a Nasserite on the formation of par- ,tumOnethe inissue demand Egypt, has which been asfor has its apolitical strugglemembersbeen the freedom.' tomost are reestablish thosechronic who ofEgypt's staffall, however, the ArabThe military, middle bu-dass is probably the most politically relevant stra- has beenidentity. People'sthistheirparty.'" strange own, TheAssembly did hybrid Muslim create wasin an Brothers,the the electoral 1984 only elections. althoughopposition coalition unable with In addition to the right to contest elections, party to win seats in the the New Wafd,to form and a party of Revolution,unitestodustries.reaucracy, organize right, For andgroups the kft,this schools, regime anddass, and center.* parties,freedom attemptedand run Inhas of boththe takentospeech, earlyunite public- on days allgrowing andpolitical of private-sectorthe significance andin- press, assembly, the right Free Officers' suchwithInlegal the as controversy.political ensuing Rou al-Yeatitf partiesyears, These and thehave A opposition 1-Alaistbeen able al-IVisadi, papers, as well as a few older publications press hasto beenpublish lively a party and newspaper.filled form important outlets since the late 1970s thespectscialista degreecommon Unionafter the the (ASU)., Communist Stalinist Even the model, though Partymost itdominatedimportant thenever ASU dominated ofthe which Soviet Egyptian was the Arab life So- was designed in some re- Union, partlyforces under to centroughlypoliticaltofor afternonparty nonconventional 82debate the percent 1979 contributors, than elections,of parliament, theopinion. seats theyand Asfollowing in 87are the which percent a more thethe after representative the 1984 elections. forum pages of the party papers art open 1976government elections, party 90 heldper- for malor,toaround.'because after monopoly control 1971, Init all was spiteonthe of political People'stheits of members,itscreature formal legitimacy, Assembly. of evenpower, the the thoseFurthermore,state theASU inratherASU couldthe Nationalthan the Assembly was not always able even withnot aprevent for- sig- other way winsofwereoverwhelming proportionalat stackedleast 8 percentin majority representation.its favor. of of the Law seats national 114By in the thefor 1984 the year elections 1983 createdPart of the reason the National Democratic terms of this law, unless a party Party won suchwas an that the rules a system outwhenseatsnificant of the inthree elections.ASUnumbers traasabir and Itsofcontested (platforms)independentincreasing elections. debility candidates Thesewas evident from party-like winning especially groupings in 1976 14; left, right and center were created assembly servedwhichpercentin parliament, Wonfor minimum women the plurality and willwould the be gocountedvotesof to votes the cast as in forif that they district. had been party winning the plurality of votes a party which fails vote,to get it the will 8 not get any seats Also, the seats re- cast for the party 142 to inthe each108 NDP district in the with May a reserved1984 elections. seat. All thirty-one WOMEN IN E.OVP riAN PUBLIC I OF. reserved seats went in 1957, replaced Farkhounda opINVO I ION Wohl IN Hassan, a close friend of Mrs. Sadat's, 109 politicsfornot the reflect in 1984 Egypt. the election rea/There balance helps was toelectoral of shed forces light violence, in the country, and theWhile tally the of apportionment of seats in the People's Assembly on the dynamics of opposition one female can- votesdoes istspoliticallegalnotas shared the imply partiesspectrum. NDP billingcomplete women's contained Evenwith acceptance sheikhs. representativethe representatives NUPP of for (;iza. Party a party'slist platform, contained and anomalies, each of the from various portions of the membership does as Marx- theestlyanddidate oppositionviolence reported was aside, killed. electioncharged thisThe in thatmay NDPEgypt thehave won sinceNDP been before''forged" the the the 1952 results, a massive victory. But, lopsided results most democratic and hon- revolution. Still, and the true vocatesrevolutionary,posed largely an Islamic neofeudalists;of people state theand leftand the The oddest coalition was the basically secular New Wafd, refers to as secular right wing, , which ad- com- pre- centThepretstrength publishedof withthe of totalany the figures certainty,oppositionvotes revealedcast. is Equallymuchthat that only greater the important, 43 opposition percentthan election but of difficult registered attracted 27results per- showed.11 to inter- voters tionarycreatedhereditary Ward. by the privilege. The regime, "new" Althoughthe secretary-general New Wafdthe other opposes the excesses of capita/ism and was a revival of theparties prerevolu- were, to some degree, of the party, Fuad Serag outliterate,centactually was of those sophisticated,only voted. 20 registered percent. The largestand voted,In politicized Giza turnout while it was in 28 Cairo, percent presumably and in Alexandria the was in rural Egypt, wherearea 61of per-the country, voter turn- most possibleactivity,resurrectedInal-Din, February, charging for held the itself.1978,that New that post ItWafd harassment lasted when only the four"old" soon after the changes in the law in 1977, the Wafd from the Sadat regimemonths made itbefore im-Wafd itwas ceased made political illegal in 1954. party,widespread24 percent. was as follows:The malaise, low turnout and was may anticipated." indicate considerable The national cynicism and vote, by him,forthcomingwhenthe claiming party Scrag had the elections al-Dindissolved Wafd tricd for itself to parliament, revive and no longer existed. A complicatedto legalcontinue." battle At the time, it was thought was no longerit again a kgal in entity. 1983, Thus,anticipating the(he government tried to block SocialistNewNational Ward Labor Democratic Party Party Party 3,756,359ViM lipisi770,131 Awes: of WWI 15.1272.99 thestepsEgyptianfollowed, fall to of dissolve 1983, courtsthe details thethe decided New of whichWafd finally hadneed that resumed its political activities and, not bebeen recounted intaken." 1978 Therefore,allhere, the and the in necessary legal LiberalNationalist Party Unionist Progressive Party 214,587364,04033,448 0.654.177.07 theirhadIbrahimin sought February,pre-1952 Farag, to prohibit1984, political won two them activity." of its from principal Shortly after this case a case in court against the government, which participating in politics because ofleaders, Fuad Serag al-Din and as social democrats and some who would be inclined toThe join NDP list contained many people who identified 5,146,565 100.00" themselves a Nasser- wasandThus, challengedbetween claimed the National the credit in New the for WafdDemocratic1984 all andtheelections the Party, by was decided,achievements a de facto ofMuslimelectoral both Nasser Brotherhood alliance and Sadat, which represented continuity was annoonced." listwhoalsoite Thus, party couldbe Rawya foundif one be identifiedwere onAttia, the available. a SLP social as and"Sadatists" democratNasserites NUPP list. first and By elected social were dropped from the NDP contrast, some people democrats could to parliament cent)roughlytionalwith of genuine theskill. IS 448 percentThe grassroots chosen NDP of bythe political the popular won a decisive victory, but the New Ward gained voters. Althoughsupport the and Wafd considerable platformvote organiza-and fifty-eight scats (13 per- a coalition of organizations 143 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 1 4. 110 WOMEN IN EGYPTIAN PUI11.1C LIEF. OPPOSI I ION WOMEN 111 ormostdid,did supported notas prominent thediffer Wald markedlyby prerevolutionary thenominated Muthm from athatBrotherhood. large families of thenumber and ofpeople people associated from Egypt's with NDP,:! its list of candidates menttarysame women at types some ofdiscussed time family between and in educationalchapter 1957 and 2. Some, 1982 and in fact, background as the parliamen- were included in that served in parlia- ternsfeministsshould found not elsewhere.are expect mixed anything Nasserites,with Muslims more Sadatists, than who superficial seek Marxists, to establish resemblanceThe Wafdists, Egyptian an Islamic andto political spectrum is sui generis, and observers pat- fathers,classorthodoxwillchapter. families,be and brief, The group. educated. werebecausediscussion The However,majoritythe of the formative encouraged by their families, particularly theirstory is similar to that of the more politicallycome from upper-class or upper-middle- years of the opposition women womenparticipatewhostate, find leaders, new in the injustices andpoliticalwho sixteen wish toprocess confront to of protect them, not with only representingminority alarming as leaders rights, regularity. a of cross-sectionand women humanists Women but as of cialcomethese capital from women urbanorigins, are areas. different Only from37 Most of the female compared with 44 percent of the opposition leaders discussed in this thospercent e.some who have featuresserve clear in of ruralthe early or provin- lives of parliament. chapter identifiedwomen in thesalient political features opposition, of the willmilieu be discussedwithin which now they that we have operate. "proper,"teenparliamentarywomen. are that Likefluent is, their women inclassical, either parliamentary to English know Arabic a foreign but or French, and seven counterparts,know both lan- the majority learned language.are even Eleven more of likely the six- than parliamentary WOMEN IN THE POLITICAL OPPOSITION,'Formative Years and Family Life percentAdvancedcateduniversityguages. than have degrees theirIn degrees earnedgeneral, parliamentary are doctoratescompared womenalso opposition toor 63masters leaders more common among thiscounterparts, 43 percent of whom have percent of the opposition women. are even better edu- group, as 38 resentingbehalfdatesIn the forof elections an office.the opposition New Roughly for Wald. parliament party, Olfat75 percentbut Kamel, inonly 1984, oftwo a theseveteran overwere 140women successful, Cairo women competedpolitician wereboth candi-and on rep- marita/notpercent included and of professional the in women this lifewho of have these served in Additional significant differences group of opposition women, have done so. women with those of theappear estab- when comparing the parliament,degrees, whereas but who only are 10 theytheworkerincumbcnt MajlisMusliri are from members al Brothers, Shzab.Alexandria pirliairentarian, ofTlimie joinedthe whoee same two the womenand candidacy party,thirty-three Rizqah haveand was they al-Balashi, littleNDP supported helpin women common to aillustrate veiledstronglyelected although socialthe byto theonce.riage.lishment. political Also, 38 percentalthough Divorceopposition, ofis there thealmost opposition is professional virtually all are, or havemore been, common academics, than is a single stable women have been divorced at least diversity among women in mar- tootherdiverse sitiona liberal from andin mainlyEgypt.party sernetimes headed maleOnc attractedIslamic poradoxical by a genuine fundamentalists. votes position .from one of However, womenBoth of Cairo's added inthey the shims,strength are not the oppo- haveandof Bothwriters,these had the fourtheir smallerpeople, journalists, children,professions familyhelping theor size. toleaders and Even their of unions account for the relatively high divorce politics have beenthough central two to themembers lives of the or interest group associations. group rate moretheplefor only officeinmeaningful Egypt,significant is not many thethan t*.-ornen onlyof running whom important in the:nrtzeder for jyyliticaloffice. activity writing opposition, 16r andpolitically organizing and active running to be ro- wouldwomen,whoVery said few not lifchas "Myarehave likelyhouse neverbecome to first,been rebels, then as uncomplicated agree with a leading female parliamentarianaverage number of children is below two.political activity!" For most of these as that. If it were, they Most of the leading women in the political opposition have the adopt even as children, but which others a role which some were inclined to picked up much later in life. 4 46 112 For a variety of reasons, the political left has more magnetism WOMEN IN .EGYPrIAN PLOILIC 1.IFE Becoming Rebels Havingwas adjacent expelled to, andher, evenhe then had went the sameto court address to have as, the a public police toilet. opposmoN WOMEN force 113 thediscussedfor poorest extensiveopposition in ofthis the economic sectionwomen poor, are wouldthan reforms, on has the benefit the left,and right. women,possibly front Nearly those whobecause two-thirds reforms."arc clearlythe kft of Mostamongcalls those dignity,mustcouldonher the to face have returngrounds it iseven gone easy and thethat thetobe remote understand aobedientother public way.chance toilet to why If him. women, ofwas so having The many not judge particularlya politicallytolegal submit demurred, home." toactive such The but an caseonly in- poor women, women alsothem,lems,mostopposition attracts feminists theya challenge movewomen women, see kftward to alsotradition although tradition consider politically as in and part fewer themselves more of because numbers,the hope source to thefor be because left women.offeminists, women's represents, it offersThe and, prob- right op- foras highlightshoware inclined well-intentioned the special toward vulnerability opposition toward women to of the the regimethat regime in power,The story regardless related of above portrays the plight of poor, a traditional concern may be.women, and also womenattractedportunitygovernment, art forto more theindividuals but right inclined this or is based the not to kft, bebecause on drawn manyascription the topolitically governmentthe or oppositionachievement. active has than Egyptianbeen Whether to against the plainaof particular ratherthe how left. than andThe cause, supporters why combination plus these some ofopposition theof specific an regime ideological triggering in power. inclination event,One helps leftist to woman, whose background is quite different from that women became rebels against to support ex- posementters,womenNevertheless, thethehas or reverse government.done has adone isagreat numbertrue. nothing deal Especially of to other forimprove them. factorssince theAs 1952, have statusindicated theimpelled of Egyptian women in earlier women in govern- Egypt. chap- to op- whereshetheaof member most peasant'swas jihan ofan theofunsuccessful Sadat sectionthe women generalstarted of mentioned thatcandidate hersecretariat party. first socialin forIn this 1976,ofparliament welfarethebook, 1979,NUPP is project. from Shahendaand and Tala,again theIn 1984, leadertheMogled,in 1984,place she of Egypt,noleader.sons matter that Theyit attractis how easy are much men: alsoto reach movedideologicalhas thebeen to conclusion joindone conviction the to oppositionimprove that or in the manythe aspull lotWomenwomen, waysof of a women particular theymovebecause are in toward the opposition for the same kinds of rea- "byband,volvementawas woman's theplaced Salah feudalist inseat. secondHussein the Shenotorious Fiqi on is was family."'wellthe murdered,Kamshishregular known He listinhad affair. herof been candidatesdistrict On May because I, rather 1966, of thanher her hus- in-for as the party newspaper put it, a minor ASU difficulttosonalstill four second-classquestioned Statusfor wives a woman. Laws, at by acitizens. time manyeven They and after influentialplaceNot make recentonly women divorce is people," reforms,their in suchrighteasy butpermit a tofor disadvantageousaspects vote a menman or ofhold tobut thehave quiteoffice Per- up wascontinuedmainedlittleactive ordered more on andher behalf bythan husband'sShahenda the stimulateof Sadat the interests Mogled, work.government a series Her of left theoflife withtoinvestigations." rural was leave three Menoufia children The province, abuses poor, and his murder did not easy. In 1971, she to support, re- fromreportedareposition Egypt's likely thatthat toleading bethosea man drawn newspaperwho had toward dogone not willto withdrawthe court suffice. forces to fromask ofIn February,change. it politics to forceThis 1984,out his could of wife itdespair was bcinto illustrated in many ways, but the following item andintivities whichrunning enhance in Tala1975 for the is parliamentand located. prospects again Shein was 1981. of was totenant tryarrestedIn 1984, farmers becauseshe stated and of women." her her political to do more to protect the rights chief interest As she ac- waysmitbay tomi-taah and his thenauthority. (house thrown of He obedience), her had out beaten of thethat her hut is, 147and returnin which mistreated to histhey house lived, her andin which other sub- BEST COPY AVAILABLE calizedder,Egyptianis Shahendastill by well the politics under Mogkdmurder, forfifty was theshe years forseeable interestedwas of at loggerheads infuture. helping Beforr with her the husband's age, it is likely she will be active in poor peasants.148 Radi- government mur- 114 WOMEN IN ECYPTIAN PI111.1c OPPOSITION WOWN Ils inposeintosoon the opposition the aftercourse system. the of event. politicsthat She activity, Although got is involvedtypical something more in in that traumaticthana particular happened she did politicalnot to others, start activity outher toentry and op- cision,oftenrealmotives forces been and behind thatproclaimedis also lie religioos atresponsible the that luasis arguments Islam forof iswhat the at underprivilegedthein happens. an root attempt of female to and hide circum- back- the . . . It has very iswomen,cide another to rebel or versionwhether rather of theythan the startedfamiliarseek accommodation. todispute object concerning and the regime theTI-ying chicken responded, to discover and whether the regime was initially against these cause her to de- are:hataward contention concernedthis situation religion is of notthan is women muchtrue. Islam. If morein we Neverthekss,Egypt study rigid and andChristianity the orthodox manyArab itcountries.countries whereis easy women to Suchwere see toisthe importantstand egg. againstFortunately, is that the all reachedgovernment there is a nopoint need or where for to it, resolve theyand hadall thechose to decidedispute. opposition whether What ctatusityable as to a ofprogress religion. women rapidly in our despitesocieties, the and preponderance the lack of opportunities of Christian-That is why I firmly believe that the reasons for the lower . . . event.beingwasrather maintained confinedthan capitulation to for the an particular appreciableor accommodation. time period associated ofFurthermore, their with lives the rather this triggering stance than reactionaryeigntofor certain progress imperialism economic classes afforded opersting operating and to them, political mainly from are forces, thefromnot inzide.due the namely tooutside, TheseIslam, those twoandbut forces ratherofof for-the systemexample,authority since has began beenearly whenrebellingchildhood. they against wereEverywhere whatstill children. she she calls looked, Nawal the patriarchal sheFor al-Saadawi, sawmany injus- class members for of this group, the pattern of rebellion against cooperatepressioninterpret drawly andreligion exploitation. and and are to making utilize a it concentrated as an instrument attempt of tofear, mis- op- couldtionalmittedtke, be particularly values doneher to about andthink institutionsit. and This talk freedom aboutof against the led whatsociety her females, caused to in challenge which and injustice sheher the parentswas conven- and rahied, what per- of perialismandsociety others by are privileged regard part of as a and falsepackage. exploitative interpretations In 1981, classes, Nawal of Islam,and al-Saadawi's the Discriminationthe evils domination of political im- against women, the tyranny caused by what she of manently.sheincludingthat wasevent, subjected maleShe as well doubted authority, as to ofritual God'sother religion, ditoridectomy, childhoodjustice, and and traumas, capitalism. evenand theGod's alienated lingering A. existence, a young her memory per- andgirl, bebyactivity Presidentactive1500 inwasopposition politics Mubarak of a high and, figures after enough in 1903, Sadat'sarrested profile tried assassination, in that unsuccessfullySeptember she was of sheamong that to continued form year. the a roughlyReleased new to oneuh,as of a thather man. nineteenthe Why problemcreated couldn't books, of byjusticereflects God religion, be andon a the woman?"particularlymale way domination God She isIslam, typicallyconcluded, of but society thought by ascapitalism. was an As her ispoliticalparty."women's hers Herthe opposition, group onlyperspective view, which and as mightis illustrated hershared pathlater by tohaveby many rebellion the been casewomen turnedisof not Zeinaband unique. intomen in NeitherEgypt's a political areworthopinion attracted quoting is shared atto kngththe by left. andmany helps kftist explain feminists why manyin the opposition Arab world, women it is Associationona Islamic vehement law.in 1937. opponent She wasof secularism barely twenty and yearsan advocate old at theZeinab of atime. society al-Ghazali Raised based al-Gebali established the Muslim Women's Economic factors.pon and, which concomitantly, such customs political as femakfactors circumcision are the basis have grown up . . are not able to distinguish between political and fromin a wealthy al-Azhar, and religion religious was family the center and educated of her life at from home early by child-tutors religious factors, or . . Many 149 . . Itheyl conceal economic and political sanhood. al-Banna, The association the founder she established of the Muslim grew Brotherhood, and, in the late urged 19301 her Has- to 150 116 WOMEN IN EGYPTIAN PUBLIC LIFE thedependence.merge government. it with Inhis 1948, Zeinaborganization. the al-Ghazali Brethren She againrefused, opting for continued in- were under intense pressure from met with Hassan al-Banna withIt isthe easy essentially to understand secular how Arab she nationalism of OPPOSITION WOMEN came eventually into serious conflict , 117 limbecomepersonaland, Women's still majorkeeping allegiance Association, until the after toMuslim him." the which Women's 1952Her byactive revolution, Association political when she and now had 119 branches, provided involvementindependent, did not swore the Mus- six.ment.beforebut In she1971,Although she had she was been sentencedand tried activeseveral and convictedin to t.v.hers Egyptian twenty-five arrestedof politicalattempting life for years, she served leu than at the same time wereto subvert the govern- nearly thirty years Thus,tecthood.food, eventhe medical She Muslim though kept care, Women'sher the and association Brotherhood other Association services with theto from needy lkwan government members of harassment. was disbanded by law in 1953, secret in order to pro- the Brother- andZeinabtermsreleased except with, al-Ghazali's byfor ratherthe her new opposition than period president, destroy, of to intenae theAnwar the 1979 leadership organizational Sadat, and who1905 of the Islamic wished to comeactivity to was over,change: in the trend. thesecularistry Muslim of society.Social Women's AffairsThis Association early in 1957."rejection was ledrecognized her, officiallyAt byan early age, this organizer for a holy cause had rebelled against the Min- itbeen isPersonal almost conspicuous Statusrandom, Laws, in andopposition which the possibility she politics regarded thatsince Some political violence is planned or organized, but at other times as un-islamic, she has not force might bethat used time. in organizeHassanFattahtoward Ismail,a al-Hudeibi,lifean essentiallyof another dedication the member underground leader to a cause. of of the the revivalInIkhwan, Brotherhood the late of gained the 1950s, Brotherhood." permission she as it did Nawal al-Saadawi, at that time, to and Abdel fromThe politiciansthehammadInpolitics the first spring isaredistrict Alisomething likelyofwas 1984 of theto , remember.an Laborof eventwhich in Party took most In candidateMayplace Egyptian 1984, which Niemat for the women's seatbothpoliticians inmale andare aware.female Harzan Mu- forcasedetailsbut the of they death ofthe her ledMuslim penalty,involvement to her Brotherhood.TM5 arrestshe was in in this 1965sentenced activity in Although what need to sheonly the regardedtwenty-five prosecutor asked not be related here," as, "the fake years in theworkerthat,Hassan, establishment a member in her she district had of the ofbeen and,daySocialist a careasmember Youthcenters of Organization.the for NDP the in the upper Egypt. Knowna candidate simply foras Niematparliament, advocated children of working 1970s and, beforeShe was a social jail.theleague,become Some violent Abdel theof overthrowher leading Fattah fellow religious Ismail, ofactivists, the were government.leader including executed of the ZeinabSayyid al-GhazaliQutb, who covert group,on charges and her ofcol- attemring denied had andwomen,mothers, teach andthem feminist special such associations practicalprograms skillsto which combat would illiteracy provideProgrammatically, her ideas did not differ substantially as sewing and knitting." among rural women homes for elderly from thou sheof sotheher defended since. Islamicjailers While tried legitimacyherself to in rapejail, by bitingof sheher. these sufferedIn one her charges of autobiography the considerably would-be then, and rapists she andhas describes atcontinued one point how on the neck to do two cialistareof expressedthe not Laborpresidential always Partyby the the mostwivessince majority important shortlydiscussed of the after issues earlier its formation,in inpolitics. Active in the So- women in parliament or from those this book, but policies she had switched quencestheseuntil he women of died." involvement became rebels in opposition does little politics to predict in Egypt. the Theeventual Like case other of Zeinab al-Ghazali illustrates that the way in which conse- kry,responsible.sawfrom the in thehead government, NDP ofShe SLP. to was the Inalso corruption SLPthe impressed 1984 as electionfor by which the leadership she held the ruling a reaction against the corruption she she was a vigorous cam- of Ibrahim Shou- party worldtion,tarywomen social she of politics, made organization.from wealthy no and distinction became Becausefamilia, involvedbetween she of the began Islamic withthe by worldthe characterorganizing Muslim of religion of Brotherhood.a that private andassocia-151 volun-the tributingaccusedingpaigner to kribe and, theto the hercurrent a few toheated switch days and atmosphere previousbefore parties. the She election, of declined the the governor of Qena of corruption, con- 152campaign.accused the NDP of try- alleged bribe and !I8 WONIF.N IN EGYPTIAN PUBLIC LIFE OPPOSITION 'WOMEN 119 1 wasofespecially little not consolation explained by third worldtofully her infamily.standards, the Egyptian On butelection such press at theOn time, the whole, the 1984 parliamentary,election day, in an aincident general which statement was was orderly, Niemat ward1952,thantion the woman join butNew thethe Wafd.who opposition,major could Her influence fathereasily but havewasheron herfamily worked early background lifewith the impelled a Wafdist parliamentarian before was her uncle, Makram government rather her to- peoplesuchthecandidateHasun police as are this was andforarmed, is parliamentshotchargedrare and in Egyptianthe with fromhead1984 fint-degree andelectionthe politics," killed by same district. He was caught by murder." Electoral violencebut in upper Egypta cousin many of a male NDP inbersRebelliousObeid, politics, her one uncle sheas of a remainedthe aschild, always major she aloof Wafdistbeingchanged from supportive leaders schoolsdirect involvement of four of prerevolutionary her. times, Always untilbut she 1978, wheninterested remem- Egypt. sannottempers, was protect shot ran because this high. mother ofAlthough her of sex, four thereit isfrom also is no clear evidence that male Notthat chivalry all entries into an opposition a politically inspiredstancewas killer. onewere in as which traumatic hopes, as and Niemat Has- did J.F.K.Shedentat sheHarvard, probablySchool.political joined she Upon(he organizationwould enjoyed New returning have Wafd. working continuedmodeled Ato fewEgypt, as afterato student shebe the independentjoined British representative Fabian of years later, as a graduate student a new indepen- any party Society. at the trainedofintoas thatviolentlythe an regimeof oppositionpolitical Shahenda as thatrather scientist, of postureMogled, thanNiernat antagonistic wasgradually asHassan's. earlyEgyptian and Some cultural opposition as Nawal al-Saadawi's, or culminated to it. Afaf Mahfouz, a French-some were, at one time, part women evolved woman'sthebership.but when1984 Astheparliamentaryseat sheNew in putShubra, Wafd it in was elections,anher interview,revived father's Mona in former 1983, "The Makram sheconstituency.Wafd reactivated Obeidis my home."" In ran for theAsher an mem-ar- thoughthemanton, 19601, D.C., rights, she inmost had shethe rebelled ofhadmid-I970s. which not against hadshe Disenchanted much paternal to do authority withby violations Egyptian of spent in graduate study in France. Al- attaché in Washing-as a teenager, and politicsbasic in hu- pareenceseattractedticulate foritand and that plansvoters Copticherself district to and womanbefor wentattentionactive the nextfromto in the intheelectoral a heavily NOP.distinguished Wafd Shechallenge inCoptic the learned future, politicalShubra, to fromthe helping butgovernment.family, the the experi- to woman's she at- pre- involvedGhorbalbehalfbeenfice."' offended of Itlet inthe was oppositionme government by onlybe "exctues free after politics, in shefromorganizing of returnedboth focusing1974 Nasser until to Egypt in 1978my busineu that she atbecame the Cultura/ Of-on objecting to the terms1978. ofand AmbassadorSadat, she worked Ashraf on ACCOMPLISHMENTS AND ROLES OF OPPOSITION WOMEN oppositionsonaldidandthe not andCampthe join lackpolitical has aDavid political ofbeen freedom, independence. Meaty,helping party, equality, Egypt'sother preferring people Her growingand justice and most conspicuousto maintain role in the maximum per-dependence on America,she found in Egypt. She creationcouldcanThe be beroles orcalled thought innovation." undertaken "consciousness of as falling byThe women latter raising"into isintwo thethe and fairly political the distinctother, Isrganizational categories. One most concrete and, hence, opposition in Egypt friendsis particularlywhileencouraging as they well arelonely, as opposition politicalcritical and occasionally ofaflies, people others. but to The be role many of theputs members Afafaware Mahfouz of of their the op-atown odds limitations with of independent humanistgroups to organize, and whenmembersofthe opposition politicaleasiest of to theparties discuss.politica/ group were studied parties legalized. been and activemovements, Not onlyin such especiallyWomen have been active and conspicuous members and kaders have nearly al/ of the since 1977, aposition political in partyEgypt orhave association. chosen to Like Afsf Mahfouz, Mona153 Makram Obeid I emain independent rather than join is another opposi- B EST CO Y AVAILABLE cialistwithbut severalLabor President Party have Sadat forserved nearly over in leadership liveCamp David, capacities. Laila Talda, years, and Olfat Kamel had the same was deputy leader of the So- 154 parties or movements, who broke 120 WOMEN IN EGYPTIAN PUBLIC LIFE OPPOSITION WOMEN 121 organization,1970s,Hekmatpost in laterthe basedAbu Liberal became Zeid, outside Partywho a Egypt, leader began until called of 1984,criticizing the for Egyptianwhen the Presit overthrowshe joined the Nationallent Sadat Front. in the Thismid- New Wafd. murdered,ingbeing political victims and liveconsciousness of haveviolence been or in oppression. Egypt One sent to jail for political reasons. Several as a consequence of themselves has been widowed, one politics."Dr.government. Abu Zeid, As were a consequence stripped of of their its activities,right the Anotherleaders, type of opposition activity which has to participate in Egyptian attracted women of the Sadat including effectcallycumstancesinhave oppositionconscious such been events surrounding divorced people. politics. have by Researchon theseTheremen public whodivorces has opinion could are few secrets in Egypt, and the cir- not been done to determine what arenot wellcoexist known with among a wife politi-active ernmentbendsorganizations,"severalhas beenMogled decades, encroachment working have andthe withgovernmentunionbeen on unions unionactive leaders and inof suchtheEgypt associational has or voluntary associations. Over the past process of resistanceas Amina to gov- Shark' and Sha- tried to control these theparticularlytothe difficulties assume most politically that becausethey many have relevant of faced.thesetheir jailwomenPoliticians records became strata in the country, but it is reasonable andat large, in general, or opinion because amongin Egyptof do not concealat least minor heroines hassuccessfulas far been as theseunusual in securing , theirare concerned, andcompliance. few people the government have Chronic has opposition to the government from within sustainedautonomy. this At role least parliament not been jailpartofthese experience, theirs of events the and recorded fromandhave many publicwritten history opposition scrutiny. about of Egypt. the President 44 Perhaps the most specific achievement womenevent have to reasonmake sureto be it proud becomes Sadat was proud of his willelectedandKamel,for forceful,have any to whosomeparliamentappreciable she bills type is oneherself ofin periodof leadership1984 Egypt's as "Egypes of time. most role Thatcher."" One respectedin that notable on the Wafd ticket. It is likely that she partyTough, in the independent, future.politiciansexception and was is Olfat politicalsensustuswomen Laws on leaders. in intheir July the terms Thispoliticalof 1985. coalition was oppositionPrior reached included to their by is approvalthea broad coalition by a number of opposidonpassage ofwomen new Personal Sta- which can be claimed by parliament, a con- of Egyptian menttheybe consideredor dosocietal and how demands,as an they exercise door whoit, in consciousness offer alternative ideasThe role of women in the political opposition in women who criticize or reject govern- raising. That is, by what Egypt can alsoor plans, help mentionednentandclimatewho necessary.in this wereof opinioninbrief conspicuous this Nawal and chapter. in effective which al-Saadawi, inOthers, and movement, essential forlike example, Zeinab new laws were perceived as both possible to a processas were which several created other awomen al-Chazali, felt thewas new especially promi- itviewedissues,change is hard particularly forconventional to thismeasure study issues or notionswere evaluate of aware special of behaviorthe of interest significancethis role, regarding but of to women. Women inter- also conscious thatthis type of activ-a wide range of han'sfordaylaws the and wereLaws" reforms both against were governmental made replacedSharia. in the Those by Personaland rules favoringopposition created and supported by aStatus Laws in 1985, when li-reform, however, carried the leaders may share credit cross- futureandbehaviorstudiedity. what By behavior. have directly.engagingpeopk tried think,In ifivo-thirds, toin addition organizationalchange to influence towhat however, writing, peopleideas,work, haveroughly half andin workedEgypt of the30% through ideas to alter opposition women do, to influenceto change howof them have mentarianssection of Egyptian of both sexes,political and leaden opposition including the president, parlia- women. couragementingtaught new at rolesthe to university and,think more on level their importantly, and own. influenced by providing studentsAdditionally, opposition women may have contributed155 directlystudents by model-with en- to chang- tionIn the in ylears Egypt since has grown the Free in complexityOfficers' CONCLUSION Revolution, the political opposi-and size. By 1984, it included 156 amongfive122 kgal its political most prominent parties and elements. a formally One banned of the religious most conspicuous movement WOMEN IN EGYPTIAN PUIDLIC LIFE significantwith the regime. electoral Also, the 1984 success by the Wafd and the Muslim Brothers.OPPOSITION WOMEN parliamentary elections resulted in 123 notkadingsalientinaspects appear it ofinformationwomen significantof to the differ in opposition that markedlyabout numbers opposition. and considered from perspectivesof women. Whilethe asparliamentary atheir Thiswhole early chapter has background womenbeen has the presentedstudied presence did on a selective sample of againsttofreeOn conform a to more dominority so. tonegative theInterest parties.government note, Furthermore, line, and the electoral groups remained under considerable pressure not all who wished to form parties man selected in June, 1984, rules were stacked were as tionainwell result chapter women as ofsmaller the2, have theirpolitical families. a marriagehigh and divorce professional and rate family relative careers circumstances to parliamentarythey have did. led, Partly opposi- women, as mid-1985,fromheadprimeto be ofa minister, one-partythe the newASU, ability Dr.speaker andto Rifaat a ofis multi-party theof Mahgoub, the opposition People's is Assembly, on record as having opposed the original shift system." On balance, however, in a well-known Nuserite, former and a potential future changetiontal,ety ofusually typically in ways. government paternal, Most was triggeredhad policy.authority, an early byThey somestart but became theas fairly youthful actual interesteddramatic entry rebels eventinto Theand against thewomeninvolved opposi- paren- studied got involved in opposition politics in or a major a vari- calport,politks elite. and Fromappeared its thisown relativelyconsideration enthusiasm forof political the So far, this book has dealt with the roles of secure, guaranteed by law, presidential to continuegame its of role democracy. in Egyptian women, we move to ex- women in tbe po/iti- sup- positionprograms.in politics stance. Steadfast and were attachment committed to thoseto a fairly ideas specificled themAs set toward members of policies an op- of the opposition, women have been significant oras differencesoperationsnomiconamine an elite, thewomen areas role thiswell. national shareof time ifwomen anything, many ain small in characteristics, business.group the of entrepreneurs Once whose scope. As we shall see, political and eco- but there are importantagain the focus will be business Oppositionhawinvolveddeveloped.leaders been in in importantvirtually suchWithwomen activity the allrolehave possible of models,as thedemonstrated the various assassinationexception organizers, components that of of and thenot President consciousness undergroundall the women opposition Sadat, are raisers. com- has womengroups womencomplished in politics. and have overcome greater obstacles than have Egyptian entrepreneurs are even more ac- overalltemporarythepliant risks, prospects or reserved,and Egypt. if for successful, freedomand that thewomenfor rewards,interest as well groups of oppositionas menand politicalareFuture politicsready partiesprospects to in share for women dissidents and rebels depend on the con- tion.theandto women'm assembly. organize,The women movement andWhile studiedfor individualindividuals in showedEgypt illustratesrights to a exercisemarked are theimportant, preferencefreedom centrality ofthe ofspeech,for historyorganiza- legal press, of as beenhaverelativeopportunitiescontrasted beenable to todemocracyambiguous.to publish undergroundafforded andand Onthem criticizefreedom thepolitical by positive the policiesto Mubarakactivity, organize sidv, and theand regime,emitted personnel opposition are likely butby that theassociated topress regimeusesignals hasthe157 153 t-tc k Ice fste 4 et4i. k Preface to the English Edition political,countriesareThe exposed, oppression economicof theare of'Thirdnot women, andcharacteristic World' cultural the done.exploitation system, of ArabThey preponderant Of constituteand Middle social Easternan pressures in intsgred most societies, toof part void&the of weldor the they endsocietywhether technological that that has system been revolution. is submitted backwardThe to and thesituation feudal far reaching finand nature, problems influence or a of modern ofwomen a scientific industrial in contemporary human society are dem nob over soother, mg everywhere,arduouspoliticalmsakminl:tare strugglesleaden men o:ridwomen. and of women women, They_m_&productfor spinet Butibeself-emmcipation the present structure from the of society.revolt dimple Yet it who close their eyes tomany this fact.thinkers They wish to award, the rnen of Merers, tax- iocW or valuespatriarchalinationis onlysociety, for endthis all butsenctifledclass radicaltime also relations.mod change within beliefsabolish Thisthatthe which the family cancore ascendancy endthroughout of unit relationsforeign which of theand menremains constitutes agesnational over have the women class originthecemented, core exploit-mot of of theonly lei* problewereailforced the constituted chewsand perpetuated which on earth.society a system hasInfluential knownof clan sinceand circles, patriarchal the particularlyfirst human oppression, in communities the Western despite keperialist world, depictof Arab the women es stemminufrom the ntbetancoantvaless of "ErnanypoliticalArabor even important peoples. inherent factors,iIiind Forarm cheracteristicsat mem themiffilly-61411111111.4relielosegoitailkeitihelaiLskmiUy root underdevelopment of depictwhich in the ksmental the foreign retardedis bednot exploitation foistedpsychic development to constitution economic of meonecos, and ofof the Arerantries 159 BEST COPY AVAILABLE modernizationtolinkand powth, thebetween plunder development, political along to which the and andlines natioaal economic progress. ofDevelopment Western riches emancipation MIlife, exposed.in of such teelmotogical and circles FOf the processesthem is visualizedadvance then relatedb whichDO m a proems of cuhural thaw, of 160 wouldThe Hidden permit Face better of utilizationEre of the resources, quicker and bigger profits, of mieery and death for those who worked the fields, operated the machines, Preface to Mt English Edition ofandshifting international onemore desert condition effective sands capitalism only: and or suchtheefficient and depths resources the ways ofmultinational ocean of must pumping iseds. continue giants outAll thistooil that servefrom under still underthe ruleone interests condition,overthe a year.nationran the and schools business and colleges,in a countryThe andRevolution where turned oil the in revenues ,wheels therefore, ofhad everyday attained Is in admitis its mance political and economic. billion a . controlledizationandlarge ruthless part processes by ofWestern theexploitation. wodd. at interests.the It hands mustSane The ofbe national submittedresultArab andislanie.counthas governments tobeen the nothinglaws and of moreunequal rulers than largely exchange a form have been the theatre of such modern- economic,kitchenmenIslamIt is and apiiTpu Indoverhead, womensocial the explosion7ydlich bedroom. and as , siai bannerscultural t tietosenJiién Iranianofhfe seeksfreedom of more Revolution to be& amanclpeeefrom than to imperialist thethirty-lean Itai prison liftedthe oppreselon peopkt milliontheof tiebanned ofvell,people. has, the both in the of destitution,ainsectorlinkedof somepseudo-development, toproducing of the the rulinginterests gains for clan export,while of feda multinationals dualthe ona population vastopulencesystem majority composed and andwhere sink awealth large afrom ofrestricted atraditionaland povertysmall the modem minoritymasses to agrkultural ever sector shares feddeeper on foratoment 'House' Fotsocial feeding under Islam equality CI and the in'Bank' its leadershipclothing andessence, in whichpublic and ofin elownenhiphoming Mahomet,its sulpha fundamental the wealth of was poor. wealth a wasteachings, callEarly in to Its beIslamliberate earliest deposlied in itslaid the bkth foem,the slam, and andfirst that need of develop- a call generateddeprivationthebetweenWestern United frombankstheand States 'developed' athh loafand form of ofthe America, breadof coffers anddevelopment OFthe theof a'developing' international bowl360 stream billionof rice. vowsdollar intocorporations,The eVerthe incomea year strongrooms wider oiland while industry'sand profits thedeeper. of gap In tiredepositedfoundations of their in tdbeofthe what or mightclass. be lit calledPitesithe a Primitive 47'"'". , for the wried uncier the growing prosperity of the new classes that to_belonged all Muslims eqsally, Weslaco. 61ai did not led long. money arose poverty,childrenmuch'official' as profitsstill sickness343% die for overannually endthe the fivemalnutrition. peevious before sister reachingoil year, coeporationsTheir while oneintake inyear theof increased essentialof Arab age, countries as infood a 1978 result items a bymillion of assuch andIbisandthe Egypt. Muslim Affan,flowedthrived Primitive the outwarriorsafter Fourth from Mahomet's Socialism thebunt Caliph burning beyond received ofdeath, the sands the Muslims and narrowits Into firstthat the and blowsfrontiersincreased green head at valleys theof theirthe heads OmmayadArab ofMums Syria, of desert (haus when by theUnitedasexhaustion, proteins wealth States and and toil, of control vithninssicknessAmerica. the Is and onlypowerWith hunger, one-tenth the of nations,!IMF problems growingof thatand arefed the chasm dailyto vast dogs whichgrowing majority and separates cats more worn in theout a 'vinosity of rich who own descendantsandthosedynasty *hoes who whoinhoped Damascus. were stood or later believedfor class to dde privilege,orThus withfought arose the feudalfor Turkish in social Islam oppression justice,domination, the struggle wadfreedom whose withthat and began,Fres* equally, and was never to sod, between discrimination.theindependencefrequent,acute, foundations conflicts and In everywhere end becomingahnostof ansocial imperialist every equality themore countrystruggle sharp system a widespread ofandof builtthedeveloping bitter, 'Thirdon phenomenon social,popular World' peoples racial explosions the whichfor and conflict freedom, sexual is more shaking CenturytightVanBraids, headedof A.D., feudd Italian history by oppression the and wasUnited German to and plungeStatesThus foreigncolonialism itofthe cams America. Arabdomination about andIslamic later that, reaching peoples with from international the itsinto darkest time of depthsimpala-Osman lbs Affan in the Eighth a long dynasty,growingbetween withinclasses an each indication in passing its open that day. and peopleThe clandestine, Iranian in the underdevelopedRevolution kgal and illegalof 1978-79, countries manifestations which are noswept is before it the Pahlavi sfinreationatyundtrthe :11t in the 811111115is of the Arab peoples. corrupt, degenerate, obscurantist, inhuman and -most , ever since it conquered and ruled, has millions,classes,affectinglonser able thebothwider to intellectuals menstand and and widerthe women,growing and actions the whosepressures national of the existence urban bourgeoisie, of an and economic is ruralalready and workers, crisisburdening one thatlong the is trail themiddle lifeof of against1,Xndow1essveil,to quiver them rooms, by in forelpi thaolmet and invadersthe everIn their md west internal for liberationfeudal rulers, from die the Arab injustices peoples and oppreseion exercised unwise on guard hide swoeda. )4°1 richesprosperityleadersuffering'161 forof afroma to modernizationhandful the birth country, ofto corrupt,death. processbut Yet whichdegenerate in which, Iran in fact the it and was hadShah sanguinary said, only was hadengendered the brought despots,self-proclaimed increasing incalculabk and a train iEST COPY AVAILABLE whoequality,cotadleschings. fought see freedom no against Thishope andexplains exceptfeudal justice despotismin why the which theapplication greatconstituted in its majorityvarious of those the forma,of principles revolutionary internal of social Arab leaden 162 mesas of Islamic or external, The Hidden Face of Ere Preface to the English Edition leadersticularlyaand role later in and during theagainst pioneerscultural the colonialism, reawakening andin Islam. intellectual asWe well ofcan he developmentas cite 19th the as pioneersand eminent early of theandexamines 20th Arabthinkers century peoples Gomel who were Elplayedpar. also depthwagedidentity and by runmaturity the parallel peoples both to in ofand Northunderdeveloped intertwine Africa and with countries.in the Sub-Saharan political They and Africa. economic Peoples are wowing in strusgles thoughtMohammedDine El Afghani,and actionAbdou. Abdel not It isRahmanonly both aimed interesting Elid Kawakbi,atexpansion the liberationand Abdallah significantof colonialism of Nadeem,Arab to peoplesnote in itsand that economic, Sheikhfrom their the political and military forms, civilization,theyprobingdependence,evetywhere are intosearchingmoulding aretheir but not alsopast, afor onlypersonality thea rediscovering culturalbreaking cultural genuineidentity, thechains theirbonds enoughlearningthat origins, of implison political and their strong the androots, mind. economicenough thek They history; and anew about their own are )--IPP historicalliferelatedand.from and to of strugglethewomen's the oppression strut* foe status forfreedom ofemancipation. and feudal Thetheand regimes,need Iraniansocial tO equality Revolution drawbut also them among dealt intoof today, Arabwith 'h r. problems mainstreampeoples, therafore, who is of a natural heritage of the tovalue, restorewhatresolute goods was the enough plundered androots profits, tothat resist over take and the thetheir the onslaught centuries: citationssustenance of naturalof Western intellect in the pastinierests and and culture andtheir nourish- retources, labour producing to take beck ... and content,haveWarn,tion continued from buta religion the also teachingsto by fightcharacterized the underfact of thethat the Koren sincenot banner only andthe ofby earlythe Wienits Prophetphilosophical days and it to penetratedMahomet. draw and their theological Thus intoinspira- theit is that exposedandup,ment becomesloses in cultural to both seriou.s weak its heritage. physical revereesand futile For and Thisas likewithout morala vast,result a tree force. thesedeep of cut the androotsoff blows from sweeping the directed the life depths of movement againsta people of the fordries soil, liberation is, nevertheless, daydomarena life, fighters hasof politics been and and martyrs alsostillfor is embraced feudalism,intheThe the banner pastcause the oppressionyeats and economicof Arab inspirationhave liberation witnessedandand reactionsocialfor conflictingon aaspects thegrowing on other.the forcesof one conflict every. hand, which and isfor being the free- fought risingArabviciouslyboth external world.movement and In andoften this of internal conflict effectivelypeoples enemies. any fighting in and defence allImperialism for weapons their of its rights. interests continues in the Islamic and can be used to contain the to fight back it from Inandialismout scope on more andthe and acute, basisreaction. complexity. ofthe Warn, Asbattle the betweenThis forcontradictions people'sbattle the is forces beingminds in theoffought and progress, world convictions in allof todayareas.and thoseis grow Islamexpanding of deeper isimper- one anyinspiredbyIslam'. misinterpretation Islamic Any by rulers CIAambiguity provocations, can of be Islamicin IslamicgristAmong peinciples,tocan theteachings, be thesemill blown ofany weapons imperialist up reactionary and emphasizedis conspiracy,the measure use of by tension, orWestern policy the 'sword and the words of any mistake by an Islamic leader, can be peoplearetheof the world,directly essential who rich relatedconstitute inarenas resources to thebecausethe struggleArab andSince it world,human spreads for Islam controlboth potential. its still theinfluence ofexercises forces the The oil over conflictsof fields. areaction profoundcrucial within regionsand influence Islamthose of over the eighty million accusingIlestemin fishtingpropaganda, press it back of being achestrated andapinst canreactionary, the be forcesmanipulated a campaign of of imposing progress. spinet on Only womenthe kW= the Revolution veil and the Or born of intent in order to be used a short while ago, the manyofwho Islam.the stand ofvast the formajority problems freedom who ofend stillsociety progress base and their areof attitudes everyday waging anda life battle behaviouron theto win teachings thetowards support of militantasaunderdodos; social a political the ofpopularchange attemptingrule and of uprisinget01101MICgeared the Shah.to towardssurprisingdeprive MOVE1110111It tried thethem in topast, ita depictof depth thetraditionalist, idvancing whatcivil and rishts resoluteness. under and they the fanatic, presenthad Seek enjoyed rather of a than was happening in Iran as increasingopplessionandWarn :;ocial can movements effortsand be anexploitation. ate effective being of Islamic weaponmade ParallelAs inspiration. a to result,in spreedto the this handsthe development, Thesethe last effectiveof two themovements decades Arab utilizationand peoples related haveconsider ofseenagainst Arabicto thatit, a vigorous revival in the political Evensituationsubtlety,counter-revolutionary revolutionary and theto ways thought and machinationsof leftist playing given movements to skilfully understanding ate characterized on the various the complexity by contradictions. their variety, of each can be utilized in this 'same of colonialism- theAfricaArabization national where by language.campaign.mobilizing French had The theThis replaced IslamicAlgerian is characteristic Arabicpotential, Revolution, as thehasalso official whichalso of other carried fouehtlanguage countries out French aunder vigorous in North the veneddghts'ism,forcesnations' had onand posing behalf toand human be become underdefendedof rights.Iranian the unwitting The guisesinwomen, Iran. Western ofinstrumentsProgressive notdemocracy, realizingpegs suddenly feministin liberalism, thatthe sometimeshands discoveredmovements humanism, of reactionary the that inter- form modern-'human colonialiv regime. 163The movements aiming at cultural emancipation, independence and BEST COPY AVAILABLE Iranianand even people's the content struggle of theirAgainst intervention American intervention. At the was being used to diecredit the 16 some time The I dden Face of Eve Preface to the English Edition whowingsorthodoxWestern are of describedinterests theforces Revolution of and asWan noagents byso more opposingas are tothan buildin factatheistic Islam up encouraging a 'torampart tendencies the socialists againstthe inmost a theandsociety conservative progressive communists of believers. and youbraveleaderstaken to peoplebe whosimply of differenthave have as insisteda opposed conglomeration levels' that orthe 'OneIslam isolation ofabove cannot unrelated of thesayinp be other' understoodprecepts like or 'And 'Men and weproperly are statement& have responsible modeif it is These andliberationsameutilize that timeit as once at athey variousbuttress again realize it stapsagainst cam that playof Wan progressiveitsCapitalist an history, has important been circks includingand an role socialist importanttoday in contemporary the are movements. struggle forcefacing for aagainst Arab dilemma.people's But atsocieties, the They are in need of Islam and drawnforWarn.Warn women' into in its orderfrom ranks theirthat a theywidegeneral mightspectrum Thecontext be broad used of and Islamic characterto from support leadersthe ofessential backward the and Iranian millions principles interpretation Revolution thinkers. of todayof means that it hes andattemptthehasexploitation Arabadoptedreakening to world preserve and arch themand oppression. an doe andat asthipous others.Middle reinforce Tide The East,stance explainsthem essence a two-facedwith st times, whyregard of American the standwhile to United the characterizedcriticizing, policyIslamic States in movements attacking,thisof Americaby regard an in andpressuresclingSome head to of traditionalist them tobeing be are covered exerted enlightened Islamic by on a women,beliefs. ChidOn and progressive. These ofOf interpretations the latter emancipated Others are the that aft source working notrequite and of womanthetend body to to tettois us todivide, not strengthen forget weaken that, the and atreactionary, distortthe very those time obscurantist movements of writing and (midthat fanatical mobilize1979),world wings Islamic the to masses takeof move-Islam, an inanti-imperialist, snd the and-feudalist Of a socialist potation. areIranianconnectedeitherbe isolated being upheld people, hatched planonce out andaimed more of apinst facilitating ignorance withinat holdingthe theRevolution the of precincts back thesuccess real change, behind principlesofof thethe dividing the house.numerous scenes. of Wam theThese ranksconspiracies or slogans ate of pertthe ofthat a are andZionism,Treatywhichments intervention, hesinwhich, theturned been Arab instead conceived,the andcountries Middle ofled bringing Egypt engineeredhaveEat intofurtherpeace, opposed a theatre anddownhas the almostdivided theforlaraell/Egyptian pathAmerican negotiated the to Arabs, capitulation military by'Peacestrengthened the bases US. andTreaty' -a a vativeVeltIst_VMessindidagainst everythingIslamic the movementsinterests in andits powerof socialist theirsince to Therepeoples. 1970,help tendencies arein in theThe rulersorder revival present within thatin certain end theythe Saint strengthening country.rninkt Arab regime becountries The usedin Egypt govern- of who continue to use religion cower- thebydeepening those path Islamicpreviously political regimes and mad economic andby dal thoseht predecessorsthis crisis. political double anddealing for religious Turkish game leaders with domination, Islam, following the and Western in powers are supported mochlajIélpedment not them only byabstainedomen openliiichannela were Womjçjferlqg encourage for financial litany wayand politicsv/Ith.thctivi su----Wort orms of Islamic drat' were a familiar o wear the veil, and Iiii4e of but &axiomtheoflater . father, French a theand rad greatest the British male, of colosialinn, thoseall crimes, who depictedthoseasd ckwho who revolt, ....considered revolution dissathfaction and the struggle of I . '- . * the an was oppose asd who maintained o I - -,. dience spinal the oda, trinnent d in inceusantlyemploymentvirtues about appeared woman's in the roleTin newspapers, InEgyptian the home. ruling and special class, radiohowever, programme. retreated talked rapidly &MN thh positionmot and t and t gers of female participation in paid ng hes perforceotherswhichnotthe ordinaryGod heriches acceptAlmightysaw perms and fit, the depriving pleasure who withwill bestowedofpoverty, God somewithout with destitutionof the end thepeace, good bare? He calmand thinp.ofnecessitieswho disease andis a life abeliever, deep andon as people heresy. bestowirssatisfaction! therefore, in For the upon was must way it dynastymarchPalestininians.startedanrinced ofto that serious theattack had Initial This thealarmruled peoplealarmFlISCO thebordering wascountry battling Tresty magnified on over with topeak destroy 57Israel awhen years.hendred and the the Since to heritagesame fold defend largeby Islamic the ofdm sectors asweeping rights tyrannicalmovements of of the obscurantism,divideinstrumentsimportant the roleArab superstitionIn thein peoples, maintaining hands and ofinstilling thoee futatkiern andReligious rulersreinforcingin their have or teschinp minds classes been reactionary and and that hearts campaignsstill wish regimes.are tothe dangerousdisarm conviction have Religious and played, and continue to play, an before.necessaryrevolutionary to attackforces what were had &swing beenAt the theirdefended sane inspiration time, with the such from Western remarkable lolsen, prea it now onceardour become again started lo attack the virtues.Wankthat destiny rule ki is the all Arab powerful Peninsula, andYet that there all fatalism through have andbeen the resignation centuriesreligious thinkers thatare followedthe andhighest Mahomet's of first establishment of clickyetovernightdefence'fanaticism' chillMg of Western ofas became Iranian theyof camerae Islamic stood peopledwomen movements.carriedclothed condemnedby hundredsthis in their medieval An longto enthusiasticof the thousands blecksight dark torobe., walls millions comply of ofwhilewomen, the of was thereaderschador. Impanel" inoseemtbundled allIran I. JESTCOPY AVMIABIE . 166 overThe Hidden the world. Face Yet of thisEve enthusiasm for women's rights, or even human rights, creatures who should be 'object to the will and fantasies of men. In this world Preface to the English Edition populationsforcedoftowu deaththe sadly Savak, to by lackingfke armywere itsor whenland whenbeingguns, to a thousandswholesettleorburnt wassinated intopeople thedeath of tentsIranian withor of napalmrefugeemen or camps, or when peaceful men, womentoitured and children in the underground cells and women were being shot torn to pieces by cluster was concernedwithinpractisingtuallyof ours believe the isstill ititsocialist notinremains in everyday true equality movement tocharacteristic say life?between that And itself, very men isand fewita backwardnotandindicates are alsowomen, the correct menthatposition but in who to manyalso myas not am for that,spheres may capableas mem wanesWeds°. of is bombs.everywherepeopleis a reactionary and abolish to strengthen policy, exploitation unworthy andNo broaden doubt,and of misery.any anytheir revolution attempt Itmovement is necessary tothat force towards wishes women to emancipate back into the chndor that women unite liberation.or the home humanbecausechangesocialist mindcut itand is take Marxistlinked and place heed. to thought therapkily, Men deep andareTime lucidWeer verypractice and andemotive often time culturelhas the stillspin,Ind victims progressapsychic lifelong has anodeway pooesnis nobroved to contradictiontogo? that,leg of behind thewhereas poktical sad economic otheringmen.enceSolidarity of futureButpurposes what such between developmentis going solidaritydiametrically women on in mustin the canways opposed underdevelopedbe be exercisedfavourable a powerful to the Olt come not forcecountries, only of equality to women and the basis of a clear understand- of change, and can influ- lest it be used to serve but also to freedom for byandchanpsthein their politicalpolitical to real whichattitude equality struggleactioo will f'nwarde anduhimetely betweenof 1,131111111, effective women. Ilse feed orgmization90109. Theto therefore the role Only complete of continuewill tbsoughwomen's this emancipatios to socialthe ofpnizetkins,be infinenoecnecial and (=korai offactors womentutted and Is of itsy wagednaturalandstrugglesall peoples. theby resources.peopieexploitation for It emancipation is in necessary allIf thisexercisedparts link ofat and theallis by forgotten, the timesThird international battles to World' see feminist for the nationalagainst capitation close movements linksforeign over between inhuman women's and social liberation dominationthe West and exceptioo.whichchampschange they be withinMen possible. see must themselves come Such tois whichrealize,theThe law en feministofand so progress evennecessary moventeets be mut compelled for the hurt= status in theto progress ofmake, West women whichthe end is so are devoting peat efforts kr tie so reluctant to make. participatemaywomenof beAsia, used coveredAfricain notholding to and in further thebacklAtin theAmerica.Of forces course, of freedom I oppose the desire of certain religious leaders in Iran to see chodor the cause of women's !bastionor deprived but instead of the civilto rights they have pined and progress in the countries certainaccountofcause mentalthe otsituation characteristics bywomen differences women's in everywhere underdeveloped liberation are common inevitable are movement& to beginning thesecountries when movements we to Forwhich areunderstand although dealing Mose all over withthetothee* be the different taken are world, into slapsfund* of sopects critics/mayieorover humushave thethat appraisalaccepted years. andhi words therefore Such byto serveandthe religious Habit peopleactions a dubious toleaders whose go wrongcause. eitherlife heandA do religiouswishes to not make to influencemistakes. and even be submitted to democratic control and understand Islam correctly leader is not a God, he It is nece. capitalistliberatiooeconomic,women'sinfluences societiesfrom social status the foreign and cootentInd sad politicalrole Arabdomination and in society.Islamic formsdevelopment. often ofcountriesCultural monk still In remainsdifferencesin uoderdevelopedare other also mem of between amortises. including countries, the If Western that el of the crucial issue and throwingenlightenedsteadfastlytryingdirect. toIle lead. backshould spiltreUgiou Withinretrograde attemptsbe questionedteirlars women attempts to andthrow hem and pronrusive againstshown themappraised back thatthe men, statusbythey into thethey Sfe the women capable past. endSupported men he by of women and theirhave succeeded in of standing is hapsthereforethatmidithis is explainsof notagainst solidarity also taken theharmful into factinterestsoa accountits tintto own the progressiveof strugglemaytheand liberation studiedInd foefeministcircles women'swith movements among care,movements smandpetion. enthusiasmImola in the towomen P.ast,Wilms and This stippledand the a per- Mod attitudesprogressive&dustedrights In society.towardslevel political of thesociety leadersage-long are Theand inspired struggle religiousreligious by that narrow thinkersmovement has continued class and of privileges Iran In isIslam a endconcrete an ortho- example on a higher and mote thou whose values and theregimetoa somewhat Iran ardor. in'that defence ' wasneutral threatening of attitudetheir elders totoIt imprisonsome isagainst necessary American thewomen reactionary to voderstand feministbehind makthe lions thatblack chauvinist who the folds mostrobed of important inegghrthet faces politicaldoxremainthe traditionalist subject and limited social of inner interpretationand struggle rigid.contradictions isle enlightened,may of Islam. fight 90 that vigorouslyAn whereu his eminent vision his for leader of the certain liberation may aspects himself in look upon women as inferior horizons in other areas of his the be affluentoppoeitionwomenimpactsin mligion', insociety. ofArabto modernizatioe'male nor InWank 'feminist itschauvinism', essence, countries rights' characteristic the nor la (asstruggle notdoes understood that itof which skit ofthe 'free atdeveloped sometimesis some now thounkt' ofbeing theworld in verso foughtouperficialthe and West) 'belief seeksthe is ..I:1country from foreign domination and yet 167 RtSTOPY AVAILABLE 1.63 in The Hidden Face of Eve developandto resources, ensure whatever that and the they ofArab their have peoples scientific to the take maximihn and possession cultural and heritage rid of themselvestheir economic once and for so that they can potential workingAbeing Conservative people,a woman democratic which is liberties government will necessarily be important, but the class and and socialism, and this antagonistic to Prefacethe rights to ofMe English Editio policies the represents. injusticesTheyall of theseek controland to buildoppression and a freedomination ofsociety systemsIt is exercisedwith worth based equal noting on byrights class foreign in forthis and all connection patriarchaland to abolish thatprivilege. itthe is precisely the current capitalist interests. reac- numberexercisesThisto awill of similar thenot considerable countriesonly position affect ininfluencewith Africa policies asregard regards to women movements in for women's in world affairs andand to a smaller extent particularly overEngland. a certain Fritain still in Asia. emancipation.inevitably leads peopleslutionendtionary Zionist foras regime opposeda justinterests andin Egypt,to lasting inthe the valuesafter peace,Middle having of thatEasta modern linkedstarted and abandoned itscivilization to fate attack to thatthe theand Iranianof the American Revo- struggle of Arab of believestatus,anymovement cost.can that never Wefanaticism prejudiced know be attained that of in favour unlessThe ofstruggle the of women in underdeveloped countries progress for iiomen, and an improvement of the whole of society female sex and rising to its defenceis not at a movesnarrow forward. fanati We their reactionaryin ailthat spheres bind theand of Arab thoughttraditionalist peoples and action.circlestoOur Western past SocialIn societyexperience interests begin inevitably has to always clamour leads shown for to a thatreturn progress is arrested and the mostany strengthening of the links a retreat readytoemancipation politicalaliy totheir co-operate Of efforts requiressocial. with with Victory that all democratic women in the any form should bethose opposed, who stand whether for long and difficult struggleadopt a flexiblefor attitudeand nationalist and be forces, prove's. Women should be women's religious, prepared groupsauperficialassaultareto orthodoxy subjected in society,against modernization arid to freedomand attack, dogma. the womenand Theprocesses women social belonging become andthat economicaffectto these the the first groups elitistrights victims and areof ofthe transformedprivileged the vast general provess. Radical social change is replaced by majority guaranteeruleIranianorganizations.religious of the people Pahlavi formovements, itsto futureIt is the development.as unified well efforts This of carry throughdynasty, a successful and itrevolution is this unified effort as with socialist and Marxist all these forces that thatagainst fCMaills the the 57 mainyear oldoriented trends and peogressivepermitted the increuingandtoilinginto atrade, distortedwomen oppression or in in versionthe industry, teaching and of atheagriculture, sharp and Western liberal decline government woman,professions in their while standards administration,find the themselves vast of living.majority commerce victimsSuper- of of forcecanoneIranian benff be utilizedagainst progressive people as the are long other. as itIn these divisive concentrating onor attemptsretrograde, to dividecapitalist these or serves the main purpose attempts,explains any whyslogan the and enemies of the no matter whether that forces, to play any force doandleadficial not sexualto lead trueprocesses aspects toequality the emancipationof of between modernization, life. Sexual women of rielts women, whether and as practisedmen but in in tothe thean inWest accentuatedeconomic, or the East,social, will many Western societies oppression neverpoiltical mentliberationand in fanatical, the countriesmovement chauvinistic of is Asia, andWomen have always been no exception. an integral partAfrica, of theracialist thenational Middle or internationalist. East and Latin The socialist, democratic Of rigid liberation move- women'sAmerica. clams.rights'increasingwhere These womenon that capitalistfind aresmall their transformed profits.wayminority into businessofIn into womenaddition, commercialized or belonging modernizationthe liberal bodiesto professions the processes mid&and a Ofand in the West sometimes bestow source of upper 'equal peopleZionistandThey as and offought parttheir imperialist of sidenational the byPalestine side right with to the agvessive policies aimed at Liberation Organization's self-determination. Andmen in Alegria against French depriving the Palestinian struggle whist women fo_ght too colonialism, theareeventhey inferior become belong. position Members The whichpositions of isParliament characteristic they enjoy or Minister,.do of not such serve Butsocieties. tousually liberate On suchconservetive, thewomen women from if not more conservative, than the men to whose class contrary, may by expeditions,theMozambiquein French, the againstin VietnamagainstJapanese, the Portuguese Brithisspinst theThrough colonialism their participation in the occupation and Arab reactionarysuccessiveAmericans armed invasions and now of the Chinese. and Rhodesian punitive their countryintrigues, in hassituationthey teken perpetuate and place. affording inequality a pretence betweenWhen of change,Margaret men and whereas Thatcher, women in by leader fact masking no of real the the Conservative real Party, became the change marinerdemocraticless,economic onceas far or theand associalist, new women'siocial reconstruction status in systems of government are in they very often cease to advance society is concerned.they have This gained isstruggle for national liberation and for place, whether national many rights. Neverthe- in a significant noticeable in tomayWesternfirst a women detetiorationpeople Press Primemisfit acclaimed in feelMinister the that situation this Margaretof event Britain of as women, during Thatcher'sa significant thefor monthit policies isdevelopment. not of willMay, probably 1979,And the leid 163 amiscepy Av yet toother tinthe socialist countriesfact that regimes like North of Eastern capable of ensuringwomen adequate have not succeeded in Korea, China and even Vietnam. Europe, in Algeria after representation for themselvesbecoming at a well organized 17 independence, and in This is due mainly fteface to the English Edition TheDespitetionsall Hiddenlevels and the of structures Feet governmentcrucial of E.role built theyand up administration,play as after the ilational or social revolution in all fields Of economic and well as in the political institu- social endeavour in society. socialextolledhusbandwhich wallsensure the and and work children,a fencescontinued of women effortsthat exploitationprevented and which their also of continue their efforts right to education, and torn down to remain unpaid. It has in cell for the home, in theandsentationthe factories, factsometimes that within theyfields, even the represent social politicala vesy services, halfrestricted power the structurepopulation minority. different professions and at home, and is alwayscomposed limited toin of aeach men, minority, country, and have their a repre- continuesIslamicvalueslating pan thatcircles)to singof bind the thethat womenlabour virtues 'Paradise force.to oftheir sweet liesNevertheless, children under motherhood, theand feet ithusbands continues of to women from becoming a freely circu- to maintain (as in some in servitude-, it reinforce those givetendencysweep them away quicklythe attention patriarchal to foreet the Theproblems new ruling classes and governments are classand relations effort that within are required.the family, Instead these are values related to them continue to faced by women, or at least not to of attempting to maintainedhold sway. obedienceworkof obedience and a *consecrated tocareer, theto Almightyhusband even in if theAllah.is the Egyptianbe highest Toa Minister, this of is still Marriage Code. Whenvery a day, woman an Egyptianqualities woman in with a woman and a mark governedmothers' by the and law that of earlybyin one ana shiftstagesaccelerated form from orof another,socialistfeudalistic industrialization orientation.and structures theThe changes that have taken place in which requires a rapid expansion These changesto capitalism,are usually andaccompanied sometimes by eventhe Arab countries are characterized of labour to that,isunabiesuccumbs not by spared. to neglecting give to the Accusations her innumerable husbandher children are and burdens andchildren not In theher heaped on her head, not the least of which ta submitting herself to Ilse husband's care thatjob andIs expected in the home, of her, or she is womenoutthLtheions cities the thatinto home vowwhichthe productionup. and tend Families which to swell process draws migrate at a phenomenal in large hundreds andof thousands the numerous of both services men and orpnizat- numbers from the rural areas torate (anything from a 4% to andin absoluteofcareswill these and little needs, 'wadright about tobonds' she divorcewhat is becomes contributinghappens in ArabSociety inIslamic mattersto the pays dimolution without peat attention which the to preserving 'sacred no MOM than an illusion. The man's familyof 'sacred bonds' family and bonds'. yet preservation socialnumbersaniS1111Ce13% changes annual but they and increaseto whichface numerous a intheywhoie the functionsare population). range exposed. that were previously affordedof new problemsby resultingusedWorldng from to be women cared fornot and onlyThey looked pow are afterdeprived of the support, the the forgetssecuritykfe.than Society toone and provide wife stability raises and the to forfacilities a children,legalized and andmeanssexual destroy licentiowness the up 'motherhood' to the heavens and yet at the sane time countries, to necessarymarriage with for mothers more to bring up very essence of true familyall negate any real byextended alleviateforthcoming,themembers fields family the or of ebewhere. burdens sadthe system. numerous of Their Social,every tasks children day psychological wete extended family whenever work called their life. The extended family carried out a undertaken in common so as to and even rmancial support was mothers to wide birthhertheir child, tochildren her and baby appropriately.the are periods sadly of inadequate. The leaveA insistence afforded thatto her society before has and so after far woman is rarely given enough time to muse displayed in preserving the formal giving artvadetynofamily. doing other of 1013Cild awayBut institution the with nuclearfunctions. this has unit, familygrown Migration up whichis is incapable now being of replacedperfooning by thethe samenuclear role,to substitute itself for the stmcturesto the city and social change in general that and rearingmaintainedrepresenthstructure related children to ofthem andthe the desire toinsteadthatfamily, ensure the of of while familyexploiting thatthese depriving thecontinues becoming economic classes it to ofthe bear functions the of the and the politicalany powers genuine that substantive content, burden and costs of family be onceresponsibilitysystem existed, once and did at so home and toIn this new situation, men have foe the family members and particularlybe capable of undertakine what the evade manyrelated of the to responsibilities the need for a innew society organizationcontinued to wash their hand's of any extendedthe family mother. of discoveringmentsthatsystem. would were The have thetowoman take tnithsto be over remains that her lie functions source the basis ofin freethe of thishome.labour Toand of compensated and paid for if other institutional responsibility of the axial prevent people from numerous services arrange- socialandwithconstitutedin publicthe life their home. capable life, old by responsibilities Womenroles their of solving at new continuehome, roles the towards problems into society bear the double or even triple burden the husband, the children and sometimesand at the facedwork place,by women combined both at work and assumingthoughor family motherly system,love unaided and orsociety theresponsibility family upkeep, has affection all nourishment alongfor theirmust reinforced economic and and the needs. links betweenAt the can only express itselfrearingtouching I. of attachment children. As to the mothersone love tine manytore theafire, oldparticipation suth values as fathers, of women reas 'society hm thrown 17; with remarkable obstinacy, and in particular mothers, brothers, sisters and even in theoverboard labour certainforce, it values has that were an continued to uphold cousins. BESTthose values COPY AVAILABLE obstacle andperformingmajoritydie is inequality,still maintained. of peopleadequately injustioe in Arab theand countries functions poverty which deprivefor which charscterize them the of the lives of tM The vast majority of families cannot provide their family system was createdany real possibility of 172 vast The Hidden Face of Eve Preface la the Englith Edition withouttheirdeprivationchildren babies thewith and baskor the even a required needsstate look of of aftereconomicexhaustion life theirthem. affectionmeans. Withodtwhich Mozt withers.food mothers their Deprived breasts suffcr eky hunger, tp, renders them unfit to nourish of everything, sexualhe organ,maintained activity and sexual thatrelated activity to the relatedclitorisNo doubt, to the the clitoris physical ablation maturity and mental health in a woman of the clitoriscease and be transferred to the vagina. as an infantile phsse,appears and a muchwhen mote savage required that whoseleavingthethey fields lot losea brokenandit IStheir inl0 thebebodycapacity cast home, and aside to their give. foe youth aWithered younger ebbs toawayand the more corein a attractive matterby years of woman.yews, dzying soul a useless forgotten human tte,..ng of labcur in logicalfunctionsandquences cruel surgery procedureso can that might be its exactly thaneven itsthebe same, since the end result presence or absence amount to the same thing. psychologicalmore malicious removal. and Neverthekes, harmful because the it is the abolition of its Psycho-tendscome- Patriarchal norms sod valuesWomen continuer het, who to metakereign educated possession in ther. Nevertheless,home, may of find theherearnings, morestreet, is most rewarding the cases, occupations the rhuaband she tries and to aloosen his jip or refuses to respond to and to threaten her with divorce will continue to dominate his fantasies. freedombrainmayto have producesubstance. has lost been thean It essential illusionlost. can create of organ, being the likeillusion a child born compkte, whereas in actual fact the of being free, whereas in an idiot yet provided with actual fact body newqmpers andttitudes magazines. propagatedThisooi, throughis the the mosque situation radio programmes,Ind of themost place women ofTN., woth, infilms, the and Arabthe even theatre, countries. in the concepts Yet cannot and of mostthingstheir livesimportant for aand human future. weapon being, Toder in be woman oppressiontheTo live in anis the illusion, first not to know consciousstruggle for that freedom, you are emancipation still or man, and became it deprives the truth is the most a slavedangerous still living of all people of their control /agree withbelong,betweento thoudepict and theirwomen our who own life believein assituation America a continual that and there thatsubmission are of fundamental women to medieval in the region systems, to which I and Europe who draw sharp distinctions differences. They tend and point (earnoppressed, not because we belongWet hastothe the womendominated in betsArab the ofworld Islamic since societies, but countries realize thatstep we on arethe stillroad to emancipation. as a result of the patriarchalthousands class of years. East, not because we are Arab, slaves, still syst vehementlydrcumcisionarticlescircumcision. and to deliversome be They denounced. or speechesraise the ritualsa hue But at and andconvenes. by cryconcentratingtraditional in defence Of course,practices onof the suchit issuch victims, good manifestations as that write female long female representforcefor powerfulwomen half will ofenough society.never andbe To achieved my mindTo rid the ourselves real of this system is consciousthe only way enough to become and dynamic free. F unless they unite into reason why women have been an organized political enough to truly \ superior humanity, a glowof feelingsthereeven isforgotten, ato risk the that concrete and the that real everyday effective issues of struggle action social and for economic change be evaded of satisfaction that may blind the mind and be replaced by a feelingwoolen's of emancipation. cruel conscious,theyunable have to and completefailed dynamic to constitute their enoughMore themselves to and more women are emancipation, even in the socialist being drawn into the struggle for social impose their rights. into a political force powerful, countries, Is that trans- concentrateoppression.aboutmaction. it in I mywas onBut book, issues theI disagree first libmem such Arab with as and womanfemaleI thermam Sex. against womencircumcision toI linked female in it to andcircumcisionthe depictother aspectsthem and as other ofproof female similar retrograde and denounce it publicly and to write America and Europe who whichsocialcameformation ofchampis completelywomen's in related the liberation Arab to the countries. is separate and distinct, unrelated to the family, to the husband, or topurely a woman's problem, orMany a of them, however, still believe that the children, a problemmajor politica/ particular thebtAfrican .gninual isolation, Of and Arab or barbaric to countries. sever oppression their I opposelinks with to all which theattempts general women to economic dealare exposed with suchand only social problems in and with the oppression of leadingwardsissues a role growing in society,in mogressive meturity or to the social struggleHowever, for the experience and mistakes of among the women and men who are playing a movements and parties. Many of them socialism, freedom and democracy. the past have contributed to- are ofcountries,whichpreesures the clitoris.is the imto daily whkhboth Nevertheless, bread ofwomen which fed everywhere ato Women theypatriarchal the arefemale in victims areEurope class sex exposed, of insystem and culturaldeveloped America still and prevails. and psychologicalmay developing not be exposed to surgical removal ownmentneedslife,realizing problems in relatedbetween society more to and the andeach clearly generalthe the running dailythe issues need of totheirof individual, between the broad participation of people in the solution of theirsocietybridge theand gap the betweenpersonal politicalproblems and and civil functioning of govern- hispsychologicalSipnundclitoridectomy. theory Freud on the and was'Lift psychic physiological theperhaps chains nature the off circumcisionofmost mywomen, famousbody, described put ofof womenallthe those chains the clitorismen on my as mind.'a male when he formulated who taught relationshiptomodern feeling theory betweenand emotion, of social women andtransformationThis and that new men is abkconcept in their of society, and of Ihe ownto affairs.build thatup They a links new feel thoughtand the higher need to action,for aprocesses intellect related to its struggle for a better world. iv 173 ES CPI MILANI 174 It v The Hidden Face of Eve siongeneraltransfomiation, to which oppression women must of be aloneboth abk men are to concretizeexposedand for the no there is an urgent and vital need to visualize the women,kand the specific forms of oppres- relationshipsother reason between than that the they humanarethelinks women. cultural, being,between In and moral,other the to political,words, blazepsychological, the economic Thetrails creation alongsexual and which ofandsocial a woman'saffective movement in each Arab country, capable of remouldingthis processof society, must and advance remoulding of the democracy,educateditsmobilizing ranks the professional the progress illiterate women peasantand inwoman, everysocialism woman, home,will meanis capable village,the that female theoftown reaching Arab Or city,movement every woman, factory Worker, the and not just the of drawing into for and modesinstrumentis attainingtheir ofefforts struggle theof a alonestage specific needed thatwhere clamcan to it liberateiscreate a Itreal is athemselves Arab massnew women Arabmovement fromwoman, alone who can formulate the theory, the ideas and the all oppression.alive Itwith is her own culturaloriginality,freedomthought. tradition, capableConsciouswill come as of well aschoosing Arab aas gift assimilatingwomen from what the who is I-kavens, mostthe no progresslonger genuine or livebe bestowedunderof the sciencefreedomupon andillusion them valuable and is thatlong by modern inand her ofbecausewillarduous,the slavery leadchivalry othersand theyis evenof that knowmen, to heavier. thetotal that,but price emancipation. understand if tothe pay price is heavy.thatto Such pay the Suchfor road women to Arab women will not hesitatefreedom is heavy, the price alone are those that !I CairoNawal1979 Sasdowi 175 AsIVIVI AVAILABLE 7 ). 72 t t -14-.) 16...... t..4...... 041,L4<) -e)/,' /2 )14 t.t pledfact trousers revealed and principally some kind by of their clothing. Moat of the men wore rum- Divorce 73 gallabiya.sweaterthewere 'lower swathed Geeof elements 'popular' of in the a blacklawyers cut andmilaya, was quality; izt traditional the traditional garb of married . A girl here and there was dressed la a man here and thereor wore knitted a ; most woman clothing of a sheikh. women of and Chapter III: DIVORCE EGYPTIAN ems Divorce may be pronounced twice, sad AND RICLATTD MATTERS Thecourts. radioJudgesHe was was entered, undoubtedly turned three off, amtheof them,oftalkingThe the kWh withShari stopped, entered a lawyers and with fromhis court list and asmounoech a katib sod a represeetathe of tbe people stood up.the old Miarea hltams! divorcedsonableorUbe allowed it women.,woman provisice to go must That with should be Iskindness Incumbentretained be made la for lemur ... Rea- on wereofa personal theCairo the 'babe, InLath% statusthe and courthouee ((Evora tooksession their by of Inseatscourt an Sabra. ibtide'l behindaction) court thecases. for The be First or the list for that swain beech at the frost. This was bagihealledNorthern District the UmDivorcerighteous permitted i the men. moatthings. hated to God of all The Koran nomboement,taU4sewedfirst alone, case, case. butby however, Nonumberat that reply. rateproduced and It name Thewould a UM ofwoman litigants. of that asd morning's her calms had eocn be !Welled. The third as-more than forty cases as it, for No reply. He called Use lawyer. therefore,The family la is the the satiated first cell Interest, of moiety A Saying of the Prophet it and fromisher your name. Mm complaint since.'Mae answerad. against your He*HeThe referredhusband?' judgedisappeared tositting the theela the years middle ago, ( re' is al-mahkama) said the woman. 'I have not heard file in front of him. 'What asked the womb must be afforded all means of protectiosa. The (Egyptian) Charter (1012) 9'Have youYee. tried to locate him?' metfoewereThe itthatsmall crowdedwas morels' sotcourtroom the together sued first was wereUme os fullthe eachseging that towoods. theyoverflowing. badbeaches. oome to that court. Some bed Mee, women,Many end ksew children each other, taseillartold the judgewith thethat case. be had The Just JudgeTbs Wee woman addressed retained lookedHave that the you morale'confused. *Wiled asd She the turnedsiyabaT to the lawyer. woman. The lawyer was re- whiletheirlacases court. cheese). breakfast were A taking, babyA a/few ealsh wasand better-dressed hewbele&ban manybreast-bd. nod timesOhnepeople theybalds had laiormatien as to howSeveral keg their children were numbs(sat on the front bench.(Egyptian bread and bee' recodrsd to appear gavewettedteeth thecase, his papers case, to took the outJudge. someThe papers,'You Gallia, mast and of notify stoodthe and thebefore oases niyabe, the produced judge. he rald. Heso laeyer with a briefcase, a U. and 'Next cawsresponse. At about the a shirt, awes. H. These were the lawyers. The rest 177 were Mischa - 'of the people' - a BEST COPY AVAILABLE it seemed,Mostsubsided of hisb as the thisoases more gentleman had unusual some cameThe kind problems. background forward.of oddity lie He aboutappeared noise was them. hada known alone, been H. snecialieed,persostalIty. slowlywithout lsoreasing, but it noticeably 178 74 liabkansal himMs cling.sod spoke The adell:Meat word of greeting. was 'MyH.not was present.cable, Mows the husbeed-delaseiset.to the Judges also. The8 began ra' is the al-mahkania lawyer, is entering alooked up at that is why he does not want to letSomeomeThe her man go: hung in the Ids sudience head and was did heard not reply.to say, 'Maybe she hes mosey aodMore gestures from the Dtvoroo fl aoccurredbooms*ommierolable faot proves therebehind by isto the the sohis birthlaidId& wife's mrtillostebedof deems bees oompleted petitloo.of marriage There child three months after the marriage, from her former marriage,since the marriage can be no divorce hagib. SeveralThe'Good,The man Judge more mutelyI said cootinued:names the nodded Judge. were assist.'Come called. *Haat on, withoutease.' now. H. a maid Pry:Name tale". tto:rodmarriedwig:* lea vigorously or was to divorce?'not towardsdisclosed Titters the to Theogee:Mg lay 'Whetfrond JudgeWiest thedoes lookedat theyour at offset the papers. west?' H.asked spoke the mooed group. oourtroom. The hagib mo-to the mooed Judge. U. of the marriage.' fudge, 'to remain theleft, calling others ofcame asother la. The set coartroomofShe woes,'What answered. I. your same?' a warm came forward.was becoming Noisy again. After response. Some people Nullified.gamily. That My wasWest Ms should Mock sot 'Myis be 'Whytrade. humiliatedGUAM do'The Myyoumeet. by ollest sot lestioe, presonoce waste repeated Justioel tale' the Tbe(.3 lawyer. 7.lawyer asked was beginning to speak elo-marriage should be declared this woman ... the j-Aige. the(alive nolo of al-makkams,the who lookedThere'He'What at disappearedwee audleme is ayour di:Se:Mom :kW oar:plaint a losg la time the naiad ago.beck of the said something to the mooed lodge, who whispered your husbeod? I think he is La prison.' courtroom. The repreem- said: el believe the to akkanda.of that woman's *Hest child.case. He takesThe nes&'You cammust also beteg involved two witsesees, a huebeeds Basilan Hey,' no respoosibility for naia'a or Wane.' disappears's:do :ad failure to said the rags al-*He is not the father said.husband 'Do is you premed. want Wouldto change Mohammed MI0Theyour Nodded.Judge plea Ahmed tospoke to the woman. 'Your husband me of harm? hiahmoud come breterdr I. out abesot, he hearingsIsoompletetoisdiceled :Rapportwelt. Wewere that Ma fileswill theyposit:coed. wiie. (thatbear had Mod themla, brought a the amessary at seat,the witnesses. sod sod domusest of Ms the Theseat. seselm. One wow:saesJudgewas Lawyersaid,missing) 'Tell sod them the Other cams had sem'Is byit true. the ULM.have you TM mot Judge been verifiedspeedinglasA'You :demo: lelt must the names, sod revisemarriage a was thee your came hometuned patitios, forward Mxto the meths after nes. the be said. os your wif?' ago without my comsat, 9 be INestmixt mei.* amoumensest of toward. be red:moiled?, The'No,The Judge seat verifiedoet of names the sums. were calledB. barbed sod to the wife. she said. busbeed and wife came for- *Do you want mooedshereplied. said. wile?' TheThe Judge wile asked. became agitated sod began to 'That I. why I left.an ready That toI. whytake hisMr does beck. sot speed. Do you feel harmed by your bushes:Ps taking cry. He took soother wits,' be said. TheThe badgehusberd judge turned askedsaid, again 'Yeasthe senseto the questioswile. of the husband. 'Don't you wart to go back to him?' . 'Your husband wants you beck. repliedrepresentative the waldi ot al-alyabs.the elyaba. 'TheThe'Have'Of lattercourt °atm, arbiters consultedwill she notify bees replied. his youappoisted?' file. about the H. appointment addreseed his of goestionarbiters,' saidto the 940. actellYway, like a humillatbgman and divorce you like ber thls,The yourself?''Pio, )udgebringing no, turned nol you toto thecourt? man: Why 'Why don' do t youyou want to keep this 179said the woman. 'Hever, never. IV a finished.' NU COPY AVM woman 000the . judp. 'Next cam.' 'MyThe nextclient set is ofyoung, names produced a lawyer. He was mother eloquemt he began. 'Her beauty le Just buddin. Tor 180 Normprotectedtwo76 yearsseeds *bemosey and has tied aufticientbeen by withoutmarriage for theher to benefitsupport. of SheMahican:al is a husband who I. neither present a marital home. She I. a young girl in full Witness:Judge: No.Does he support her? husbandElbeherbloom. chastity. should who She have Shewill should anisstay beingopportualty be with released harmed Theher and judgeto from by marryprotect thiscut this another. Ia. legalher husband. H. was She laughing. ... husband's absence. She is fearful of should have a JudgeWitness:Judge: (to katib): Note that the wife's notifyNo.theDoes wife?the he husband have any to accessible bring his) property witnesses ban heel heard, and we might give to he Findsaid. this girl's busbasd or fIndAndThe lawyerherso it another went. was More smiling abessoes. also. *Her More father husbands finds who had 'But she needs a divoroe to marry we of them.' 'Whet do you want us to do? luelmed?' many husbands,* disappeared. meanswasthe majority told of withrepudiation of great them. emphasis. byDivorce the husbandThis Theby courtis typical not(ILd.n); how allthat divorce. is oocur in Egypt, or Weed, am is told, action (UAlls) is exosptiossi, wayI divorce occurs Is by the treditiosal me- maticsulted.timesMore corps. wivesa wife She whowould did claimed notalso appear; say theirOne that husbands but caseshe was hadcower:led didrepresentedbeen not physically a spend woman whom: husband was abroad in the on them. Some-by her lawyer.abused or in- diplo- bethey rationalisedthodcountenenced are of permaaent divorce that, by in orthodox (the whereasIslam, Qtamporary theBuned marriagesIslamic Islam) marriage' law considers divorce to be the way it is supposed to be dose. are contracted with the ides that man's prerogative. is sot today suppoeed to is notifyharmedAlthough him by either be Ms sent physicalto supportreturn,be did absence. tomoney rot send do Theforany her,his judgeol thesewife,she told claimed Wags the wakilin a specified Wee, be, the or to pronounce tale'. she was being al-niyabe to judge, powereornewheretheirtimes marriage in a the married for man.' to ending be couple He eaded. mustthe will marriage, Sincedo develop this the today the la Egypt an aversion to sack otherrespossibillty sad desire must beIslamic pieced legislatorIt must bevested foresees this that some- before the memo ometituteciTheJudgewould wife askedproecuroed said: a prisms for *Iverytime as sentseoetale'opining against be fromfor comesAeother thepurpoees the wife aiyabe,out, case ofbe involved divorce.whetheris put The wakil man in prime, or rather, under 'detention'. on her husband' s behalf. politicalback detentions again.' TIN: al- moorded,ofofficiatesfound (medhun),marriage occupying overend contracts. a there andstate-appointed moor& mud Thus be the witnesses. is pronouncemeets officialtie with small office In every neighbourhood. pronouncement of te religious qualldosUoss, of lain sod the sigeIng The matsua officially cifiesI:1401m is of theladefinite said, prime 'No. daratiosLena Political as and beiag detention doesAt*Petidos for the sot at sad comeIslout denied,* notof threewithinthe seed= said the the lawwere rags which the ai-mahkama. witness sessions. They regular prieon sentenoe. years. spe- tabsor *safeguards'as restricUve built on the la, wife,vertousAomanTen as maycomplioationn,is not may at quite first pros:mos (but almost) as unfettered a right for the bsehied, appear. Them ars am- aed some veriset la the saleroom oil the courtroom.Judges It went like this: theDoWhat plaintiff? you is swear your same?to tell the... Whattruth? la your address? How do you know were beard whichher Id:la for (waiting this purpoee period I. aftercossideredorThe ifdivorce eicidathe wife to kr be divorceIs three pregnant, is the with length the of birth time of coverts:a the child. ahem it is the twice, and still take Ms wile beck withis or death, before remarriage) maths: three maws, Witness:Judge:Judge: WhenAboutHasI sellYoe. didher vegetables three youhusband lastyears see reallyacross ego. him? disappeared? the street. metabedaperiod notwife the bees offully, Uwe completed wives attar inthe for the divorce maybe past, thatityears. is said, The would law today claim la their Egypt kides oidda at *so longer them a year' .3 a man is required to surd 1 81 AEST COPY MEM 182 78 Maithama! Divorce 79 DIofmayhilly°trim B. may stillmapported this nottake time tab her she by her beck isthe book allowed husband.but throughIt must to AfterUwe be by thela remarriagethe expirationsew marital dowry. withhomeof etc. the the .After payment the third time remarriage except after she Ma is prosounood, that' s god must behide, be syetemtheo,manedema*, not wouldof all divorce. he men notis answerable are bold A honourable woman a woman toThere I.God, requiredagainst arenot obviously thetar to will,poeitivestay or marriedtwo mistreat law. major An unless her,difficultieshonourable butor Wit inherent In the traditiosal ... sabehnowast,°slybeen twice. married The is pregassttoidda another,mos also allowed atAny arms the*ad safeguardstime ofto bum safeguardof the divorced which exist for throat:alder a hasty aotioa, or ohmage his mind, but woman adat because marriage is a or widowed.marriage Thus if theis woman protectionshewife'sthe mancan desire do.prow:moos financially Nor to bedose divorced, Wag. the for traditional aIf cast-off theor Ifman the wife.law refuses man provide Furthermore, disappears, to accede tothereU very is little say lei veryan vahappy misimal nothing mamaTitspayscoot:actual laat is writtenthe allover( time arrangemeet. la of tomarriage marriage keep whatever contracts Ais porticowithheld she lad ofbee sad the put is toisto be the paid dowry which the imbedblouse stipulated. The upon divorce. In tion:requiredobviouslyhas been cos supportspentyear :oder foron this otherwise the system marriage,wife (blebafter cam becameedivorce beabe taken remarries) I. theas of Icompensatime. mapleextremely and are for limithd minor Legally child-dura- poor, very little father.womanlivingEgypt quarters, today, Thebays mai the this the furniturealso typically lighting gives from meaashisfixtures thelateaded thedowry lad furniture. thebride which kitchen isThe her a gift of jewelry. TM. equipment; theman ampliesright the marriage.from her withoutThenamelystoodren, woman until thatanotherto her whoae they fattler' male reachfather relative household, isthe (had toage takeor to mailwithout overbe or taken the Webmeans father's by she to their. marries guardiaaship soother. woman when divorced goes back from whence she came, father. support her, or It is under- were,todaymaywows. requiredbe Not Egyptof tab ocaree, by allalso thethree amongthe law, of'triple histo than Atake divoroes&worm' divorce who lime oat undertoatI. affordforbiddee,thereconsider thesame snob time. thatMs things. actica. lie la, asis, ita maa By law systemwombdivorcedrole, biomes ofliterally mother. divorce a hasburden Whatever may nowhere work ow waysomebody. wellto go.you la A somelook grown Thus, atIf:stamen, It, sonwhereas however, is required in the other try:did/mai tooases support it a arrow!, whichwlabee.meansla two newt Presumablyways.the bear,asebeed She bob may hasthis as hesedelegated thecal bruthaadbe apes, to her or hisit out tradltiatal system may be initiated by a woman lma in her marriage contract which taidag bead Trn. My int- power to divoroe mime robs stipidate a ocedition initiativea remedy.reformdoes not from legislationA work woman a courtat all. canpassed of sow law, in (asft thesad was we 1920.whereas obviouslysaw) in seek Egypt if I. toa time-oamundag,divorce obviatewas desigaed onthe her first toowe difficulty fullsupply rnenticaed above that a marriagelachaded.radpregame cum hela I. toahowever, legal pay ol1stipulator thela Egypt lumbeed.Another IA tacky, wayTMe that opea is whereasrefit:salted to the womaa the lama under I. bowsthe traditional marriage contract, it I. usually not system to mad by saying taboositcanof ameliorated formalities smetually of the wile theandbe obialsecLproblem bureaucraUcafter divoroe slightly, The prooedures,lareform any did adequatenot legislation, begin If she to dealhowever, with thealthough main- way. persists. *soros settingofferingmaythethat mes ifnotim to It haveoflabr thewhat woman'smarital he has Lome. desirewest Meon mione ber.4la alb to in quitedivorce, free she to huMmad of as ladeoessentdirect to retaliated:hip to the amount he has proaousoe actuality!LIN. it Is 'dimply the should reimbursespent on the It may or variousin atvarious lesst morthodox aswart:aloes. regards vendors theThere grata& ofareThe Islamic four for laioderaist° orthodoxdivorce. law. The Theleglelatice,schools Henan lalando of school Busedit Mari% should of Islam Isla- he emphasized, is also Shari aka° and Henball, not to mention the Mot rules and comes e, forcharacter.bleed, no rebornaura There about or I.the bathe traditSonal to preveat system a num meta from 183 frivolous cue, except Ms oonecleaoe, sad tor his upon the man's good divorciag Ms wile say No, legally. BEST (1JOPY'RVMLABLEcon- womanintimthikmic official la jurisprudent:0 seekingEgypt school in a the divorce, of is nineteenth the the Ottornas official however, ceutury. doctrine Empire, are rettrictive.Habil followed Maimed rides labyThese positive mks Wig-allow 184 Egypt as lt wasas pinatas to otherthreea womanSO thanconditious: to ber seek father a if dissolution or grandfather, of her uponmarriage reaching fromKAMA:mat majority, she woman were married at a young age by a guardian only under can marriedasmeat. coosUtuting Whereas life harmful, tbeharm, 1920 aodwith law the tbe spoke dangerous 1929 of lawa husbead diseases'harm' notbecomes as spending things a whichaspirate am his make wile Divorce Si whichreformerssouthernmeaty;ask thepredominates or,es_11 parte ofU the to of Agleamhusband1920. llgypt, in North drew provideetheis sexuallyAttica, frommarriage; aNatal the greaterimpotent. or,Wee, doctrine if variety insane,aad s The atto ofspecify Malaki school upoo regainingreasons.ooe her time, The the further rentlyconnotiogInterpretationcategory. intended 'for and a to person discretion.be.wife and ofclaims Is, her used social to asbe astaadards'impossible variable stsadarti,(Art. 'for the6). Thieleaviaglikes isof appa- abee (bale methane) It is defined to general language, leaving much to the judges It states that *harm' is a dilatation which midtireacceptedbygrows& a regulations, (2)oourt towhereby la leof Islando law. as a The wifelong law, legality might, asof theythe oeofruler-leglelator are theseher sot contraryprovisions (1) to reetstothe make Islamic which rules of Islamic law shall govern for particular owe Initiative, seek to be divorced upon the right, administle- Mari a, appointed,isofjudge unablepeople. to determine to Thereone prove from is her whata techprovision conteations kinds family of attached ofbehaviour of the ill-treattaent couple, to thisare sooeptablewhoground two are ariAters thatto fortry if whattothe are flad wife kindsto out be were(LawPorP0000.4 primarily No. 25), those the otherwhich la are 1929The contained groom&(Law No. in which two 25). laws Togetherwere enacted beteg they pretestedin 1920 in our courtroom scene constitute again.U?unbend,Ifthe nothe reasons recast:Wallop two or arbiters forboth diecord of do I.them, soteffected between agree, or is butunknown, thethem, the judge faultand Is Uis to possible,deter:deed seed them to to reocecilebeck Us withto try them. the II a eecond try does not bring agreemeat, two other arbiters will final divorce *all be givea. (Art.cmtothe the groundsthe 6), court. ground. or ofoperative the of' husband not-epeediall today befog by which Firstafflicted a la woman the with 1920 law came provide.s for a divorce , that is, ern-cupport (Art. 4), abeence can bring a divorce suit to be brought acceptableedbe tochosen. the Judge excuseU there and (Art. beI. stillwill 12) nodecide and Absenceagreement, Aimee (Arts. Is due 7-11).specified the to fladlagsimprismuneat as to are have to musebeenbe promot- forhave one year or more without ne catformertherefore&mese her groundshitaingd's(eg made leprosy), dieare behalf' marriagedemonstrated or oaly (tillage relation:414curable alaihithe Judgeafter al-oadi dangerous a Is long directed ) (Arts. period, (Art. 'to4 and and9).divorce 5). The a dangerous and incurable whichWhen the her whichforwardonesentencebeen year does for except,(Art. owemustnot 14). count year asbe Thewe for andas saw, grcemde threegrounds be thereexpected years: duefor la saddivorce. to for imprieoanimetthe two wife more. can Thatask wood for la, a Mr:tight-the divorce prism after prison seetence called 'detention* specifiedsupportimatmed'legalgrounds herseparation' canfurther of (Art. noa-supportpro,. asII). during coestitutiag(tafriq) wad kis which abeesoewife a Mel I.hide sync:smote troduce(that that is, he uarsvocable) is to able and Divorce for a daffigerous disease produces a revocable divorce, 11 the a divorce, and is divorcewilling to Theshemeoe.supportnotion law states of mosey, 'harm'Nob that 'harm' cosa(as wife aask Isflexible whole oftenfor a The neathusbandphraleedrule) 'acceptabledivorce, eaters im la absent,courtleto If sheexcuse' judicial as eves feelsfear forthough IMerpretaticre.ofharmed abeenoeMillie( he by reeds tato Ishis mother area le which the givesledges,alimabeod maintenance(talaq a gracethat be'la)falls he period to order(Art.is support destitute. of 10).may bOi his Divorcebe morewile exec aedties ted,for has a non-eupportmonthashes no known be to proves,produce property I. to orbe shegranted acknow- I. the latter lastaece, the husbeod Is to be out of which if a livewillvalid.temptation withdivorce The her judgeor the oruechataity, seedwife is directed ocefor herherwhich to:sallyorhusbaad's repudiateseems the toWWI' abseet beher, somethlag Ifby haebasd he does )udges thatnot comethe :wept court to himself (Art. 13) as (darer),tosupporting impriemtment and his further wile (Art. (Art.elaborates 6). 4).The on the1929 grouade law provides of siturnice a further and groued: ill-treatment 185 Absence is oleo made specifically applicable someor 'harm'means of imprisaa- hissupportocatextdiepositioes wife where isif tobe ofbe provesthe thea revocable society. that be Talliqdivorce,canThe sod language I. willusedthat speed. Is,mos weed the la Othereisehusband iathe these 1920 lawncsn thelaw, return &olio.reflects la to both traditiosal law end judicial divorce' (tetUU al-qedi) for *boohoo 186 or 000-* pre- 82 liabkams! the judge 'divorcing ber oo her husband' was not a Mud divorce. There would seem of the use of the police to bs nothlog legally to pre- to compel a wile to Divorce $3 isvolvedthebehalf,'etatliq 1121 is or referredforlaw, a the 'separation'the busband's to as respective sections are abeame or imprisonment,'specified as constituting athat it is here carrying headed: 'tatilq for harm' the(Electionsfinal meaning divorce. 2 and of 3, and In actualissuedreturnvent it. to disuse onThe her February implernentationhusbated only two 13, was or Whereas the same laws, be 11187.11 However,three opinion yearspresumably generally&goo cm:oiled by a they Mari a or modern ministerial orderbagisiatioa, apply dates its respectively)&vends'viewed?'judicial divoroe,1 aI. which wifeit the 'onladicates by her itself.'simply Hut how substituting should himesUhomemadehas a oonferred behalf' or upondoes the judicial wife?divorce I vesture be tofor sug- the husbandit constitute and a 'right' gatheredparticularlyto rich sad from poorrelevant the alike, court to the of itdlvoros la obvious by court sessionsthat actionthe it I. obvious that problems of the poor. From divorce by alert action is la leapt - that is,lack of flastacial sup- the material xclusivegestwhichsmplo Mat modern right evidesoboth to legislationIs the thein the man*halal court of ageacy only whenof a ~alonedad sad that the the popular judge Is very mucth intact. hashead had oomplatelymind the God-given,exercised Me legis- There was portcollectpoverty. istheir the the children.chief Poverty Wow' cause toalso which briags them same wanes to theyto arecourt entitled, for their sad for divorces, not ally fesomess the gm"! wortssupport to moosy for diaapoearod,lativelyaadto unwilliag bvoosierrod used or toto it power getwassupport the man viable ground whsn it is demonstratedhis otherwise wife. Otherwise, thatto pronomoe he was all Wall usoassacted with either abeeuce himself. To what exteat possible moans seemed both unable or thatstigmacourt-going is what attached the operates 'common to a woman hare asTbe better off do not go people do (sad the generalmorphs( Wswall) particularlawyer but also represent for other her, reasons. it male prerogativeprohibition againstwould seem. The nos-supportphysicalstatus'1tarato of la orthe is mentalquestioaable. couple, cruelty that are 'harm* must, of pours., Is, the judge la to it la hedged karnahalwith to which kinds of dateraniss whatbe eubstentiated fonus of by 'Mama- relativity to the social people, and the ternativesoleointhioomostPrimarily, carries ars over however, ofpreferred *ato oosaideratioalhaving it is a dIvoros mid everybody's for res*sas wobecomes shall they have alteraatives. to a bookend to promos°e &scumhomer la I.a Intact.mosamt. The Various al- seems tastilyma.salonsIdle.to beIt molest is claimedWhereas sot easya husbead.as this right problem.) Moreover am for woman to Isfled swaged witassms(A to case have mastiosed some la has a right to "punish' a Chapter V indicateswho are it willing to Limitation's lo Islamic disoballest to Mnoehohacemestimplyscoot athe woo ln poor the offault' eabringform covaiderationtIt I. obviously only those of protectioa, moll as little tat themaelves to a who have soinethieg of value Is possibility for getting a payment of the rarnalaing marriage, there is little to give that so divoro.. port diffloaltytaw,themast it declaimcm of withbe arbiters mead amoorniagMi. grandesfrom a la the families involvedfaultItisiesoes as wll asby thea husband. That isdieated by the provisloa for aagotiatioswhich fore's, of reconciliation as it wore, the law formes the appoint- / k is, how.ver, stillpof curiouscash releasethe dowry settlement. ofthat theupon dowry divorce, obligation or or the possibility of an repayment of dowry paidths or ontoderaising classes' bachloement by the "imply are so bookfinalImsbeed tato divorcee) the (without traditional was as that lamaThe major hasart for a warm the;framework husbaNd of will the demand family.end witkout ;it oamideration,0 %rho km 11048 divorced Mr back within th: of belt al-ta a by a roloatantfor these are adammtlycountrysidesotcourt eldet of opposedlaw. outside dli.4o. toof Ike byUr court action 1 sara told, larthermors, Malik metropolitan areas,'moders' praotice of divorciag dose not 000ur. that moth preotioes absolutely that la the 'traditional' fhtt I am not so surf. in a moats do / ) 1 three(Ilt.rears.the troaths"the hostuad hosesThis allowable. operatedmold of call upon sot abscesses,' le, the busboad's Datil reoestly .Cirsosly Institution theto restore police authorities a wif to house)after existed, that le, ooropel hisher wile own to voiltion ItiN of the taliGilaareas 9is partrural' which of metropolitancome A oourtroom ihallag withMoreover, talk came ibe%odor waspeople visitedthe (statistical sad Cairo, it includes under observed la this 000rtroom oosonas-opialoa) clasallos- is Mts.its Whereasjoriallotiat "the court Cor had a firstmomleft asd the mlikelymooed marrisas time, 187 that it could oleo have boon home without her husbaacits but Mao II the wife herself oa used when the Judicial commit. ft does not BEST COPYdivorce /1VAILABLE fellaidn'.'rural* demeanour. This court, It I. said, I. known as 183 14 Tbe cases In the GizaMahican:al Court were beard in an actelloom, the judges Divorce 115 badgesto sideredchambers,be present. neat mad moreand The stood only timelitigants before those o each. wereimmediatelythe judge.They brought were There involved in allowed aswere their lafewer toeachcases speak cases case were more andwere con- the free-allowed thewereindividualsgradationmral fact absent.' affiliations.that and did the 9launilletion come Oneibtidei Thehindrance to courts court fact in stronger remains,seeking(where in the language ruraldivorcea however, divorce areas actionsthan 'as themselvesthat otherdo thesethose Is of must be brought) alternatingparticular withaut close ovens therthisPetidasersly, iswile even known who to appeared thebyclaimed theirpoist clothing, 'harm'ofla irrelevancies.person. Tbewas getteral percalesacoompaniedOes smog demeanour, fond woman byis tMs herand came father.mart mannerisms. barefoot. were clearly Ano- of peasant origin. Again, an 'old catedis notever,divorceare Inspeciallylocated weChapter actions have only reluotant I.some arein thebrought evidence to'metres" bring in for thencomplaints and in courtsnotChapter in thetoIn V. the theoutlying That authoritiesrural the rural 'metres',areas. That how- was Indi-papule* demandedthemoreWish' allegations. drama. and that a helawyer.Stories Abe Koran allowed westThere was beyced to was producedswear a the teedesay uport feats by theit. necessary henIn brother another to preseet ofto case,eubstantiateone casesgirl the wholather with practicesTheknown law In allows fromEgypt Europeanit prior in certain to this travellers specified cenharyFor reports,womso cireumethooes,and its 'modernist'totag politics Edward and a lor the dissolution of her marriage ineovatioas.Lane:we know of wag months,morethespoke ground compassioe forcingat lengthupon her whichtowardsof tothe eat sexualthe theat can herOaefemale peculiarities was parents' wife band.complainants. claimed home The of the herwhilejudge. husband, embend be here ate whichhadexhibited with not ids spent anything co her for ten was not courtunlessmeat,A womare I. It generally orbe segleot;for cannot some anessary sad separateoossiderable even to herselfthen, compel fault applicatios frau the ber bushed to the agathet as his pert, as cruel treat-man to divorce her; sod Kadee's ra4 his will, Thealltoparents. Indhis humbled moneyher Her as parents well.deniedat cards, Meanwhile hadthen and several allegations, had bertaken younger husband, all saying her children belongings sbebe earnedsaid, and gambled andcouldthirty gold piastresnt affordthem. away a wherepeeedWhile inllainki CairoIt is contended rules under operated," Henan that suchlaw, itsbe anbutshould forfeitsincident must be have the could ... remnant of her dowry." noted that what the «mem occurredsot possibly le the nouth have kap- beaddaymonths making prodund ago. bricks, four pounds, and had which beenThe sentwouldjudge away toldrepresent fromthe husbaed herabout parents' half to pay the house idsmonth' wife six thee god there. Tbe hue- s ofbasbasdI. askingher dowry, tothe divorm which her Is sot for isoossistentAsother lesident with of a women seeking divoroe by to do th not divoroe her but to intercede to get her consideration' Handl, le the rules. forfeit of the rest a is reported by entitledhenmotwages wellwish to that torture in to be court return claimed his gad wits,to theeMai.to theeearn. Themistreat She pay Thejudge said, a judgehiskw said,'No, wilepiastres thee Ikr stillagate theasked before dobeneftt later. rotthe atrust wile courtof all him.'it andpresent,she did 'Such a man may be-, la such a mas lillohaud and Poujoulat aboutthatjudgeA thewoman her same sod kmbeed planedcame time didasking her sot 161111 kr a divoroe. before his ocejugni hlm She welds advasoed duty from as the above: down, which MOW towardsThursday the kusbandWhethertelyever,be is allowed these he hadthe has three-judge judgecome to more take meldup discretion. her with ginmots, away?' nenher the moseya Mem divorce outcome decisionsIs doubtbd.for of son-support this are caseWith nver is 'harm', whenmadesot known. theImmedia-how- Thisallowable muld indeed cane forbe a Hosea Litl,ondasts.night for to Friday Tbe judge morning :agreed sod tothat the he divorce.13 was incapable woman to ask a a latsbandl impotence wag asto dissolve her marriage. If of latherbag des- inne.. their of rural attitudes atilliation to the amongdivorceAnother litigants oourts, study namelydoes ofnem Cairothat to they make divorce articulate a diffetence litigation 4e- has indicated that the don- 189 BEST COPY 'AVAILABLE inobvious.ionecaetindeed bringing it isAgainstupon asher easy ahusbesd husband's such as the a tobackground above courtmanliness quotation to divorc the by terrible 190a wifemakes 'goinghim it Isappear,to more mut` uadersteadable. theis asper- thing that a woman does Divorce 67 cThe reasonr mamma!kept,a court articulated of law constitutestoday, however, the making I. that public asking of for what a divorce le, and fromshould be private matter. largestis it, nor proportion has it t. G. ' -.arca* occuren, ain bar the tounder re-marriage. twenty-five Indeed, age brac- by far the Thismeiriiiiiii high figure i.o clivor;-es reflects the is aboutrelativeThe ose easedtvorce divorce with rateinwhich every.4.5 in_Fgaticikastii. divorce marriage& can take The " average number of relativeastheseket," such, andremarry. has but It to I.being probablybear The unmarried.all problem kinds correct of for responsiMlitiesBeing to the upper unmarried classes from mew is !supporting sot that beisg some divorced them male assume that a large properties of bo byver,twodistinctionplace women; kindsthe an crowdedthe ofin the meal's divoroe.the court statisticscoartrooms tallied's. records Divorcee la S made leakage ladloatealso by asincludeskin tothat thatare the divorces undoubtedlyaot relativedivorces ore incidence by indeed higher.tall gi of issued1, How- the as no few cases are brought certainlymovements.Unmarriedchaperoning not women themThingsas easily, ow find they many as themselves could divorcees occasions, do as severely(and, married to overseelag it should restricted women be their they noted,in theirmoral coma social do, as widows). ooelluot. or assessfinancial°enflaming,by the compensatedcourts drain and with over for lime theinWee some months.frequency. with way, very A. many theMooslittle, lawyers taUlq theythe court actionsrepresest must procesees be are paida notconsiderable andcarried are wit- Um.- ternsTheybyfriendsyoung inbothare the and a formale threatsocial pretty.their and torelationships wives theirHusbandsfemale orfemale members,daughters. sad in married Egypt.fathers Theme Afriesds,may society considerobsessivelyare especially addicted them for U toinappropriate sips theygossip very pronotemed pat- of are thatblemhusbeedto ittheir is in deer...in. oonclusion, Egypt."to proaousos TheHowever, or, recentthe alternatively, divorcingAl-Abram, populationthee. statistics himself. actuallya statistics few lump years eerve are together ago, used as indicateda tocatalyst divorced Indicate that for adivorce was a major pro- womanforceoccasionsceedingly'deviance' isof not circumstance. difficultgreat readily in itsproblems. tosingleabeorbed live Especially femaleby The herself.beck poor members. intoif seemthey their haveto A fathergmanage stogie household. femaleit better [lads U Aonly by It does happen, but it inevitably youeg Wiliam singleit ex- laomens,these!Weedpinions their figures thedivorcedlime.with divorced widows Withreprosest or these widowed,proportioa sed oily widowersobvious thee sot of persons whetherthelimitatioes and population it I.whothey Impossible oe werehad Udehaa been at declioed.data, theto at tell timewesome whether Moreover,report of lime the getfamilies,froenrecent eome study10% ware kindindicates ofliving employment." that on 67% adage of supplied all There divorced are for immediate theirwomen children,daughter live from and who their 21% has been returned to her family by ass husband, mar-pressures to below what the census-takers fogad: Theablecause percentage ego, deoresess, to 9.4% of divoroed againatas regards aad 12.6% widowedthe intotal the populaUonpopulation1960 census. in of the marriage- 1976 ciesnooses=oroftenried of latsbalads.a1 offbeing000urred the again former unmarried toby husband,soother.Many being are undoubtedlymarried Becausevastlynot a Sew greater.to thea discoverdivorcedparticular most The readily manthat man, whateveralso, available the be laccevesien- it uspieseset- Noted, women remarry their br- min la The Cedars! Ageacy interprets the decrease as being die to amolmtaagainstThethe decreaseperceetage 3.6% to 16.6% in of1960, indivorced 1971 while against and the widowedperoentage 20.4% la males 1960.15 among In 1978females I. 2.6% meansratherpressuresnotwithotaading thasof someto her remarry. badly,support, hi: almost aed rest mayAunfettered apoor room ultimately, woman for ' right' herself who If sheI. soddivorced has her Widnes may to live move la temporerily with a Mead , Is also subject to family a job or other marriageAl-Abramwidowedle divorce contracts personsasdin 1977 death toindicatessigned rotes, remarry." andsad thatThe 169,000to B. 'lathe °cedillas that the increased divorces.*pastas it of yearmay, being chances there "c divorcedstudy had of divorcedreported been for 236,000women andin does not in itself carry hoodtheIn. poor with quarters whom the offerltior occupenta neither hes divorce mustprivacy interactoe Livia, alone Is only a relative term here, wontanl initiative la oourt bees the (sly area la nor seclusion from the seighbosr- whether they west to or sot.a.as these rented rooms la the same kind of stigma which it does some other places In the world, nor nistwhich legislation the family during law in the Egypt past has half-century. been altered 1 Laws in 1923or regularisedsod 1931 by moder-(2 V foradministraUvetackledSi girls ihe and problem 19 regulation, for boys of child not which regisierablemarriages. made marriage This zed therefore belowMahkanial 'he was doge by means of they are not ages of 16 larMans changes. on polygamy. The first proposal was couched In terms of needing to In 1974 Dr Rateb again presented proposal. for simi- Divorce 119 miringtested.marriageeligible Theocagroversies itself, for state judicial allowed simply whichrelief under declined beforearoseThe Use Rgyptianresponsibility asIslamica court ofShari laws law. forof eThe th. 19204 also laclude raising the a result. a, was thus not con- taking any partlegality In of the Umpletelysizedtive'reopen thinking'to that bothin harmonythethe was toproposeddoor solvevigorous. ofwith modernililisds amendments the The Islamic (independent problems. 1974 Sharitoproposal ths The a.personal reasoning) Inwood even elicitedstatus proposal and law ofa protestusleg empha- 'crea- Nevertheless, tbe wood- were com- MaeReslytody beto that of*leveeoonacierod childrena missing for girls, toby person last the and formother shall theone kida, beoalmdar fir declared U it is indead, dispute, seven to nine for boys and from year. The law of 1929 speci- I. the eyes of the law, shall agenormal- of cus- thatmarob'innovations.'My.People's so Mayactionfrom Assembly 1977 the on TheretheAl-Azhar saw proposal andanother le soPresident commuaty mention was proposal presently Sada here ofcontaining promisedWien' ofcontemplated either aad masiderably in restriotioasstudent. a public by the speechfewer Amem-of poly- Imo& the time,manbareprobable,lour yearscould beesaad divorce made.oralterpronounce at thehis Almproacanced clissopearascedisoretion allprohibited three ',oder of Msthehas if IntoxlcaUon, the allowablecourt,been the after tripledivorces all at the circumstances make his death or conUngent wan an possibletAg Inquiries whereby a same (pr.thereIndeed,gamy bait I.or nothingas it-tacaof far requiring as ),new, it which, appears aexcept court as from mentioned,appearancefor athe proposal newspaper forhad toa already maneliminate accost wisMng hem of the the &apartheid. tobait proposoal, divorce. al-te a statusabolished1930.event occurriag,ismatter. collected the Sheriwed or tcogether, the asa Courts aJudges threat. Moogand Thisand SA provided lawyers withlegislatim the forof legislation these thecovertag courts of permit Into status reforms of the integration of personal 1955 which 1920. and Ci01194,lingtermsis,It would ol Buresu 'beingo theseem ofreader studied.'" thatCairo, even may states this be that hassurprised whenmet a asimilar towife learn, is fate sick has of or the childless, others poly- woman's ;welfare. The lady-direiOratireirtmlly Coolest- a ratiosale in - that personaltalkedperiodicallysal Courts, aboutstatus as repristed.forlaw. Qammin many A milled years,Ral-shwal does code at not, leastal-shakbeiva of however,personal eines the statusccestitute 1930., law and (Laws of Personal Statue), a 'code' of at leasthas one been the NaUo- difkreetwouldtakegamy another like I.reasons. lessto wife believe, of anwhile injury sad Mill it oroccurs taking disadvantagePolygamy on care all oflevels may the than firstwellof divorce. the one."be society, more A manprevalest ISA can for Um in Zgypt than sone It Is perfectly true that, given the premed lack of persons wo.sitioncompletea miffedU toalayiMag, Impertag draft oode was being iscressed with prepered made tradltiosal is law&rine NorreosM would have Shari the decades. 1940s,appe:rthe pieommal tobut be the Insurmountable. reformsobstacles of personal status law, a rules governieg family law attempted to such Oppo- thathe manrequiremeetsmarries she does dose another iadeed not to herselframpart doif bea first madamswant a divorcedwife a divorce. lessto supportwife damage The beyond her marriageby provided,not a very divorcing of limited of mutes,her period, when a haelvend to a takerighttwothree mostup limesof to the sensitivelour in ems the wives tolasC areas proems°. at ail the are years, same thela divorce 1972 metrestricting Um. awith Committee byt5, of andthe forvirtuallythe the Reform of Personal say greater success. The male' right to unfettered exertedhaveparticularlya secood male upon children: wife awhen mite, is, it however, WdetermieedI. linked milkOnea 'harm' to either_ firollilite_tortake tkM ieedRSWL___e a wife marrylag cm pleed velefeld ain eeon-riwile °mart, comes fromi.Mrs to CI a case where second wife Nor this reseal, esonnous preseures were Sgyptiaatheoases,Aloha courts andRateb,reformers discretimary to requirethee as the early menpowerlady as to Minister Mohammed obtainto permit permissionof Social Abdou Affairs, ofhod a Judge to divorce. 193 re deny polygamy in specific Status Law headed by proposedadvocated to give restric- IfSion AMUmalemaidsecond.butact toto childrenchild divorcecontime Hope and sprangtheIs tothereby not supportfirst difficult eternal wife restore her who that toand herself explain.had she live bornewould with Not him her,next only threeintermitteeliy Umo I. fmalemess' female give birth oldidree, with highly to the to his favour. The desire for a valued is Usti!, but moiety has created liahkamal great social laid financial hazards We, from having what money they are able to find from being takea away. Divorce el perhapsto relationshipsardtake Marespossibilities a secondowa status to wik laol attacked life a higher previosely)Atother to social %mate reason nod children, tor polygamy seems to be for male have a right to be supported by him. 'boding them the first wife (and usually younger. Such a an whileupwardly those mobile in various man workingeoncomeStateThus be authoritiessuingup orable withprofligate forto someearn a todivorce foroeor mousylimbed. ber anin few or courtabsent, Some to possessions prevent is Indigenta the from little beingmooey way to gain the assietance of the or irresponsible bullhead to take* by a nos-a wife may her- 'divorce forpoitmaa the herwill met aad probably becomes Ms Widnes masa primsrily livingby her. with Gfiwk.161.10 Ms first will MA will a way of divesting oneself of tiW..._____Ilos - of polypsy, continue to sup- ___ conceivablytANclaimed divoros by someprevent which of thehasthe busbaed courtalready authorities, frombees takingdote. to However, her foretell back diming women Leftists tatiki balms, it Is conswimisoes ot awhereto *Ss maid le!motions,whim nitwit'divorce the brat reepanalliftftr-Isher, which wills although is case ailbag ifit isboth °molderedThe moot geterally sot aooeptable or otherwise local:obis----- of fulfilling the wifelyare elderly and thereams first kirwife taking has been a &mond a wife is proper that be &Modal ber, _ support.period,appearance it Withwould ofa oleo divorcethe kmbsod,mean she that can Theor she claimedthen major would marry cause,disappearneoe, give 'math, however, coupled of divoroe with would up certain ocsammatioas.appear to be the dis- someme this time, Me j dols boa- fortiddestime.faithful Just for wileas marriagecertain to him categoriesfor absolutely, manyTakiag of the blood sewed wile is hedged by religious law with years the 'acceptance' is muted. Het increases to latitude a first and suckling relationship are some restric- unwasteddeprivation.fewIt is ofalways MeUnitised cases hoped, hasill whothe done divorce will a Whereasvarigogratftag be courtsable and throughout did willieg thing moiety a wanes who eaters not have a factor ol soonimalo to provide a iltviag. Very - to her htsbeada court as So divorce as properto midwile'sabolish haveroman mother, it soughtbut with rather sister, theto vest courts.to mat,require discretiosary TheoleosThe that basins effortssad the of to cloys reform the lastitutios of authority as to whatdaughter omatitutes (by mother towhead).manpolygamy have havesa acceptable not attempted reams, gots by, it should be a degradatios,opportualtyproepeetwell is berWell of It ata appears, littlea UM mosey with Is bearable.a for modicumThat the divorce next more days mikes financial mug be brought to the ill) verly itself beings degradation, Mit if or weeks existence, or the security, then the there is dimmedef-eRrita;thesoled, same wile.dose house. Mostintairgusaallytot exist Indeed,may saymore.claim some1UStkut support not wivesVeep of the problem is, of mint, the women mooey forsecret a which caaace besagely_ls_a_attua4Ymoimd not kept Ladellaitely. awarethat tato seomad intovolveomitmulcts the actios one-Judgeas is little I. itselflightly. [teetotally gua°1 indicative Most marts. as other dothat Thus most personalthe divorceofstate these doesstatus divorce setts, areis brawl* three-Judgecossidenidaot molder totibtida'l divorce inmatters, terns by when they !e- allthesupportthen eupportboys a year.and for myosins 11 theAlthorngh ior children the mese. girls, the trader Moreover, akar the that mother's mat is regoired by law to °adieus to provide paymestothee for he hermit canthe take mil%for them,sot must more aad move this out of the care up to the ages of 0 for cavort*legallytheof the dissolution to mosey speakieg,which involved, of arethe marirrelevaet bet lege in termsChild relationslalp. to divorce, ofcustody the aad support are sot part of divorce nature of the actionas isitself also - the smmort slier *Woes. Children, themaritalright aim home tohimself remida. provided leaves,woman by that appeariag tbe is,Evesbusbead of taking is mart,after amoust by recresestation of the fact that oi course, a different story. Sbemom has adivorces are obtained without her id& is flaished. Whet a lawyer, the fact re- thesupporttested,grouad p_x21 thisIrmlvoros. mimesis courts. Is dote arsThere Cuetodyas separate a separatewas I.one legalHeed legal 'otioseby and woman is subtitled. Nor la mistreatesest of obildren case, however, in the fibiabra ibtidn'i sotto.. Suitslaw to collectgad althoueb child II :my be con- are usually brought la supportall-compellingmakes thi-mselvee that the aeoessitycourt from process somewhere amorz is wedthe mad 195 poor is to predonslaaatlyobtain the wherewithal by the poor. to The to protect themselves, II posit- BEST COPY AVAILABLE broughtItoourt wag whamunclear because young whether the amounts girl' this educational was ofAlthough moseyan appeal involved the from National Courts are the courts impulses were being requeskod. 196 of Oa landalloweda sadsue't thus court it. of or had hem 92 Mahkamal Meows 93 UanJurisdictionsineupporeedly is sectsdemonstrably in Egypt,universalIA 1965 Mussome butapplication, Um 6.3%35it still law. takes ofThe the the account personaldate population, abolished of statuk the havefact lawthe that separateoperated the more restric- Chris- mills.there- of associalrelaUonshipsthe much privileged structure to the are stratastructural which complex today have conditious andas occurred they they do derivewhich duringto the fromdefine traditionalthe thepast the transformaUces century.social relationships pest. They owe of the disusebutforNtive asal rather.Nos-Muslims.' lawsof Astor/the governing amilla promulgation above courts Thisreferreddivorce. la does19511.of to theIncluded actIs Ministry Thea appear eeotion grounds la theof to enUUed Justicre collectedbe for divorce 'Personal legislation Status Laws a regularly enacted law at the Ume of the In this 'law, of per- willagents,wifeThe in dowry,alland notlikelihood the a or marriagesale. 'bride-price' Abe wife a contract property-owoer. from paid lethe by an upper tbeagreement husbandThis andA factmiddle wife Is derives is classes, not (nor has she ever been under Islamic law) 'property.' it among equals or their a gift to Ids Mbar* however, Itchurch tooftheare thethe determinstionmore :malls NatioaalreepecUve stringent Is lamedCourts churchas than to for wherewhether those organizations.a divorce, itfor isa Muslimsdivorcerecorded. it is then should but When the at betheprocedure lamed same time It leaves If a recommeadaUon from a ChrisUans are ef to the magalls to report cendants).takeslancefrom (withone-half the She someinheritance owns of whatexcoptioes, her aproperty,laws. male Asuch in women ahowever, similaras when usder relationship inthere herIslamic lawto the are only femal des- own right. Upon takes la istheri- deceasedprInctipally casesoftion,afforest the them ofland ocellictlagsects, the (Muslim case that can confessionalis, law), bewhile brought just there as Jurisdictions. tieto Is theold Natiosal Mari Courts applying so Church easels to take Jude:Mo- a Courts governed in the law herself,thanincludinghuebancilsmarriage she and I. that precloded herthis withwhich property same hers). she by custom brought customUpondoes sotmakes &vont* into(not merge the herlaw) she marriage withdepeadast fromtakes that =mails, herhome. of her barbestasd pt 'very withupoe her, a male relative At the memo property foot her canedThatwhole the helpsociety possessing tut whilesuggest claims their that 'betters' dothereAmongThe one are poor barething ec000micthe have held andupper takestbefast classesfactors dispoeseseed to advantage traditional propertyoperaUng of modernsad here. money legislation are inevitably intended for do anotherinvolvedforme. the dedmentector,- husband,creature and sued business, of ifagent themarried, bariteIn including virtually Ifof not,historical theall her mattersmanagement father literature coecerned or brother of her with property. the world The seole- no longer exists sa - as both her *pro- ot Curiously,Judgefamilyla both of Ismarriages divorcethe gofer National to is sadkeys not Courts,divorces, anto thearea Ifvagaries where theysad this attempts of is an not outside something to be arbiter,'modern' cas help it, and they usually can. an Egyptian that is, a and familydominated,aloegEgypt. with TheIs not a presentmodern male-dominated, oeetrally situsUoncommercial important of or dependance society. perhapsfor eitherThe social Is highquits life divorcemodern rates should not be taken more accurately a family- as an W4(101101 that the and goes 'modern'societydereoperative.'western' lo whobe laMitotion Usually treditireal. ebare so prosouecedused, it ofIs the'clivoroesodYet lower are It la isvirtually Egypt by(Assessprecisely oourt upper the whomaction.' theseonly classes popular 'traditional' otherwise, wisdom tees wbo do use, the partshas of been ccusi- weapplycarefullynatioeal can pressures cite, Interest,'**loot we suspecttomarriage preventla the that upper partners divorce. divorce strata so le shoo ofleen society. do frequent they As among the Although there I. so bard data which usually vigorously thesegeserally families or 'the upper hasfleetedclamed meant I.sad this not cheaglag dichotomyNes but social more of The relationship* divorce.complex whole The propertypetters whichtransformation of relationships UmIt comprehends developmental process in Egypt and the to modernity among those are re- isofattained carefullyIfclassesliberalism anything, a todayImeSant, monitorel. and more them education, or pervasive. formerly;emancipated at the Althoughthat posit/cm factors the requiringprodotted family same time their 'modem* behaviour women la those families have by the thfluences coheMos are. samewardsattactless least realmsits atomization,asof themany as populaUasoccurred pressures but Innotwho towardsthe necessarily possess 'traditional family momething in cohesion theIslamic of value.family.'in this The 197 same ways or for tbe groupIt ashas to- brought new beingsibilitiessive the sense menager for than the might ofsulport their be ofproperty.implied his wife by orthe offspriag, husbardThese family units are an economic hot le it Is within the family that a cora- 193 a much ormore father comprehea- harriesor rowan- the husbeed/father 114 Whim:tie Divorce 96 ItIAthetituUonallzedpretest:sive is 0011111110110r Um basic social unit system eecuritywed of businessmatchmaker, of and cooperation life-supportaed employment politic.. in systemvirtually Tim. agent marriage Mats.and all arbiter aspects of Ilk. a It Providescan an be viewed of conflict. partusually,reallythose of society, things,present.lowar oolikehowever, the take molo-econondo a tends divorce towards to court, scale atomization. that than would they The presumesuggeet suclear they to familybe. This It becomes even more important for them not to do were Thesamestablishisesimalfrom eetablitiblag twoUme the relatiosshipe*ogles: both security of protects ecaeoudoit may of either am'serve the mourity e family'sexistin child,a solidifying through if or statusa hopedfemale, functionmarriage and for, andinsures for herof business futurethat the offspring. family' or it may serve to a girl at the or pro- tbegiousthistheby WellIntroduction, courts.part tredlUooallem, isof much society amore grouping that of la extremecourse, evidence with does religiousvery here, not diverge butallow traditionalism it elements,is, the as taking we Wive of divorme noted in comes.It Reli- is also from to supportordaughter's 'repot:noelinsouroesto be inheritedof theor otherwise hersister's male laborite:toejoinUy lakeritors. "security" will will sot sharesat beThis maybe seeded and seededletter also the for mesa pracUoe propertyfor her her that nupport mtpport. seems property in to Thusthe be Wu:Med future. of else A oan be tbe undivided aocient can themarriagebe same seen economic to as follow well. reit:Uwe:hipsHowever,'traditional' tbe norms dosame not of dynamicsprevail. behaviour."Divoroe This do notstrata Theyis operatenot leakuieedo the onlybemuse area where this 'middle' pert of society so in cam volt:et:try,amolatioesorigin, sad and of when Mir:Mamepurport it oocurs to hero rights usually Koranic are, ooecernsof tusUllcation." worse,The land °moldered instatutioe inheritances. to of have amazed Dach bean marriages Is still very active among this re- duation'inmoderntames (amoogthese of society,societies,of leaded others) the persosality, perhapsproperty. thethat educated is, more theTbe an emerges°eideological thanexistemewage-earners anythieg ofof ledepsedeme educatedthe and nuclear those wage with family, small Whorl- produoss stomizatios I. certain imolai earners in liedivi- swhim marriageMeelmgroup sadtois ofleave'errs:aged.' swiAlons willthe either populati91.rarely of!TheIts affect me formation family ofBy ally its the asemberejtwo is sameor too peopleits importantdimolutiontoken, Furthermore and if simply there for of too must mean the dissolutionbe their a divorce, living it a marriage to the many aspects of of NothingthatTherelationships le,'arranged illustrate@ women - marriage'particularly who, this forso wellina fee,theman as atomized 'introdoce, thenoncerntag existence society perems ths of familymarriageI. to others beakers, who an sesobroalsm. - sad allesation. wish Thefiguresreapart. dlsoolutioe very Norpromise:ally importhat is itof the a marriage torchildrenLa rallosalesvarious by who divorcereasons for are resisting the (orotherwise, central death) the dissolutioncoocern.rarely as noted, leaves While theyof children do not marriages. children hasmodesprivilegedto a marry..sodeecy requires strata to atomize, s of high society degree for demoustrably the of proper social operation (le do family) Tbesot work traditimalof control the where laws and customs which operate successfully kr traditimalover beha- the family the moraltectedmustWithout sotmereputatiom be softns*allowed be to tocalled oars encleager tortato them. questlos, U. Their for moralBecause character the mustfamily be la so basic to monomic sad social life its madition of malatainiag family malty. Nor must the family' moral reputatioo is very women pro- s aoseciouspartis traditioaallyviour of the atadior recogaitimpropensity ossthe existenceguars:nor thatto religious the of structuralof nem the traditionalism withlatter, cosalltious good sad characters.perhaps in thisior mobil strataeat ais small se wa-Religiosity mforoe- theelmimportant beasats, atom itsfor sad dissolutioe. army the aspect.parties U directly ofthe UM liabilities Weida lnvolved ofthe The unloo bareft Aly. seine ale° become developedpreesures WI create a merrier, Ad keep it together greater than an can wifeUttleas lawsmeatis both Illustrateddram* tiedof dependent traditional customs depicts, by a uponIN behaviourtherecent se alum him atomized Egyptian andof are the lobedieet, Dot moiety hushand'a television present. carries prerogativeOperating 'soap with opera.' Use al As Ma it distinct hazards, to have a'traditional' eventheaversloo if rich the and samefor theeach structural poor, other, emulate thanbaste there those of existence Is above no reason in isThose various not to neeesserily, keepon the it triagestogether. or of the upper strata, or in the middle between 1'13 sreas of conduct, hereelffollows:aloes totally as it preseetly alone. The exists. children The havemain theirfeaturesTbe widow of this of a prison official, with grown, married ohildree 200oansot be checkedown by law lives and more or less Mory am as Linde OS Makatea! fl checkreallyher*here outIs hercare3made with sacs* aenough.of prospectiveohuebend the when sew The they aris oldldrea seed(bridegroom) money. she succumbs When as there le no one who to permission.marriage No broker seeks thingher.readily Hee to available stoversldiecovers, wheneverwives too late,before he that finds bar. he herisH. a divorcesacrook property and her, tohes reinvest by dome tals theandit in Is Divorce same for 97 adoof moseyremarriedtheir any husbands.many the theirdaughters which mother The be constantlysos le will givesIs a sot proalgate by berequire his mother. whoto supplement is Theusable children the small opponas sooessible the marriage for the at handoutsfirst because of to earn or bold are, how-salaries signedcallheragainstvery clothes.upon, correct herhim hename by aboutWhen reminds law oe payingbut shethe hermakes threatesscontracts thather her nelsonshe leave himof freely sideso thatthe that gaveof apartment there landshe him can adare the lailkling,have withlaws tawldl, nothingso ad claim wortsadfreely the bmt to imetterwedoveressiagtakesever, boughtplace. that of off. heher relieve Wmproperty. gives Ids wile each of a allcash activities ,settlemeateThe new busbad and premeds himself as being absolutely Ethe owns a few Saddens in the countryside oosatectsd with the the marriageproper and casefrequeetly,receipts under thefor iflaw.the less furniture extremely, purchans is that are families InThe his thingname. which Thus preventsVie has this sort ot Wag from happasteg are there to msomitor. more so humbledasnurse, fromher formerhappy her also hither, withlaisbeedpresage aher small himself washusband's buildiag, *leo as beingmasculine and particularly ham assertiveness, strong, protective male. The new bank account. She is, of Jealous, and forbids particularly todoes,inyoungthe trapschool, situation however, andanother ranmoot of away ensuspectiagthela of the thestory fro. *nil, Urn e there home, scentestranged woman, is andnothe male husleuedandisfrom gefterally threatensrelative Ms withmother irrespossible.*mope that because he will hebs watch-faded a gun as be la about a son, who is The son ZedsherlessHe toold the aisdo sew spartmeatapattern anything little on, more whichvery whichas extreme itclearly siteis would associated fundable ringsla bring this true. thanwith(aaher isIn He mosther contact insists Egyptian customary). Because beformer busimad, and he with 'strangethat men. she move out ofmen but nonethe- asconoersed,of ingbecourse, did.to en Fathers toIt that isretrieve unlikely he and is neverhis brothers that mother's ablethe swindleraad to money. duplicate families wouldHad laMs general havethere actions. bees base are Theable athere brother to or father or family members otherwise era fails, to operate toapneaten sequielliosplaysMa, !a his laas the a same.it oinsmerolal 'tram(will of the H.bring male pervaadesforaiture her whoamerpries a highoroversees(although her to interest. investeverything. she pays) the aad rim by a ma he Introduces as koown Mace be claims ithe is moneytakes care from of her the bankthe receipts are writ- etructural'acreage&that their daughters ratiostatemarriages, orfor in deters thisthem. section are In theproperly of upper *octets+, treated Thecleans story by alsotheir mederscores the popularity and persistesom of ova when then le sea marriage world set Intsberds. see sellhirebehalf.sideagainst thethat to H.land. egad collectMs then breamBoomsbe advises herhad laadto forall allow ber lavestraestpropertyrests that her ahe her to dulyavailable goleadelsewhere, travelllag gives hint is sot brining the klad of re- for parasite, he claims,by herself to thea ocruntry-tawkilsad persuades to do it cm her her to thissnidest. story,authoritynotbe arraaged thoroughly whimThe over laws withthe a checked oilerstructuralwile,someose soIt Isout.pram:tics whom featuresvery Because Importaat the to family mucha husband that did has sea legally saittered laic& make them work an absent. aMenot women, westerlywind= es set Mowlbs be skim leftor had isto Ilaisiness.outhim,hernets ofto moreor thesell if houseshethan'her Islatitgag the INsot inceeyanger an as 'obediest' orwell. she sulks realised Whenever wife,or belittles from be she theber for acts ()Heeded and either wallop has doubts or questionslad sale, hs pomades not understanding family)nizationpopularpoor -structures.hasbelief are had far that smoltmore Whom**the more atomisedpoor of arethere an thethaa impact 'traditiosal are here theThe poorer strata - aed the vast mapority of Egypt"s populatioe may he laird strong attacluseets bet- groups above. Costrary tocm imolai iperConilarlypart of society, moder- is theemployeegabbed ministry her la affection becausea mielstry ad it andisplayed safer tells there her that than he 20He 1 has, Is various ways, which cm her sympathy. H. is suppondly an at home, and be needskeeps itthe to moneybeere not locked germane up at here, BEST COPY AVAILABLE likelyweenaffectIve parentsto find sentiments and ohildres, rather or thee between structurally brothersft is(leaned, perhapsaed sisters, wroog these to say that there lack of such attachments. 202 are today proportiontely more tied oss Is isse as are SS Makkamat iltvoroe pg helpsoolotrethese.aropoor appears a or differeat Certain said We, very these ars poor,numers visibly people9pre-modem," different, lasad ansthe customs, upperpoorer. that just is, strata Ooe the fromat tho mostcanfamilies. the say, poorvisible however, of pert pre-modern that they traditional' ethic of mutual of any FOOTNOTES1 asHoesI am well indebted in asthe that Mehra to of Malak the courtrooms Giza Zaalouk court, the and infra. foregoing Adel The Arm material mese from whom was relleohed was reocestructed, obeerva- madam,castsocial as that sodthe ofhare,unmade blood mistime. relatioaships Mao* are ao differentoastsPar living the in bothpoor, the heipiag heed of asighbours is at least neighbourhood, is the centre of Ufa. These quarters are verycases.However, the as slaIft- bertMohammedMonsover .1a of periodliebelluys them Abu of courts. several LawZebra, laThe weeksthe'Family excerpts mans during Law,' East herein Springla (Waahlagtont MOW repreesat of Eladdrosi1972 lacompositee. The several tied Middle Her- sea- issessions earegularlypeople 'shwa, were* earn employed. taxi theirmaskilled driver, livings Oompatiosa aad factory as so they on. work midmastiosed of work. various Ala large Made,the Waimea usually work as domestic courtroom sad proportiouwitness are not pedlar, waiter 3 Anderson,For(PersonalEast a laMituts, discussion Status)*Recent 1965), of(Cairo, Developments the pp issues 1160),140-149t comer/lag pp La 270-211.and Mari id., gm Al-shwal Hid., al-Makkah* Law IV,' Mr ANN" ime sit /I D mawives.Normals be brought By or the doupoa same some ram takes, Mad ta this ofthere stratumfactory is Utile wort.who to do Themlump not wart to divorce a husbandare few pressureswith hie that their 54 AbuWorld(Leaden: Zebra, 41 (1961), The"Family Miami. 193 Law,' U; Press, *ad p 147id. 1975), p 133 U. , Law Reform la the Muslim World disappears,midleveragefamily their ifchildree hewallies physical la mashie or can be diesppearsam, exert better to supportupon providers. mob it, or kurbeadsmatt tals,Wheat allectios. to theeither affection I. absent or to 'solution,May withThen themavailable is tittle If 7 laReform,ForAsderson, the a discuasion1020 p 43 Merest law 11 halo of Developmests these is still methods speolloally V,0 of reform,p Medicated 271 me Alderson, ke as s divaree of a lableadiosiskw the lb possibility sum.doesinatitutiag Thorat prodem of ons of freMag divoros leverage eamelf proof/Mims available from suchThe toin such court.kuabseds. U reformers of the 1920s, whether they divan), by Wm It thee becomes the only avai- women. It would appear, Instituting a taWq ThewoodfortedRho*. soduponwhereby fretschool the forage amooed oosmotatioa uses of formteasthe verb verbalto ofiodinate seem'aver*s to by be judicial used- tatliq auttt. 1 es, id appear that it I. throe. mega !um noun (,). Otherwise, the Misrohaigeshly.notion' is em- foraapplymre whole. support providing to the However, is lik-siteaticas the tmodendeto prime it la modoaly of legislationthe ot thepoor rather which them w partial solution. The matter of matey poor whether divorced through %ft As, fifty years later, toto Egyptian society as realised it or sot, MohamedAnderson,Romother (tafrfq) schools al-Nowalhi,'Remit whew see Denicpumnate referring either Chnaglag theto a words Ito,marriage V," Law for immdmautdissolved (SO) pp 213-214. a 'judicialon Personal divoroe MMus Man* *Ma by a judge. See or segue- oaeXtioathedivorceor leis, privileged as is, are itfor la perhspeas alltheir they practical major havemost problemaparpome,bort preferred by the throughout irrelevastlookalternative. el reform their lives. to the life-situation of Thom in tho middleIn tangly law geee- Court KaiakAmericanUnivervitylAberal el-flaseelay flesulaarUalversitylaterpreiatico Zaalouk, oa la Law Cairo), of sod the'The mimeo.,liocial*ad iloolal Charge, Apell a, (paper promoted toStructure the Openp 3ot Diverse Adju- 22, 11011, The vocalYet,*Mulless Ironically, oppoeitios which itexist, toie thepreclealy and reform mable trotsof familystructurally these law to mid viable ideologleally, they are unable to avail themselves of groupe that some of the most alternatives.some legal 10 Edward Lam, (NewCairo,dication York: 1076), in Everyman's Egypt, p III ff. Library, 1954) from the edifies of Man_(M. A.Iere Thesis: aoclAge_Custome The American Uelvernity la of the Modern if 1950, awe 2 emanates. 11 schoolsthatpp By101-102. at Sir certain of Norman Islamic times, Anderson, jurisprudence in certain In privateplaces, 'held court'corresposdeace. qdsb from the various X is knows 214 costansporamously, GARY L OLSON (Department of Political Science; Moravian College;, Pa.)

U.S. POUCY IN THE MIDDLE EAST: SOME POSSIBLE IMPLICA11ONSFOR EGYPT

(Authors Note: I wish to express here my gratitude to the membersof the DOE/Fulbright seminar for the often stimulating discussion that helped to clarifymy thinking on these matters. Few, if any, of the members would sharemy conclusions. Obviously the views expressed herein are the sole responsibility of the author andshould not be ascribed to any organization. Extensive fcotnotes are available from the authorupon request Nothing may be quoted without permission.)

In his recent book The United States and Egypt (1990), William Quandtargues that in a post- Middle East, neither Egyptnor Israel can expect to present themselves credibly as Important 'strategic assets' in confrontinga waning Soviet threat (p. 32). However, Quandt goes on to state that "For the UnitedStates, the strategic value of Egypt residei in the fact that it is,on the whole, a force for stability in a volatile region, not that it is an ally in an anti-Soviet Crusade"(p. 54; see also pp. 63, 68, and 73). In this book, Quandt comes closer than most establishmenttypes in stating the ultimate rationale for Egypt's importance to the United States.Nevertheless, he begs the essential questions by failing to spell out the meaningof terrnb such as "stability", "security", and "strategic value". My purpose here is two-fold: first,I will attempt to briefly sketch out the overall context of U.S. policy in the region; and second, I will try to raisesome questions, the answers to which may bear on the nature of U.S.-Egyptian relations in the 1990's. First, them, any discussion of U.S. policy in the Middle Eastmust begin by taking into account the long-term and ;large-scale economicinterests that determine U.S. policy. They give shape to military and strategic thinkingand without a firm grasp of their dynamics, one's chances of understanding policyare rather slim. The initial one is a belief that the U.S., European,and Japanese economies require aceNess to Middle Eastern oil. Second, thereare U.S. petroleum, banking, and defense industries all of which define their interestsas matters of U.S. national security. Third, there is of course the linkage between the U.S.and Israel and the role of a powerful domestic pressure groupthe Israeli lobby. Here I wouldagree with those who analyzeIsrael'srelevance tomilitary-strategicplanners as asortofpolitical contraceptive against revolutionary (nationalist) upheavals in theregion. This role even outweighs the importance of the lobby itself. To return to my earlier points, It has been projected that In1990, Gulf oll suppliers will be providing up to 28% of U.S. imports (up from6% in 1985). In 1988, Saudi Arabia became the single biggest oil supplier, providing five timeswhat it did in 1985. Further, some 65% of the world's known reserves are in the Gulf. (Note: Egypt isexpected to become an oil-importing country withina decade.) And we know that the U.S. competitive position in the Middle East, relative to Japan andthe EC, has declined. U.S. policy-makers seek the leverage over these competitors thataccompanies control of the Gulf. The objective here is to maintain intra-imperialcontrol over industrial rivals, otherwise known as "allies". Second, and related, are the more specific economic interest:weapons sales in the regions, as a percentage of total U.S.arms sales, has increased each year. Further,

225 2

oil companies fear losing control d pricingand extraction reels while the flaw of petrodollars into U.S. banks is extremely lucrative.This power black of oil companies, banks, and militery interests protects its interestinto the U.S. executive branch. They have a vital stake in the existing Middle East socialand political order. What constitutes the major threat to theseInterests? Without question, revolutionary movements (including Islamic) in the region which mightnationalize oil profits, decrease military purchases, reinvest oil earnings at home, assistother revolutionary movements, L and generally politicize oll resources. Again, Israei is important largely because ofher role as a bulwark against , best epitomized by the .(Note: This also applies outside the region. During tho Iran/contra Affair,one U.S. government analyst put it this way: "Israel is just another federalagency, one that's convenient to use when you want something done quietly.") As has put it, If the U.S.wants a peaceful settlement in accord with the international consensus, Israelwould gradually be forced to accommodate itself to living in the reglona sort of Luxembourgbutthe 'IS. would lose the services of a valuable mercenary state, technologicallyadvanced and militarily competent A pariah state, utterly dependent upon the U.S. for its economicand military survival and hence dependable, available for service where neededinthe Middle East, , or Central America." Again, and paraphrasing Chomsky, if forsome reason Israel were to refuse or be unable to perform its specified role, is thereany doubt that U.S. aid and weapons would flow to the most reactionary Arab regime?The marriage of Zionism and U.S. policy is one of fortuitous convenience driven by economic imperativesaclient regime In the mold of so many otherthe only differencebeing the existence of AIPAC, which has made a high art of political extortion and electoralblackmail. In any event. U.S. policy has passed throughvarious stages in recent years. First, until 1979, policy involved using alliances withinclient regimes and/or rulinggroups with shared interests. The-..a included Iran underthe Shah, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Sadat's Egypt. What was their function? The Shahprovided a stable oil source, supplied oilto Israel (and South Africa), and SAVAK co-operatedwith Israel. The Israelis provided the other "book-end" and with Iran, held the regionwithin the U.S. sphere-of-influence. Sadat further extended the axis. His accommodationwith Israel at Camp Davidwas rewarded with major U.S. military assistance,ultimately contributing to his own demise. (Note: It strains plausibility to accept theargument that Sadat did not perceive Camp David to be at the expense of the Palestinians.)This continued during the 1980's, when the U.S. Congress appropriatedmore than $23 billion in aid to Egypt, the second largest recipient after Israel. Today Egypt receives $2.3billion per year in economic and military assistance from the United States. Finally, SaudiArabia made petroleum available, kept OPEC de-politicized, subsidized reactionaryregimes, and financed right-wing (e.g. the contras) movements. The all began to disintegrate with the fallof the Shah in 1979, especially in the sense that an Islamic regime broke the bond that hadheld Iran and Israel together. Subsequently, the felt vulnerable to Muslimforces, given that Iran-like privileges and inequality existed there, And who wouldprop up the Gutf rulers in the absence of the Shah? The U.S. was forced to beefup its military presence, now cloaked in the jargon of "defending the area from Soviet expansionism."Again, It is terribly important to stress that U.S. policy was never remotely about Sovietexpansion, communism, or even the Cold War. Rather, the states of ,Kuwait, , Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the 3

Unitsd Arab Emirates represent the backbone of U.S. aaecurityinterests" in the region. In this the U.S. has had the co-operation of local elites. Despiteall of the rhetoric about Arab unity and Islamic piety, the maintenance of politicalpower over subjected classes has been their dominant concern. (This includesthe subordination of women, a condition maintained by a combination of law, cuitom,and ideology. On this, see the writings of Fred Halliday.) In short, the overriding preoccupation of U.S. nationalsecurity managers in that the Guif monarchies be protected from their most fearedenemy: their own populations. The native populations might get the heretical idea thatoil resources should be used for something other than enriching the royal family. Someelements may even demand democratic accountability. Obviouslyany government would sell oil on the world market, but the decisions about the revenues would bemade by the people themselves. Oil profits might even be shared with other Third Worldpeoples. The Gulf ruling groups, tiny elites having more in common with the Sa lemonBrothers than with their Arab brothers, would be swept aside in favor of popular control. Oilwould be considered a resource that all might co-operate In exploltng. This popularoontrol cannot be allowed to emerge and the prospect causes restless nights in Washington. For example, U.S. elites apparently believed thatan Iranian victory in the war with Iraq would have accelerated theprocess of radical nationalism throughout the region hence the U.S. government's tilt toward Iraq. At thesame time, Washington (since 1979) has repeatedly sought to reconstruct the afore-mentionedalliance by appealing to Iranian "moderates"those willing to stagea coup in which thousands would perish. Saudi financing and Israeli intermediaries playedkey parts in these futile attempts. Washington has continued to cuttivate Iran and there Issome reason to believe that these efforts are finally bearing fruit One obstacle to overall U.S. policy in the region has beenthe lukewarm response of EC members and Japan. From Washington's point-of-viewthese "allies" have not assumed their proper share of the costoften only offering*token" support. Why are they reluctant? Quite simply, consolidating Arab political regimesunder exclusive U.S. control, linked to the U.S. political/military/economicapparatus, does nothing to strengthen European and Japanese positions inthe Middle East They know that the U.S. presence brings in its wake political linkageswhich turn on the spigot for U.S. economic interests. And as the U.S. global empirecontinues to decline, one would expect a higher Middle East profile;e for these nations. One nation that has been enthusiastic, ofcourse, is Israel. As a colonial settler state lacking any real political options, she has beeneager to convince Washington of the necessity for projecting military power in the MiddleEast. However, Israel's status and mentality also make it a major liability in the region.As an "unsinkable aircraft carrier" Israel might be useful in a crisis. However, Israel isnot really an acceptable collaborator force (vis!ble) for Gulf regimes that must maintainan "anti-Israel" public posture. And reliance on U.S. forces is almostas daunting a prospect. It has been estimated that to seize and hold 700 Saudi wells; 7,000miles of vulnerable pipelines; and 150 processing plants would require 200,000on a permanent basis. Given "Vietnam Syndrome" there would be scant domestic supportfor this option. Currently, U.S, policy lacks any appealingcore ideology for the Arab masses. It can prevail only through force or by shaping Arabdomestic fomiations to lend themselves to protecting U.S. interests. Thismay involve apprlaches to the Islamic right but also selective cuttivation of surrogate (client) regimes. Inthe latter respect, U.S. policy would be consistent with that followed elsewhere in the ThirdWorld. 4

We are now in a position to offer some questions for the purpose of discussionand further research, especially in the lightof Quandfs observations:

1. Is it beyond the realm ofpossibility that In Washington'sgeopolitical view, Egypt is to assume the roleonce played by Iran?The United Stateshas used Egypt in at least the followingways: ammunition storage, rescue effortof hostages in Iran, fuel facilities forplanes and ships, military operationssuch as "Brightstar and "Operation Cobra",sharing of military doctrine ofdesert fighting, exchange of intelligence,American arms for Afghanrnujahideen given logistical help by Egypt,and the training of some 200 Egyptianmilitary officers each year in the UnitedStates. To what extent is U.S. aida guarantee or "ransom" for U.S. access to Egyptianmilitary facilities? What is the actual prospect for joint U.S.-Egyptian operationsin the Gulf and elsewhere in the Middle East? What minimumconditions would be required?What would be the likely outcomes?

2. What would be the domestic(Egyptian) implications ofa phased reduction in U.S. aid to Egypt? At what levelscould stability" be maintained? a) U.S. aid functionsas a wedge to further open Egypt toAmerican investment, which precludesa drastic curtailment b) Since the aid is "tied" topurchases in the United States,there is a significant lobby for continuinglarge subsidies to American business. c) The Instability" within Egyptfollowing any cutback (especiallyof food) would need to be calculated witha view to the afore-mentioned overall objectives. d) The dependence on U.S. aid ensures a reasonably highlevelof compliance with U.S. objectivesand lessens the likelihood ofa military takeover.

3. In the absence of any progress on the Palestinian/Israeli conflict,will Egypt's ciose co-operation with the UnitedStates serve to discredit theregime in the eyes of other Arab governments? Is therea grace period after whichnew ruptures can be expected? Will themassive concessions made bythe PLO and Egypt devalue *moderation"and jeopardize U.S.-Egyptianrelations? Egypt's peace with Israel has survivedthe Israeli raid on Iraq (1981),the raid on PLO head-quarters in Tunis (1985),the annexation of the (1981), the invasion of Lebanon(1982), and the continuingcarnage in/the Occupied Territories sinceDecember 1967. Egypt has beenre-admitted to the , isa member of the Arab Co-operationCouncil, and now has diplomatic relations withSyria. However, and recallingthe foregoing discussion, it may be thecase that the initial (public) Arab hostilitytoward Egypt was more calculatedfor domestic consumption thana reflection of actual policy. That is, one may be witnessing an elaborate charademandated by the popularity of the Palestiniancause among the Arab masses and the highly functional (indispensable?) use of Israel in domestic Arab politics.If this is the case, one mightexpect some highly-charged rhetoricdirected at Egypt without any seriousconsequences. The mainstream PLO has tewother options while the "rejectionlsrfaction will not be a significantfactor. -Thus Khalidi may be exaggerating the rne when he states thatinaction "...plays into ttva hands of those who maintainthe inherent bankruptcy of peaceful negotiations° (Journal of Palestine Studies,Spring 1990, p. 15).

4. What are the implicatons for U.S.-Egyptianrelations if Israel moves to expel ("transfer is the Israeli euphemism) thePalestinians on the ? The idea of transfer has persisted withinmainstream Zionism since 1937,and today a significant minority of Israeli Jewssupport this option. For them, the only question Is under what conditionscould expulsion proceed without risidng U.S, financiai support.Here one thinks of °preventive attacks*or provoked incident requiring drasticalternatives. (See Israel Shahak in Z Magazine,March 1990, p. 103 and May, 1990,p. 52.) This issue, combined with the unpredictable future ofthe Intifada, is the wild card in this analysis in that It would force Arab 'moderates°like Egypt (and Jordan) to choose between two unacceptable paths.

6 2;19 KAREN PENICK

A TEACHING UNIT ON ISLAM: A TEACHER'SQUESTION-AND-ANSWER GUIDE

aarikerQUIV

Islam is one of the major of the world.For a fifth of the world's population, Islam is both a religion and a completeway of life. Originating in Arabia in the seventh century A.D., it spread rapidly acrossa broad geographical area of the globe from the Atlantic coast of Africa in the west to the fringes of thePacific Ocean in the east and from the steppes of central Asia in the north to equatorialAfrica in the south. Today, the world- wide community of Muslims numbersnearly one billion and includes the peoplesof many races and diverse culture. About 18% of all MUSH=live in the Arab world; the world's largest Muslim community is inIndonesia; substantial parts of Asia and most of Saharan and Eastern Africa are Muslim; whilesignificant minorities are to be found in the , China, North and ,and Europe. (See the charton "The Peoples of Islam".)

Why is it important to learn about Islam? The sheer numbers of Muslims and their distributionmake their ideas and attitudes important to the rest of the world. Muslimsform neatly the total population in approximately 25 countries and a majority inanother ten. The largest concentrations of Muslimsare In the Third World among the emerging nations. The economic potential ofsome Muslim states is indicated by their possession of large petroleum revenues. The inherent power of Islam to affect the worldwe live in makes it important for us to know something about the origin, beliefs, andpractices of Islam. Islam may seem exotic or even extreme in the modem world. Perhaps this isbecause religion does not dominate our everyday life in the Western societiestoday, whereas Islam is not only a religion, it remains a way of life for millions.

What is Islam? Islam is one of the world's great monotheisticreligions. it is practiced throughout the world by peoples of many countries anddiverse cultures. What ckJes 'Islam° mean? The Arabic word "Islam" simplymeans "submission", and derives from a word meaning "peace'. In a religious context, itmeans complete submission to the will of God.

Who ate the Muslims? (.. .also spelled "Moslems") Muslims are the followers of Islam. Ofmany different races, nationalities, and cultures, "Muslims* are those who have accepted"Islam'sthat is, who have "submitted to God's will."

What do Muslims believe? Muslims believe in one God; in the Angelswhom He created; in the Day of Judgment, and in the individual accountabilityfor one's own acts; In life after death; and in God's complete authorityover human destiny. They also believe in the prophets through whom God has made His revelationsto mankind. The prophets are ,

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1 210 The Peoples of Islam Muslim communities and individualscan be found in almost every country. A few countries may not appear on this chart owing to the small size of their Muslim communities.In some cases, also, the census data is highly uncertain.

Muslim Total Population Population Country (0004) Muslim (000's) ' 15,500 99% 15,345 Albania 3,000 70% 2,100 Algeria 22,200 99% 21,798 Bahrain 400 99% 396 101,500 89% 90,335 Benin 4,000 16% 640 Bhutan 1,400 5% 70 Brunei 200 64% 123 Bulgana 8,900 11% 1,014 Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) 7,000 44% 3,080 Burma 37,000 4% 1,480 9,600 2.2% 2,112 Central African Republic 2,622 8% 210 5,000 51% 2,550 China (PRC) L042,000 1.44% 15,000 Comoros 424 99% 4.20 700 18.5% 130 300 90% 270 Egypt 43,000 91% 43,680 Ethiopia 36,000 35% 12,600 Fiji 700 8% 56 Gambia 650 87% 565 14,500 15% 2,173 Greece 9,900 2.5% 250 Guinea 5,700 69% 3,933 Guinea-Bissau &50 38% 325 Guyana 800 9% 72 India 750,000 12% 90,000 Indonesia 165,000 85% 140,250 Iran 43,000 98% 42.140 Iraq 15,000 95% 14,250 Israel' 4,200 12.`,10 525 Ivory Coast 9,500 25% 2,375 Jordan 2,900 93% 2,700 Kampuchea 6,200 2.4% 149 Kenya 20,000 6% 1,200 Kuwait 1,475 95% 1,416 Lebanon 3,000 57% 1,710 Liberia 2,200 21% 462 Libya 3,600 98% 3,528 Madagascsr 10,000 2% 200 7,100 16% 1,136 15,700 49% 7,693 Maldive Islands 200 100% 200 Mali 7.700 80% 6,160 Mauritania 1,900 103% 1,900 Mu4irn Total Population Country Population (007s) Muslim (0024) 1,000 17% Mongolia 170 1,900 9.5% 180 23.000 99% 22,770 Mozambique 13,800 13% Nepal 1,794 17,000 5% Niger 850 6,400 87.4% Nigeria 5:593 89,000 45% Oman 40,050 1,000 100% ' 1.000 95.000 97% Panama 92,150 2,000 4.5% Philippines 95 56,000 5.6% 3.136 Qatar 280 Reunion 96% 500 2.4% Rwanda 12 6,000 8.6% 516 Saudi Arabia 9,000 99% 8,910 6,500 91% Sierra Leone 5,915 3.600 40% Singapore 1,440 2,600 18% 468 Somalia 5,000 99% Soviet Union 4.950 277,000 18% 49.860 16,000 8% Sudan 1,280 21,700 72% 15,624 400 14% Syria 57 10,200 88% 8,976 21,500 30% 6.450 Thailand 52,000 4% 2.080 2,900 .16% Trinidad & Tobago 464 1,200 6.5% 78 7,100 99% Turkey 7,029 50,000 99% Uganda 49,500 14,700 6.6% United Arab Ernuates 970 1,000 90% 900 U.S.A.2 238,900 0.6-1.2% 1,500-3,000 Yemen (North) 6,066 100% Yemen (South) 6.066 2,200 100% 2.200 23,000 16% 3,700 Footnotes: 'Estimated 2.5 million Afghan refugees are included inPakistan. not Afghanistan. 'Counmes with less than 2% Muslim population havenot been listed except for China and the U.S.A., which were included because their total populations art large enough so that their Muslimpopulations are numerically signdicant. 'Does not include Muslim populatioriS of West Bank and Gila,estimated at total of 1,100.0:0. 'Estimated 2 million expatriate Pakistan workersare included elsewhere. esp. in the Gulf countries, not in Pakistan figure. Other Notes: (I) The data listed above are for mid-1965. (2) Figures for the Gulf states include workersas well as citizens. (3) Sources include the Populaoon Reference Bureau. the 1BRD.the State Dept., other published and unpublished materials, andprevious studies by MIA. The principal source for Muslim populationswas the second edition of Muslim Peoples. A World almost-001c Survey, by RichardV. Weekes. (Greenwood Press. Westport, Conn., 1964).

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 212 Important Terms

Arabic is the universal language of Isla= even though Muslims speak many different languages. Islamic terms, therefore, are generally Arabicor Arabic derived.

Allah The Arabic name for God used by all Muslims Lad by Arabic speaking Christians Mitham=ad (570-632 A.D.) the Prophet of God who received the revelations of God contained in the Glur" an Isla= submission to the will of God; used in reference to the "nation" of believers and their faith Muslim A person who submits to the will of God: an adherent of Lslam (also, sometimes, Moslem) um= the Muslim co==unity Qur'an ('oran) the book of "recitations" of the Word of God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad: the holy book of Isla= aura a chapter or division of the Qur'an; there are 114 shalcada the profession of faith: "There is no God bat God and Muha==ad is his Messenger" hadith sayings of the Prophet: traditional stories which aid in governing Islamic life and in interpreting the Qur'an sunnah the Theaten path" or body of traditions recounting the deeds, sayings and silent approval of the Prophet covemag the detailz of community life shari'a the whole body of rules governing the life of a Muslim: legal doctrine derived from the Qur'an and the sunnah Sunni (Sunnite) a follower of the tradition, "orthodox:" the branch of Isla= whose adherents believed that Muhammad's successor should be elected: now comprises about 85% of ail Muslims Shi'a (Sai'ite) "partisans of Ali:" the branch of Isla= whose adherents hold that Ali. Muhammad's cousin and son- in-Iym, was Muhammad's successor: now found principally in Iran. Iraq, Yemen, Afghanistan and Pakistan

American Institute for Islamic Affairs C 1981 Islam Ctmennial Ft lumen. Schosi Incarriausnal Service. The Unowritty 4900 34msamusetza Avows. N.W.. Wmiunithet. D C. 20018 213 1ST COPY UNABLE 'ulaa men learned in the law and religtous studies; the class responsible for determining Muslim othodoxy iunam leader of worship or leader of the Muslim community mu'azzin (muezzin) the person who calls the faithful toprayers mullah a religious teacher and preacher ayatoll: 1 literally "reflection of God," used especially in Iran to refer to Shi'a religious leaders, elevated to this status by community consensus =asjid =sque; any place where worship is perfomed in groups a major =sque where official Friday services are held bajj the annual pap-image to Mecca, always in the last month of the Muslim calendar; required, if possible, forevery Muslim once in lifetime jihad struggle, a ter= sometimes used generally, but also specifically, to designate either a war waged in accordance with the Sbari'a in defense of the faith or the personal struggle to overcome one's imperfections and baser impuLses in order to become a better Muslim zakat a tithe or tax; almsgiving for the poor Ka.'ba the Karba is the structure in the central courtyard of the Grand Mosque in Mecca which encases the 'black stone"; recognized as a shrine, it is the point toward which Muslims pray and the focal point of the hat ijtihad the attempt, when faced by a new situation, to establish a ruling a through creative scholarly effort based on the recognized fundamental principles of Islam ijrca.' consensus; an agreed upon opinion of the Muslim community hi jra (hegira) emigration, or the origizal of the Prophet, anti his followers, from Mecca to Medina; the year it occured. 522.. was fixed as the beginning of the Muslim calendar; A.. E. denc4e$ years in the Muslim calendar one who practices . a. general ter= alluding to the various schools or orders within both Sunni and Shi'a Islam 1 which espouse mystical approaches to the understanding of C-oci tarika a particular Sufi order or "brotherhood"

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214 The IslamicCalendar The MoslemMonths

1st Moharrem 2nd -Safar 7th - 3rd -Rabei el Rajab Awal Oth - 4th- Rebei al Thani Sha'ban 5th 9th- Ramadan - Jumada elAwal Oth 10th- Shawal - Jumada elThani llth Dhu al pada 12th- Dhu al Vijja The Islamiccalendar day moves contains 12lunar months. forward ladays according Each Islamic holiday,though fixed to thewestern year the first calendar. on the Islamic calendar andevery The month calendar,rotates .11 times 'Dhu al,Hijjahas 30 days on the Western in everycycle of,30 in'a leap Years. year whichoccurs

Days of the Week ^ Sunday - Yowmal-aHad' Monday Yowm Tuesday al-ithnayn Yowmal-talut Wednesday Yowm Thursday al-arba'a Yowmal-Khaniys Friday Yowm Saturday al-juma'a Yowmas-sabt

215 MUSLIMHOLIDAYS and SpecialObservances The Islamic year is marked bymany religious and traditional holidays. Some involve prayer and fasting; otherstake on additional festive aspects. Some are more cultural than religious inorigin. Some are obligatory for the believer while others are not. Not all "Muslim holidays"are celebrated everywhere. A few-- Ramadan. 'Id al-Fitr, and 'Id al-Adha-- are celebrated widely in the Muslim world, while others are important ina specific area or are significant only to parti- cular groups of Muslims. Similarly,the forms of celebration of thesame holiday may differ from country tocountry.In addition, many Islamic countries have their own national celebrations. Lunar Calendar Islamic holidays occur in the Muslim lunarcalendar of 354 days, or twelve twenty-eight day months. These months-Muharram. Saar. Rabi' I. Rabi' II Jumadi I. Jumadi IIRajab, Stia'ban, Ramadan, Shawwal,Dhu al-Qidah. and Dhu al-Hijjah-- each begin with the new moon. Because the Gregorian calendar, in use in the West, is basedon the 365-day rotation of the earth around the sun, the Gregorian and Muslimcalendars do not conform. Therefore an annual check is necessary to determine the Gregoriandate which corresponds to a particular Islamic festival. A general ruleis that the date will advance 11 days from one year to the next (e.g.,Ramadan dates; 1981). July 13, 1980; July 3, The chart shows the ma 'or Muslimfestivals.failiallIMMININSIONNEMMU A particular date in both ca endars will coincide once in 32 years (i.e. January1--1 Muharram). Because the Gregorian calendar is acceptedinternationally, people in most Muslim countries operate in both calendarsystems, and the international calendar is used in non-Muslim matters. Muslim holidays are dated in relation to phases ofthe moon. Throughout the Muslim world, there are astronomers andmathematicians who calculate precisely when these can be anticipated.Nonetheless, in many areas, the date is not confirmed until the actualsighting. Islam is a world-wide religion, and therefore because of differences ingeography and sighting, holidaysmay begin on different days in various countries.However, the variation is seldom more than one day. Consequently, it is not always possibleto anticipate exactly when business and government officesin a particular country will close for a holiday. Throughout the Islamic world,the day goes from sundown to sundown, rather than midnight to midnigntas in Western custom. -Unlike , Passover,or Chinese New Year, which fall in the same season each year. Muslim holidays rotate through theseasons. During a lifetime, therefore, a Muslim will observe the Ramadanfast for example, during hot and cold seasons and longer and shorterdays.

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Each Muslim observance has itsown significance. They are listed here in the same order that they occur in the Muslim lunar calendar, and theirstandard Arabic name is ussd. However, the Arabic spellingfor the name of the holiday may vary or a local namemay be used. Spec if lc Holidays Muharrarn 1 R.as al-Sana, the new year, is the first day of the firstmonth. Muharram. ar'ticular observances are not called for, but rather it is celebrated much as the new year is celebrated in the west, althoughwithout alcohol. The work week is interrupted in some countries for this holiday.

Muharram 10 'Ashura (the tenth), is a religious holy day during which piousMuslims raaWst from dawn to sunset. Although it isnot an obligatory day of fast for Muslims. fasting is a recommended ritual and often practiced byindividuals. For Shi'a Muslims*, it is a day of special sorrow. commemoratingthe assassination of the Prophet's grandson, Husain.I,a some places there will be passion plays and parades which often include self-flagellation insorrow and sympathy for Husain. Among Shi'i, the celebration of 'Ashura traditionally beginson the first of Muharram and culminates on the 10th day.It is a time of mourning in Shiti areas, where daily work will often be interrupted.

Rabi' I12 Maulid al-Nabi, the birthday of the Prophet iguhaniznad,is celebrated the 12tE day ofriabi' I. Insome regions this holiday goes on for many days. It is a time of festivities and the exchange of gifts, with childrm, especially, receiving candy and toys. may have torch-light processionsat night. Often panegyrics (passages) eulogizing the Prophetare read aloud. In some places businesses may be closed for the celebratious. /slamicteaching does not encourage the veneration of saints, the Prophet,or other pious persona, so that in some Muslim lands, Saudi Arabia for example, the popular celebration of his birthday is discouraged.

Rajab 27 Lailat al-Isra wa al-Mi'rai, literally "the night ,)f journey and ascent", commemorates Muhammad's night journey ----or= Mecca to the al-Aosa mosque in Jerusalem and his ascent to heaven andreturn the same night.This night is traditionally celebrated by prayers and the reading ofpanegyrics. In Mecca, parades may take place. Its observance doesnot disrupt daily life.

*See What is Islam for a simple explanation ofsome of the different groups in Islam.

217 -3- Sly'ban 14

The 14th night of the eighth month.Sba'ban, is widely celebrated bypious Muslims. Sometimes It is called "Lailat al-Bars.'a" or "night of repentance". In 'tome areas of the Muslim world-rrea new year's celebration. According to Muslim hadithor tradition, it is the night God approaches earth to call to man at-M"Tr grant forgivenessfor his sins. In some countries, India and Malaysia for example, it isa night when prayers are said for the dead, food is given to thepoor and sweets are eaten.

Ramadan Ramadan, the ninth morr'h of the Muslimyear, is entirely devoted to and spiritual purification throughself-discipline. It is a period of abstinence from food, drink, and physicalpleasure. The fast ia an obligation practiced by Muslims th.eoughout the world,unless they are old, infirm, traveling, or pregnant. Those whocannot complete the fast during the pre- scribed time will frequently make itup the following month. Throughout the month, which begins with the sightingof the new moon, the strictures apply between dawn and dusk. Observingthe fast, however, does not preclude performing normal daily tasks. However,in some Islamic countries, business slows down for this month and governmentoffices, if they are opsn, keep short hours. After dusk, the faithfulsay the evening prayers and gather for a meal. Guests are frequently invitedto share in these often sumptuous meals. There is also a small mealshortly before the sun rises. Inmany countries, for example Jordan and SaudiArabia, it ill difficult for non- Muslims to obtain food and drink duringthe hours of fasting; frequently they can best care for their needs in thelarger hotels in major cities. It is considered inappropriate for peopleto openly eat or drink during Ramadan.

Ramadan 27 The next to the last night of the fasting month, "Lailat al-C4",or "night of power and greatness", is by customan especrally holy time. It is said to commemorate the time at which revelationwas first given to Muhammad. It is felt that prayers said duringa particular but unspecified hour of this night will be answered, hence many pious Muslims prayer. spend the entire evening at

Shawwal 1 "Id al-Fitr", called the lesser feast,begins immediately after the month-long Ra-Fsrair-fast.It is perhaps Islam's most joyousfestival, marking as it (ices, the end of the month of abstinenceand the cleansing of the believer. Although the 1st of Shavrsal is the primary holiday,celebrations often continue for two or three more days. Like thebeginning of Ramadan. the exact date is not fixed -- although moat people knowwhen it should be -- and in many countries 'Id al-Fitr is not declared until the actualsighting of the new moon. The first

218 -4- morning begins with communal prayer followed by feasting. Families and friends visit each other's homes.It is a time for new clothes and for presents, with sweet pastries a particular favorite.In Indonesia, where friends must be greeted and asked forgiveness for the coramissione and omissions of thepast year, festivities may continue intermittently for several weeks. Businesses and government offices are frequently closed for the holiday time.

Dhu al-Hijjah 1-10 Muslims, if they are able, are obliged to undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. This duty. .called the 1.21U1. should be performed in the last month of the Muslim calendar, Dhu al-Hijja. According to tradition, it commemorates Abraham's offer to sacrifice his son. Ishmael. (In Islamic tradition. Ishmael, son of Hagar, was the intended sacrifice. aot Isaac.son of Sarah, as held by and Christians.)Pilgrims from all over the world converge on Metca for these ten days, performing a number of rituals and participating in communal prayer.

Dhu al-Hijjah 10 All Muslims. whether on the pilgrimage or at home, participate in the feast of sacrifice, "Id al-Adha", which marks the end of the hall on the 10th of Dhu al-Hijja. The feast of sacrifice, called the "greater feast", is observed by the slaughtering of animals and the distribution of the meat.In some places this is done individually, and the meat is shared equally among the family and the poor; sometimes the slaughtering may take place in a public area 'and the meat is then distributed. As with the lesser feast to mark the end of Ramadan, people put on new or good clothes, offer a special prayer in the morning, visit each other, give presents, espetially to children, and visit cemeteries. The festivities usually last two or three days, during which time businesses and government offices are usually closed.

Prayer One of the daily and weekly rituals in Islam is prayer. Prayers are said five times daily, before sunrise, before noon, afternoon, after sunset, and in the evening. A call to prayer is delivered from the minaret of the mosque. This is customarily begun by the Arabic phrase--Allattu akbar--or "God is great". The prayers at noon on Friday are the most important of the week. The community -- particularly the men and boys-- gathers at the mosque. A sermon in which the community is told of important events usually precedes the prayers. While Friday is a special day, it is not one of relaxation, but one of joining together. Muslim businesses and government r.,ffices are usually closed.In some countries. Friday may be a half-day or the lunch hour may be extended to facilitate communalprayers.

@ National Committee, 1981; Kathleen Hatch Allegrone.

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Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob,Joseph, Job, Moses, Aaron, Elias,Jonah. John the Baptist, and Jesus. God's finalmessage to man was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad through the Archangei Gabriel.

Who is AM Iti? Allah is the Supreme Being, theone and onty God. According to Islam, Allah Isthe same God as Him worshipped by the Jawsand the Christians. Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also use thisname when referring to God. Muslims believe in the absoluteoneness of God, as proclaimed in the Qur'an: °Say He is God the One and Only/ Godthe Eternal, the AbsoluteJ He begettethnot nor is begotten,/ And there isnone like unto Him (Sure CM). Who is Muhammad? The Prophet Muhammad was not onlya conveyor of the word of God to man but also a brilliant military and politicalleader whose actions and decisionschanged the course of history. Muhammad probably was born in 570 AD. inthe town Of Mecca, which is located in the mountains along the westerncoast c4 Arabia. Although related to theOuraysh, one of the Ming tribes of the city,Muhammad's immediate familywas poor and he was orphaned early in life. Hewas brought up by an uncle named Abu Tab, whofollaved the common practice of city Arabs bysending Muhammad to live for twoyears with a bedouin family in the desert to learnfnigal ways and self-rellance. Asa young man, Muhammad travelled widely with his uncle'Strading caravans and eventuallywent to work for Khadlja, a wealthy widow. Atabout age 25 Muhammad married Khadija.They had several children. Theirsons died at an early age but four daughters lived and married men would were Muhammad'sfuture supporters, Muhammad, though considered thegreatest of the prophets by the Muslims,was merely a man. He was neither Godnor son of God: he was not to be worshippedor called upon to intercede betweenman and God. How did Muhammad becomea mph& On a night in the year 610 A.D., atthe age of 40, while spending the nightIn meditation and prayer in the mountains,the Angel Gabriel appeared to Muhammadand began to reveal to him God's word. At firsthe told only Khadija, his wife. But theAngel Gabriel commanded him to proclaimpublicly what had been revealed to him. What is the Qurad? The Ourian, the holy book of Islam, isthe body of revelation which God deliveredto Muhammad through the Angel Gabriel.The word *Queer,' means *Recital% for itwas in fact recited to the Prophet, who in tumrecited what he had heard and memorizedto other men; indeed, according totradition the Prophet himselfwas illiterate, and eventually °tilers In the early Muslimcommunity began to write down the hisprophetic utterances. The Qur'an was recited by Gabrielinand has always been written in Arabic and provides the Muslimbeliever with all he or she needs to knowto lead a good life according to Islam. Its basic theme isthe relationship between God andhumankind, and it provides guidelines fora just society, proper human conduct, andan equitable economic system. The text of the Qur'an was transmittedto Muhammad over a period of twenty-two years. According to Muslim tradition, itYIS3 finally compiled into its present written form in 651 A.D., nineteen years after theProphets death. Although the Qur'an isavailable in

2 2 0 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 3 languages otter than Arabic, theseare considered to be mere interpretations;the full, tn.* meaning of the Qur'an is onlyapparent when read in Arabic.Therefore, Muslims everywhere, no matter what language theyspeak, rectte the Qur'an only in itsArabic original; and for thisreason most Muslims strive to loam at leastsome Arabic if they are not native-speakers of the language. The Qur'an must be treated withgreat respect no other book isallowed to be placed upon it it should be carriedabove the waist one must notsmoke or drink while reading it or listening to It Manybelieve that is a talisman againstdisease or disaster. How is the Qur'an organized? The Qur'an is divided into 114chapters called "sures". Notone word at the "sures" has been changed over the centuries,so that every detail therein is exactly the textas it was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad.The "Sum" are numbered andtitled in reference to their content Someexamplw ci the "Sum"ars 'Women", "The Pilgrimage", "Divorce*, "TheDawn", "'Welty in Worldly Increase, Kindnesses°. and 'Small The "Suras", or chapters,are divided into verses, whichare called "ayyas". Altogether there are 6,236 "awes".The chapter vary in length fromthree to 282 "ayyas". Mot is the Sumah? The "sunnah", or "Way" Is the bodyof traditions recounting the Prophet'sbehavior, which is a standard of conductto be emulated by all Muslims. Thesayings cf the Prophet which are part of the Sunnah,are called the "hadith". Thus the Sunnah, especially in theform of the Hadith. Is complementaryto the Qur'an it helps to explain and clarifythe Holy Book itself and topresent practical applications of its teachings. (See theIndex of Godly Commandments and of the Sunnah or Hadith.) Forbiddances What is the Sharra? The "Shari'a", the "path to thewatering place°, is the holy lawof Islam as expounded in the Qur'an and the Hadith.In Islam, this law is c4 divine origin,transmitted from God through the Prophetto mankind. It rezognizesno difference between the religious and the secular andgoverns every aspect of the Muslim's life, Its provisions cover criminal law,oaths, contracts, evidence, judicialprocedure, marriage, slavery, education,personal hygeine, the idlling of manners and deportment animals, and even

What are the religious ciuties d theMuslim? There are five major duties of Muslims.These are expressed in *the Rve Pillarsof Islam". (See detailed explanation inthe chart 'Five Pillars CA islarn".)These duties involve not only profession of faithbut also the recognition of God in human conduct all aspects of 1. To believe in and profess theoneness of God and the truth that Muhammad is His foremost messenger. 2. To pray five times daily: at firstlight of dawn, noon, mid-afternoon,sunset, and evening. 3. To give almsa certainpercentage of one's Income must be given tothe poor or to the government for distribution to thepoor. 4. To fast from food and drink, especiallyduring the month of Rarnadan.

221 Commands index

1. Unify Allah 2. Believe in five. 3.Utter the two witnesses. 4.Bath if you were polluted. 5.Clean before prayer. 6.Rub with clean ground if you don't "findwater. 7.It's better to pray with a group. 8.Haste to the prayer of thc day of congregation. 9.Adorn at the mosque. 10.Pray the prayers in its time. 11. Be guardian of your prayer. 12. Enjoin upon thy people worship. 13. Pray the traveller's prayer (Short & Combination). 14. Pray the Sonnah prayer. (largess) 15. Follow the Prophet's Sonnah. 16. Ask blessing and salute the Prophet Muhammad. 17. Pay the poor-due for yourself and the others. 18.Pay the alms for the following eightcases. 19. Fast the month of Ramadan. 20.Pilgrimage to the oldest House. 21.Adore Allah only. 22.Turn your prayer toward the Kaabah. 23.Prostrate the reading's prostration in the Glorious Quran. 24.Carry out the Lord's commands. 25.Be Moslem. 26.Read. 27.Be pure before reading the Quran. 28.Seek refuge in Allah when you recite the Quran. 29.Listen to the Glorious Quran if itis read. 30.Looking at the verses of Quran. 31.Think in creation of heavens and the earth.

31 - 11. Read the Quran. 33.Worship Allah. 34.Fear .Allah. 35.Remember Al. 36.Obey Allah. 37.Ask Allah for help. 38.Repent to Allah. 39. Discourse with the bounty of Allah. 40.Thank Allah. 41. Ask Allah Who answersyou. 42.Be clean and pure.. 43.Be generous with yourparents. 44.Emigrate to Allah's land for betterlife. 45.Follow the commands of Allahnot parents. 46.Withdraw from who left the worshipof Allah 47.Belie% e in the allegoricalverses. 48.Race for forgiveness. 49.Seek protection of Allah fromthe satan. 30.Make room in knowledgeor religious meeting. 51.Do good for your future. 32.Ask the followers of knowledge. 33.Increase your knowledge. 54.Restrain yeur soul. 35.Strive in the way of Allah. 56.Fulfil the convenant of Allah. 57:Glorify your Lord and thankHim. 38.- Make .Allah's will beforeyou will do anything. 59.Adjust your own morality. .60.Eat of that over which thename of Allah has been mentioned. 61.Eat what beasts arid birdsyou have trained. 62.Eat with those.. 63.Enjoin right conduct and forbidindecency. 64.Be good-hearted. 65. Refer to Quran and Sonnahwhenever you have a disputeconcernine any matter. 66.Verify before you attackyour brother. 67.Judge justly. 68.Make peace amongopponents. 69.Join among the folk. 70.Join your relatives. 71. Make foryour eternity. P. Keep the government'sfurniture.

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, . , 2 A 73.Defend your home. 74.Be careful at mankind'speace. 75.Say the good word. 76.Begia with the goodword. 77.Forgive whenyou have the ability. 78.Keep your tongue. 79.Say the good words ifyou don't give alms. 80.Begin with yourself, thenthe others. 81.Intervene in a goodcause. 82.Lower your gaze and bemodest. (the man) 83.Lower your gaze and bemodest. (the woman) 84.Greet the greeting. 85.Awake at night for prayers. 86.Be kind to your neighbour 87.Enter the uninhabited house. 88.Give the slave his wealthif he wants. 89.Give the bestyou have. 90.Give almsgiving in hide. 91.Witness the right. 92.Be spon. 93.Be generous withyour guest. 94.Protect the weak, oldand_child. 95.Be kind with everything. . 96. Avoid lying speech. . 97.Consult with-them upon-theconduct of affairs. 98.Bring up your childrenvery well. 99.Be content. 100._ Be good intention. 101. Shun the suspicion. 102. Perfectyour work. 103. Spend from Allah'sprovision. 104. Be modestat your expenditure 105. Preach people withwisdom and argue themin politeness. 106. Restore depositsto their owners. 107. Like your brotheras yourself. 108. Be modest inyour bearing. 109. Lower your voice. 110. Keep hideyour secret. 111. Cooperate unto righteousnessand good deeds. 112. Be pious dutyto your children. 113. Refrain in theclothing if you becomeold. (The Woman) 114. Refrain ifyou have no hope of marriage.

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2 24 115. Marn your slaves andmaid-servants. 116. It is better tomarry one. 117. Keep . 118. Give thewoman her dowry 119. Go in untoyour wife. 120. Consort withyour wife in kindness. 121. Ask help of bothfolk to makeone mind. 121. Pay to divorced virginhalf you have appointed. 123. Let woman alone duringher period. 124. Keep away ofyour wife during themenses. 125. Understand withyour wife before the divorce. 126. Release the divorcedin Kindness. 127. Lodge your divorced and spend for her till shebrings forth her burden. 128. Invoke Allah by Hisnames. 129. Proclaim the unknown children for their realparentage or your brothers in the faith. 130. Spend onyour child and suckle it twoyears. 131. Separate between maleand female in slecping-bed. 132. Let your adult childrenask leave of you. 133. Let your slaves askleave of you. 134. Equaliseamong your children intreatment. 135. Beware ofyour wife and children. 136. Forbidusury. 137. Give up what remainesfrom usury. 138. Record in writingwhen you contracta -debt. 139. Record in writinga debt whatever its value. 140. Give a pledge inhand if you are on"a journey. 141. Fill the measure and weigh with a non-biasedbalance. 142. Test the orphanand deliver overunto him his fortune. 143. Divide the inheritance (if it was) afterthe deathof the husbandor wife and in the followingcases: 144. Divide the bequest(if it was) after the deathof father or mother and in the followingcases. 145. Leave a bequeath unto parents when youare about to die. 146. Distribute the dead's bequest (if it was)who did not marry and in follwoing cases: the 147. Fight in theway of Allah. 148. Punish with thelike of whatyou have been punished. 149. Beware yourenemy during the war. 150. Speak the straightword to the point. 151. Love peace. 152. Be tolerant.

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153. Call to witness two men or one man and two women to write the debt. 15+. Give the debtor the time to pay back his debt. 155. Spend firstly for parents then the others. 156. Give the poor their shares from Allah's wealth. 157. Forbid marrying by sucking. 158. Admonish the rebellious wife. 159. Pick up the foundling and bring it up. 160. Make ready for your ermny. 161. Be patient whatever you may befall. 162. Wash your dead and haste to bury him. 163. Pray upon your dead. 164. Ask Allah to forgive your dead. 165. Pay the dead's debt. 166. Visit the graves. 167. Condole to the dead's family.

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2 '(1) 6 Forbiddance'sIndex

1.No partner to Allah. 2. Do not pray untoanyone along with Allah inmosque. 3.Do not worship angels,prophets nor messengers. 4.Do not worship Allahupon a narrow marge. 5.Do not forbid the approachto the sanctuaries of Allah. 6.Do not fight at the InviolablePlace of Worship. 7. Do not eat the onion andgarlic before youare going to mosque. 8.Do not pray if youare drunken. 9.Do not loud your voice inthe worship. 10. Do not hide Allah'srevelation to the mankind. 11. Do not sit with whomderided with the revelation ofAllah. 12.Do not argue concerningAllah without knowledge: 13. Do not argue with the peopleof the scripture unless itis better. 14. Do not of Allah. 15.Do not swear with Allahto hurt anyone. 16. Do not follow whatyou do not know. 17.Do not distract with your wealth and children front remembranceof Allah. 18. Do not be sad for what you have lost and don't exult whichyou hakte been given. 19. Do not fear mankind andfear Allah. 20.Do not gain a small price ofAllah's covenant. 21.There is no compulsion inreligion. 22.Do not exaggerate inyour religion. 23.Do not become a renegadefrom your religion. 24. Do not speak about lawful andforbidden without the GloriousQuran. 25.Do not confound the truthwith falsehood. 26.Do not take forLords beside Allah. 27.Do not insultyour parents. 28.Do not call every deada dead. 29.Do not believe in other religionsave Islam.

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227 30.Do not forget Allah. 31.Do not be heedless of Allah'sremembrance. 32.Do not coin the examples forAllah. 33.Do not follow the devil's whisper. 34.Do not choose the Satan fora patron. 35. Do not forbid the food which Allahhas made lawful foryou. 36.Do not forbid the adornment ofAllah. 37 Do not eat the kinds of the followingmeat: 38.Do not be prodigal in eating thefood. 39.Do not swear with someone other thanAllah. 40.Do not swear much with Allah. 41.Do not swear lying with Allah. (or withothers). 42.Do not forget the sin-offering ofa lie oath. 43.Do not hoard up and not be prodigalyour wealth. 44.Do not hoard up yourself. 45.Do not enjoin avariceon mankind. 46.Do not give the foolishyour wealth. 47.Do not squander the others' wealthto the ruler. 48.Do not squander your wealthamong yourselves in vanity. 49.Do not devour theusury. 50.Do not be rancorous. 51.Do not envy. 52.Do not rendn your almsgiving byinjury. 53.Do not drink strong drink. 54.Do not play anygame for money. 55.Do act wrong mankind in theirgoods. 56.Do not lose the measure and weigh. 57.Do not commit sin and throw itupon the innocent. 58.Do not deride and insult by nickname. 59.Do not curse the time. 60.Do not curse the wind. 61.Do not curse the disbeliever. 62.Do not curse mankind. 63.Do not utter bad speech in loud-voice. 64.Do not follow the vain desires ofyour predecessors. 65.Do not curse the dead. 66.Do not incline to oppressive. 67.Do not laden yourself others' sins. 68.Do not walk on thc earth exultantly. 69.Do not be proud of yourself. 70.Do not scorn the mankind. 71.Do not hide testimony. 72.Do notescape from the tight. 73. Do not disputefor doing the good. 74.Do not forgetto have a vfork. 75.Do not pokeyour nose in others' affairs. 76.Do not speak inthe falsehood. 77.Do not eatup the worker's wage. 78. Do not discriminatebetween white and 79. coloured inl(cdtinent. Do not entera house without his 80.Do not make folk's permission. a scandal for thebeliever. 81.Do notoppress the orphan. 82.Do not drive away the beggaror questioner. 83. Donot cheat. 84.Do not malignAllah and His 85.Do not malign messenger. the believer fornothing. 86. Do not hurtthe animal. 87.Do not beangry. 88.Do not takeand give a bribe. 89.Do not hoardup the wealth. 90.Do not monopolize the moslem'sfood. 91.Do not joke withanybody. 92.Do not laughmuch. 93.Do not lie inyour dream. 94. Do not contradictAllah's revelation. 95.Do not steal. 96.Do not havea dog at home. 97.Do not eatup the orphan's wealth. 98. Do not workconfusion in theearth. 99.Do not beguilethe world's life. 100. Do not exultwith yourself. 101. Do not delaythe promise. 102. Do not behypocrite. 103. Do notsuspect badly. 104. Do notspy. 105. Do not backbite. 106. Do not obey any rejecter, oath-mongerand slander. 107. Do not aska fortuneteller. 108. Do not aska magician. 109. Do not conspirefor crime. 110. Do not make a friendship witha bad friend. 111. Do not attackin callingupon Allah. 112. Do not plight your torth withwomen secretly. 113. Do not signthe marriage's contract till theperiod !Lis 11111s11.d.

97 114. Do not marry the idolatress until she believes in Allah and the idolator until he believes in Allan, also. 115. Do not marry your father's wife. 116. Do not marry your mother, daughter and sister.. 117. Do not bare your body's organs when you go out. 118. Do not imitate a womannor a man to each other.

119. Do not display your adornment. . 120. Do not stamp your feet. 121. Do not traduce women wrongly.. 122. Do not traduce your wife with adultery. 123. Do not swear on your wife with your mother. 124. Do not expel women from their homes unless they commit open immorality. 125. Do not place difficulties of divorced woman in the way of her marrying her husband. 126. Do not take anything from your wife's dowry. 127. Do not take the divorced woman's wealth. 128. Do not inherit the women in constraint. 129. Do not conceal the divorced what in her womb. 130. Do not touch woman at your devotions in the mosque. 131. Do not strain toward the one's wife. 132. Do not force the slave-girls to whoredom. 133. Do not come near unto adultery. 134. Do not come with lust unto men instead of women. 135. Do not take the Jew and Christian for a friend. 136. Do not take the idolator for a friend. 137. Do not commit suicide. 138. Do not wish the death. 139. Do not forgive for an idolator. 140. Do not slay your child from the poverty. 141. Do not kill without right. 142. Do not slay a believer of set purpose. 143. Do not forget the sin-offering by killing a believer by mistake. 144. Do not cause sedition. 145. Do not avail you anyone upon the Last Day. 146. Do not ascribe purity unto yourself. 147. Do not be seen of mankind. 148. Do not change which Allah created 149. Do not hurt anybody. 150. Do not travel a woman alone. 151. Do not be alone with a wornai. 152. Do not disobey your husband in his bed.

98 153. Do notask your husbandthe divorce. 154. Do not begpardon in Allah's instruction. 155. Do not hastenin reading the Quran. 156. Do notmock at Allah'srevelation. 157. Do not worshipthe Christ (Jesus). 158. Do not inheritthe adoptive child. 159. Do not marry a divorced for thesake of her first 160. Do not hurtthe divorced. 1.:ishiind. 161. Do not taketombs as mosques. 162. Do not throwyourself into ruin. 163. No mourning for a widowexcept her husband. 164. Do notcry on your dead.

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8. To make the pilgrimage to Mecca at leastonce in one's life, if physically fit and financially able. Muslims have many other religious dutiesas well, although none take precedence over the Five Pillars. Among these other dutiesare prohibitions against drinking, gambling, and eating pork.

What Is a mosque? The Muslim house of worship is called the masjid,the *place of prostration". The word "masjid* has passed into English, witha slight change, as "mosque*. Mosques consist of a prayer hail. The floor of theprayer hall is covered with carpets or mats. Them are no benches or chairs for those gathered topray. are not worn within a mosque. In one wall, the "giblet* wall, Is the "mihralr,an apse or niche or alcove indicating the direction of Meccathe direction in whichone's prayers must be addressed. Nearby is the "minbar, a flight of stairs toa small platform on which the "Imam" (the 'one in fronr, or, in a mosque, the prayer leader) stands to deliver addressesor sermons which are usually religious in character, the "minbar is essentiallya pulpit. Most mosques also have washing facilities outsidethe prayer hall where worshippers may perform the ablutions which theQur'an demands before one prays. What does the farm "tin/Bain mean? A "muezzin" is the person who chants the Muslim callto prayer. In the past the call was often issued from the top of a "minaret*,a tower attached to a mosque, although nowadays the call is usually broadcast froma microphone. What is said in the call b prayer? A translation from Arabic of the call toprayer is as follows: "God Is most great God is most great God is most great God is mostgreat. / I testify that there is no god except God. I testify that there is no god except God. / I testifythat Muhammad is the messenger of God. I testify that Muhammad Is themessenger of God. / Corne to Prayed Come to Prayed / Come to success (in this life and the hereafter)!Come to success! / God is most great. God is most great There Is no god except God."(From Unglerstandingislam_and tlieinuslims, the Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington,D.C., 1989) Are there different sects within Islam? Yes, as with Christianity and other major religions,the original unity of Islam was broken. The division, which lasts to this day, occurredduring the generations following the death of Muhammad. Shortly after the Prophet'sdeath, a debate developed within the Islamic community over who should succeed himas leader of the faithful. Thus the origin of the spilt within Islam was political ratherthan religious, following from the death of Muhammad without an heir. it left the Warnword divided into two major groups, the "Sunni" group and the "Shilte"group. The question of succession to the Prophet as political leader of the Muslim community andto the title of "Khallfa° rsuccessor, the source of the English term "Caliph") revealed a deep philosophicaldifference within the body of Muslims.

Who are the Sunnis? The Sunnis comprise 85%-90% of the Muslim world andadhere to the traditional, basic beliefs and practices of Islam. They also believein lone', the cemsensus of the

232 IESI COPYANNIE ext.% 0cJsLcrn 4

(I) Profession of Faith,or shahada in Arabic, (5) The last cherished requires the believerto profess the unity of God and Pillar of Islam is the Pilgrimage to Mecca,al-hajj, where God's the mission of Muhammad;this involves the.re- revel- petition of the formula: ation was first disclosedto Muhammad. Believers "There is no God hut Allah worship publicly and Muhammad it the at the Holy Mosque, expressing messenger of Allah." This the full equality assertion forms part of among Muslims with acommon every prayer and in &critical objectiveall performing situation, one mayrepeat the first part in orderto the same actions, all establish one's identityas a Muslim. seeking to gain the favor ofGod. All pilgrims, from (2) Prayer, sala, is various cultures andclasses, wear identicalwhite required five timesa day; at as they assemble dawn, noon, midafternoon,sunset and dusk. It around a singlecenter, the must be performed in Ka'aba, which inspiresthem with a strong a state of ritual purity and' unity. Every Muslim sense of every word must be in Arabic.The worshipper has is expectedto make the the choice of pray'ng pilgrimage at least privately, in theopen air or in once during his or herlifetime. a house; or with a Attached to the group, outdoors, Or ina mosque. experience of thepilgrimage is Islam opposes the , added status: afterthe individual practice of withdrawinginto or she is addressed returns home, he ascetic life. For this as "al-Hajr or "al-ilajjah"(the reason, there is no priesthood, pilgrim), a title which as is known in the West,only 'ulema, learned carries great prestige. who arc well-versed men, in Islamic law. andtradition. Throughout the Muslimworld, servicesare held At noon on Fridays in mosques. Muhammad didnot explicitly designate Friday as a day ofrest, only a part of which is devotedto a special religious service. Merchants arc free to open theirshops before and after theservice. (3) The third Pillar of Islam, Almsgiving,zaka or zakat, embodies theprinciple of social bility. This responsi- precept teaches that whatbelongs to the believer also belongs to the community inthe ultimate sense, andthat only by donatinga pro- portion of his wealthfor publicuse does a person legitimize what heor she retains. The zaka, addition to the other in tenets of Islam, isa religious r\sa Q__Ok.kx obligation and believersare expecwd to treat it seriously. u./101/4Vz---\3 Re-W-3 (4) The ancient cry.% Semitic institution ofFasting is the fourth Pillar ofIslam, knownas saum. To a LoctS\-)+ C Muslim, it means observing Ramadan,themonth during which, it iswritten, Godsent the Qur'an to the lowest heaven where Gabrielreceived it and reveaJed it in time to Muhammad. Fastingdemands complete abstinencefrom food anddrink from dawn to sunsetevery day during Ramadan.

2 3 3 5

Islamic communitythrceigh which God revealshis will. The community empowered to elect the Caliph. Ls therefore dVho are the Shiites? The Shrites comprise 10-15%of the Muslims in the many different sects. world. There are dNidedinto Shrites form a majority in Iran and Yemen and haveimportant minorities inIraq, Syria, Lebanon, eastern Arabia,and parts of India. The the to descendants Shrites restricted eligibilityfor of the Prophet through hisdaughter Fatima and his cousin and son-in-law 'Ali. Shritesare, in a manner of speaking, royalists, divine right to rule believing in the over all Muslims which is vested inthe family of Muhammad and Today, a majority of the 'All. Shrites In the world (and mostof those In Iran) believe that the last descendant of'Ali and Fatima topossess a divine right to be the Imamthe divinely-appointed political andreligious leader c4 the Muslim than one thousand worlddisappeared more years ago. Someday, they believe,he will return to restore justice the world, but In his absence to there are in each generationa few exceptionally pious and learned scholars of theQur'an and Hadith who faithful, on behalf of the may act as Imams, or guides forthe true but absent Imam. Thereforethese figures have great authority in Shi'ite Islammuchmore so than do Sunni "Ule.-na" law"). ("scholars of Islamic

How do ihristianity andIslam relale to each other? The relationship of Christianity and Islam resembles therelationship of Christianity and Judaism. All threeare monotheistic faiths, Neither to create new religions, Jesus nor Muhammad intended but each thought of himselfas developing and completing the old. Present-day Muslims are aware of the ties between theirfaith and Christanity and are surprised by the lack of information among modem Ch.istians about theseties. How does Islam regardJesus? Jesus is named as one of the prophets in the Qur'anMuslims respect andrevere Jesus and await his SecondComing and consider him messengers to mankindindeed, one of the greatest of God's the greatest toappear before the appearance of Muharn.d J. The Qur'an confirms his virgin birth,and Mary is considered the woman In all creation. He could purest and did perform miracles,a gift denied even to Muhammad: raising the dead,healing the sick, breathinglife in clay birds. Although Jesus had no earthly father,he is not considered by Muslims claim to divinity. the son of God and hasno According to the Qur'an, Jesuswas not crucified. Although condemned his likeness was put to death, on another man who was crucifiedin his place. Jesus then ascended into Heaven inbodily form.

How does Islam viewwomen? Woman, in Islam,was created by God to be man's whether single or married, partner. Islam sees awoman, as an individual in her own right. Shehas the right to own and dispose of her propertyand earnings. Although the rights as men, it allows that Qur'an grants women thesame "the men have a degree abovethe woman". A marriage dowry is given by the groom to the bride forher own personal use, and she keeps her own familyname rather than taking her husband's. obtained for any transaction Her consent must be involving her or her propertyaboveall, her marriage.

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Married women retain control of theirproperty during marriage and afterdivorce. Widows and divorcedwomen have status and are protected. In contrast to Christian beliefs,woman in Islam is not considered thesource of evil. In Islamic belief, she didnot term, Adam; nor did the devilor death, whether physical or moral, come into the world throughher. Woman, therefore, is innocentShe is a positive good,a source of happiness and fulfillment to man, asman is to her.

Can a MIXell havemom then one wife? The Our'an allows thata man may have up to four legal wiveswith the injunction that the husband treat all ofthem fairly and equally. The not be able to deal equally between Qur'an then advises :You will your wives however much youmay wish to do so." The message is clearly thatwhile polygamy is permitted,monogamy is preferable. Today, polygamy is outlawed in some countries and is dying out naturally inothers, Are Christian and Muslimmarriages the same? Marriage in Islam is nota sacrament it is a contract betweenthe two parties containing terms mutually agreedupon, and either partner is free to include Although many marriages conditions. are arranged, according to Islamno Muslim girl can be forced to marry against her will. The man pays a bride-priceor dowry according to his circumstances. consista of gifts of jewelry The first part and clothing which becomesthe woman's personal property. The second part specifies the amount of alimony to be paid Ionthe event of divorce. How do Muslims fed about divorce? Islam permits divorce, althoughdivorce is not nearly ascommon as it is in the West today. It is generally consideredas a last resort. Classical lslam advantage over the gave the man a great woman in divorce by allowing him the oldArab tradition of simply pronouncing 6tallaq" (the formulafor divorce) three times. The wife also has the rightto initiate divorce. Thisprocess is called mfuskha and is more limited than lailaq". The wife must have valid reasons for dissolvingthe marriage, such as insanity, undue cruelty,impotence, or non-support. Many Islamic states haveabolished mtallaq" and have equitable. made divorce laws more

How do Muslims dress? Both men and womenare expected to dress in away which is modest and dignified. The traditions of femaledress found in some Muslimcountries are often the expression of local customs. The veiling of women Isnot required by the Qur'an EvenIn traditional Arab societies today, veiling is largely an urban and middle class practice.Peasant and bedouin women do notcover their faces, though they may doso at the approach of a stranger. In many Islamic countries,the custom of veiling has beendying out However, encouraged by a fundamentalist Islamic movement, in someMuslim countries women are reverting to extreme modesty ofdress as a reaction to secularization . and

Are there Muslims In the UnitedStates?

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Today there are about ffve million Muslims in America.it is almost impossible to 1 generalize about them. They are immigrants,converts, factory workers, teachers, and doctors. In addition, today many Afro-AmericanMuslims play an Important role in the Islamic community. Throughout many communfties across the UnitedStates, one will find a network of mosques.

EfiSQUI:211

Al-Faruqi, Ismail R. Islam (Illinois: Argus Communications,1984)

Ibrahim, Ezzedin. Anntlaway (translated by Abdul Wadoud, 1978) Islamic Affairs Department UnderstandingIslam and the MUNI= (Washington, D.C.: The Embassy of Saudi Arabia, 1989)

Muhammad, Abdul Ghani A.R. Contemplation in SomeCommands and_forbiddances in Ouran and Sonnah (Beirut Dar al-Massina, 1987)

Pickthall, Muhammad Marmaduke. IbAjtteanimst_the_ajorigua_Koran (New York: Penguin Books, 1989)

Ruthven, Malise. Islam in the World (New Yorkand Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984)

Sabini, John. Islam: A Primer (Washington, D.C.:Middle East Editorial Associates, 1983)

Weeks, Richard V. Muslim PeoplesA World EthnographicSurvey (Westport, Connec- ticutt Greenwood Press, 1984) PAUL PETRIANOS (Prospect HighSchool, Campbell Union High School Jose, California) District, San

A LESSON PLAN ON ARABSOCIETY AND CULTURE

Introduction

This teaching unit encompasses a number and variety of readingson Arab culture, Many of these readings are dealing with aspects of Arab societythat emphasize the uniqueness and special nature ofa rich and diverse society. The readings that are contained in the lesson plancome from the books listed;r4 the bibliography. Most ofthese books are available inbookstores in the United States. Contained here are a numberof readings dealing with poetry, music,politics, quotations, city life, and social life in Arabsociety. The following list includes indetail the title of the article and the number ofpages in each item.

I The City of Cairo 12 pages II Arab Quotations and Proverbs 8 pages III Arab Poetry Five Songs to Pain 2 pages The Village Market 1 page The Sorrows of Violets 1 page The Lost Footsteps 2 pages Barrenness . 1 page ---Love and Petroleum 2 pages Sudden Death 2 pages IV Who is an Arab 7 pages The Bedouin Ideal 3 pages Group Cohesion 3 pages ---Religion East and West 3 pages ---Music 3 pages Literature 2 pages Toward Western Forms 2 pages V Places / Geography 2 pages ---People of Egypt 6 pages Endangered Monuments in Egypt 3 pages Many of these readings can be used for both World Geography and theregular and honors World History courses. It isup to the individual instructor to determinethe appropriateness and value of each readingfor use in the classroom. The instructor can duplicateany of the handouts as part of a class setor create enough copies for each class to use. The teacher can have these read in smallgroups or for the class as a whole. Individualstudents too can give an oralsummary or report on the content of the readings. Each school library is sent eachyear many video catalogues. Some of these video catalogues contain appropriatefilms for use in the classroomon Arab culture on a teaching unit such as thisone. What is missing from this unit isa handout on Islam giving in detail the description of a religion that permeates every level of the culture. In the book Religions ofMan, there 237 2

is a wonderful chapter on Islam, and parts of the chaptercan be duplicated for classroom USe. The classroom instructor should alsoemphasize the geography of the Arabworld as well as the major cities and physicalfeatures of the Middle East. Asthe Greek historian Polybius once said, "Geographyis Destiny" and this is particularlytrue of the Middle East. A unit on geography wouldcomplement the teaching uniton Arab culture and society. David Lamb is the author of TheArabs: Journey Beyond the Mirage.In this wonderful book is a chapter that dealswith life and survival in the city of Cairo.This chapter is titled "Cairo Gridlock", and it isone man's incisive account of a disfunctional environment and how people cope andadjust in such a place. Here is an excellent chapter fromLamb's book for classsroom discussion. Ifyou should decide to duplicate copies foryour students it contains a great deal of insights into urban life in the world's mostimportant Arab city. This chapter willenlighten your. students on contemporary urbanproblems of a city that contains fifteen millionpeople. Located below are four quotations fromthe chapter. (1) "Yet never have Iseen a place where the past seemedso distant irrelevant, the present so unmanageable,the future so unimaginable." (2) ifThe Semitic mind does notlean toward a system of organization"T.E. Lawrence (3) "Indeed, in Egypt, weseem to have a developed talent for destroyingbeautiful things"the Egyptian Gazette (4) "We have complete democracyhereyou can do whateveryou want"a Cairo cab-driver I believe that the Lamb book andthis particular chapter is a wonderfulway to stimulate discussion on urban problems.This chapter should enlightenmany of our students for it contains enough "meat"and content to make comparisons withcities in other countries that have similarproblems. Another section thatI have include is a number ofsuperb quotations on Arab culture.These quotes should give thereader some insight into the mood ofthese fascinating people. I think that this isa unique way to study a culture and its wisdom through quotations and proverbs. Thereare many good proverbs for student / teacher discussion as well as learning aboutcultural uniqueness. Many comparisonsand insights can be made and drawn ifone has studied western proverbs. I amsure that the instructor will find many of theseproverbs revealing of the mind andcharacter of the Arabs. The poems in the teaching unitcome from the book Arab Poetry. Some samples of modern poetry are included to acquaintstudents with some contemporary views ofArab life through poetry. Theseare the best poems in the book and allowanother approach to studying the literature of this culture. These ten short readings will givestudents a more complete and broader pictureof Arab society. From these readingsthe student will get a better picture ofpersonality traits, character formation, and theimportance of Bedouin culture. The firstthree readings deal with the above subjects. One of the readings deals with Arab music.The instructor may be able to acquire some to play to his students whichwould complement the reading. Here again the teacher can duplicate thearticles and pass them out to hisclass for discussions. The last article deals with theendangered monuments in Egypt due to the riseof tourism, overpopulation, and pollution.Our students should be madeaware that the 2 38

,_I 3 world's cultural heritage is threatenedby these problems and what Egypt isdoing to address these critical problems. This is, in short, a teaching uniton Arab culture that can enhance one's lesson plan on Middle East studies. I believe thata multi-disciplinary method is best when attempting to expose students to a vast and richculture. This teaching unit on Arab cultureattempts to use a number of different readings,videos, slides, and music to enhancea unit on Arab culture. It is felt that Arab cultureis often neglected or limited in the teachingarea. I hope that this unit will make boththe teacher and students aware ofa rich cultural heritage.

Bibliography

Boullata, issa. Modern Arab Poets (London::Heinemann Books Ltd., 1976)

Hopwood, Derek. Egypt: Politics and Society.1945-1984 (London: Union Hyman Ltd.)

Lamb, David. The Arabs: Journey Beyondthe Mirage (New York: Prentice Hall, 1986)

Lunde, Paul and Winthe, Justin. A Dictionaryof Arabic and Islamic Proverbs (London: Rout ledge and Kegan Pau;, 1984)

Fatal, Raphael. The Arab Mind (New York:Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973)

Youssef, Hisham. Insight Guides: Egypt(Singapore: A.P.A. Publications Ltd., 1989)

4..09cs,9

k "Intelligent andincisive...Mr. Lambhas the firstrate tools, and heuses them to relate, reportefs Arabs are" with compellingdetail, who the The New YorkTimes BookReview

/A10"."' Journeys Beyondthe Mirage

4 25 afar riaka mullionedmosques,chitecturetheand military windows the expeditionwrought-ironRomanesque and the here domes balconiesstone two doorways,ofcenturies the reminiscent , the sand-colored of Paris, the Cairo Gridlock ago. And the ar- all dark- T W Cairo aiftionened Britishthey of with arenew author, notageis and beloved, old, ina reminder 1873. of areEast "Thewelcome," and that city West. Cairo is lighted"Cairo, by like Rome and Florence, lives wrote Winwood Reade, remains a juxtaposi-upon tourists who, gas; it has Grigock andnewafternoon;bucolic arehouses gardenslet an outin excellent the atin highParisianwhich theater rents a nativestyle asfor are militarywhich springing Verdi bandOur upcomposed performs apartmentin the streets was on the top floor, the fifth, of soon as they are finished." a dusty everyAida; theIn the soft blissful blue of still desert of early dawn and the Nile's morning, when Cairo is bathed waters are smooth in bank,patriatesmadewealthybuilding perhaps suits Egyptiansoverlookingaveraged and a hundred spent two gave the their thousandyards cateredNile. holidays On dollarscocktail in Europe, parties, away, people wore the flowingour side of the river, where a month. On the other rents for woreex- tailor- open-airCairoona cityas earth. silk, thathas cafés UnlikeI soulwas could are onceand the seecrowded substance. new,among from sterile the Arab my balcony the vestigesuntil of thebeauty wee hours with Its streetsgrandest throb and with most life, important cities built by oil men who money, its in inasout robesendlessthough water of or layershitpeasants electricity. by towardwartime and Theirpaidthe bombardments, horizon, fiftybrick cents buildings finally for and they stretched one-room flats with-disappearing fromwere crumbling, stepis Middlecupsdiscussan offemotional of the theEastsweeC, plane cost what magnet, of thickto Londonbread know coffee. In and thea priceplace of whereis to an the Arab English-speaking has only many ways, Cairo is to the peace over countless world; it to mosquestall,pendenttwoview worlds in aof haze eachthat graceful of wereother. sand mutuallyspindles and polluted thatexclusive towered fumes. and From Theabove strangely our balcony inde- I could count the minarets of river divided palms and twenty Qahira,butmay for hate him which Cairo's there filth is and congestion The name for this thousand-year-old means victorious. On the southwestern no more wondrous city anywhere. immediately that he is home. and nerve-racking noise, city in Arabic is Al edge lie noingthesuddendwarfed god mosques,.shakingthe explosionfaithfulbut everything God. to .of prayer. amplifiedin the sight. neighborhood"God Eachcacophony is morning would before great. I testify that there is awake and summon- thunder f:om sunrise a elitelegend,theof thestill northeast metropolis speak at leastPlato is is an obeliska that legacyare marksthe of three Napoleon whereaccording Great Bonaparte'sPyramids of once studied. The French that Cairo's Giza. Onscientific to peaceful,fallchambersdoorways silent. aof andCairo grand worship. move was old throughmagicladyThe muezzin'swho in the thosestill empty looked call would beautiful drift off and . ." Cairenes would pour out of their dark moments, hushed and 41streets to fill their 242 in the 26 tocup half-lightpick of coffee of of dawn. the I up. Soon the heat and day, waitingused for to thesit be Arabs the noise on my balcony wouldtempo become of the streets with my first briefcasewore a faded full blueof string, wire, and bottles a ragged of glue, nuts, and carried a Cairo Gridlock 27 screws, a It washatingwhelming it was and drive never easy to know impossible. me inside. whether Cairoand Loving Cairo was difficult;Egypt as a over- trafficanpair hour of and pliers, and reach thirtytwo myhammers, minutes apartment toand weave on some the through othercookingMr. side the oil.Darwish of hazardousIt town.took rolledhim up his sleeves and was at work at able,seemedoping"can thewholebelonged younation?future so speakdistant Yet of to the so unimaginable. andcivilization's irrelevant,never have I seen First or Third birthplace as the a placepresent where soWorld. the After being a "devel- unmanage- all, how past handle.ouncesaersonce, piece on stoppingthe Theof kitchencookingwire, toilet only wrapped floor.flushed oil briefly into He aperfectly fashionedtheto loose join reservoir myjoint and acook loop withno bowl for water oftape, string,noontimeand leaked tossed jiggled attached from twothe pray- Theyesterday's inmycapital disbelief. God is . grandeur . ." Western visitors wouldIndeed,sinking time under has the has become weightnot been of people,kind "A today's urban say, shakingfascinating their heads city but to Cairo, and nightmare. oh, hisits work. base. "Just like new." I"There asked you what are," I owed,he said, and stepping Mr. Darwish back, an said,artist "Asadmiring importedlationishedBangladeshmore land food people, on and the growing by more than gripped by lethargy Egypt itselfshores seems of thein a million a and decay, itsMediterranean, an dangeryear, of its daily bill for illiterate becomingpeople a and impover- popu- agreedlike."Elgathered Feda A ontough Streeteight up bargaininghis pounds, to paraphernalia the next then session job, about aand broken follmved, ten was dollars. radio.off, andbiking Mr. Darwishdown Abu we finally you Cairo,of togetherstring and whenand by freelance I had been wire. givenalready the at name $10 mymillion, of toilet started fix-it men with glue anda fix-it man its infrastructure my first day intape and bits held broke,Mr.way Darwish andthe wireall hell wasbecame broke only slack,anloose hour thein ormy tape so bathroom. aroundThe the toiletBut joint no worked matter. fine for two weeks. Then the away by bicycle and for string gave up!"connectionor Ihe ninthcalled yelled. try. washim "Hello!"I After a few immediately, poor, and there wascannot hear Hello!" he shouted reaching Mr. Darwish you." gurgling, then a lot of static. into his on the eighthoverflowing,phone. The "Speak eightrewardedwish,two moreweeks and competencepoundsall of are life. the I knew benefactors and hehas could seen of giveitsa skilled Theremy toilet craftsmen are another thousands head of fix-it men in Cairo like Mr. Dar- system that has never andtypewriters notplumbingafter like a such orproblem moment's hesitation eggbeaters.work, But he had minutes I and needed preferring to repair air managed to help. Mr. Darwish known convey that I had a myconditioners predecessor said he did or absence,offtrous,become for better-paying thejanitors mechanics. ever-tolerant become jobs When clerks, and in the patientfarmers resultsoil-rich Egyptiansbecome are countries. predictably builders, merely In cookstheir disas- a tatteredbe there suburb within On the twelfth 243 ten days." once favored day, he mounted his by princes andhe replied, bicycle in "All right, I magnates. He Heliopolis, will moreizedthousandand say,street populous "Malesh"Nevercars, sweeper. eightythanits Itthousand closestis themind. largest rival animal (Lagos, city cartsCairo in Africafour and today is atimes city of fourteen million people, five hundred Njlatand one motor- it ..-ov ArabItdominates is the world, its the intellectual, religious and region as no other capital doesseat of filmmaking, The Arabs journalismeducational and center book of on any continent. pub- the hundred-dollarbycigarette midnight and bottles their fathers of whiskey and husbands and cheer the plump, gy- smoke, where the children and wives would nod off Cairo Gridlock 29 would share two- closeAfricancircles,andlishing, to foreign Cairo.nations virtuallyone each of the around policy is bold and only place where world, the lines would the nonaligned, far-reaching. If political debate is Arab, Islamic and you convergedrew four very lively engineeringcrude.richesrating bellyfromThe Arabs dancersdegreethe Gulf, don't said until whom knowto dawn. me. theyanything," When called I asked a"gullies." cabdriverMost him Cairenes "They're with andid not look favorably on these nouveaux if he didn't ofthingbouncesan sand. inch look The ofoff slightly rainsandthe in out of Like many Arab cities, Cairo is streets in shimmering a wetis year.powder-fine The furnace-heat and focus, and the breathless bone-dry, receivingwaves that make of summerdays taste every- only considerhasEgyptian." replacedtaken himself place Pan-Arabism inan the Arab, Arab too,as world the he most sincereplied, powerful the "Not196os: political really. nationalism force.I'm His comment underscored an impoTtant change that coversthethemselvesCairenessneaks dazzling around drawthrough in theirsunlit a theirhermetic radios the days of July and tiniest crackslouvered and shutters world, and live in darkness August. They slip clings tight,to everything.so trying pervasive to seal that it even plastic yearsTheofthat EgyptiansthesePalestine, that would objectivesthey lead andthe to destructionothers haseconomic been have achieved, ofbeenstrength, Zionism, told and Arabby therapid their people,unity. developmentleaders But growing fornone had to sacrifice for Arab goalsthe liberation thepagedusters. Persianuables 105 Butin Gulfis a therefine coating is of dust. These hot, paper bags and flail dusty summer months no escape. Open a book and television away desperately with feathered bring Arab visitors from sets, their val- and there on nations,now,littleweary democracymore of for political than their ever identity.they acrobatics, before, had to looki-g authoritarianhaving inward, governments, are had to surrender what toward their own andof Cairowith,the nightclubs, Middk say,is a fairlySan East Francisco's youngtame male place,states and butfemaleby theby theit is Sin City, North Beach planeload toArabia, Cairo. offering puritanicalprostitutes, standardsor whiskey London's Soho, belly dancers Compared leywaysWanderingVictorian-eraincan their stumble that gardens the smell on apartmentstreets dilapidated on of summerofurine Cairo,buildings andvillas evenings poking are wherestand strewn through mirage-likelongorchestras ago. the Handsome wereamiddark al-rows with trash, you heard inEgyptian,or powerfulandtheintellectually, beer.Valley for Thisattraction thatof freedom and itthan what the Kingsmatter) to explore the ancient from thewas restraints rare for of an Arab or gaze in wonder at theEgypt has to offer home is a visitor (or an monumentshistorically more dry,of crowdedofdirt.tenements, theirParis; Broad shutters narrowwith boukvardstheir goats drawn wrought-ironalleyways and tightlead black-veiled againstintothat balconies areexpansive the scented womenassault draped squares with ofwind withnoise spices thatthrough laun- hintand and nightsor moreatwatched Pyramidsthe in content National outdoor movies or to be Museum.sit, tea mesmerized 245 onabsorbing video recorders but not by gardens or in nightclubs Instead theby theArab King Tutankhamun exerting. They shopped day and spent the tourists seemed dense with exhibit great ofcantexture.mysterious, Cairo's find old fine ocher-coloredguidebooks opera house, to worlds, a cityof banyan that almost is notrees biblical more.Sometimes and They inpatches tone onspeak theof dusty shelves of unlit bookshops, you and 7 he Arabs 3o Cairo Gridlock 31 couldin perednichegreenGroppi's live clearJapaneseandthat breathe stretchedout downtown to thegarden suburb in of flelwan and the along the verdantand move pastry shop, of days when , of the promenade of the cor- excellent restaurant splendidly pam- Cairenes buildingscarriedFathi,On the Egypt's day three had that internationallyitems collapsed, I was that to discuss caught killing acclaimed the myseventy decay attention: architect, people;of Cairo twothe a withlocal pedestrianapartment Hassan papers gardens,forthroughoutenclaves Europeans195os, elegant inamong themost hotels Arab theof the last of the and the Egyptian world. Cairo, in Moos and twentieth-century Westernizedeasilyaristocracy in what with1900s: manicured there was thefact, Cairo was really two citieswas, until the withoutradioheaftersewage;had fallen being dignity."andhad into tormented aleft an a noteuncovered for that months said, manhole "Suicide by his and neighbor's is drowned better than blaring in rawlife student had jumped to his death from a bridge thescribedanddressed twovillas, inCairos: 1891there how One British people, and farther back was the crowded,writer, William Morton great the psychological and palaces, fine dirtyfrom Cairothe Nile, for Fullerton,carriages aptly de- and well-gap was between everyonepast else. the parks in oneadvocatedhadEurope hadbeen andpaid put the the much intoconstruction United practice attention. States; inof It hisIndia.satellite was ideas his But forcities great Fathi'sin low-cost Cairo, insadness the creative housingdesert,where urban heno designs had been used in projects that the ofaesthetic whichCairoa begins satisfaction to country place keepsany a quantity of novel oriental impress"With the itself polo, of the inhabitants, upon you as an Englishballs, the races and sightsmuch are askept the for the proprietorthe riding, town in geniuspeople,ramblingvisited the his him. least. apartment people He lived who full in neededof one maps of him theand oldestmost,drawingsThin parthad and andof Cairo,books hard writ-ofin hearing,a Fathi was an old man when I utilized his WestFerdinandEgyptamusement." as the in de1798, and the Napoleon had brought Lessepsestablished Suez Canalbuilt Western game preserve or deer Cairo'stechnology and culture to by the Frenchmanreputation in the park for catsservedtenucated in shared English, the Egyptian ritual his biscuits.French of I tea,met, and makingHe gracious Arabic.was, sure like and Every that almost kind each afternoonand every of forthright his other twentyhe ob- ed-with theirthen,venient1869,The and New distancenoted Egypt's York that for it sophisticated capital of Herald, viceroyaltybrought embraced Africa theand theEnglish colonization."commenting on the canal's a new and important Nile "withinWesternizationCotton was of opening in power.a con- king bothversationswelledhis hisopen opinions up, windowsin shouts.making and the hisit dinnecessary hospitality. of blaring for From hornsus to the carryand "Whatstreet raised on ourbelowis voiceshappening con- to Cairo is a tragedy, really," he said, settlers.cameturylavish later communitiesCairo for had the Saudi of country as extravagancesurely as for the elitemuch become truly British, French, Swiss,Arabian oil sheiksand today's rulers reject it. cosmopolitan. It was a as it would be a Italian and Greek from Europe Life was cen- a adslistens.fightingcuppingfor the Cairo." governmentDoes histo save hands anyone my to is city, care?his running, mouth. and I'm I not thenhave "For sure. tell hadforty Justme no yearsI lookresults.shouldn't Iat have those No grieve one TV been nificent,givenerners,Christians, us of the old ruler Jews monuments from and 24 7 viceroyalty, let us Muslims, of 1863 to 1879. and new ideas. enjoy it," said Ismail theEuropeans and Middle "Since God has city ofMag-East- ' Thestandardswhoseintended campaign population toof bringsanitation consisted generallya little and order ofmany ignores several to rules Cairo, all one-minute trafficof angoodThe undisciplined regulations, neighborliness.government's spots inter- most city television campaign he mentioned was 248 32 hisbagewalksspersed face, dropped under throughout he asks:a from "Isan that building and is suddenly soap-opera dramas. In one, a upperpopular apartment. actor Wiping the The Arabs what our country has come to? splattered with goo from gar- closelyfusetoward the knit system diverse state." of elements organization. It is Cairo Gridlock among the Semites into a modern,33 practically impossible to inhabitantsthemanagementEgyptians, cancers the ofsay andvictims Cairo, it aisn't wildly of so!" what out-of-control birthrateAlas, though, it is. An sapping its strength and leaving its dazed apathetic public, economicis known mis- in have become Shepheard'sexists,Thewere opera having feted house Hotel, with been mentionedpublic where set afire concertsJohn by in Speke athe smoldering and old and elegant Captain dinners James more Grant than guidebooks no longer cigarette in 1971. soit'smaleshsyndrome: why done. worry? (neverIf not inshallah Thismind). (ifIt God is today, then tomorrow. God decides sense of fatalism takesdoesn't all matter what willing), bokra (tomorrow) and gets Egyptdone oras howthe IBM responsibility anyway, andwasa centurytothe theburnedhigh-rise boulevards patches ago down afterapartment of havein their the been expeditionriots buildings cut of down thatto the to source of the Nile, green along the riverfront have given way 1952. The banyan trees lining provide wider roads, aslum Greaterbetterofout wars ofof rural life,human Power.to thedoes hands That not Cairoand is peasants, attractedkeeping to of the appointmentsunder city by the illusions the greatly concern the individual Caireneputs everythingfrom the outcome being transformed into control of a vast of boughtrestaurantdeepinto with the it andinNile. trash Groppi's banned The and streets lost pockedthe muchsale of suburbanbyof of beer. wide,its business In Maadideep Tahrir after spill untreated sewage are often knee-potholes. The (Liberation) a Kuwaiti alwayslivedestinybecause, in filthy, immaculate.or his the battered surroundings. reasoning Time and time But here's a curious buildings, the insidesgoes, of their manthing: homes does while not really Egyptians control are his content are to companies.toofSquare, makesmall out waygardens the for back an and outdoor door the of terminal the Nile serviced HiltonOf Hotel, the oncethe cluster splendid strips ofJapanese grass have garden been in pavednearby over I lelwan, by fifty-four bus usworldwhenened and of itstairwells myelegance was host as though andto the opened the door, I wouldapartments on the third or fourth floor,cleanliness. and The door would shut blighted Cairo no longer existed. again I trudged step into an isolated up dark- behind deed,andpondsa one-timespew rusty in are poisons Egypt tangles brokenhealth today,over resort ofand Cairo,barbed we filled whose seem the wirewith Egyptiancement to havedust, and Gazetteits steelflowers commented:factories "Its are strewn everywhere. In- neglected now didwouldborhoodupWhen not common never feelblockI asked thatwork associationareas, friends their here." they if would chuckle and responsibilityanyone had extended ever considered beyondNoor theiraan doubtneigh- owners' it wouldn't. association to say, "Oh, that My friends tersmoredestroying were feature as beautiful filmsgrand a asyear, things." Cairo's thirteen first-runA generation movie thea- ago, when Egypt produced a hundred orany in London. There was not a film- developed a talent tor moreandbling249own brought thanomen boundaries. seventy for to themind That the attitude, I years ago:undisciplined "The Semitic Egyptian mind does society not lean words that T. E. Lawrence thought, represented a trou- as a whole spoke theontheaterssuccessfulmaker theseats acceptance arein are the actorbroken, left. Arab orofAnd athetheworld songstress in airCairo the conditionerswho flea-ridden audiences. hadwhose not fame don'ttheatersstudied Today still t' 230was not dependent work, thein aisles Cairo, not a no first-class operating, hollerexclusivelyare littered in excitement of with sexually trash.. when an actor and repressed young men who 7 .ie audiences are made3 up almosthoot and sador,nearly Nicholasto million Veliotes, injured usedevery to year) peer out at the long lines of Cairo Gridlock 35 he American ambas- siona prominentwas touch.then. the HollywoodIt director. of the "Our films used to change"Opening night was Middle East," said every week back when Cairo actress seem really a gala occa-Salah Abou Seif, ready to motionlessment,it.from Let's hisjacket walk." bulletproofcars slung blocking And over limousineoff everyhis he shoulder, would intersection with head thefollowed wordsfor in sighthis by "The next hisand Egyptianhell appoint-spring with hadreportedtropole. worn the what.Everyone next A "The audience that was Monday at the morning whoworefine had tuxedos era sat itin was." whatand used to support the first-class theatersRoyale, Tuesday at the Me- and the box and who papers largelybecausebodyguards.of cities avoidable. the are conditions becoming Yet throughoutthat the have Cairos allowed the of Thirdtomorrow, itCairo's to World, happen buffeteddeterioration dozens were by is of more than passing interest onfilmMy videocharacterjust wife that doesn't cassette, said actors, theexist other Salah was playing in Cairo. I anymore," saidas onelong of as nightZoufoukai. that she "Nowwarned it's to you don't make me said, 'OK, I'll Egypt's widely known a peasant see a particularbring it home society. dike.theoverpasseseven samepoor creative forcesrepresent to moveurban and planningnotawaiting much becomesthe more same than irrelevant,fate. a At finger some and in point new the the traffic and new apartments to house blowinglicemendon'ttheater.' have whistles in Besides,soiledto?" and At every major intersection fifteen who'swhite, going ill-fitting to go out into that traffic if or twenty illiterate stand frantically go into that youpo- commercemustnewtion. passportEverythingcome are to allorCairo. ishascentered centered aIndustry, question there. in Cairo. government, Oneabout inIf hisfouran The Egyptianwar .Egyptians education first pension, force needs lives and ofhe a destruction was government centraliza- divideryou"Wethemtraffic want," have and nojams a heed,headed cabdriver they forthemselves chuckled complete democracy Cairo's roads waving their arms, have created. But as hereyouhe bounced can over do whateverare an anarchist's trying to unsnarl the drivers a median delight. pay Egyptsidethere. the Cairoand capital. Cairo: is Egypt InMisr. Arabic and nothing the same of significance wordThen is used happens there for wasboth out- the constant state of hot and cold war honkstiveforcedato policemenand loudest with worry. Speed limits and twenty-five-cent bribe will theup largest a one-way vehiclethe only street, rule the of the safety restrictions are pacify most road is that he who wrong way. Not uncoopera- not en- '67ofbetween itary,financialpeasants and '73 leavingEgypt resources wars,poured and nothing and Israel into and in the fromitswith energiescapitalera 1948which of confrontation to were totheseek build mid-channeled safety aopos. nationthe during toMillionsnation's the the mil- Every insix portions,rulythe hundred world,drivers because were the Undeniably, though, lives injuries per ten thousand immobilized by traffic city's accident were saved when Cairo's rateeighty fatalitiesvehiclesis and has the the right of jams of classic highest way. pro- un- repairingeverypotholewhich, eyesore in Egypt's aCairo's building, represents streetsleaders a sewer is nevera a decision legacy or gavea telephone of to muchthe buy conflict thought asystem. tank with instead toBesides Israel,mainte- of the United States' according to a World Bank 2 5 traffic toll would be 1.3 million dead andstudy. At that rate Injured annually.Traffk accidents in the United Stales averv. forty In.e r- de.n1.11o1 I / onnance grandiose in the first projects that place. They much were flashy and new. prefered to spend money square mile, which is tantamount to packing the entire city of Cairo Gridlock 37 standardsclass,ofAbdel socialistic instituted Nasser, to the lowest Compounding these enthusiasm, he Egypt'smass president education--in from the problems were the destroyed the process1953 toreducing 1970. Inschool a burst power of the upperpolicies of Gamal tianscarload,StatesCorpusfamily-planning use has Christi, butany spent to form little Texas, $67 ofprogram avail; contraceptionmillion into barely anda tryingsingle has 25 (compared percentshippedtosquare help mile. ofEgyptin with marriedcondoms The moredevelop United Egyp- thanby athe twenty-fiveing.anprofits.through owner Some Suddenly tolargea dollars seriesrepair offices it of awas month.rent-control in an elevator, hire a no longercommon economicallyCairo denominatorand still rent for the laws that janitor or paint a build- destroyed landlord reasonableequivalent for of pushed illiteracypopulationveloped50four percent hundred nationsis inincreasing,is Mexico,under thousand where age opportunities Taiwanfamily fifteen,Egyptians planningand and Colombia,enterare despite decreasing. is the working). massjob three market education,Every underde- Half to year thecom- out,thatelevatorsthe hasnot buildings accumulatedswept. are dead, for cobwebs And finally there is a generation, and in the hallways cling to the Notceilings, a piaster and thehas been more often than not theneeds to be shoveled spent on trash MinistryjobsMoststudentspete forin find government jobsareof little Agriculture graduated that meaningful do ornot fromto alone, exist, drive employment the thereand taxis nation's every are or twowait andthirteen year thousand areon forty forcedtables. universities. thousand Ph.D.'s, toIn takethe Alreadyjustbornper over year the fifteen per Arab cne in world's thousandthe every nineteen seconds, the rate is United States andthe birthratethemost populouspeople. In Egypt, where forty, compared withthirteennation, in Egypt Britain.number will of births a baby is millionser;uateorthe typewriters majoritythe was bureaucracyin promised three of or whomdecades' notepads. a as government sita resulttime.) at (Until empty has 1986 jobagrown desks policyevery fromwithout universitystarted 370,000 telephones by to grad-Nas- two feedimporttimecenturyhave, its nearly one people.a populationand, seventh four ifCairo's the of presentof all the trend million new seventy-five minionpopulation by the is growing at the housingsurplus units wheat and willin the have worldcontinues, will need turn of the by that to awithonly financial twogood or reasonthatsafety three netchildren, for large old thefamilies age. peasant Some are majorityparents necessaryAlthough also still to believe believeseducated,provide it financially secure Egyptians often have ofcontrol arrivalsthousandteaching by fromdecree a dayseven the "I am not a believer countryside.or persuasion," Nasser hundred new babiesin calling on people to exercise birth once said. "Insteadand three hundred rate of a dayseepolicyreligiousis their theit willon emptyduty leadersbirth be to conqueredcontroldesert promote do not allis discourage ambivalent.aroundthe by growthWestern them even Evenof and,technology thoughIslam, educated figuring aIslam's position Egyptiansand that official made onethat theraisebetter area their toin teachwhich standard. them people how to exercise birth we live instead ofhow to. increase their. . If we direct our efforts to concentrating on how to control, we wouldland production do expanding nd serioushabitable, economic ask, "What planning population is impossible. problem?" "ByFor the Egypt, prophet though, Mo- the population explosion means that ulationreduce density the hasHe was wrong. Inpopulation, Cairo's most we crowdedwill reached two hundred ; soon find the solution." forty thousanddistricts the pop- per plosionangels,onhammed," the nation's itmeans wouldn't President economy, that make lifeHosni will "ifany Mubarak theycontinue difference." brought said to after bein For aa gettinggovernmentburdenCairo, athe ofreport en-ex- of 254 zealotsclassdurance becomes for for fundamental all larger but the very rich, andand that more dissatisfied, The Arabs 38 as the impoverishedthe call of religious havethose morein Cairo; space the to air play. is better; The so-called there's no City traffic; of the their Dead children even Cairo Gridlock 39 munitiesformeding appeal. into either packed Cairo's once-cosmopolitan a homogeneous one. The upreforms or were in the expelled in the population also is being French andsystem British will have wake of trans-grow-com- andsqueakyequipthehas food inhabitantsits their ownstores old mausoleums Generalpost have tap office, ontosprung Electric electrical withand up fans. here secondhandbetween Fewoutlets and have therethe in televisiontombs. nearbyany makeshift visible Manyshops sets cafés ofandand means withboatloadposition1956Nasser's only and ainsecure.as fewpro-Arab, economic1967 because The remaining asantiforeign restaurateurs revolution. opportunities diminishedGreeksthe Arab-Israeli and warsThe had Jews made left their in departedand by mechanics.the under Nasser, 1948, offoodthantaking lambemployment, themselves,or care evenfor ofreligious spareboth andbut their change feasts.Egyptiansnone own of to families the buy aregraveyard a remarkablycigaretteand anyone dwellers or lessgeneroustwo lacksfortunate or a legfor in iticians,alikeinfluential,abroad.The peasants Egyptian educators, The its voice whointellectualroyalty filmmakers melted have takendrowned in the class became unobtrusively into society and newspaperover editors Cairo and to whom sea of look-alike,more isolated think- and less or moved pol- whosweepingpiece earned of beddingand a dollar scrubbing strunga day and as up caretakerkeeping for a ceiling," them for atidy score"I'd said for rather Mrs.oftt, tombs, beliafez, here than on a rooftop downtown, with owners. a rnguncrowdedOnebelieve "hello" of thethey placein few Arabic) must to people live Ilafez. cater. I met in Cairowas a whowoman named Marhaba Her home, in had found a quiet,seem(mean- to Theyoutsidebethe celebratedfirstcame theday once tomb.of withspring,or twice a family to a visit year, picnic the on dead, Islamic on anthe occasion holidaysrocky"We came ground the, and to would Cairojust ten years ago, from Luxor," she said. on andslabforsonsunderground decoration. theybeneathhad painteddrew which Theytheir tomb, the walls blue werewater buriedwas fromcooked several cool another andtheir members cheery. meals She and hung an outdated of beans on one room of an and her three of a family, a cementcalendar contract.offdidn'tCairo"We to gave Saudiworkhad When upjobs. outArabia the hetheThere farm comes wayto becauseworkwas wehome ainthought, lot construction.therewe of will money was and have no my here. moneymoneyIt's husband a Butthree-year into thingsit buywent and a tohadforatute allthe her walkhad about tomb accommodations to away. make livingowners There a one-timeamong payment the dead. of Indeed, was, Mrs. Hafez said, nothingand resented only cemetery,$1,500 a "keyfive-min- money" she wasthe factthankful that she spooky ofEgypthouse thanthe peopleand alreadyCalifornia, raise are has a clustered biggeranNevada uncommon family. andin the Arizona Inshalhth." problem:narrow combined, ribbon theThe country of house but is99 shelarger percent may need, but not the bigger family, for green along theygraveyardshundred are decidedly yearsexceeds Egyptians started ago, and today the livingbetter off than thoseone million.for the Many privilege of the of living in cemeteries who live in Cairorenting her home. populationmore of the than eightresidents think yeartivatedthehabitable Nile urbanization strip, that land anrepresents area inis whatclaiming no largeronly is otherwise forty4 than percent thoucand West a ofdesert Virginia, the acres land. wasteland. of is 1the thehis farm- onlycul- Each Their neighborhood is cleaner, quieter and 255 less crowded than itself. centland, a year, and whilefood consumption food production is increasing in Egypt is5 increasingpercent. 2 per- r) f.; 40 modites,masses,field of from theypotential foodspend tosocial $3 fuel. billion unrest,The a subsidies year and subsidizingGovernment essential officials know they The Arabs are treadingto keep onthe a lidmine- on the corn- pleasant,got,knew they the experience.nation'sseemed moodable Their to was make crowded glum. every No existence matterday a tolerable, reinforcedhow bad things if their not Cairo Gridlock 41 aregularlypercenterism penny and of andfeed discouragethe weretheir average farmmade conservation. worldanimals from market wheatloaves price ofshipped bread for by the Egyptians pay only 28 encourage consum- that costgasoline only and U.S. waswithsense unquenchable. great of community, gusto. Even and in they the laughedworst of and times, argued Attheir the and optimism intersection shouted below my balcony, I saw a collision at a month,$1.28.ofthatgovernment. milk a gallon Teachers aboutsixty-eight Theofhalf andgas pricing whatcents inmiddle-level Cairo anand structure illiterate costs bureaucrats hasforty-eightmaid gotten a gallon of purified drinking water earn forty dollarsso out of cents,whack a gallon driversleastwouldpidity,in Cairo),once would gatherand a day and square jump instantaneously(there the from scenariooff are as theirno if stop wasto cars, tofight. signs alwaysseparate cursing Aor hugeright-of-way the the tne crowddrivers other's ofrulesand same: The two menstu- to moonlightaearns monthpart $138 time. for civiliana Aa month private)senior jobsand diplomat that soldiersthan most they just aredevote dobelow so poorly the rankpaid of(five to their militarymore duties. attention to their can make working ambassador dollars andside,blasting.todecide direct head the who Soon trafficthetheir was traffic reasonseparate inchat fault. that by,would ways, hadTheyand prevail. comethe theirwould two to fenders The shoutdriversa standstill shouting excitedlybruised would withwould but and horns sub- embrace their try report.fromworktheAt thatgovernment's twentyand rate that of minutes pay,the two averageit is tomillion not two surprisingworkday hours, workers forthat according to one official show up on time forbureaucratsonly ranges 15 percent of thements,Cairodignity Nile is narrowintact. asweeps fan-shaped in into the asouth, city broad, wedged then fertile widening between delta. Exceptin the the desert north, for the where river escarp- overof leveltoall erupthorrible my salaries personal one living hotand property summer conditions,the immense because day intolerable in housing,After my first six months in Cairo, I made gap between rich anda frenzy poor. of violent protestI fully expected the city an inventory poverty- heavetotureless.aboveand it aclimbs barrentothe Atophaul capital's steeply, plateau theirthat plateau preciouseastern and known Fathi is perimeter,cargo aas Zaki'snameless the the donkeysfinal the village. city yards must ishills The backflat strain that dirtand into trackrises fea-and the crimemillion,MurderwereBut tothis uncommon, speak andyounever rape couldof. happened. Muggings, and walkeven violence any in In thehouse streetfact, poorest Cairo withoutburglaries sections of were rare. In a city of fourteen didn't even have anyfear. After a couple and car thefts the city. creasedshantyfromnightmarish lackand at theleatheryof world sleep.end of fromHe the reined zabbaleen. trackthe andin his opened donkey theZaki tin was door forty to his years old, going sun and his eyes were heavy on sixty. His face was team outside a themselves,andunlikeof years angera many I tore theirsenseArabs, up leaders,my of had inventoryhumor. their Theylives, list. aboutWhat I had not understood at first an escape valve for their frustrations joked constantly,was that the about Egyptians, everything except exceptroom,theZakihome. three foodshoveled disappointedHis milesfor two his hisbarefoot from pigs. cargoripe, that Cairoonto childrenthe load wet containedscamperedgarbagethe dirt floorthat no off helittle ofthe had his treasures carried living cart, and religion, and it was only when 2 5 7 t you didn't hear jokes that you "Look," he said to me, kicking at the pile. ",Not r " 258 even any The Arabs 42 Cairo Gridlock 43 translatesonethegood wayof paper. the they as rubbish rubbishPeople used barons to." justcollectors). don't of Cairo, Like the other villagers on the Mokattam range, Zakithrow away anythingThey are Coptic Christians--the zabbaleen (a term that any good was householdtoyesterday'stheir tencollect children hours the collectiongarbage, a intrash day, tow, that sevenleavingand service no head onedays the in into womenelse the a Cairoweekthe city,wants. behind andin Theirstheir zabbaleenfor to pokericketytheir is the throughlabor-- cartsgetonly no sustainsandin ArabEgypt'sthe there 19305. worldwhothem theysix Theymillionand have holds ended migrAedremained, Cop's them representup inthe a largestmedieval minorityfrom world southern of garbage, Egyptin economicfinding and social no escape. The to the capital bondage. garbage in the of thattraffic,pay.it a clingday. They and to gettheir the only sideschildren to of keep ten-storycrawl the up garbage, theapartment perilous sevenTheir buildings spiral littlehundred staircasescarts where, tons squirm through Cairo's bumper-to-bumper onegrewcenturiesTurkish often atop baths sohaslayers much to ofwalk garbage compacted down five trash, Long ago Cairenes burned or merely threw it into the built up that entire the garbage to heat or six steps to enter and today, as in Rome, street. Over the communities water for some costingandat removed.)theeach their tenants narrowthe municipal city Thehave landing,government zabbaleen servants, service tenants is areanythingnot the scavengers ahave mostpiaster. ofplaced efficient value as the wellhas one garbage. alreadyas in recyders, Cairo, been(If (orbage.Westernaold group bosses)buildings When ofDesert Muslimsput the that together developedzabbaleen who had wandered were once at street level. Early in this a slick scheme: theya contracted profitable arrivedbusiness in collecting the thirties, to Cairo from the the wahiya century gar- oddsbageimals,water andfor nor the the endselectricity rubbish pigs, like scrap isdiscarded and sorted paper are sharedby toilet that hand brings seatswith into manyand fivevariousBack broken dollarsbarnyard home, pilesgar- pottery ain ton, an-their roofless brick houses that have neither chargedownzabbaleentenants among bothand the landlordsthe therights zabbale,n zabbaleen to to dispose The system still works pick it up and keep it. and the tenants thatabout way, fiftyfrom and fatherroutes to son. The of the trash, then sold are passed wahiya with the or clouds.deringthatrepair may dumpthey fetch burn. hang a few Heavyover piasters. their clouds village What of smokenight the zabbaleen and fromExcept day likefor can't thestorm use Coptic Church, there is almost nothing in the smol- andallyhisthemonth monthly moneyhisroughed precious for himself paymentsanup apartment. garbage from If on one of his morning runs; his to the strong-armed wahiya,the tenants or ifone he of does the zabbaleen tries to collect cart is smashed henot is usu- make cents a year-oldnearlytheand village althoughto citadel. the but doorstep thea There doctor cluster ofare visitsCairo's noof livingschools, the magnificent, church compounds health two clinics eight-hundred-evenings that or sprawls shops, a week, withouttheFather village. educationSaman "The Ibrahimzabbaleen there "It's very unfair, but Moussa, the young, beardedis noit's otheris an strewn inherited way overto break kind theare street.forcedof thing," into the system because the cycle.priest in said a40 Worldso.ever percent I leftasked Bank theirof one thestudy. world childrenteenage of garbage, boydie inif hetheir and would first few leaveyear, Virtuallyseem if none of the twenty-five thousand zabbaleen have inclined to doheaccording suddenly to worked."They just accept that this Each morning, well before is how it works, how it has sunrise, the zabbaleen always take go?thefound What question ten would thousand and I do?" said, dollars. So "Of he, courselikeHe laughedhis not.ancestors, Whereat the will foolishness else presum- would of I As 0 n ( ablythemselveslims, live who forever place before each great emphasisatop a smoldering on bodily cleanlinessdump, prayer session, will continue toThe Arabs and Egyptian Mus- and wash scorn amazing.But get me Suddenly, out of Egypt I get excited and I amabout a different doingThe a goodbanker person. job." and It's I were picking our way across Tahrir Cairo Gridlock 4 5 brains,"lookonthe treasures the zabbaleenFather way mistakenly Moussarich people discarded "People who as lazy, dirty people who supposedly say the zabbaleen are wealthy have said. "just look aroundlive?" by the rich. you. Does this grow rich weak breakdangereachSquare, packed in of crossingthe suffocating. traffic, so tightly one we lane "Now,"thatdashed at the a time acrossheupright yelled, as anotherbuses passengers and bore lane.finding down seemedThere a onsmall was us, in inof flies.heapsthe cement-blockdoorways. Mounds of garbage, ofPigs trash homes and Outside his pint-sized church, flowed up the hillside and scrawny dogsand wandered runny-nosed in and children the stale air was abuzz spilled out played with out onbouncingstreetsnofriend hisroom foot were cried onoff in a the onethe asswirling asidewalksthat's crushanother soldier's ofmass peoplelike heel of windup accidentally pedestrians,jostling where toys. forcars "Aaaagh!"camethe colliding parkand next down safety andMythe hard empty,andloose as Ion turnedheard a sandbox. behind to leave My as happy as anymeshoes theWestern sound were childcaked of laughing with children.Mokattam, feeling disoriented mud and slime, turned and ceilings,weofzone. the were last long to physical meet faded an drapes remnantsacquaintance that of covered Cairo's for lunch. theold sootyaristocracy, HeThe hobbled dui.windows, aad wherealong high behind me to the Diplomatic Club, one , tryEgyptians--orThough to work the zabbaleenabroad, one of every eight adultshave many as common laborersmay be intrapped, the more than three left their coun- oil-pro-million yearand and the turned feel of into lost a prayerelegance. room. The We bar sat had down been in closedthe dining for a yeartionalEgyptianLosducing now Angeles system; countries,represent teachers to Egyptian Jeddah. Egypt'soth.-rs largest are the backbone of Saudi Arabia's The doctorsremittancesas professionals keep they the sendhospitals in cities ranging from source of foreign exchange. home each educa- myintakenroom friend reeds andover alongsaid. ordered his neighborhood,Hethe explainedgrapefruitNile night juice.thatandafter fora night, "maverick hours would on"I end,haven't sheik"shout crouching outslepthad his in days, or, at least, it feels that way," ir businessmenznd Qatar functioning; have become Egyptian academics, prominent in dozens of economists and in AmericanKuwait imaginedmomentown thanks the that chantto the God wouldsheik over had seem a megaphone. actually to grow entered louder, With his untileach bedroom. my sleepless friend I assaultloyalty,onlyandlimited European five thenot hundredopportunities sensesability, cities. sixtylike and Most at home, where thejackhammers,thedollars stultifying leaving and promotions give two reasons for leaving: pressures of Cairo that per capita income is even the most are based on the occasionalcarriedforasked disturbing if to he glass the couldn't extreme ofthe whiskey peace. call by the Mytoo and police manyfriend, believed and people, a haveMuslim religion "There's lookedthe manwhowas aghast. nothingarrestedbeingtook an I can do," he said matter-of-factly. banktowholeenergetic cut said. cornersmentality o"In souls Cairo, because drained changes," 6 i "I step off the plane I know myno workoneand really gets numb. sloppycares how in London anor EgyptianNew York executive with you perform. and I tryand my Citi- Islamic."days. Why, I'm the one who would be arrested,"Are for you being kidding?" un- he said. "You couldn't do that these 6 2 A dictionary of ARABIC AND ISLAMIC PROVERBS

Paul Lunde and Justin Wintle

Ability : Ability has no school. Turkish.

Abstinence : Practice abstinence, for riches willnot last. South Lebanese.

Actions : The planting of one tree is worththe prayers of a whole year. Turkish. Good deeds cut off tongues. Arabic.

Adaptability : That which bends does not break. South Lebanese.

Advice : Good advice is worth a camel. Lebanese.

Ageing : When you reach forty a new ailmentis suffered every year. Arabic.

Alcohol : When a drunkard smellsa pomegranate he wants it to sin. Medieval Arabic.

Ambition : If you fall in love, fall in lovewith a prince; if you steal, steal silk; andif you knock at a door, knock at the door of a greatman, so that when they revile you it will befor something big. Lebanese.

Anxiety : If you have anxieties,go to sleep. Moorish. Arabs : An Arab's intelligence is in hiseyes. Arabic.

Armenians : Anyone who can cope with an Armeniancan cope with the devil. Persian.

Arrogance : If anyone shits in your handfling it in his face. Maltese. When a chicken gives the callto prayer, slaughter it. Moorish.

Authority : A hundred years of tyranny is preferableto one night of anarchy. Arabic. Shit falls downward. Lebanese. An ass is an ass, even when it carriesthe 's treasure. Lebanese. 2.

Bad Language : Spit cannot return to the mouth. Moroccan. Beggars : Let one beggar marry another andall you will get is more beggars. Lebanese. Chance : One tiny insect may be enough to destroya country. Medieval Arabic. Change : 0 God, spare us from change. Tunisian. Character Types : The beard is full, the brain is lean. Tunisian. A man with a big nose isa man of standing. Lebanese. Charity : Do good and be rewarded withevil. Lebanese. Children : He who has children has torments. Tunisian.

Christians : Be nice to Christians whenyou need them, but otherwise bring a wall downon their heads. Lebanese.

Circumstances : A thoroughbred horse is notdishonoured by its saddle. Syrian. Commerce : Big fish eat little fish. Lebanese.

Compassion : Even the hand of ccmpassion isstung when it strokes a scorpion. Persian.

Conformity : To avoid being eaten by wolvesbe a wolf! Tunisian. Consequences : After the fire, ashes; after the rain,roses. Moroccan. He who plays with cats must bearthe scratches. Algerian. When the snow melts, the shitappears. Lebanese.

Consolation : When things get rough, visitthe graveyard. Tunisian.

Contentment : The sweetness of restcomes from the bitterness of labour. Algerian. Everyone is pleased with his brains;no one is pleased with his wealth. Omani. Praise be to Him who mademen content with their intelligence! Lebanese.

Conversation : The words of the nightare butter which will melt in the morning. Tunisian. If speech were silver, silencewould be golden. Tunisian.

) f. 3.

Corruption : To destroy the cobweb, destroy the spider. Maltese. When cat and rat join forces thecountry is destroyed. Omani. It is from the head that the fish firststinks. Turkish.

Courtesy : It is from the discourteous that thecourteous learn courtesy. Turkish.

Cunning : Cleverness wins over strength. Omani. A man without cunning is like an empty matchbox. Omani. Death : The cemetery never rejectsa corpse. Lebanese.

Dependence : The greatest curse is to need helpfrom others. Maltese.

Desires : The thing dearest to the heart ofman is that which is forbidden him. Arabic.

Desperation : What drowning man would not clingto the tail of a serpent? Turkish.

Destiny : No water can wash away the destinywritten on a man's forehead. Moroccan. Destiny caresses the few and molests themany. Turkish. Wherever it grows, wheat always arrivesat the millstone. Arabic.

Discipline : Where the teacher strikesroses will grow. Turkish.

Education : Repetition teaches the donkey. Saudi Arabian. Don't bother about educatingyour son: life will teach him. Lebanese.

Egotism : His mother was an onion, his father garlic,and yet he is a rose! Turkish.

Big head, big headache. Turkish.

Enemies : A thousand friends are few, oneenemy is many. Algerian.

Envi : Every eunuch scoffs at his master's prick. Medieval Arabic. 4.

Envy is a burden that noman knows how to put down. Medieval Arabic. Equality : If I were a prince, andyou were a prince, who would drive the asses? Maltese. Evidence : There are feathers in your hair,0 chicken thief. Tunisian.

Expectations : Hope without work is a tree withoutfruit. Arabic. The content of the pot is revealed bythe spoon. Arabic. Experience : What is learned in youth is carvedin stone. Arabic. Faculties : The mind is for seeing, the heartis for hearing. Turkish. Believe what you see and lay asidewhat you hear. Arabic. Faith : Trust in God, but tie your camel. Turkish. Fate : He who slaps his own face shouldnot cry out. Lebanese. Fear : When the lions are absent the jackals dance. Arabic. Food : Roses are scented, but bread keepsus alive. Maltese. A man's bread is a debt heowes to others. Lebanese.

Freedom : Better a stray dog than a caged lion. Syrian. Every monkey has its chain. Syrian.

Friends and Friendship : No path is steep that leads toa friend. Arabic. Bring your hearts together, but keepyour tents separate. Arabic. How many friends I had whenmy vines produced honey, how few now that theyare withered. Arabic. To die among friends is a feast. Arabic. You know a man when you need him. Maltese.

2 (3 f; 5.

Grief : Grieve for the living, not for the dead. Turkish.

Guests : Guests and fish stink after three days. Bedouin.

Health : For the healthy man every day isa wedding. Turkish. Health is the best feast. Yemeni.

Heredity : The man descended from dogs will bark. Arabic.

Home : Every man is a child in his own home. Arabic. A house without an elderly person is likean orchard without a well. Arabic.

Ignorance : Ignorance is an incurable disease. Saudi Arabian. The ignorant man is a soldier withoutweapons. Arabic. Man is the enemy of what he doesn't know. Arabic.

Individuality : Every man is the master of hisown beard. Arabic.

Knowledge : It is better to know things than notto know things. Moroccan. No man has enough knowledge. Arabic. He who knows nothing is well off. Maltese.

Leadership : If you wish to destroy acountry, pray that it has many chiefs. Lebanese.

Learning : A scholar who does not produce is likea cloud that doesn't rain. Arabic. If all your learning comes form books,you are more often wrong than right. Lebanese.

Luck : No stone worthy of a wall will be foundon a road. Persian.

Male and Female : The beauty of a man is in his intelligence: the intelligence of a woman is in herbeauty. Arabic.

Means and Ends : Why burn the blanket to destroy theflea? Turkish. One stone is sufficient to frightena thousand crows. Turkish.

Men : A gentleman is gentle. Arabic.

4

111111riralasinelirisiaMinsC "".16.111.fiwii 6.

Money : The value of money is havingit. Lebanese.

Motherhood : Every pig is beautiful in the eyes ofits mother. Moroccan.

Opportunism : If a good thing comesyour way, seize it. Arabic. When the lions depart, the jackalsgather. Arabic.

Politics : It is better to herd cattle than rulemen. Arabic.

Possessions : The best of your possessions is thatwhich has profited you. Arabic. Power : To every Pharaoh a Moses. Turkish.

Precautions : Before going in think about gettingout. Arabic.

Priests : However large the mosque the mullah onlypreaches what he knows. Turkish. Three things I shall neversee: the eye of an ant, the foot of a ,or theAindness of a mullah. Persian.

Purity - Every scholar makes mistakes, andevery thoroughbred stumbles. Arabic. Rank : If I am a prince and youare a prince, who will lead the donkey? Arabic. Relatives General : Relations are scorpions. Tunisian.

Ancestors : Always walk proudly in the land ofyour fathers. Arabic.

Sons : Your husband is what you make of him;your son is how you raise him. Arabic.

Resolution : When the hands are strong the eyesare dry. Arabic.

Respect : A man is respected in proportion to how well he . Arabic.

Revenge : Blood washes away blood. Arabic. 7.

Vengeance erases shame. Arabic. Mercy is rare, vengeance iscommon. Arabic. Self-control : If yot see two people in harmony,one of them is bearing the burden. Tunisian.

Self-criticism : What camel ever saw its own hump? Arabic.

Self-improvement : Learn tact from those who lack it. Lebanese.

Self-interest : Everyone pulls the blanket to his sideof the bed. Lebanese.

Self-reliance : Use your own brains, forno one else will lend you his. Arabic.

Separation : Separation from the living is harderthan separation from the dead. Arabic.

Simplicity : The greatest luxury is simplicity. Kurdish. Smiles : Not every smile is a smile of welcome. Arabic. Speech : A man's tongue is his sword. Arabic. When the mind is overwhelmed, allwc:ds fail. Arabic.

Strangers : When you shake hands witha stranger count your fingers. Persian.

Stupidity : A third of the world is desert lockedup in the human brain. Moroccan. Time : Time passes by withouta word, greeting no one. Arabic. When the times you complain ofare gone you will weep for them. Arabic. A sponge for the past,a rose for the present, a kiss for the future. Arabic. Place no faith in time. Moroccan. When the flood recedes the mudremains. Turkish.

Transience : There is no security in three things:the sea, the Sultan and time. Arabic. In the end, everything is consumed bymoths. Arabic.

L, 269 8.

Travel : Travel is a blessing. Axabic. Only with travel can aman ripen. Persian. Choose your companions, then chooseyour road. Arabic. Every journey is a little piece of Hell. Tunisian. To know a people's language is to be safe from their malice. Lebar-le.

Camels are ships of the L 1. Arabic.

Treachery : Always stroke thE head you wish tocut off. Arabic.

Truth : Truth is the salt of mankind. Arabic.

Uncountable : There .4re four things a man cannotcount: his sins, his years, his debts, andhis enemies. Persian.

Vice : To contemplate vice is a vice. Arabic.

Wealth : Too much wealth makes a man blind. Arabic. He who seeks wealth without capital islike the man who carries water ina sieve. Arabic.

West, the : Nothing coming from the West rejoicesthe heart. Egyptian.

Wisdom : The words of the ancientsare wisdom. Arabic.

Women : A single woman destroyed Paradise. Arabic.

270 41__Lta)11 I 41; ResoundingI hear the echoin the Gulf, . . . Nazik al-Mala'ika Rain"Rain . . . Five Songs to Pain AndThereInRain every is ateardrop red of of the rain hungry . . or yellow bud of a flower. The giver of sorrow and burns to our nights, OrInIsAnd a atheroseate smileevery young waiting nippledrop world shed infor ofthe from new lips tomorrow, giver of life." mouth of a babethe blood of slaves and the naked, AOneWeOf tapAnd drink found rainy of we pityfrom himgavemorning and cups on him a our littleof out insomniaway corner of our love to our eyes: And rain pours. WeOrI1hrobbing absentedlewish follows wever had himselfinus oursince, all not overhearts. givenfrom he the has our him great not way. a leftsingle wide us worldoncedrop to drink (thishudar al-Matar. Beirut 1960 ) OfOn 1drink thathe giver frommelanc of cups sorrow holy of insomniamorning-and burns to to our Our eyes. nights, WeFlowI low shall can drinkwe forget him, Pain, him?eat him, II WeHisBodyAs set we facial sightis sleep, the traitsol upon lastlow his are thing hisgrimin theerratic we morningfirst see; steps. thing BetweenWeWherever shall carrypermitour our burninglongings wisheshim him with to andagony and buildus wounds the damsand moon, the carry cool us. brook, OfWe AndWeBetweenour shall shallsongs'sorrow shelter permitour ribs. in eyes himour him andeyes.in to an sight.spread ecstatic sadness nook 271 10 11 272 WeGoodOblivionAnd shallFinally, evening, give forget willhim the thentorrents cactus thorns forsorrow! descend onof the valleys will our valley,a pillow. carry him away AndWho0 finger comeselse butthat to him ushas crying,closes given askinghisus tearsheart that andin the regret!we love him? face of our sorrow From where does Pain, we shall forgetPain come to us, him. Ill AIs1Who hisdaggerhe littleelseour lovingblowonehut him that enemy distributes wants or our wounds, bitter friend? and . . +le is the most innocent of oppressors. us to give it our cheeks smiles? AndYesterday,And smashedHe the has guide been wehim took ofthe brotherour of ourrhymes. visionshe come?him to the deep waters from time immemorial WeAndYou0Without havelittlearouse dig child,forgiven canalsreproach, our pardon wounds for your tears without ourguilt all in hand andour pain? and over. eyes our mow h. OrHeAndWe hidewould we did bitterthought notno longerleavesobs we returneda sigh of freehim fromorthere, a tear hisbehind scattered himcast sorrow on our songs. our smiles on the lake's waves. harm: AndWe crowned prmt rated you our as browsa god atal dawn your silver akar your harm from time immemorial. V ButWhatFrom itThen trembled didour we webeloved received and expect in it? Joy and a redones rose overseas. of warmran in fragrance warm thirsty satisfaction. tears WeThen burnt offered you incense sacrifices of linseedand and Of0 our Babylonian love, 0 Pain tune. sang verses sesame HeFroFromWe hasWatering 71love beenwhere where you, the the doesdoes 0 brother Pain,sad hetunesPain come? of come our fingers. to us, WeSprinkledWe kindled built its youfor floor youa temple with fires oil ofof and palmfragrant branches, walls And burning tears. pure wine HeToAnd him,revives the we guide of us andare gives mouth us andto drink. thirst our rhymes. of our vision from time immemorial DatesThenOf ourwe from sangsorrow drunken and and called Babylon, of wheat and offeredbread bran inand the wines long AndOur joyful lips roses.closed. our vows: night, OrOccupyPostponeCan an old we him? story not him Divertdefeat of till anext forgotten morning tune?Pain? him with a toy or a song?or evening? IV YouAndThen whosecollected we prayedhand the gave drops to your melodies of and And made a rosary. eyes and offered a sacrifice generous warm tears songs HeSilencedA will littleWho sleep tender could by if thatchild a lullaby and a loving we smile and singPain be? with questioning to him.pat. eyes, We0 harshtears have thattenderness, hidden grant you wisdom, () in gr udge 0 fountain full of of thoughts Of 0our wealth, melancholy 0 fertility songs. our dreams, in every tone mercy 12 13 (.11.Atiab, Beirut, September 1957.) 274 AThe soldier'sThe sun, the old lean shoes Village Market donkeys, the flies Abd al-Wahhab al-Bayarl TheThe millions Sorrows who work of hard do Violets not dream of the death of a butterfly 'Abd al-Wahhab al-Bayati AndMy"InFrom hands I shallthe hand new will buy to hand, year certainly bethose full shoes"of a peasantpassing staring money blankly: TheOrUnderAnd theof millionsthe a love thesail sorrows glowingaffairs who of workof violets one hard green moonlight on a summer night madly in love with a phantom TheIs"Nothing tiredcloserThe cryharvesters: than can of a thatscratch cock escapingto Paradise," from a the flies your skin as well as cage, a little saint: your own nails- and " he road to Hell TheTornAre nakedmillions who make a handkerchiefa boat for the fordreamer an enamoured one AndItsWe goodThose"Theyvictims plant dreamers" planted returninginare humiliation and from Our dead, women's bodies we did not eat the city: "What and they eat" a blind beast it is! SufferSingInThe the millions corners who of the earth, in cry a steel factory or a mine: Bid(TrudgingThe k rifles, perfumelowing like aof beetle:seller a plough, a dying firecows, the woman selling ( cannot repair what I line "My dear lark, 0 Sodom, elets hasand impaired- perfume NotI1They heyheylike arechewlaughone enamoured madly the from sun inthe disclove bottom to with of their hearts escape an inevitable death a phantom TheThe womenThe"BirdsA sunblacksmith sea inof cannot thea feather middle fighting sleep off cleansehis sins, nor flock, always, of the sky cantogether. tears" blood-shot eyes: SufferSingTheUnder millions the who green moonlight on a summer night cry TheHis"The marketchildren chest eyes isis of deserted Spring roses"sellingcatchingmy grapes beloved flies gathering are and two the stars far and the little shops their baskets:horizon Under th.. night sun dream of a morsel (Ash'ar Seittil 196.) The huts in the palm grove yawning (About Muhathshama. Beirut 1954 2. '7 5 14 15 : t ) IsTheOhFrom wooden death announcer's here voice The winter Lost rain Footstep made traces on the platfor ms of the station' Balandal-Ilaydari And"London"They Big willedBen strikes that it should . not feel what it announced AnAndWhile old on a lanternthestorm road was was mewing quivering like a cat YouI"TheyNo,"Twenty mutter:say: enough. were theythousand" killed Oldare lyingthatnews others like theannouncer. may live" WhatAnd will youshaking I doasked in our the me: frugalcity? village What wit' you do in the city! YouI"TheyOf mutter:say: barefooted were they killed are people lyingthat years may flower" WillYourAssadNightThe crush stupid blind will hopes you stepalleysgrow will in yourbe lost deaf in itsdepths great streets MyAOnOf voice themotherother flock. whispers lips murmurs as if in prayer YouAndNoWhat laughed . I willremained you at me do waiting in the fur the train to the c ity.. there are no friends in that city . . . and without a iriend HereMother,"Lord,I want without kPep nothing my my life lovebut myand life" my smile my mother VillagesThroughAndYou 1went passedwent the away away glass from (TOM window me you of the train YouIn InYouspite willspite will offorget oftheforgetsink the emptyme in lightme the morrow,put mud out in my roommy mother OrToAndForF loafing myto day to the villagewhom in andwinter the sinkingshallcity rain I return? makingin the sand traces while on Ithe waited platforms of the station I am alone NoOr to. the womenlight shaking dying ourof modesty? frugal village . . I shall not return TheFromA terribleIMy almost announcer's herehand pain hear pressing from wooden mythere hand voice, Whic(AwingWithTo lightshwhom willfrom shoutat shall new every at Ilamps return mecorner since my village has become a c ity They willed that he should not feel what he announced (Ithuriawat I, I.GhiirlIJ Reg, ut 19f'5 I What do youI want! want? 4 ( " 20 21 278 Nothing remembersknows me or is known to me here me or is remembered by Baland al-Haydari ToButI whomwillI willdrag be shallcrushed myf return, little by its footstepfor blind .. I will never return my villagein has its alleysgreatbecome streets a city. me here TheBarrenness same road (Aghans 21-Madma ai-Mayfa, Baghdad 1951 ) WeTomorrowThe used same to say silence.houses it will die tied together by a great effort VoicesOurTheyRollingAnd grumblingin ofwill everywithlittle mock day childrenhouse ourwomen on yesterdaythewill roadwake WhyTheyOur trozen theywill laugh notlaugh looks understandknow because with what no theymemories the brilliance oldwill waynot are ask HereAndTomorrowWe used the a friend seasons to wesay will will understand gather us whattogether we say WePerhapsYesterdayThere did not aor it bashfulmean wasthe seasonsa what deepperscn we love have used gathered to say us together today AndIs1That hat aonwithout c lovefriendallousthe road J face friend BehindAndAreThe the there same s.rmethe loser;silentroad houses ewindows tied together by a great effort 2 "( 4 9 22 In countless numbers . ThatWhenLove I amwill notyouand one understand,understand? Petroleum Sir? 0Where you with areis the thecracked tattoo backsholes oncallused inof youryour hands?tents? camels?feet NorToLike be a anotherthe femaleadded others numbertoconquest yourof your conquests girl-friends AcOnlyWhose0 slaveIn cumulated tenssome wivesof on emotions of the haveyour bed hobbiesbecome of your lusts 0When unbridledTo be will entered you camel understand? in ofyour the records desert WhenMummified willike you insects understand? on the walls of your halls AshesThatAreWhose eaten I willin face your notby and smallpox becigarettes wristhere Will0When gluttonInThat you your ! understand?am hell not or oneyour to paradise be interested AToAmong headstatuebreast compete thous:Inds on thefor inmarble a on feverish your of which pillows auction AndThanThatIs thatdifferentmy the dignity thegold climate fromheaped is more your of in myvaluableclimates your thoughts palms WhenYou leave will youthe understand?form of your fingerprints WhenOf0 you EvenFeudalismwhom inwill tothe the call,you atoms hatchesvery understand? desert of andwhose is nestles, ashamed cells WithThatBy youryour you concessions, oilwealth will nevernever and possess numbyour princedoms me the world 0Wallow oilIn yourprince pleasures AtWithEWiih xhaledyour carspetroleum princesses' fromyou throwyour feetflowing mantles AtSqueezeYoursWallowI Ike the a feetmopis in theit your ofthen yourpetroleum sins mistresses 48 he night-r lubs of Paris 49 2 Have killed your magnanimity L7V, Jr91 Kamal Abu Dib SoldSoDidAs you theGodif not thesold ashes abort lances Jerusalem of your yourof Israel sisters dead. AnOpposites Elegy to the Babel ef Voices -s AsOverAndAnd if burnherallthe destroy who flagsshreds our were wereQur'ans our of crucifiedhouses yournot hoistedflags (Fragment) To Adonis, the multi- WereAndInOn trees Beersheba not in of your kin. Babel,Babel. whateverThis is your I name name. you. This I nameis your you identity in the winds. desert, but you go forth and rise surrounded by dimensional, the embodier. a flower on the body of the seven towers. AsYouAWhile victimJerusalem if sleepthe you oftragedy areyour sinks passions in its blood A rtigress iver of I thename dead you, I name a body you. with I draw which you the mystics Babela lotus of tree the under towers which and thethe tongues.world seeks shade. But you revert to are infatuated, WhenIs not will part youthe of humanunderstand? your tragedy being wake up in your soul? agranaries, pyramidforth and ofhoots rise books, inof themillions bare wind thighs, ofsurrounded soldiers virginities, traveling by and beards.the continents, But on the walls of trains as wheat seven towers. you go YouBabel lie is stretched your name out: and deserts identity. and thirsty , valleys overflowingoceans,Spring in and turbid song. rivers. You Mountainswash your extremitiescrouch at your in the navel, foam of the with Belr Ut 1964 ) And I see you riot surrounded by a rampart yourbushes pelvis, creep and on oil your wells thighsyour come out ofthousand your eyes. thighs, , not brushed by a wind. sharks enter oxeye I name you a woman. and a thousand vulvas noises,querorsin your languages, claim body you.as stars andI call andletters; you sand, a andbook, and voices anda thousand you roar husbands wM and grow to you, breasts spring open on your pages: a thousand r on- ( -1 50 51 2 4 Sudden Death Ahmad 'Abd al-Mu'ti Hijazi AndSoMyI carry thatname my my iffriends Iand telephonefall mydead will address come.suddenly number you will identify me IIfFancy will you remain don'twhat come. willin the happen morgue two long nights SomebodyNoCold reply telephone will go wires to my will mother shake and in the tell night. her I amIhe deadring will start. . . once . . . twice. CarryingInHowMy the mother, she utterlymy willwilladdress! thatwalkquiet spend sad alone hall the country in night the citywomanbeside me WeavingOverAsComfortedSubdued she her ponders mybyhidden by hershroud her aloneloneliness sorrows seclusion from her in black sorrow tears! SoI thatwish 1I my wouldwould mother notnot be betrayhad lost tatooed my father my boy's arm WhenWeAfterWhenSo did thatI seenotspending I mysee exchangethat first men life twoface hasand lookshours wouldno women madness or in not seefront going be different lostof out me under silently during which scenes,my second face. 85 286 ndVat(feel the hing asbifflot ifthis I irn quietness dying really world. dead Ilutters and lying over silently everybody (Lam Yaby.i .11.1111.a Bctrut 19651 (seesquare Appendix miles; in I. 1970page it314). was inhabited by a population of 'UHF. ARAB MIND about 121 million ously,languagecharacter, the in settledArab these conquerors down,new countries and becameof thediffered town from dwellers. place The fate THE ARABS AND THE WORLD new lands lost their originally tribal to place, but in general of the Arabic ness.Islamonly The Arabs the are, first of and course,Of thethe three wellthird acquainted successively figure with larger the concentric 2. W HO IS AN ARAB? prominently in Arab conscious-circlesArabs, Middle East, middle one as well; orpeared.Arabit can the conquerors bepredominant, Within stated athat andrelatively populationin the several local short populations countrieselement period inthe the agradually "Arabs" hugeinitial area haddiminished in and distinction between the become the only, and disap- andadoptedexpressionin French,fact, and in modernin translated which Arabit had from political the European writings al-sharq al-awsab come into vogue"the Middleonly during East" the But World this War one encounterslanguages, frequently primarilythe English term has been thein Southwest question.following Who criteria:Asia.' is an Arabs Arab?Numerous are The those scholars, who speak both ArabArabic, and Western, have struggled answers usually include one or more of are brought up to answer theof IIthe Arabyears. area mind. Havingas the localehadThe no of indigenous term "Arab" referred in pre-Islamic a specific cultural configuration did not exist in term for it, one suspects that the concept times to the people who inhab- onlycherishnations.'in Arabthe the linguistic culture, Amemory moment's onelive of inholds the reflection an Arab Arab good Empire, country, willfor sufficeall Arabs believe to andshow in for that of are members of any of the Arab Muhammad's teachings, almost nobody else all these criteria, biblicalAribiitedrecords: the territory Benhadad Arabian in 854 joined Pemnsula B.c.11) against Bir-ldriGindibu and Shalmanassarof the theDamascus Arab with . It appears in Assyrian onc thousand camelIII troops in the from Battle(who of isQarmar. none other In than the inconsiderbut a Arabs. non-Arab themselves Persons countrywitness whose Arabsncn-Arab motherand bethe sotongueculture many considered is Arabs(e.g., Arabic by inwho others.French live They culture in North Africa), may be brought up in in France, the mayand stilllive desertensuingevidentlythis firsthas twenty-eight historicalnever they wereceased. appearance centuries, camel-herding "Like ofthe the association desert an Arab in the desert" is a simile used by Arabs they arc associated with camels Bedouinsand throughout the between Arabs and the tiondonotUnited notand as believe any States, yet Muslim inare MuhammadtheLatin as Arab. intensely America, Many Arab Arabsandhundreds inelsewhereand dotheir of feelings thousands still be of Christian not "cherish" in particular the and national orienta- Arabs. They may Arabs tence.ArabknownJeremiah The pitching fact, conceptual (3:2) and his about moretent, association 600 whichthan B.C. in between the a century presupposesearlier Isaiah a (13:20)nomadic, refers desert-dwelling to the exis- tone in which one refers to a well- membersgratedseveralmemory to other of otherof the other reasons. Arab countries, nations, Empire And, acquiredwithout becausefinally, thereby therecitizenship they arelosing Communists, there, their are numerous Arabs who emi- .and have In becomea or for any of fourteenth-centuryheremained actually so means close historian, that is "Bedouin." frequently when This uses the term "Arab," and this is how the isan how Arab Ibn author Khaldiin, uses "Arab"the famous what Arab and Bedouin was and forwhosimilar example, meet manner, all theor mostoneChristian couldof theFor point conditionsthis reason,ofout Egypt, that enumerated and there for want and of a better definition, or the Jews of any Arab country. are individuals and groups we go along with the yet are not Arabs, Desertlarge-scaleIslamizationBedouins From Arab refer ofthis Arabiaexpansion totime themselves on,duringThe theoutside foundation his to thislifetimethe day. of Islam by the Prophet Arabian Penimula and the SyrianMuhammad marked(570-632) the and beginning the of the languagepoet,one suggested to the and effect consequently recently that an However,by Arab labra feels is I. "anyoneasand Jabra, an this Arab." a whois Daghdadi significant speaks critic, Arabic for their novelist, self-image, and the Arabs do not as his own raveit came up totheir denote ancestral all the languages peoples who, "and after adopted Arabic term "Arab" assumed a second meaning:11 having been converted to Islam, instead Simultane- considertionseparate by themselvesalmost poliiical all entities.Arab as several leaders, In the separate theArab Arabs view, nations fostered for constitute one nation, the Arab or peoples who inhabit at least one genera- C , 289 13 THE ARAB MINI) THI: ARABS AND I HE WORI I) ofovercome. countriesnation,one single and In is thisqawm thebut theoreticaldivisiona temporaryor nation. of theor condition ideal view, that all Arabs one Arab fatherland into numerous separate sooner or later must be. will be. are brothers, children distinction.of 'Aliofthe non-Arab (1876-1953),most Thisoutstanding Muslims,'" prominent can becontemporary but mentionedSyrian also scholar, Arab who thinkers, among Arab literati. The writings of oneas an exaniple of such an absence of was for many years the Muhammad Kurd theyArabs,embraces, were of course, the in originatorsaddition consider toAs of themselves the toIslam Islam,Arabs, and allthe educated or even semi-educated Arabs know that it those who spreadnumerous it in the world. non-Arab Thecore nations. of the MuslimThe nations, since expecttion),apresident book a published bookentitled of thewith Al-Islam Arab inthis two Academytitle volumeswal-IladOra to differentiate of in Damascus, Cairoal-'Arabiyya carefully in 1934 (Islam betweenand and Arab Civiliza- wrote, among other works, 1936. One would Arabs and betweenconstitutingworld, the in two the thethe Houses traditional DorMr al-IslZim.al-Ilarb, is much Arab view, is divided or "House of War." Inor Arabic "Housemore the ofantithesis apparent Islam," and impressive an outer than in thc into two parts: an inner part. one, indiscriminateat theMuslims,pains part to and distinguish between usageth theof between "Arab"narrower and "Arab" and "Muslim- theand wider "Bedouin," throughout of the he is whole. This, however, is not the case. While Kurd 'Ali two circles, between the book." This guilty of an is connotesalwayssaliim,English carries the-peace." translation contrast the Therefore, connotation between of their forinner ofthe the names, because in Arabic the term "Islam" Arabs,peace the and meaning outer war, of thejust twoas the Houses ancient word from which it is derived. themtifiedhistory.is a significant withto Islam,distinguish the Arabscharacteristicoriginally between to the the extent ofreligionthe the two, ethnocentricityof of despitemaking the Arabs, theit fact of practically impossible forremains forArab them students iden- of Arabthat they know very oflawless ratedRomansWestern Barbarians.by hadtheinfluences, limestheir paxfrom Underthe Romano the thelands imposedimpact of Western domination concept of the "House of War" has in the beyond which were the domains of the upon the "pacified" andlands, the sepa- irresistible penetration well, of course, that Islam underwent important extra-Arab developments. andof lettwentiethWar" infidel alone as such inremainscentury those does ofbecome and theirnot itexist Westernizedis obsolete a sharp one. Inany fact, longer, as the the Arabist distinction Clifford between Muslimeven in the eyes of the traditionalfellow Arabs,countrymen. But if the "House of hadGeertzanxious been observed, envy a fine and medieval as defensive aIn result fine, of inpride." the the Arab view the world contempt for infidels crept a tense modern involvement with the West, "into whatappears like a fruit that consists of note waysnon-Muslimtheworld.three Arab of parts. Allah.Surrounding core world, At area its whosecore like it is is the the flesh kernel, of thethe a protectivevery existence covering. testifies Outside to the is inscrutability the skin, the of the fruit, mostthe Muslim valuable world, part: envelopingthis is the Arab andIslam the Muslimwith Arabism. world, ThisArabsOne tendency lastoften point. Despite the historical tend to identify Arabism with Islam difference between the Arab world and I cated Arabs who cannot be expected 231 can be observed14 to notknow only too among much unedu- about the existence 15 2 course,makeranges the froman statement abstraction) 72 to 75. that On is thedolichocephalic"the basis Arabian of this Bedouin" orgeneralization, long-headed. (which in Likewise, turn, one when can INF. GROUP ASPECTS OF THE MIND term itself is, of THE GROUP ASPECTS II OF THE MIND thropologists,humanone ventures group, aone one statement seldom inevitablyIn aboutencounters the generalizes writings a certain expressions of asmentalsocial well psychologistscharacteristicas such abstracts. ofand psychologically oriented as "group mind," any given an- dividualscommonthe"national terms elementswho mind,""personality" are part "racialdiscernible of or amind," given"character," in andsocioculturalthe personalitiesthe and like. in their Theymilieu. studies(or prefer, characters) they instead, discuss of in- to use the andhistypes," sociocultural the psychologist as developed background Abilm byOne these wasKardiner.of thetwo made earliest scholars, Theby the attemptsconcept restsanthropologist upon ofto "basictackle the followingRalph thepersonality problem of the individual and Lintonpostu- HAVING TACKLED THE TERM "ARAB" lates: I. personality,That the individual's especially early upon experiences the development exert of a hislasting projective effect systems.upon his populationitwhat might we be mean aggregate,asked by thein general, secondsuch wordWhat as a nation? Is it at all legitimate to talk about in the titleis of meant this book: by the mind. "mind" In of WE MUSI NEXT CLARIFY any large fact. 23. andThatrations rearing thesimilar in techniques the ofexperiences individualschildren which are willwho theculturally tend aremembers tosubjected patternedproduce of any tosimilar and societythem. will personality tendemploy to bein configu- thesimilar, care of thea population individual"mind" of is, and,a ofhuman necessity,as Tosuch, group? begin unique with,Is it must be admitted not the "mind"and a most uniquely personal his? partthat of any statement about the mind of evidence,4 it follows:If these postulatesdrenThatalthough thediffer are culturallynever from correct, identical,one patterned and society they for toseemtechniquesvarious another. to familiesbe supportedfor thc within care by theand society. rearing of chil- a wealth to sameindividualtalking token about minds there "the (or are human psyches, only body"individual and human or characters, or anpersonalities). abstraction. Still,Concretely, by the there are only to being told about new discoveries bodies, and yet we are all used 21. common.Thatexperience theas amembers result in common. of ofthis any they given will society base manywill have elements many elementsof personality of early in reachedmade of by formerly processes unknown of generalization.The properties abstractions that we do venture (about either body or mind) When we ofsay "the that human the cephalic body.") index are which3. That is shared since bythe the early bulkThe experience of the society'sanother, of individuals members the personality differs from norms for variousbasic personalitysocieties will type also differ. for any society is that personality configuration as a result of the early one society to theshorthand,the(i.e., basis Arabian the of widththemeasurements Bedouinsfull of explication the head taken divided of ofwhich by ranges from 72 to 75, we are resorting thc breadth and length of the headsits length and wouldmultiplied run somethingby 100) of like this: On to verbal of, flectedpersonalityentprirsonahlyexperiences phraseology, in many ofconfiguration. which the differentthe individual they value-altitude have totalThus but in personality common.therather systems same to the Itbasic configurations whichdoes projective personality notare correspondbasic systems ' to the individual's type may he re- or, in differ-to the total andsay, assertinga thousand that Arabian the cephalic , index one seems/6 to be justified in generalizingof the Arabian Bedouins in general lated, a few years after itsDespite publication the circumspection another anthropologist-psychologist with which the above statement 17 was formu- (t. 4, ) 293 294 THE ARAB MIND legs.'noteam, moreWhat Kluckhohn have can abe 'common andcommon Murray, character' to found thanit they a group is a specific feature, or a set of necessary to warn that "a group can can have a common pair of itygreatand structures. especially diversity Thisofin constituentcontemporary means that sectors, the large-scale national there industrialcharacter societies THE GROUP ASPECTS OF THE MIND may be several modal personal- consists of the sum with their series),itIncidentally,encespecific refers showsto whenfeatures,to the thatthe theyvalue very thethat talk personality termsocial about "modal," psychologists national thus borrowed described character and or number that occurs most frequently in a given as it is fromanthropologists statistics (where have refer- or modal personality. groups),a nationaltotal of each thepopulation ofmodal these personality madegroupsThe up issue, can of stru-lures beseveral then, made comes distinct the found object down culturein theof to nationalthe question of cultural a study with a viewgroups (orhomogeneity. ethnic In population.' vationmajority.most significant that human one beings inThe the whobasis group of studied,modal personality and grow up in a common environmentor national exhibit,character studies is the obser- not necessarily that of the is only the statistically Sudan.personalitiesiesto ascertaining of the In Arab fact, in itsworld,the the modal difference Arab one personality. willnorth between undoubtedly and To the the take Negro find an example south of from the two modal personalities will be two rather different modal the Republic of peripher- itsmentality.beyond values, impressesIt theiris inevitable its individual behavior the individuals that differences, patterns,this should who its be a strong commongrow factorup within in their itaccepted with person- itsthe own and case. stamp:approved Any sociocultural varieties environ-of ousacter.subsumeso as pronounced far as the its ethnictwo that under composition theOn theresearcher the general other is concerned, hand,headingwould if be theof hard thenational Sudanese put if population he studied is fairly homogene- nationalwere to trychar- to ents,theDuringactions nurses, moral childhood,and imperativesteachers, reactions, thepriests, ofyoungas hiswell and social member as other its environment, culturally individuals of the society gradually channeledinternalizes needs and goals.implanted in him inby position par- of authority. thattopersonalities tionwarrant the at Muslim large. extrapolation of As anyArabs, a twopreliminary who orfrom more form them tentative samplethe to overwhelming the estimatecharacter in of this the groups will be sufficiently similar one will find that the modal respect one can state national popula- becomesbehavior.punishmentutilizeAt an early sufficientlythe After lure age, or ofa thethe number rewards internalized threatchannels of offor yeers, punishmentthrough "good," the which for system of rewardsthat is, and conforming, punishments behavior, and this implantation "bad,"takes place or nonconforming, toculturaltion in inthe the and preceding Arab personality world, paragraph.The configurationare value definitely of the thancloser national character conceptwith to the disparate variety referredto this homogeneous type of majority of the popula- the limitations and thattrueway,which numericallyrepresentative the takes successfully over preponderant and of enculturatedcontinueshis cultural the andand task societalsocialized to develop the Freudian "superego," begun by external agents. In this environment, a member individualof will become a sciousnessideaportrayingqualifications of a ofnational anational large indicatedas charactersociocultural groups a themselves.is tool present, aggregate of scholarly albeit With is enhanced inquiry in a vague form, in the con-the spread of nationalism byand the an factapproach that the to alsopopulation.ofity.' bethe I designated would,motives, therefore, traits, as the beliefs, modal venture and personality, values Since the personality of the plurality in group whichto define constitutes national the character modal personal-as shared by the plurality in a national a given population can the sum total viewEvenofinto themselves all themselves parts of as the membersas world, national peopleof a nation everywhere and minority groups have, in recent groups, constituting a separate nation within years, evinced a growing tendency toas sharing certain national acquired the habit of thinking trans.' formerbetweenter can termbe national equated should character with be used Atmodal the andfor samepersonality. themodal time, one can agree with those who insist on a distinction personality and propose thatit the appears that national charac- character.amongthe larger them If political one have reads been entity the andAs in still to which the are Arabs, astutethey observers the best mindsof their overall national Muqaddima (Introduction to History) as well as some of the simpler people live. of lbn should be applied to more narrowly 2S5 18more generaldelimited concept, groups. while In the any latter population, of Khis hald times tin ( asI 3 well 32- 1406)--who as the was undoubtedly greatest ever produced by the Arabs- one is 19 95 the greatest historical genius 296 vantageaddstruck up to pointagain a veritable of and a historianagain portrait by who hisof the observations could look THE ARAB MINI) Arab national character on the Arabback character, upon seven which centuries of seen from the denouncetience,inconstancy, disdain others indecision, of study,to the fearfulness,king "-dolence, and to cowardice,jealousy,accuse them; slander, despondency, falsehood, readiness 'I HE GROUP ASPEC IS 01. 1HE MIND in brief, the foundation of avarice, impa- to primarilymindof Arabsome that history.features to when the BedouinA ofIbn few the Khaldiin briefArab used or nomadicquotes Arabs:will suffice and tothat show he wasthe Khaldiiniannationalnot entirely character. But first the name "Arabs" he one must keep in was referring view A few pages later, Maqrizi returnsmostthetheir soul characterof to them.All the of them subjectis composed are not likeof the this, vilest but faultsthese producedfaults are encounteredand adds among several more by the meanness of Khaldiincountrymen.free of explains,the universal "This tendency isUnder because, the of heading "Arabs can gain control only overintellectuals flat territory." to fault Ibn rather than praise their traits to his unflattering portrayalthings,theThat propensity which the of weakness dominatesthe forEgyptian enjoyments, inin resolutionthe character the and love ofdecision. the of Egyptianstrifles, They the is belief arecharacter: extremely inclined the love of pleasure, in impossible Arabs) are people who plunder and on accountcause of their damage. savage nature [the . . Eventually their . into usingcunning it, because and deceit; there from is in their characterbirth they excel in it and a basis of flattery and adulation are very skilful Arabs)quicklythecivilization next arc ruined," section, a [i.e., savage of Ibnwhich those nation, Kha he whomIdtin entitledfully explains, the "Places Arabs accustomed to savagery and the things that "The reason for thisconquer) isthat that succumb [theis wiped to out. the Arabs . ." In are quotes,In a third adds passage that Mai:vizithe Egyptians repeatsbeforewhich arethem makes characterized or will them live masters after by them. inthe it more than all thesome peoples of the who points have he lived made in foregoing "absence of re- Suchbecausecause a it. natural itSavagery means disposition freedom has becomePerhaps from is the authority their evennegation character more remarkable and is lbn K arid no subserviencehaldfin's insight to leadership.intoand the antithesis psychol- of civilization." nature. They enjoy it MaqrizihaveRahminflection," to finds Ibnrender and Khaldiin,only records account."' two positivetold that me: "ourAs features 'Theagainst shaykh, Egyptians in this the Egyptian the master Abil Zayd 'Abdul-king list of negative traits,act as if they would never character: they are headingconqueredthemselvesogy of of the the by vanquished, sectionafter the theyArabs, in whichsuccumbed which but he which he based holds treats this subjectto European reads: "The colonial vanquished domination. The on his observations of the peoples equally good for the Arabs thoseof nota gentle jealousoffered nature, ofby their Ibn which Khaldiinwives, heMedieval and attributesand those Maqrizi, Arab of to them generalizationsthe effect who live in aboutseaside the personality of arc based on'personal observa- of the humidity." a people, such as towns are ter.dunoccupation,always "Theadds severalArab," want and to hemore imitatehis says, otherfeatures the conditions victor in andhis to his portrait of the Arab national charac- distinctivecustoms." mark(s), Thereafter, his dress, Ibn his Khal- indiscernedrepresenttion innumerable and/or attemptsafter statements proverbsanother. to describe made andAs against sayings, bygroup respected them, character usually Arab authorities. picks by folk enumerating out one particularwisdom, fea- as expressed In any case, they one feature andtoforprophecycan eager subordinate this obtain is to that,or be authority sainthood, the becausethemselves leader.' only ofor theirby someto makingeach great other, use religious of savagery, the Arabs are least willing of nations as they are rude, proud, ambitious,some religious coloring, such asevent in general. The reason Asubdivisionture very which few itexamples ofconsiders the Arab ofOne characteristic thispeople, of kind the andofmost folk presentsof frequently characterizationArabs it in quoted proverbs, in general, orcurrent of one inspecific several variants an emphatic statement. will have to suffice. characterofhis Mamluk disciple of historians Taqi his countrymen.al-Din and AhmadWhile himself TheIbn KhaldCm's observations refer al-Maqrizi (1364-1442),an Egyptian, the discusses in sonic detail the primarily to the Bedouin Arabs, most eminent Acommentmyin proverbmany cousins Arab oncurrent against the countries, Arab in theSyria traits stranger" is: and of"I andfamilyLebanon (or "againstcohesion comments the and world"). hierarchical This is my brothers against my cousin; I and on Arab pride: "Even loyalties.an acute nated by 297 Egyptians'20 character, he says, is domi- BEST COPY A AILABLE debaseif I have myself" to see the(i.e., worm by asking of hunger help). Another 21 emerge from my mouth, I shall not reflects the Arab dislike of 2 98 authority: "Nothing humiliates THE ARAB MINI) THE GROUP ASPECTS OF THE MIND "Workfrontindependence,authority." of on your SundayThe enemy isimportance emphasized and when holidays, of again self-respect and and beagain and in of you are hungry, but not when you are naked."a man like being subject to somebody else's not in need of your fortunate Arabic proverbs:face-saving, "Pass in as well as of urbanite,fellah,Andwell asthis, or between Arabindeed,too, haspeasant, various Is his the own case.whompopulation stereotype Well he considersknown elements of theis the infellah: Bedouin to be a slave of the soil. oneThe and the same country. a dumb, subservient, stereotype of the thousands"Shavetentbrother." with with ofa "Bettera piece proverbshatchet, toof diewild but current with don'tcelery, honor in be thebut obliged than Arabdon't woildhumiliate to live in humiliation." "Be con-to someone else." There are which either commentyourself, 0 my soul!" thataccordinghappy,docile patience beast grateful, to isa oneofmore burden. andof charitablethe a hardcharacter He is and lazy,view, loyaltraits cowardly, quiet, worker.that gentle,makes cringing, The hissatisfied fellah stupid, lifeand bearable, evil; or, extolshimself, knowing with his lot, Arabpossess.formupon ofcharacterthe advice, AArab study charactertheand of thesecharacter would proverbsas set it traits is forth actually would which the yieldArab found a fascinatingto be, folk the ideal Arab should strive to value system as applied to or hold out, in the view of the is"Godwithit inrarely many patience." is withexpressed, proverbs: the "Patiencepatient." because "Patience His is he opinionbeautiful." fearsdemolishes the of theformer "A mountains." Bedouinpatient and often is dependentandman the on seestownspeople freedom." "Nothing is lost eveneredpersonal by earliel at least conduct. than) one the Arab conceptThat intellectual there came is suchabout in vogue a thing in as the the Wcst. "mind- phi of the same atime national as (or entity perhaps was discov- Husain Arab"Everythingthe latter country (his is andlandlord). soap another for NorOne the a newis Bedouin."proverb the development observation nevertheless inof the difkrences in national characterridicules between the Bedouin: oneArab world. In fact, asksofthe(1889- Culturethe Arab question,), whoworld," in Egypt," has Is operates beenthe published Egyptian called with "probablyin themind Cairo (he in the concept in his book entitled The Future 1938. In this book,uses Tatia thc Husain Arabicleading term scholar-littérateur " of companionsclassicalbeforeastute Arabexamplethe ofconcept observers the Prophetis attributed of nationalhad Muhammad. remarked by character Maqrizi on The these observation differences was formulated into theKa'b West. al-Ahbir, A one of the is couchedmany in L.J centuries mind.itstanding, wasEastern Allpart appearancesand orof judgment?Westernthe Mediterranean notwithstanding,in And terms his ofanswer mind, its andis, It is Western concept formation, perception, under- even in the modern age, Egypt has thus related to the European because in the past Ab-indanceamthings,anecdotal going Ka'b toform is said:Syria," reported but "I its amsaid importto going haveReason, is tosaid, unmistakable: Egypt"; "I He will go"I shall with When you," said Rebellion. gave them each a companion. "I Allah created all completelife,taken too, Europe is coalescence purely for herEuropean. model withAnother Europe. inAll all the termaspects signs Tiihi point of Husain material is fond of using closely to Egypt developing toward life, and her spiritual you,"Resignation." said Health. "I am goingCarrying to the this Desert," a stage said further, Poverty; Mai:vizi "I goes on: accompany you," said shall go with despite"personality,"English the concept of Egypt, of exercisednational which, hecharacter. asserts, Heshe talks over her by numerous powerful nations. was able to preserveabout intact the shakh#yya, or corresponds to the Rebellionsaidandfaith,When misery. Honorhonor, God "I Courage courage,shallFaith created gosaid: said,therebellion,to Iraq,""Iworld, "Ishall shall saidpride,He go go also toPride, tohypocrisy, Yemen"; created,Syria"; "I shall "I it"Iriches, shallis said, shall accompany you," ten charactergo with types.you,"poverty, said humility, gerbeingsitaation, herEgypt's personalitythc case.as own well Egyptpersonality asor byher does other national not was factors have formed identity to which fear by and that haveher individuality." unchangeableWesternization geographical will endan-remained constant .1 his fourteenth and fifteenth centuryAssaid canHumility Misery."" bewere seen Ptwertywell from said,these "I quotes shall go from Into Mayrizi, the Desert"; educated "I accompany you," said shall go with ,ou," Arabs in the aware of differences thatOne exist would between expect one a peopleArab country so sensitive and to national character traits to be another, as Arabof an Arabpeoples national inhabiting character, various hut countries.also of character To this 23 aware, not only of the existence differences betweenday thisthe latter factor THE ARA B MINI) a SyrianisArabcauses always, mind. Arab,one and of There and the has somain seemsbeen forth. difficulties to These be differences for anybody in who*character at least since the days of Mayrizi, no such thing as an Arab in (he abstract. He attempts to portray the an Iraqi Arab,have, in turn, Arabwhichled national tofrequently the creation character, clash in withOne is that theof the theoverall, main problems, then, many parts of the Arab world of local tendencies, in dealingArabs with have the for Arab over mind,a thousand larger ideal of all-Arab unity. or the years ARAB CHILD-REARING PRACTICES HI trapuntalthatinhabited this historico-geographic themesa larger ingeographical the Arab mentality: factor the area than any comparable and tends to express itself in two theme of all-Arab unity, which con- traitsinterplaypersonalityism,is a matter which as occurs between of isis aspiration;concerned,a matterin thegeneral culturalof and realistic all-Arab that realm." of and one can, as a working hypothesis, posit the self-interest.the As particularistic tar as the modal local Arab Arab national- particular local Arab character same rearingIS THERE practices SUCH in Athe THING Arab world? AS A GENERALThe question PATTERN is of basic OF importance CHILD- I. THE ISSUE OF SEVERITY chikl-rearincbecause,thisto the tii forrniliiiiriRon ifas rather severalpractices difficult leading areWail to among social personality.'answer. psychologiststhe Inmost fact, As important so for oftenhave lack conclusivelywithoffactors sufficient basic contributing questions, shown, data, no I thosedefinitiveless of allow Morocco answer us to at andarrive all IraqcanFirst at beappearleast of given. all, at quite aone A tentative number findssimilar that conclusion. ofwhen considerations even compared two such with,neverthe- widely say, separated cultures as practicesissimilarity,the very Greek, likely inwhich or all Italian,to parts underlieshave or of Sub-Saharan the the Arab surface world. Negro manifestations culture. And of thislocal basic differences, cultural a correlate in the basic similarity of child-rearing 'Ls) 301 24 rearingparts of practicesthe Arab world whichSecondly, one point can to infind the quite at same least a large kind a few number of observations basic of similarity.studies on dealing child- One with many different 25 1u 3 ,2 century Muslim religious scholar, the object of historiography was "re- THE ARAB MIND it,withinusemarkable "the the whose limitless term happenings course"time" flight athey ofhistoricalwhich times," use are it, process notbutof interest.'"' in the is played sense Even out, of when aa or, periodbrief as Arab Spenglertime of historians duration section put being(thecenteredmethod words) the oncase, in a time-sectionthe great Arabic study or historiographyremarkable and (zoniiin) the writing event. and has of timeAsnothing history al-Kifiyaji (tont) comparablewhich are says, was identical."" "linguistically, introducedto the critical This into THE BEDOUIN SUBSTRATUM OF THE ARAB PERSONALITY' theteractionWestern last hundred of historyhistoriography years. with otherLet (primarily me social conclude sciences by Leopoldthis whichsection von has by Ranke) characterizedcasting nor one to more theit for in-glance at Hebrew, one Bookinancientof Arabic.the offew form,Job Inother quoted biblicalHebrew Semitic above, Hebrew duplicated languages the usage, imperfect the inindeterminacy asaddition showncan refer to by Arabic of tothe verbthe example alive past tenses today.tense; fromwe foundInsimi- the its ties.whosethelarly, biblical In the endtact, perfect period, resultit can can todaybe the saidrefer Hebrew is that ato complete the one language future, of the elimination much main began asdifferences a ofin process Arabic.these betweenancient ofHowever, development ambigui- modern after ALTHOUGH TODAY THE BEDOUINS CONSTITUTE PROBABI V NOT I. THE BEDOUIN IDEAL imperfecttensesand biblical as informs HebrewWestern as Arabicis languages, Beforethat in still modernArabic has while tocan Hebrew inthis becomebiblical day.. the Hebrew verba medium has it hadpast adequate perfect and future andfor thc requirements of populationimportantinmore both than the thanstill10 villages perconsiders mere cent and numbers of thethe the Bedouincities, population is that claim ethos a veryof Bedouin asthe largean Arab ideal origin.sector world, to which, What ofmany the in is settledArabs,theory more transformitselftomodern undergo of itslife, itstraditional a including perfectsimilar and development. rhetoricism,those imperfect of scholarly its verbIt exaggerationwill andforms have scientific intoto become semanticand discourse, overassertion, more equivalents factual, it will haveand rid of imposedempathy,Westernersat least, itits wouldput whoideal il: have like"...on the theto written measure opulentemotional about cities.'" up. the intensity As Arab TheJacques worldfact of theis Berque,with that desert true the one sensitivityBedouins dweller of the hasareandfew the past and future tenses respectively of Standard Average European. of past,thelooked exceptionheroic as upon, living age. ancestors,notof Henceits only Westernized by the as the importancelatterday Arab elements, cities, heits of butandthe as by Bedouinwitnessesimages the entire and ethos, to figurestheArab andancient world fromof the glory withthe everydeedsBedouins' people. with lasting aristocratic Looking effects, backThe moral indelibly uponheroic code, heroic age,impresses for the theancestors, period Arab itself worldin uponthe which progenyin the general.the mentality ancestral tends toof group performed great 3U3 72 endow them with almost superhuman traits. transforming them into yenta- 73 3:)4 valuedble giants in ofthe courage, culture statesmanship, of their descendants. intellect, or In whatever upholding features them areas idealmost THE ARAB MINI) mar.'oflegal Arabic decisions philologists relied onheavily Bedouin on Bedouin precedents,' and by the reliance IHE BEDOUIN SUBS'IRAIUM usage in deciding on fine points of gram- systemsmust,images, and theand indeed progeny behavior do, creates serve patternsAmong as for exemplars,alike. theitself Arabs, prototypes as with powerful their whose typical influences words ahistoricity, and on actions value the heroic age is actu- awarenesspopulation, of social Bedouin or political ancestryIf time circumstances hasforcefully, cast a compellingly. veil occasionally of oblivion Such overbring was the backthe Bedouin the origins of a village case, um:hangingsllyleftput timeless. itits differently, indelible environment It has, markfor ofthe oncourse, thatArab all wassubsequent mind existed its there stage, inis generations, thenotit continues sopast much but, as ina because heroicthea heroic present. age, ofenviron- which theTo theidealmovementfor instance,Said was (Upper brought led in byEgypt, Egypt), Ahmed back where whereinto 'Uribi underthe "patriarchal (Arabi) villages. the influence Pasha It hierarchies is still(1839?-1911), of dominantthe Egyptianand vendettas especially the Bedouin nationalist and in derivedenvironmentpeople,ment theand the name a is specialnomads. that of socialthe Desert Arabian form is that Desert, grew andup in the response society tothat its ofchallenge. the desert The badwi or badowi, badw or "Bedouin" in the customaryor English b"ddiya in Arabic, from which is countrtesorientedinfluenced"the proud Arab for attitudes" adhering theanalyst mentality of ofto :he theBedouin nomadicof contemporary the fellahin.'values Bedouins and More glorifyinghave recently, "oddly them. and dangerouslyThe Shiite scene has criticized the Arab a psychologically HebrewsArabsnounform, meaning the and desert to inhabitant Thales. was the Whileof beginning deserts. the desert Incidentally, of the and world its anotherBedouins as watcr meaning bodware was very to of the farthe is "beginning," which permits the inference that to the old batstothoughtIraqi imperialistsbe authoremulated. and emotion'Ali with Hekiasan thecriticizes which sword, al-Wardi lookseven it breeds takesArabup to imperialism nationalism theexception Bedouin because,within itself while in it to the entire trendvirtues of as something glori-com- orremoved valuesvillagers fromboth and thestill have greatloom been large;majority for in many offact, the generations,they Arabs, still whohold inarethe ideology eitherundisputed town and dwellersfirstscale place. of panegyricsthoseethosfying the isof histheBedouin of attack greatest authority, ethos. on classicalthe Bacchic Closely traditional writers, exaltation,related values whoseto Wardi's of Arabicworks, criticism literature,he of the says, abound in including lkdouin othervaluestorecently send Arab and theircities),it mores was sons customarywho of forthe hadAs a desert onebeenyear among of or town people,the two the many dwellers to best letone indications mefamilies forof mention thecountless of thisDamascus that generations,pre-eminence until quite(and of of the desert and the aril ("noble") camel- fable,theethosaredecoration. very a legend,idea uniformly All that these without classical denounced; featureswhich any Arabic foundation Wardi literature incidentally indoes reality.* stem from the Bedouin amorous sensuality,was "noble"and verbal is nothingnot hesitatebut a to declare that familiesgentryence,breeding mentality, would would tribes send place of manners, the their theirs Syrian sons andin Desertato valuesZen Eton monastery in andof order the Oxford, Bedouins,to forexpose ora few aristocratic muchthem weeks asto every the theJapanese experi-British year. smalltraditionsancestry towns is andand another claimslarge common cities areThe found alike, form preservation quite of nostalgia frequently in formany the familiesBedouin ofvirtues. Such even in families who have been town a tradition of or claim to tribal among the inhabitants of histradition.muchIn Bedouin each as possibleThe case, hosts young the of their purposewhat city "pure" Arabis considered was Arabic was the supposed, same:and the their bestto enable highly inand particular, noblest thevalued youths in mannersto the learn to national absorb from and as havefullyartisansdwellers andto aand forjealously,semblance manyworkers, generations. for of preserve statusit supplies and the People socialthemtradition ofimportance.with humbleOf their Bedouin descent the one and only claim they circumstances, such Aas case in point is the care- forcedness,customs and by (the the practiceArabic termsThis of many tendency are generations"adab." to look literally, ofup Muslim to good the Bedouinjuristsmanners who as or inthe polite- their "ideal" Arab was rein- '"iidiit," customs). aleaderdescent poor carpenterof claimed Iraq fromigris, bywho 1958 theinhabited lived parents to in1%3. the by of MahdiyyaHis poor'Abd father. andal-Karim quarterhard-working lasim Qasim, on the leftSunni bank Muslim of the fainilies Muhammad Bakr, was the revolutionary I k 3#1=' t_111 74 75 3 6 IHI ARAH NI:NH THE IIIEHOUIN SUHS'IRATUM claimedArabianthrough descent origin.'his mother through from hisIn father general;the Bani frohi even Tamim,the i.Lubaydin the both poorest (or well-known Zubed) suburbs tribe, oftribes andBaghdad, of where swarms of remainednaturebelong ofto Bedouintheessentially Bedouin society unchanged Asubstratum, discussion itself. This since must of society, those pre-Islamic begin Arab where with valuestimes it still in whichexists gotoday, back has to Bedouin origins, a brief indication of the many basic as- or Damascus.loyalties,greatuprooted pride theirpeople eachin keepingown liveconstituent customary in frightfulup their group law, congestion tribal inof atraditionsthe word, population in primitivetheir and Bedouin useddivisions, huts, to heritage.'people uphold their take "itsold In religiousinternalpects: it dynamics,is life still many organized upholds pre-IslamicThe along Bedouinsthe samefeatures.the same values,were, structural and and are, has lines, apreserved patrilineal exhibits andthe patriarchal society, kin- even in its same tionowedown andinterests much its geographicalto and the virtuesBedouinWhat according importance, model; kind of theto person a latter,forced partriarchal isboth itself this through Bedouin codeon the of itscity." honourto poetic whom which tradi- relationship is claimed by campsusuallysocietybased together, traceis the theirwandering wanders descent groupatogether to one number common in search of patrilinealextended of pasture families, for its animals, nd strongly kin-oriented. The functional social unit in ancestor. Such a unit all of whom Bedouin fromhehighB.C. is andtheson until timeandlow the alikemasterhe penetration domesticated in ofsettled the desert, of Arab histhe ancestralwhosesociety?camel inway theWehabitat of eleventh maylife byhas begin modern changedor twelfthby statingtechnology very century thatlittle in andphysicalingpractices steppes, of cohesion. environmentendogamy social developmentIn the (ingroup ofworld the marriage),Syrian,ofuntil the recent Bedouin, Arabian, and times has subsisting hasand North in African the a strongly developed feel- never grown beyond forbidding deserts stronghold:searchInhad the developed for desert oil. here For he the in threewas closeBedouin able thousand :.1mbiosis tocould guard years,preserve with his sacredthehis undisturbed camel,desert traditions, thewas "shipthe his theway impregnable of purity theof life desert." ofhe his aggregatetribeswanderingthe occasionallystage thusunits of tribal produced,formed constituted organization. a subiribe, the smallera tribal Inseveral practice, .the cohesionof these this The larger meant that several relateda tribe, ind someamong of itsthe constituent the social bundlehetolanguage one himself ofof theandnerves, became, harshest his blood,sinews, like environments andhis and huntingdevelop bones. falcon,knowna His unique life tense,to alternates socialman keen, on and earth. betweenculturalquick-tempered, In the adaptation periods process ofa ingnextcommongroups, unit, larger there andaction. kin was thc group noThis rarer power toalso thewhich meantstructure, cases it belonged that in which beyond and it thewaswhich extended able made to join family forces and thefor no authority, and no protection on up the wander- camel'sof effort.lethargica slaughtered Exceptmilk, inactivity and forsheep aa mixturefew and or festive young outbursts offfour occasionscamel, orof theroastedfrenzied when Bedouin hecorn. activity gorges subsists His and longhimself on almost belteddates, on thefrenetic sourshirt meat measures,andwhich his the kin individualeach group backed against couldThe by effectsimilarlythe count. rest of thisIninterlockingof thethe situation desertworld. values. was it to Ordevelop perhaps it would a number of interlocking social was literally each man area shawluncommonly noi(thawb) worn (krtfiyya) andis covereddignified footwearheld in byand place is an rare.aristocratic equallyby Thea crown trying,long appearance. of oftenthick ('abc7), cruel,cord His ('iqt71). headconditions which is Trousersgivescovered of hishim by an met,werebybe themore andembodied development metcorrect by and a to very sayexpressed. of specific certainthat nomadic setvaluesIn any of values, case,lifeand in by thethestructures, the challenge desert and of dynamics.the desert I he measures in which they was made possible was andistblelife tribe. whoendowto all Therefuses effort him desert towith to change itselfbend a mentality is tohis such authority lot. toa At hardwhich the and taskmastersame passive whose time, endurance loyalty andhe is demands a is rugged limited seems so individual- toprefera-much famtly of theminterlockingoil and from the diggingthe nature point of of of artesian Firstthese view of of canall wells their one easily for responsivenessmust water, be recognize demonstrated that the while desert, at wasleast capable until the of discovery supporting to desert conditions. analyzing authority.discipline that the Bedouin has no patience left for any imposed by outside 3:_) 7 76 morebarely complex more than political a subsistence structure economy. could be Henceerected, only because the the latter would tribe and no larger, 3 ;8 trators,have required soldiers, the and production other economically of surplus food non-productive to be used sectors. Given this THE ARAB MINI) ' to support adminis- the olderlarger a the person number gets, of the those more who he mustfeels defera different to his. kind On ofthe pressure: other hand, that '1111 HEDOUIN togroupstronger limitation,group and solidaritythan kin the he.cohesion, first Thisand order wasmutual and was achieved by responsibility to instilling protect primarily intothe as eachindividual bysupreme the member emphasis from values. a attack commitment Such by val- on the kin others society?conformityof serving They as to an thecome exemplar, moral in pairs, Whatcode a status directly areand the thatvalue juxtaposed. personality can orientation only be At traits achieved the of positivemostthe by approved scrupulousend is the or censured in Bedouin group. onesocialsociety,ues cananother life in develop takes which and place interpersonal andmost in function aare milieu related relations aswhere mandatory by peopleare blood based or,guidelines onat personalleast, only by a in fiction a small of are all personally known to contact and explanationarevival;trait oneor at value setthe oftonegative which suchunderstand pairs,aids end and and isthat its abets an inopposite. aelemental societygroup Braverycohesion, in one which at (ijamiisa) that: each and it henceneeds and cowardiceno special group is fair prey group sur- form,inevitablytocommon conform, without descent. well-known theto uphold effective In such themoral support agroup small code values, societyand of the protection there andgroup. to arc live To ofconsiderable thebyput the itkin in unwritten the pressures simplest but group, the fulness,willingto the others,to or defend manliness only the that group (muruww0"-meekness.groupRelated no can matter surviveto bravery what whose thc and Yetpersonal cowardicemembers there risk.is are thebrave traits and of aggressiveness-peace- an important formity,emotionallyity individualto the thatgroup's would identifyingis not code be felt lost. and tohis Thedo valuesown violence price interests and he theirhasto individuality.with tointernalization pay those for thisof the support is conform- to the extent ofgroup, a con- absolutelybehaviordifferenceAggressiveness, is betweencontemptible: expected theon of twothe a in man other setsno context inof hand, every pairs. mustis context.Bravery expected a man Itsis anofshowopposite, absolutea man himself onlycowardice, value; outside brave is the a coward. In most general terms it can be stated that those personality traits which 2. GROUP COHESION blemaker,istion,social to supportand group a theman andtoman notwhich strengthen fulfillingguilty he ofbelongs. his ingroup the supreme social Within aggression aggregate. duty it, itas would awould group Again, be be metmember, peacefulnessjudged with reproba-which is a trou- detrimentalincouragedtend adulthood. to strengthen toand group Conversely, rewarded cohesiongroup incohesion those childhood, are consideredpersonality are andconsidered approved traitsfaults; whichpositive their and manifestations upheld values, can in any way be as ideals are en- disputes.seekingthejudged rights Withina man negativeof his theis groupvalued, group, trait against only whereand if is becauseanother. aggressivenessoften called Otherwise,of it aupon man is condemned, totherefrains mediate peaceful from in peaceful- and intergroupdefending peace- uncles,whoprovalare exercise discouraged siblings, and censurethis cousins, control and throughout punishedand over other the inmembers theindividual childhood, individual's of the and extended life. met In with childhood, family. strong disap- are father, mother, aunts, Later,those groupstoness maintain is always peace considered in Anhis oft-recurringgroup desirable and and thereby situation laudable; strengthen in theBedouin peaceful it society man intends which both the vis-ci-vis other aggres- else,thatthe and controlis, thethis group in itself whichbecomes makes Herecamps co-extensivefor there veryand is wanders effectiveno anonymity. with together. thesocial functioning Everybody control, social is personally known to everybody which is unit, of haverolessivea group and sufferedto whichis the killed peaceful becausetheir by anatures member memberstheir predisposegroup of another of strength the themgroup group, ha% is are thethe been expected bloodrelatives diminished feud. ofto theIfplay 'the victim out the a member overt double-edgedsmallerreinforced is the bynumber sword the age ofof approbationthose hierarchy. who, beingIn and other reprobationeven words, the 1 he oldei younger, do not wield the younger one is, the a person ernottheRevenge tonal victim's reaction is calledkm group,of for,the injuredwhich all the becomesgroup men iswithin that the its hi%duty honor khatnut of allhas the been( lheale blemished.khamsamembers is of a gets, the smaller the number of those to whose judgment he must defer, and 309 78 mail's kin glom). el imposed of all those male relato,es sho 74 1.(K, 310are removed r E ARAB MIND THE BEDOUIN SUBSTRATUM everywhere:frominkharnsa anyhim feud by it no serveswith more an as thanoutsider the groupfive inmale on which whose links. he support Thegets exactinvolved.") a man composition can Ifalways the avengers of count varies from tribe to tribe, but its function is largely identical the toiseverySince athe chronic theguidingman's days mental hand principleof Ishmael, against condition, of the him..such .Arabian's raidingThe life. poetin istwo hand oneai-Qutimi verses: ofhas the been "Ouroffew theagainst manly business early every occupations. Umayyad is manto make and period has given expression . In desert land, where the fighting mood cannotlegitimate find targetthe murderer, for blood any revenge. member In this of effortthe murderer's it is, of course, the aggres- khamsa is a noneraidsghazw onto theraid is enemy, but a brother."on our neighbor . and on our own brother, in case we find a sort of national sportno blood should be shed except in cases . . . . According to the rules of the gameand willperiod,prescribedaftersive membersbegin the the murderer apeacefulin parallel detailof the andmembersvictim's byeffort the make totribal offind plans the law. one victim's to Inor revenge themore family meantime, respected thc (usually murder or leaders, afterthe in older aa mannerequallycertain men) kharnsa who play an active role. They will go strict and as confining as However,thosecarnedof extreme of overchess. the necessity bygame Ifthe it ofArabians .were the simply into the a Islamicmatter conquests."of . These ideas of ;hoz*, and its terminologyghazw were must be played according to rules as ethostakedistant the which in difficult kinship have but frombeen highly bothpassedThe honorablefeudingduties on almost of groups, blood task unchanged of revengeand mediation. persuade andinto mediationvillage them to life under- are and features of the Bedouin strongerrobbery,bothtribes,with themstatus ones, theor tribal theweaker andwould sanction strength.sections, havetribes, of long loss Forwhichdeprived disappeared. aof noble honor,are of each tribe their raiding Obeyingother's to animals raid can equals anthetake byinferior rules, place the or near-equalsraidswhich onlytribe of between carry(every- the in casesrevengeifwhich a ormurderer makesother survive offenses the is in sentencedwork Arab for of urbanwhich the to policedeath societytribal and law as theexecuted, demandswell. judiciary The theblood persistence difficult duty revenge: of inthe capitalof victim'seven blood tribeSimilarly,shamefulbody patentlyin the thata desertstrong weaker the noble knowstribe than wouldtribe theitself. distinctionswould only heap rather shamebetween starve on than theits headtwo) do such ifwould it raideda thing. be so a proverb.fulfilledDarnkhamsa only WOThe if honordam. they actuallyof the victim's kill either family the murderer is restored or onlyone of if hisits relatives.members to avenge their kinsman's death will not be fulfilled; it will be "Blood demands blood," says the oft-quoted Arabic nity.undertakesand that While a group athese predatory of excursions young foray menIf are happens, againstfrom not aconsidered noblean of inferior course, camel-breeding to tribethat be up these or to a standard settledtriberules sometimesof commu- theaccord- raiding game are not obeyed untildamagesthemselves recently paid. retaliate, was a favorite or a Becausereconciliation pastime of as the well inexorability as an economic of the necessity law of blood amon revenge, raidingwhich (sul4a) is arranged and appropriate becausetribaltribe,ing to youth. theandthe booty becauseethos In orderthey of theya bring nobleto precludeprovide home tribe, somethingimproves suchnot much incursions, the opprobriumlike economic training the non-noble situation attachesexercises tribes ofto for thethem andthe whichtransformthatthe Bedouinsused no both member the sides raid wouldof (into either be Arabic inevitably carried side was out suffer. killed.with The circumspection The purpose spilling of the of and raid blood cautionwas would to rob so ghozw, whence razzia) into a blood feud in annualfulthe noblesettled khuwwa tribe communities used ("brotherhood"), to enter whichSince into theselived a thatclient normswithin is, relationship protection andraiding arrangements distance money."with it,from leave paying a onlypower- it aan relatively small number herdsatinganother once: with and group itthe strengthenedflocks, men of aswho and many tended it one's weakened of its them.own animals group Athe successful asenemy by possible, augmenting by reducing without the actually numbersits herds clash- of and its ghazw achieved two aims asnotitof inmeasuredtribes on status, sheer as and potentialinnumerical manpower, near it targets insuperiority strengththe but onfor their aor tribe the outcomerelative physicalintent daring, of on strengththe raidingtribes skill, ofand the endurance. two equal sides to gltazw game depends putflocks, it, which are the basis of livelihood, even survival, in the desert. As Hitt; 1 I) 311 80 theIt is in this light that a raid assumes themanly character virtues of a subsumed supreme testunder of allthe concept of 81 I nsuruwwa. 312 THE ARAB MIND THE BEDOUIN SUBSTRA1UM sitionwhichadditional foundis that juxtaposition its of way activity-passivity. from Enough whichthere intoit hasimpresses theThe been Arab typical said mindupon of Bedouin's in thethe general. Bedouin Bedouin life This ethos alternatesmind, juxtapo- to and make us understand one toimplementationaction the alternating which, it and pattern patient Itone is, sacrifice ofcan course, observe c farin thecry conductfrom the of juxtaposed affairs in Bedouin is recognized in advance, would necessitate continuous over a long time." activity-passivity Arab betweenactivity"dolceItalian relativelymind,farbest niente" exemplified with long a"the similarperiods sweetby the appreciationof ghazw.doing passivity, nothing,"The of Bedouinand spending inclination,and temper brief all day spurts is considers characterizedin what of frantic the the anofinggovernment environment the links Arab between worldcircles where the today, and Bedouin two other phenomena.or atvalues echelons any ratewere One of their upheldleadership. and BedouinBut ',ere influences must not forget that the leadersparents, were brought up in are connect- mentedapathy.followedby sudden uponThis by flare-ups, remorse alternationby numerous which and between longstudents can periodseasily two of poles thelead of Arabs, tranquility,hasto violence been for it observedis inactivity,and characteristic even and murder,almost com- not strongly felt. society,onlytemperpeople, of the in occurvillagersa nomads generally not and butinfrequently, friendly cityalso, dwellers althoughgathering, but alike." they to such a cause Evenlesser sudden, in onlydegree, semi-Westernized violent a momentary of outburststhe settled flurry, Arab of of interruption.sincegive-and-take everybody will knows return theyIn after the mean Arabwhat nothing methodnormally serious, of proves introducing and to thatbe changes butthe aeven short intoflow the social order, eco- intoachievedden,nomic asporadic newstructure, in patternthe advances brief and ofstage political tradition. followed of activitylife, byThis one periods either noticesnew gradually oftradition, quiescencethe same erodes in phenomenon:turn, in orwhich becomes becomes what sud- was setan thatoutburstimpediment the Arabs of changes.to approachfurther gradual anyGeorge undertaking advance, Antonius and in successiveremarks can be overcome in andhis well-knownisolated only byspasms, a book new The Arab AwaAening andwhich,traitrather violent that thanthey (followingexplosions infind, a continuous characterize Antonins) interspersed and Finisthe sustained withhistory and periods Ilusayn of effort the of Arab attributeand repose endeavornational andthe "Intermittentinactivity"movement." It is to this governmentssummitdifferent conferences. set ofto observations,implement In Thecommenting the same byresolutions Leilapoint on S. isthe repeated Kadiof failure the in conferences, her ofalmost the study individual verbatim, of Miss the Arab Arab Kadialthough based on quite a JEST COPY NAURU envisagedremarks: as"It ais 'one-shot'much easier, action, it would than seem, it to plunge into mimediate action, 313 82 is to embark upon a protracted 83 1 314 imposeperhaps itself the most upon vicious, the Arab because East. However, most insidious, just as attemptall the protests of the Westagainst to THE ARAB MIND expectspecialmoldWestern that them Arab culturalsex ultimately until mores;subvariety imperialism it will and the ofcreate, itsArab the innate are newmind after of ingenuity nosexuality. willthe avail, example have aswill will no find ofchoicebe "Arabashown way but to socialism,"later, tomodify accept onc andcan a THE ISLAMIC COMPONENT PERSONALITY I X9roe OF ARAB THEbest ISLAMIC approached COMPONENT by comparing OFthe roleTHE of I. RELIGION EAST AND religion among the ArabsARAB and PERSONALITY IS WEST thements,itamong onset regulates allofWesterners. theof everyday which,Industrial ideally, behavior TheRevolution, normativemust through be observed. function Inof religion is manifestedpositive in the and extent negative to which command- the West, at least since essentiallyof giousconsiderably.the everyday precepts secular Religious meticulously,pursuits. goals and doctrineReligion values and whichhas ritual, cover but one area of lifc, separate from most this function of religionthus has become shrunk divorcedconstitute fromeven the for the those bulk whoof modern follow reli- thetheirtanWestern Wcst centers, attitudc religion culture. do to nothasreligion. Moreover, feellargely religious Religion lost its or, does at the most people, especially in the large metropoli- normative function. not regulate their lives. Indeed, inutmost, are quite lukewarm in 31152 tion, Islam permeated life,In theall ofArab which world, on the other hand, 143 came under its aegis.before Religion the impact was of Westerniza- 316 andoutnot tradition allone activity, aspect was thought, religious,of life, but and and the feeling. religious hub from Most do's which importantly, and all don'ts else extended radiated.all the people through-All custom in the THE ARAB MIND representGodbenevolent, is invisible Him and in merciful.anda painting that They therefore or a differstatue. init isChristianity,that sinful, Islam and insists, especially hence like forbidden, Judaism, Catholicism, that THE ISLAMIC COMPONENT to traditionalwithwhatArab whichworldtradition majority werereligion commanded religious in circumscribed all Arab in themthe countries double to theirbelieve, sense has lives. remainedtheand of Religion unquestioningly obeying wasand centralthe ritual believing norma-for rules the courages,monotheisticthat,while atalso artisticleast mainteining sinceaccording representations it believes that to the in ofMuslimdeity threeGod. is Anotherpersons invisible,view, Christianity significantof permits, the deity, differenceand is while in fact Islam is not strictly en- force.notive longer Theforce most inbelieve life. obvious that expression manIn the is West,protected of this religion loss by of God.has power largely Despi:e is that lost themost its unceasing function people as an inner sustaining Christ,smacksconceptinsists Mary, ofof on outrighta the Godand strictest thewho idolatry, saints. became oneness as does man of theand, Allah. Catholic while To man,the veneration Muslim, suffered ofthe and Christian died, statues of effortshollowedfeelmost insecure.of Westerners valiant in our evangelistsToynbee Western do not speaksfeelhearts to persuadethe by ofneed the"the toprogressiveWestern spiritual be saved, man vacuum decayalthough that "Jesusofwhich religiousthey hassaves," certainly beenbelief existencetheby the West, masses oflittle the who of Devil, this know which,popular littleBeneath ofincidentally, religiositythe the theological thin veneerhasis also survived.tenets partof official ofof their theA doctrine belief officialreligion. in aredoc- the old popular beliefs, held In "Theofimpart,that a hasChristian lad in been was contrast worsegoingyouth to on whooffthis, for for actedhas some being been as two-and-a-half a her observedChristian; guide in byhe centuries."Yugoslavia, Rebecca had not that West.What she air IslamSpeakingremarks: of being can thesupernaturalintrines order Mediterranean, of bothto find forces,Islam a living and aand region Christianity, beliefan actual transitional in demons, worship does between survive ofspirits, local thesaints,the Westevil and the on the popular level; but one has to go toeye, and other Arab theEast,poverty-strickensustained "characteristic all religions in his poverty haveMoslem."' of being such by secret spiritualableIn the tospiritual Arab generatesustaining world,funds a power.psychological thatand is in Allso the noticeableshare entire certainty with Middle inIslam the of numerousIfrits,onworld. demons. the In theevil saints There Arabeye, who, worldisand belief especially the itself, inlike, innumerable popular as at welltheir religionas tomb-sanctuaries, demons belief places in, and and spirits, ritual wield jinn,worship great ghouls. su- even more emphasis oC Perfectpossessing Key theto the Truth, gate of of following thethe Great feeling the Beyond." that Right one doesPath, They what and all is impart ofright wielding because the one observes the command- man:betweeningpernatural and who feeling their people power. beliefon this their in Withlevel, Allahworld the the the of inconsistencybelievers the only unseen. God, are andunaware characteristic these of otreligious think- numerousany incompatibility superhu- toofultimatelybecausements everypreserve of faith, one's God,metes their creed, religion,in out udm whom just and and and retribution. one sect dignity that trusts, an one extraordinaryand These iskeeps inwardlydetachment, convictions an eyeprotectedsense onwithout give of each security,from the depriving individual true serious anbelievers ability themharm and oneconvictionexclusivity. belongs that Both are only trueare the characterizedand Theredoctrines valid isand a of markedbythat the religious allfaith, othersimilarity or jealousy, ratherfaiths between arethe intolerance, in error. Christianity While the and Islam in sect, to which their official Christianity and Asofficial farworldof asthe Islam the'ability supernaturalpaint to seek a similar and enjoycomponent portrait whatever of theof pleasures religion deity. iscan concerned, be wrung from both this ofsary, pastChristianityDFn its it Muhammadfaith was on consideredhas unbelievers. recently bil-sayf the begun Thisduty(literally, hadtoof modifythe a"The MuslimChurch itsreligion position counterpartto impose, of Muhammad byin theforce doctrine if on these issues, in the neces- with creatorBoth agreeof the thatuniverse God andcan beof man,described omnipotent, in the same omnipresent, way: He isomniscient, eternal, theo 317 / 44 arms.the sword"), When twowhich such required doctrines all met,Muslims as they to spreaddid many Islam times by in the the force Middle 143 318 of Ages, clashes were bound to ensue, and the number of those massacred in THE ARAB MIND THE ISLAMIC COMPONENT outbetweenthe namea compromise Muslims of "gentle and between Jesus"The Hindus) days and its ofare old"Allah religious gone. religiocentrism the Christianity wars compassionate" between andis strugglingChristians the was new legion. idealtoand work Muslims of (although not. sivebeen decay filled of byreligious an attitude belief Inof " the self-reliancewhich modern Toynbee West, and bemoaned a thedrive "spiritual to knowhas, at vacuum" and least understand partly, left behind by the "progres-2. PREDESTINATION AND PERSONALITY adjustingtackledissuesecumenism. it a is ancentury grappling antiquatedIslam to has a with century notreligious areyet andrathercome law a halfface(thesimilar ago:to faceto primarily those with Western this the problem. problems religions The of sharra) to the changing condi- approach,asmethodically,the religion world. it It beganimplies is which no tocoincidence a wane.isfirm a unique belief Whatever that in characteristic man's the the great ability shortcomings urge ofto theunderstandto exploremodern of the the andWest, scientific universeimprove arose World,maintain,presenttions of manandmodern is twofold:withto obtain life. a balanced to salvation achieveBoth teleology. Christianity moralin the ThestatureOther. ultimateand andThis Islam live aimdual (asa ofgoodpurpose wellhuman life as life,isJudaism,in given"I they his their fountainhead) moral,moralthings duty aroundand, to if make youand will,within spiritual him,It is interestingand foundation expresses in ofthis the modern connectionconviction Western thatto noteculture. it is how his a Muslim Arab author every effort to do so. This, ultimately, is the intellectual, laborghadii""Laborclassicalka'annaka for theexpression Other to'ishufor This World in abodd; World the of popular yours ofwo-ta'mal yours as Arab if as you if li-akhiratikasaying: you were were to die to ko*annaka livetomorrow." forever; tomiitu andThe "ra'mal li-dunyatika is(1913-theviews unsurpassed modernWorld the changingLost Western inThrough its inventionsinterrelationshipworld. the Decline The and Abii ofdiscoveries the 1-Hasanbetween Muslims? 'Aliandreligion al-Hasanithat thereand science isal-Nadwi nothing in ) devotes several pages to this subject in his book Nadwi admits that Europe What Has the WorldThisbread,"religionsrecurrent World. to that (asCome,theme is,Curiously,well the arein as materialthe ofalso Judaism) prayersthe conceived blessings wherewithal offered is the in one materialrequest up manstrives to God thatneeds terms, for byGod into thein the continueprovide both faithful afterlife, Christianity the living of "dailyin both the in inmeansbecausewrong Europe, with of herwhileends.technical irreligiosity, Thisethics progress being and shethereligion as case,has such. nothing arepower What ever andisto declining. wrongguide science hcr,with are "This and Europe ever is growing why is that, all so confuses justrobustlyfromand in Islam.the God's heavenly as In radiancethe Christianity, enjoyment paradise in a glorious somewhat ofis describeda well-watered, realm; vaguely, whileas a perpetual intheshady Islam, spiritual garden, itpleasure is existencedescribed in whichderived ofmore thethe calcommentiscorrupt merelyprogress advance in on theits leads asthe roots,consequence nothing shortsightedness Europe no wholesomebut nowhere anof increasethe of butdecline fruita view to in cansuicido. mechanicalwhichof come Islam." seesAs of European it.ThereWestern aptitude Its dominant is technologi- civilizationand which role is no need to theiryoung,pious normative will beautiful, have everything,and and psychological Tovirginal sum including up,black-eyed thefunctions; the main services maidens. differences in their of houris,view between of those the supernatu- eternallyIslamand Christianity lie in theits ispredestined world totally at unaware large, course, but of determined itsalso Inideational predestinescontrast by the andto willthe theideological West, offate Allah, of the each bascs.'who Arab andnot world only stillguides sees the universe running every man causesimilarbutral, theirtheirfunctional; than co-religionistsexclusiveness, different. what This Muslims to and means abandon their fcar that teleological Islam fromthe crucial inWesternization favor orientation, difference of Christianity, isthe not two doctrinalthat but are itthat more will commitment.'whichitindividually. imposes means upon Hence,The"to submit, manvery isname to surrenderobey of God; oneself it is derived wholly, from to give the oneself verb in total Islam Islam indicates that the one overriding duty aslama, onit will which bring Christianity about a reduction plays its of role the infunction the Western of Islam world. to the modest level 319 /46 Godj." The Muslim belief in predestination is at least as old means primarily "submission Ito the will of 147 c. as Islam itself. It recurrencesArabic script at fixed in a intervalsconstantly but varying presents pattern the few of basic repetition. characters The patternof the THE ARAB MIND reachingwithout change a point in of either culmination the rhythm or a dramaticor the amount turn, andof emphasis, without the without coda ART, MUSIC, AND LITERATURE geometricseeminglyplatenevertheless it andpattern, endless who has and areits horizontal isinner familiarnot altogetherrhythm, chain with inconstitutedthe unexpected contrast Koranic toby versetothe most those outer charactersit presents.who rhythm contem- of The the isandpointwhich applied, no well so end, typicallysignaled so but the simply Arabinbrings advance. musicalstarts the Western Justand frieze asends thefills musical according decorative the available piece to frieze tothe stretcha spacehasformal no of tobeginning closetime which andat ait elongated,vals,Arabic by alphabet the letters and isby interrupted, the ), ), and again rhythmically but at indefinite inter- I .1; whose vertical strokes are emphatically whose dip beneath the line is also cutchangedis characterized up by from the tyrannybeginning throughout ofThe theto end. Arab's clock,by the findsdisregard same creative level of oftime, expression emotion his refusal sustained in theto let tradi- hisun- life be structured and createdgivenimagination special a great stress. over artistic the mundanetraditionIn all this, which reality the was,Arab of form andartist observable remained achieved completelyin a nature. triumph He of thought, idea, and musician,tional world while of Arab playing music. at stepa Jacquesconcert, aside from mayBerque the feel orchestra, hashimself remarked andpossessed, improvise that the for Arab an hour or even two. It was embellishmentcontext,artisticdivorced fiat. and from And the nature and primesince enrichment and thepurpose which Arab forof artistwas his the purely endeavor workedchannels the and productwas through lived to provide of withinwhich the mind, anathe religious esthetic Muslim of the Musicbroughtmodulateatthus, , is, they ofthe someinsay,course, singerthat that twenty manner thehisas futurefame.'faror which twenty-fiveremoved star disconcerts 'Abd from yearsal-Wahhab the theago; worldWestern hefirst began shoneof physicallistener to in improvise, an but orchestrareality which toin eredsoughtcreated,modest not to only approach scale,but a using service a work God,the to God-given nolikeman wonder that and ofthought,God, thatGod's butthe the not anartistic idea,imitatiocopying creativity to createdei nature on was somethinga smallwhich consid- and God out thetuneswhich melody andwe livebases is as the anhis pure artcomposition form creation conceivably upon of the them, cancomposer's orbe. relies Except on mind. wheresome.other It heis, usesas source, some folk of nothing. creativenatcreativityphilosophers ure. activity because of art of have itthe has visualThepointed absolutely creative artist out, theas noprocess itmost point is in mysterious ofthe thedeparture West. Arab processArab composer in observabledecorative of artistic is not as different from the decorativeunchangedartistic endeavors. art form is also or The withfound Arabrepetition minor in decorative their variations ofmusic. the art same A shares whichtypical small-sized ais Arab number a part musical ofelementof theits piece characteristics Arabs' in will an with other Arab theyof,natureartists, say, had observe aespecially newneither design anything kaleidoscopes if theyof interlacing that utilized would nor geometricbands give microscopes themand polygonal patterns,a basis to observe for starcould the configurations; development thenowhere forms ofin againoverrepeatingbegin and thewith doesvocalist;it oneseveral the or and same;moretimes so instruments withonafter several or him, without ittimes isplaying againvariation; until the athe brief instruments' thenconclusion. melodic the vocalist Thisline,turn; takes is thenthen the ifcomposerwhomsnowflakes. it had theybeen worked studied,Allpossible they within hadtoand reproduce a were uponvery similarthe whom natural works frame they sounds of artistsoftried reference. musically, to who improve. preceded Probably, he would The them, Arabhaveeven course,aisheritage longrepeated reminiscent sequence of thewith Arab each of thefolkone, verse structuresong, two, or orwhicheven perhapsof an eachconsists ornamental hemistich.three, of one motifs. frieze; solitaryThis alternating, itstructure comprises phrase is.that but of andbewasrefused, the eph.raw creation hi material of hiswasin own analogy imagination. to the Where work heof earlierdid go fordecorative both inspiration artists .:ral, imperfect. Thehis new colleague melody hein thewanted decorative to compose arts, tohad "copy" to nature, which 1 ) S. 170 1.71( 3'12 organized,formalizedto the musical classified,as the heritage tradition and of categorized. ofhis geometric culture. To This understand musical THE ARAB MINW patterns, and much more minutely its heritagenature, a was few as words highly utmost,carried purely two tonal in unison; sources Thirdly,usually present aArab single the music samevoice is carriesmelodyhomophonic, the at amelody distance that isor, to atof say, thean the modal melody is AR I', MUSIC, AND I I FERAIURE arethemust utterly music be different.said of the about West. The theTo tonal characteristics begin material with, the of oftonalWestern Arab music music in raw materials used in the two musical traditions comparison withis the tempered musicologistcombinesoctave. This a contrastsnumber Edith Gerson-Kiwi ofsharply individual with put Western harmonizing it, in Arabmusic, musicmelodies. which is polyphonic As the Israeli and system of equal semitones, twelve of which make up an octave. Arab music ofthe the elements creative of forces harmony concentrate and counterpoint around the are evolution not known of melody and rhythm. . ... and the whole quarter-tones,materialtuteis not an tempered, octave. at its it impressesdisposal andThis is means basedthan the Western that Arab listenermusic. music has on quarter-tones, twenty-four,of which consti- Because Arab music is builtas being plaintive and sensu- a richer and finer raw on somewhatmovementssingleMelody clear-cut in Orientalspiral which notes, like practice, are procession. but interwoven proceeds especially These within inlarger ornaments singingintrinsic entities, ornaments.leading are tone-groups not additional or tone-as to ina . . is not "composed" of (becausethatbeingous, wouldwhile crude what Westernbe and utilized Western rough music by (sincemusic an creates Arab itconsiders inevitably composer), the impression as harmony is regardedjumps in in Arab its melodic lineas notes well as loud and confusing on the Arab listener of fourth characteristic of ArabThese veryEuropeanmusic. ornaments, body They music,of the are or musicwhere of"gloss," supreme itself.'they as may theyimportance or mayhave not been bein it,observed, termed, butrepresent constitute the the equalthetonalmusical mostparts scale generally ofhastradition fifty undergone "cents" accepted as dissonance). each.'gradual Arab This scalechanges, In dividesthe but meanscourse that of eachthe centuries octave in the Arab Arab sincethe the octave eighteenth into centurytwenty-four decorativetecturetoare the improvisations Arabesque and objects, visual and (asart and inindicatedother togeneral, the decorative colorful above), to the embroidered ornamentalandfiligree correspond work patterns patternsin thein the gold in onmusical Arab andpieces archi-silver field of Arabdifferencemusic scale contains inis pitcha quarter-tone. twice or interval asSecondly, many between notes while in Western music there as thc European octave, and that anythe two neighboringare notes only intwo the modesmajor and ducedmusic,whichclothing. again isno equallyIn performingand all theseagain, important visual artistbut each forreproducesart theforms time artist-craftsman withthe a musicalsamesome generalslight composition and individual thepatterns connoisseur. in variation exactlyare repro- the In theof an modes(called ArabminorArab consistmode fiba', nature;tr--- of music scales be naghameias in differingfew its entirety I, innotes; their is modal as five notes, or as many as ten. Basically, or magi-m-(1r, places).' The compass and possesses dozens of modes improvisations,studiedsame fashion and from as which he whom has is heardthehe learnedway it performed he demonstratesit; he must by the add master his his own own under virtuosity. ornamental whom he fixed clement is the sequenceestingEach of phasetones mode ofof gives the Arabianbirth to fixed modal "motives," system, and varying pitches.series of intervals,because in thesewhich "motives"this the latter areis the most inter- asoutbetween difficultbecoming toArab toorespond and technical, Western to Fifthly.the all Arabmusicwe Arab cin rhythms is say rhythm that on for this asis the different itaspect Western-trained of from the traditionaldifference ear it Westernis rhythm. With- is to enjoy the Arab origin.traditional. Many of them carry in their . . . It is this folk element in Arabian structure the clear featurcs of folk music that makes its appeal modes,melodies each built of on which quarter-tones. comprises severalThere arespecies.w in Arab To music these eight difficulties rhythmic can framecompositionOn the represented other of hand, a ncw by the piece the fact particular of that musicuniversal. all modeArab must be executed within the narrow music is modalthe composermeans that chooses the for his tonebeHowever, added qualities the it specificthat should sound traditionalbe strangestated Arabemphatically and oftenmusical unesthetic thatinstruments, we cannotto the which Western and produce must ear. not opus. 1 72 judgeafter Arab having music thoroughly by Western familiarized standards. oneself It has its with own themwhich standards andfor only I 73 324 an out- THE ARAB MINI) ART, MUSIC, AND LITERATURE inqualitysider Arab is of music?an Arab extremely Ifmusic, it is Thebased difficultkt questionalone on andfixed enjoy inevitably lengthy modes it. orprocesscanarises, motives, What it onecouldis the judge beplace (and, the and role of originality or whichArabtiatedoccasionally does thecontinuum creative not Iwo, strive elemental forsurge thefor diminishes atraditional crescendo units. Moreover, andArab which subsides, mind, just reaches asso but time in findsahis isculmination, worksan his undifferen- satisfaction of art after the byhomophonicargumentindeed, means has canof been) fixednature be arguedansweredmotives, of Arab that whichmusic, on there two is itcan levels."no allows be different no Oneof place a set isin that,in unoriginalitymelodic it for given originality. progression the from purely Thisthe unitsartspacein repetition, ever which or produced time are with span. repeated minor by Occasionallyespecially Arabs, modulationsagain their and againarchitectural filling to equallycombine in the masterpiecesthe largest-scaleand into evenly an overwhelming a worksphysical single of stereotypedwerewhich able furnished sequencesto furnish a wider more of selectionOccidental subtle moods of harmonicnotes for and their music.modalities, auditors. the.. Arab virtuosi . . . . "" AsWith to a scale the calwhole or almostcan be identicalquite complex unitsA very makingin themselves;similar up set the of wholebut features thc is principle adhered characterizes of to many unfailingly. Arabidenti- literary expression, as tionsformerdegreeperformer, and (asof it"originality" hementioned is is, by in the fact, quality thanabove) allowed his of is Western these andexpected even that colleague. required tohis produce virtuosity to The evince improvised Arabis judged. a musicalmuch modula- greater per- expressedhasthemArab been critic%to noted thethe observation phenomena.whose by both familiarity Western succinctly Among with students when Westernthe former,he of stated Arabic literary Sir that literature Hamiltonforms the Arabs' has and A. sensitized "physi- thoseR. Gibb proachingdifferentoriginality ideational, withinthe question the or,framework moreWhileof originality precisely,technically of the in traditionalArab teleological, the music. Arab modes, musician For, consideration despite there thus is the hasquite in rich- ap-considerable a leeway for oncalnearly themenvironment thoseall aspects repetitions has moulded of Arab Withand theirlife abrupt repetitiousness and habits, transitionsliterature."" thought, goes which and standardization. speech, are reproduced impressing The in early Arabic qagda, or compositiontraditionalness of the of idiomArab his own. musical could He introduce hadmodes to prove and only rhythms, his relatively mettle the within composerminor one innovations of workingthe modes in in the a ofthecomplex a poet's patron" ode, tribe, starts for satire example, with directed a cortventional whose at rival "final groups opening object or . theme,individuals, technically or panegyric called . . is self-praise, eulogy of Arabconfinesandwhich this composer he ofin thought apractice fixed is would notsequence meant originality best that ofsuit tones. he(what the had musical Therefore,his to Western work idea withinthe hecolleague main wanted the objective rather strivesto express, narrow of for), the nasih. in which tribe,The roadpoet the isleadsremains supposed him of to which tothe be site travellingare of still a former visible. on a encampment camel He beseeches with one of hisor his two own companions companions. or a friendly to improvement,geometricwithinbut rather the a"mode" modal significant and does frameworkjustperhaps refinement not strivean additional foror as improvementoriginality the elaboration. decorative but on likewise the artist existing for working refinement, melodies in a antelopewanderingsthehalt happiestfor " a moment, has days separated and of hissorrowfully lifethem, with and recalls his over beloved. how, the desertedmany Now years life scene ago,with roams heits spentconstant the herewild Only a few words can be added here to show that the traits characterizing 3 . LITERATURE of manytribesthe poet's ofstill these compose former still beginbeloved." poems Fourteenwith which aSince description arecenturies the still tribal calledof afterthe poets qayiyeddeserted these are early still(sing.qayide), camping illiterate, gap-dos. grounds no andthe poets of the Bedouin ininclinationhaveArab both, foundvisual the are whole thatarts characterized both and work themusic of visual art can containsby and smallbe musicalfound a units seemingly in usedexpressions Arabic asendless basicliterature of repetition buildingthe asArab well. blocks, ofartistic one. We eachcomposesdefinitethem. poem, versionThis a orpoem, method each of theirhis couplet of friends poemsoral intransmission learna is poem, available it by is heart, knownhas in atwoand written in consequences;thendifferent form.others versions; When learn one ait thosefrompoet is that 3 5 174 Cr175 1.Jr.: 326 THE ARAB MINI) AR I, MUSIC, ANI) compositionthatverseswho ofrecite thefor bythemusicalthem introducing original change performer ones. theinto wording Thisitwho variations procedure,changes of the of thehis of verses, or even substitute new originalcourse, form isof quitea musical similarown. to The second conse- tionaltionsWesternmusicians teacharts and artisticWestern study music trends.in forms,Western-stylebackward Most Western teachersand musical primitive, standards, at theseacademies. and Western schools instill Bothinto considertechniques, theirtypes students ofthe institu- andtradi- becauseconcerned."recitedquence byof there differentoral Such istransmission no peoplevariations logical inconnection is exactly thatin poems, the between and especially long verse order are, of course, only possible same order as far as the verses arc one verse and the next, or ones, are not orchestras,worksmagazines,a hostility of Western toward andbooks, you them,artists, films, have and radio, and an contempt. atmosphereconcerts and television Addgiven suffused to programs,by this Western the with impact exhibitionsthe musicians simplistic of Western of and thedi- therangedindependentprocession structure in many of from unitpoems different which the and one orders.expresses that to theof Here musical other, again a separate thought; couplets can be ar- but each verse or piecescouplet or is elements in anwe overall have an analogy between an chotomyruralmenttional majority inArab which these art holdsof andimportant every musicthat Arab Western equalsaspects country bad.art of and cultureThis, themusic in Westernizing betweenturn, equals leads thegood, to urban tradition-bounda totalwhile estrange- tradi- upper and "thoughtdecorativeArab literary comes pattern. tocritic, the ArabwhoThe sameinhas flashes remarked phenomenon of was observed by . not in anProfessor unfolding, Elie exhaustive, Salem, a foremostArabic prose literature that mcn-artistsoftions.middle their As classes.richest a result, no andlongerThe native most upper had arts discriminating and the and middleincentive crafts classes have customers, to bendgenerally neglect their the nativedeclined. besttraditional effortsartistic Deprived crafts- intradi- the music.Eachhistoryand full paragraph The thererational effect is order,"here littleof the correspondsor whole and no relationshipthat is based to the basic even in Arabic books dealing with political on the serial presentation of one piecebetween successive paragraphs." unit in decorative art and in arteriestraditionaltionexecution of the running ofproducttraditional a piece between entertained of skills, work. the thus top There by and seemingly the followedthe Westernized bottom justifying a vulgarizationof the elite. SOCialthe Thecontempt and pyramid vital deteriora- cultural for were the whetherafternor another. Arab oral music orAs written, to can repetitiousness, beYet is imagined, tooanother well knownsimilarityitswithout presence between in Arabic the Arab visual and vocal artsto need andwhich documentation.Arabic neither Arab visual art verbal expression, bysevered.traditional jazz. In the Arab Egyptian music. review TheMany young music-lovingal-Majalla, Westernizing the Arabs Egyptian-music generation who have hadis critic captivated a European Dr. education despise thisandrestatementliterary refinement.trait is expression part of a Oneof well-established an only oldis that hasArab into bothliteraryread theme, thethe majormedieval preferably with tradition; and one only has to read aim is not originality but the Arab authors to see that some elaboration Dr.comesWesternFi.i'ad Husayn to musicZakariyi the Fawn', conclusion as "writes regardsa physician, thatdespairingly composition, "we oceanographer, need of performancea Arabnew generationandmusic, musicologist, and judging audience," of musicians." it inferior and to goes so earlierhavemodern already part Arab of said,his authors book, and oftoare whatobserve the to writer what common. extent repetitionhimself of whathas already others said in an almost"titillationdenouncingfar as all to ofthe set feeling." thecultured in Westerntraditional A class survey music ("muthaqqafin")music of the listeners substanceof his ownto approved the of country aCairo universal of radio asWestern nothing humanism, showed classical but that while a that the days of the old ArabWesternization artistic and musicalis inexorably spreading in the 4. TOWARD WESTERN FORMSArab world.tradition This meansare numbered. ernism.inArabmusic." general. music Some, Similarly, Only an like expression general Rajimost al-Naqqiish, musicians progress of the sickness inand seeall musicspheres in of the which critics inferiority can the eliminateincline Arab of toward peopletraditional the "under- West-suffer suchYoung as the Arab one art in students Cairo, foundedlearn Western ) 327 / 76 as early as 1908, and aspiring Arabart forms in academies of fine arts nalist,development" find that in "Easternthe musical [i.e., realm. Arab] Others, music like is anothing young Alexandrianbut languor, jour- the / 77 r 328 lowest form of sexuality. Western music describes, THE ARAB MIND represents, makes refer- ART. MUSIC, AND LITERATURE sourceary."ence"everywhere toNevertheless, of intellectual Arab elsefolk musicmovementsmusic,there ishad as also demonstrateddeveloped and schools. by Many the efforts critics an increasing interest in the traditional .. . with us it has remained station- to make record-feel that while oppositestoadoptinghighestArab adopt, art praise. criticism,amonga of Western what But other traditional it theart would things, artistsstyle, have wecriteriaArabare now nobeen connoisseurship longer ofunderstand, angood accolade, working and badthe haswithan Arabwhich expressiontaught these artist arc him values.the is forced ofdirector the hisIn savetionsnies."areas,ings Arab ofis andThere theinfolk itselfeven work musiccan sucha be songsWestern-inspired and littk songs to that doubt, use and its drumbeats however,melodies development. as accompany all or most activities in the rural thatas are this used endeavor in exorcising to record ceremo- and a basis for musical composi- criticismgreatestvaluespredecessors. inof compliment. their the Hestrongest stead. must To unlearn opprobrium;bc pronounced the old values,to derivative be recognized and accept has suddenly asnew original, and become contrary the a simplyuseturetionary of meantnot canvas change existed for and the than in oilsArabhis in artisticwasmusic. Inartist thesomething enteringtraditions.Forvisual arts, quitea completely the impact of the West one thing, entering in the field of sculp- And evenwrought in painting, a much the more very revolu- new realm which had independently,furniture,tweenthe basic art tension thata book, wassolely between aalways utensil, for its art a own apart piece sake. of somethingof The clothingand elsea as decoration and art as representation; be- Westernizednew. ToArab these painter must and be added art that is producedbuilding, a piece of firstnosculptor choke become thus but well tocannot relate acquainted. find hisUnder workany rootsthese to Western incircumstances, his traditions, it iswith small wonder that own cultural tradition, and has the work of the first- which he must Beirut,capitalslimitations,derivative,and even Cairo,of -andtheevery second-generation moreand in major many Akxandria, "advanced" Western cases nothing modern schoolandArab in countries, of theArab more than imitative. Within theseart soon had its followers inlands the ofpainters the North and Africansculptors was in Baghdad, Damascus, traditionalart,one,itself whichMaghrib. and had Arabon oftendeveloped Thethe geometric proved surfacetask in of confusingthe absorbing decorativewould for simultaneously the Arab artist. course of two centuries or more was not seem to have more in common with all schools which the West Interestingly, abstract an easy entirelytionalthemhas Arabattracted new,to the art, without production relativelyoriginality precedent fewof in anything itsArab full artists Western truly or antecedent in past artistic development, art than any other Westernand has school, so far failedoriginal to stimulate or important. In tradi- sense of creating something simply did not exist. If the term "derivative" 1 78 had been used in traditional 1 79 330 Egypt o. copies lit 5 000 square miles I I indium squall: km) 01 Atilt a's onlyihelytouchesdriest bybelongs }neat the and theSinai body 10most Red Asia. peninsula. of banSea tlw Suillh entorest thecianer. andVI01 east lin.Ii Allwest. whey'Fheytea. is rbey 44to eate wondtheilogn di%Inch Medimianeanwide llynled I gyAttu hal limnpi .111.mei is ea.uiiiItiIitalI 5.41 buiii other &settgeoglaphit and . snetches hridred ii I1K' 11011 11 Wall onnected. emit's.m addition. steamed by.11110 thethioughilumsand slender miles %Kamp..As miles 15.000nourishing it misses oland rocklon). Wally the andhiehne Leaving SUtlaileW cal sand. sett of mountain 'Itlw a be borderserpentine Nile temple lakes.into 01 pathLgy Abuit has IA.thrimph Simhel. the mined Nile down has already as itaveled littir seated Iiiguaohans MenowEgypt's 01 hacks its regallysinithern power ton) awaiting10 antrowel' awe- artilicial thefru moredawn. mountain! he atoll(than has duce1.11witnessed above lake. unllennia. an the the arulicial %wild A hin lake. mgh itthe has temple host VeM . is I Ake Nassei . Attica op bclim41 passage hom thoseI&hangedthc /am nigh thattti 1L1111. the the the Last. lace itch1051 Aswan andrya,. ...011111 pace thenAn:mot:1H til01 marksAswa11. the 1 ronheisouthern town. h111111 where 01 the navigation colitis and hom smells ol Alrica blend w itli pm toi es el 201114 .C111111S at hie%um, elnoll Ilk. film has 11 is 0111S Itdins /he 1 belt 4 j stands.islandsthe1.1.1ofvillage Mediterranean ofCruise alterDenderathe Firstvillage. ships andCalm:wt.Gracelul stoppharaonic Ahydos. here onlateen-logged At oneandtemple Luxor 01 reluin which alterthey fromOm temple:pause the fa here famous swish in Kona thenoithward. aroundcentertemple ()mho. id theolIthlii. passingthe Plulae lock hugest . 1. .1 1 .2fr agglomerationtheBank'sEast beginning Bank's vast funeraryof great ofancient the tempk Sahara.cities, building Imrther complexessited the at north, worldthe lootof the can Karnak ol river idler.the meanderslorbidding and anchoring Luxor timelesslyridge betweenand that the maion Westthe through ks 1 relds hinged w till alandadatepalms. shock.gloryinhabit sheer of it tlii% noisinessIslamswirls dotted Arab-Mediterranean-African isbeneath withpreserved make ambling themthe manyin seem domeswatei bridges even bultalo. and more metropolis, olminarets. AtCairo numerous. length. lonneen exquIsite whose with Ilere millionsomething vitality. themarbk mediev-people vat and 01 iely. '1' theirbymuchSphinxmetalwork. mountainous canals diminished, erodes isTo Alexandna. theimpassively geometry it westfinally of reachesAt Egypt'sasCairo al Cano ltheytheir the the the (eel.havemost Pyramids Mediterranean Nile forimportant exhiliales 200 ol genemtions.Cita Seacoastal into continue Joined the city Dewhile to Simeha. presentthe the spreading Nile itsell lushly mild. mil)I.romrisen.founding recently hole lallen a bynalby . AlexamkiC011s1l1114:anddevelopment risen againthe stretches Great in rhythmIhe east this Nile and ceklu with and%CM. those Medits Ilk Valley 1 of111C%capon the are IA Meditoranean 1111e ttoll 's tontines all%Mil Mete 10114.1k'(l itselfhaveis to Egypt I kep in the deserts and r Oases.!topicalunderwaternow Moreaccessible 1 ish hie sightseeing abounds to the casual 111 swim.) the visit(1r salt to lle 0111.1t1110US islandsI4 living green the although it, mo, is unveil hy &sett And Mere is 111t Sinai 114 MC. unsurpassedtkpilis of cola! the andRed teenung Sea St'a, w hik oilers 3 3 f ) , I 44, au01pemnsula. strikingothet %midis beautylinking . Asiaalmost and magical Alma at (mato the head 01 111114 1s11112 Its meged fed mountains and iskl seolant %alleys 11.0e I ind ceitanilv showed his 1111.11 !Midst alit' tip '. 110.16mx: 3EST COPY AVAILABLE ILM undeistand %Ilk 11 a plat e 11,1 wits he est.! his wade/sous w ohsmunanded Moses Moses to lea% 332 W11.1i 14 is Tube.. d..C) boil Ill 1dlirre SW. 111.0 Ilni SEA Amman , PAW 1,8 11.411 MEDITERRANEAN I ale TIT1111111 Gaza.: LIBYAN Alexandrisf (...ypaasgmhll Abu IL It el.Barde.si \ PLATEAU Al-Oattara LI Alamoin III arbi ,. r JORDA N Sawa 09313 Depression firms SF Wei 1.11by ° Baharm, Ott tr. %sod, 1,111 EASTERN OSti./m Po SI. HAI Mohant/1..1 SAUDI Os, F ovihianifru (him WESTERN 10110 DESERT Meowed. 0 Mk Soft. ARABIA DESERT T 0.05 OuSF, \ LIBYAN DjAhla Ousel b II 0114op Lembo --- DESERT 0,1,11 Aharlo Pomp SEA WESTERNDESERT Amnia 114011651. GlIt Kehl!.Plateau LaAe Auer 333 S II D A N r- 334 113 127 wisdom has it V/111:11 (ilk! Cleated he endowed each with two 111111111%. 511 Arab i WPM minwhen toss aid,Muhammad's a utopian past, successiks, pin haps to a link the lout compensatedM. hypocrisy.Iraqcounterbalancedthe Syrnms he gave hardship hewhile pride. thus qualities: for addedwith but the goodtempered desertlactiousness:to the health. intelligence Arabs And to he it with conlidowetunesptosperity,Rightly of ( transitorythided inand the nue merelyregimes belief temporal haveto the sapped land. ticket Coltheir Caliphs, brought justke, m theof humility.Egypi he blessed with abundanceIt does not require al the cost apast deep tounderstanding led that as of lar as Egypt is almostlimes,war,man one math would any of the institutiimsother have MOS( country. brought haa1111a1111g 1is henot Yelon defeat firm. awhen revolution sulleredin Nasser, modern in by Egypt in the 1967 generationsanymadehisconcerned covenant Egyptian a new God sincedeal willhas with Egyptian explain.withdrawn the desert tkmations it the dwellers. first led half theAs of or that, al any rale, He's is not many humiliationthatresign,Egyptiansin hean !be stay.emotionally response brought pouredHis willingness Waschargedforthinto dramatic:the inslam streetsspeech, to share sympathy millions demanding offered their of to abundance.lormerlyArabs.inpoor what of thehowever,is the innow holy the land Saudi cities lorm eiodof ofplenty,Arabia.of has Meccaoil, whilerecently hasTo and the Egypt.received Medina, desertgiven theirsthemmorallymorehom the importantin-- tight actuality.the Egyptian tragedythan that thatIlis ItlasSes, hisof tragedyhe declineintentions had failedwho was, that hadsaw to afteris realize repe-been it all,as foodJapantheandunaccustomed Romanoverpopulation. and and onlythe Empire, Soviet India hardship. OnceEgypt Union in the the -now as in leaguebreadbasket an the follows importe- form of onlyaidof of ofwar theHumilitywillatedly bc embodied struck is inhetent by in the theirin Meinthepiety history. very and of word itsPopular people. Islam. My: religionAny visitut ol to Egypt nine-tenths of Egyptians. grace.humility.tiverecipients. In Egyptiansthe poorest bear hinterlandGrace it with Wit considerableof Pressure: the south. Yet povertything is a and,rela- perhaps because of their Qur'an.tomeanssafe: late,Islam alli:Md or"submission," (frontto the to thesocialsurrender Arabic whethersystem salaam, mot trained it ialima,be topeace) by God, tothe be climate.will"Theseversationa foreign do anythingpoorI travelersawbetween Europeans," one recently tothe two escape other venerable oyerheard said day their one,who'd farmers:horrible a"They come con- "recitation"recognizeof reasonnance of perpksing. isIslam that in the what The Qur'an purportsimportantMos1 -- literally, Westernersto thingbe an toa age find the continuing domi- is the word of God in Arabic terrible,"sunshine,icerepliedall theall year theway concluded water.other, round. here "theireverything." on Lookthe a landfirst. bicycle."at isus."The covered"It We've isAlumaga "Yes."indeed withgot theotherIslampoweias Qur'an, directly "reveakd" unmatchedof the bytransmitted %NA,definition religion: by thus theby "inimitable,"and hasMuhammad. literatine the a strength beauty of is Theany 01 in iswear!''trousersI saw a tragic didn't sense even olhave bk,Egyptian moneyarising to fromhumility huy lakes many forms. One he was tiding about in his under- a tragic proper duecllytastes,extraordinarycited as habits,back a miracle 10 thatand the preferences inmanyQur'an. its own Whdemodern right. thereare Egyptian relerredIt awis notmany atheists and agnos- theexpellentideaview Egyptians. 41I ol popes%history e In who thaw Whileus havea on,m41111011 the hasa greatWeAembraces e an lodeal impulse all man's 111 theills, more stillinsmill-Isaug,imounenceciouslytics olliciallyin Egypt. to belief ofobserved dawn-to-dusk thethe in avastDay supremw by mapotityof the Judgeftwal.last enthe deny01 stidRamadan, country.and te11- The the momentArtUpperPreceding School ofEgyptians, seriousness. in pages:Giza. ; Leh, group an Wissa of unusual Saidis Wassef Of Ownsects.membersevenbears bewildering the maintainswitness Coptic of one to aminority. Islam's Westondegree of the pervasiveness, olconsciouscattiest(*Mistime.. devisliness Christian of beingthat but is 100 i r. -" 335 3EST COPY AVAILABLE 1 r.r _.1% 336 evetydayvanishedligidts expressions language. from European of "Goda kind speech thatwilling," haveproliferate almost"By in anythingis also canbalanced compete by a in deep Jestpublic loveGibes esteem of and mischief. PmeilcafJokss:with If Egyplian piety histheMaririzi countrymen: noted in"That an unflattering which dominates portrayal in of 15th-Century Egyptian historian Al- heavyplains,the bou presencemore nds ofthan morality. of political police This exigencies,throughout attitude ex-the whdeGod'slongwordLord in permission," agoprevails,""Goodbye"Egypt lost such its originalismeetings in"Praise English. religious have God," But not Goodbyemeaning "Ourbeen all are as common as the ter.useholiness,"itlynothing ofThe sharp the fullest smallestsacred. andis wit; iireverent,laugh and Politicalincident Egyptian is a but tojokesdelight provoke Egyptians humor are in particular- laugh-itself. holds make becauseexcelcunningpleasurethe character in .thereitand and of deceit:is are thein their veryEgyptians from character skilful their is in thebirth a using basis love they it,of . . They are extremely inclined to outsuitudes.fallforcedcountry. the apart. just Itrestraint isguidanceBelief Yetcommooly many inis the strengthenedof Islam,pcEgyptianneed -aumW forsociety coercion rightlythatby wouldreligious with- con- and theAllahyou)greetingforgotten. mercy iswo thus barakatu""Salons of "hieikumiGodThe proper andaleilum" (Upon hisas-Joker+ tesponse blessings).you (Peace be wo peace to be rahmaudie upon andtypical theirhilarityracksshriekMarling chairs. are of untiloff pleasure.fired low the back and whote gutteralandIn a forth csfecompany and withor bar,ending increasing falls wisec- in off a them."havemastersflattery lived and in itbefore adulationmore thanthem which allMaqrizi or the makes notes, them among other things, that the wil317vi: s that after highthemselvesWherethetrast levels peace the else violenceof suicide andgoin the in securityof Ammer* world inAmerican other can of andcommies Egyptiantwosociety attack people sedwith each life. thelet teligiosity,outdoesgreetingalso reflects mustthe though firma bepoint followedspeaker abundant, of ArabApart byin etiquette punctilioa responseis from not piety,always that however, this exchange andany generalindividualbehaviorcondition it is thatis "conscience,"the shame, formulatessense arising of guilt,Saga much from arising have of a Westernsense fromoften an ofremarked that while the r- in the East in meansinmustdainEgyptians a tendency forbe othersaid,study. of his isto than This very attempttime badindiffereacepronounced showed tolabor achieve a sad distinct to goalsthisstudy,careful day,dis- by it bloodcurdlingbyother moreintervene?who in the isthan street, Forthe gently themesthis knowing reasonphysical, shouted thatfew no anyarguments nay native passer- saved. how nen good Muslim is duty booed to .0o ""Allferp..rrar heartfelt. The 196-Cestiery chrosicler Ed- public disapproval or contempt. Egyptian Zatiaraigu, a habit of nrhedstat eves Pr:Indent deredhighestleadsward religious; Lase h000rmatey obeerved among intobut thehypocrisy thatMuslim desire "it is asdto tocoissidered appearbe phorissical consi- so the mostpermiuible,youchitchat, con naughty. raisedget must away This with rank withtrait the among sometimessociallyidea that the is whatever morallypersistsworld's tem,overcrowdingAlthough dte degree and of a chartists faulty Wanda's' in Egyptsm sys- malice; it cm be attributed to resistsame the phesommon. temptations Womeeof sex.Attitudes 'The are same constantly to issex held me alsovedni framed by the terin thethat Meets, really hugely mesculiee becsuse mem it is moot theorthodoxybeliefostentation." dead. in the Futility th supernatural a world rites areof forgaits Millextends limey, heldsod inmintsperticulartybeyond Upper of amass the poor, ploitsascoking impthe sre legendarybacklogadukbood, marked of Gobs, bywise-guy where both whose asinine it folk-heroes is reinforcedcountless failure such and ex- by a SIMXII. More locally and histor- inggenerallymanifestations.schools that and not ustivenities trustful ofCarden tsone scandalous. towhee, and Calm*believ- Shame Ma other it is only by oven pressure that Unjustly, Egyptians arc ofexploitsatmosphemso.so licentioumess, be'Inas true the foreigners Victorious ofhighly *omit acharged °fleeview view nodthatof sexually, Egypt theis nal Egyptiseas pmwhicha teed of palters eves more mdpotions.IndismEgyptian penicularlypriests by Akhough trasce do temples; thea brisk muchZar, tradeanda offolk magicians,this inrite spellssuivity of exorc- mid wit. is frowned upon by the try,brateernment.liniTdeyETypian of the the the legacyNumerousvictory, poorfeliuk of through centuries are over the cunningwicked stories of repressive andthat trick-cele- gov-or mischievousneu has its roots people can be prevented from overstepping piexedwereofgeneral.the the Western certainly 1960a,than Until those themythoSogyfatEgyptim moreMASONprevailing healthy views sexual ofI. thethe ofand West. therevolutionOrient uncom- issue Sex in 102Vnuingofficial religious popularity. establishmeat, it esjoys con- 337 foreigners. This love of trickety has its drawbacks, as witheringLeft, ?Inwood. widow aid Above, Bedouin menin all andits aspects women, is but openly also discussedlurks at the by edges both 338 103 humor.nessdoes,bicof e4en language its ordinary richness itself conversation. lends is full a ofwonderful sexual Since innuen-the bawdi- Ara- to Egyptain talk and especially to likehonor,ofcountryside.stige adultery.related a arematchstick: according serious The crime tomattets,it can amurders: well-known columns only particularly be "A usedregularly saying,woman's once." in thetell"is isParticularlywell deemed as for anfull among absolute adulthood women, prerequisiteMs and Muss stillwhose respectability. rivery kletriassay:for freedom sex, much as limitedMarriage, by however, rigid social andfamily'sriage.alliances also Because potential becauseare often numerous for itreinforced wealth childrenIn and through enlargeinfluence, mar- the the cities, political is believed that and business it is substantialSexesisnorms, thus1920s. has findingthe progreu whenbeen major and made,the towards keepingfocus veil but was ofit equalitythe is life.finally still right Sincethe ofhusbanddiscarded, rule the the for abrothers hardtheirhealthier time children.and forbringingsisters, children Centuries family down toEgyptian' planners grow theof high birth up mothershave infantwith rates. hadlots mor- are of notoriously soft on lyhusbastd.thea girlingrained day to remainshe thal is passedin it theis likewise cue intoRespect of theheruncommon care fatherfor patents of until herfor and elders is so strong- toeye theirandwivestality, mean lingeringchild's sexualcomplete that every mothers beliefmks responsibility whim that in are the for give inclined powerfear house-bound forthat toof children, somecaterthe evil five.canmarriage;even affordDespite a mak and to marryIslam'schildthese beforeSodays flexibility leave few the urban onhomeageeasy the ofEgyptians divorce subjecttwenty-before and polygamy are both sanc- thanemotionaluncommon,harmlarly her may true husband. tiebefall in in to the fact, be him case with Asfor or ofinfants,aher her. woman'sfavored eldest This children boys.isson strongest particu- rather It are is not futureexpectedmics.agreement,tioned Forlife tothis made work reason, moreout every youagabsolute detail couples by ofecono- their are marriage is mgarded as a bindinghousing, furniture, a dowry for coddlingtheirwalk,upon.wrapped timehowever, By andasthe in they limeswaddling freedomthey wish. theyare usuallyThis is areand often oldcombination thoroughly left enoughcited to spend as doled toofa blowMaCebeforethe wife thousands ofsigning asthe a inuitutioa. formthe of contract. poundsof divotee WealthyExtravagant on ainsurance bingefamilies weddings in onewill testify to the impost- sonalityhaseven=Sal aalso forobstinacypsychological by thebeen giving strength, said of people the thatbenefit: Egyptian self-confidence belief the itfeeling reinforcesin character.the that evil per-theyandeye It extravapalThebellyfareof weddisgsthe of dancers, five-startrumpets, of singers poorhotels, hirkiag families and complete video other arecrews, ealatainers. withequally famous a fan- they loo ate expected to Mann immediateEgyptiansattractpossess the powers envy havecommunity. ofa both strongothers. 1.*-11upportto Village attachmentinflict harmsolidarity to*atmand their to Etyond the family, affairmastersmusiciaas,fun.their takes =and of place ceremoniesacrobats, generosity in the boy keepopen dancen, things air. and lively slick as streets ate clooed off and the and MUCh MOre Street trictsalkyextremelyPartlywhen islimits die notbecause strong. privacy,main torn Inapart unitcrowding thepeople ofbig by social towns bloodhelp in the each thebonding.feuds poorer hara other ordis- is ribbons,relaxed,groom,hashish,the mak theto and climbguests be latter opium.borne into tuckby through Eventuallya now flashy into somewhat the the cat thestreets free draped bride beer,withover- and in a defendstrangerssharingout in innumerable the videos, to interest the police.and of ways, eventheThe community. testifying mainlending function money,against Gangs of hara solidarity is to norm.adoretriu"are children, Inthe many embellishments andways, large the families "Volanne;familyof life." isEgyptiansare more the blaringand children,"of claxons. the Qur'an says, ly.partStrangersprotectionof localOne of the oftoughs, So theurbanof simpleneighborhood toughest whose landscape extortion mandategangs until womenrackets, in quite variedCairo againstformedrecent- ruledfrom claimingtasbutextendingimportua alsowhich todozens than notdistantstill only therage of cousins. individuillivesever in Upperoverseveral The as many fierceEgypt,a generations social decades, vendet- often unit, Right, portrait of a man in fuN tradi- 104illusirrae this point. Family honor and pre- tional garb. 339 340 105 the neighbortiood around Bab Zuwayla and I ight miscrabk away limn tilv ...beets. ancient occupation (it sinuggling, despite in- CIMperatilm by expelling Soviet advisots in watched.nonethelessbutt.exercisewas Such run Foreignersof drama by knockingtrue a thatlady is rareare strangers menfamed deemed nowadays, out for withare unworthyher carefully buta frequent head it isof towithhustleCauenes them the and difference on crowds vacation otthat tlwTheMe the inenopolts dillSantis nails to pine attributedare fru the simple-mindedness, credulity. the l'oheks 01 Egypt, rivalryaristocraticfeared,loyaltycreasing between is scorned, sedentari/ation,still wilfullness maintained. these and freewheeling of envied their Theand ways. tierceBedouinlot banditsthe The wild areold of tribal clination,theythe exception, prefer habit, compromise naturally, and training. ofIt to theis conflict.characteristic EgyptiansSaidis By arein- of the Egyptians withthat Caireneneighbourhoodaspectssumedthis kind males toof of beEgyptian seldomattention, unaware alone. life,venture sinceofbut the younginto theymore a strangeunmarried are difficult pre- andAbeingof sampletruth. impulsivenessa Saiditoo Saidis open-heartedjoke: are Joke dyingan Alexandiian, even of thirst toabout pass in themselves. thea the Cairene desert. buck. have a iernai kahle ring bloodthroughthe desertvalley and intennairiage andhasthc thebeautyall buthardworking diedof their out womenpeasants still of admiration. but their pure Arab largely others"obsequiousness.governsappealstactful embodies and notto diplomatic,you,only a Thewhathut cardinal wearproverb Egyptians even rule.what to "Eat This thewearappeals whatpoint rule toof all intics,provincesist the stronglyfrom south. has Alexandria Like asits well. acknowledgedthe inhabitants EachinPees the IlartNasmajor north characteris-of towntoother el AswanPbees andport Regional loyalties per- wishbysingle 1whengirls," were I werewish. anda on genie praying Thethevanishes. beach appearsAkxandrian in theTheat Montata andmosque Cairene says. allows surrounded of says."I Hus-wisheach "I a terings.essentialacceptedinsgiirdee Despite homogeneityregional differences differences of and attitudes despite obscures and thc feel- bit-anlegacy of imperialism and Preitidies: But this catalogof defeat, of oldressedshouldappearbut the thuspoorest in public adhere of theunless to poorthe fonnulasclean take cafe and of never conversations:flatteryneatly to speech with a stranger but also all but the most intimate their losghness and willingness to fight, but Alexantkians are known chiefly for lookingsein in Cairo,"dismayed, and turns vanishes. to the Thegenie Sakti. and . andoccupation "the Egyptian and dependence way" is fervent. An old pride in Egypt Egyptians'and light-heartedness. attitude to any It likewise agent oldie governs powers the oir.a4 1 . - .,.... r-, 7 tk , 1 . # 4 NM. T**, t . ' . ',Ana Plee:* 10,14 .11 ;0 ' I . ' . .. . 7,, C. ...pi <-.)...t . ,.. . l ...Itf. as IV 4 s Rosetta,thrifty,aridnessalso thefor acumen. sad theirDelta are serious-minded. cosmopolitan supposedam The regarded peasants to 011110a beas Radsidis.of kindltearaed,hardworkmg, Lower and Egypt busi-from courage,side,bringsays, Saidismy"I'm virility friends so are lonely. and noted back?"The sense Couldn't fordark-skinned Ontheirof honor. thc yougenerosity, positive pleaseNubians of the far south., allegiances,toandcousins,Arab illustrate I adage:and 1 my and thisit "1tribe ismy and felt,point. againstcousins my front Thebrothers thetheagainst purpose world"family Spiral my servesto oftribe, themy all taxivaried,thatforeigner, driverbe, as whether befits may or the abe ithighly Presidentbeassed the stratifiedForms forboss, of example, theof asociety.address Republic.wealthy as inA Egypt are complex and ofbe Presidents vincealwhileuntrustworthy. the inDenville,Nile's the Mubarakhearteastern fromMenufis. of themouth, theand Deka, town fromSadat, we the Meltofreckoned homelandareDamietta pro- re- to impassable,cataractspeacefulusa* ancientconsidered of that people Egyptians. Nubian made to withbe life,the the theirLong Nilerelaxed most own isolatedabove gentlelanguages, and Aswan bycare- and the theevensurprisedaround.neighborhood rest beyond, of Forthe when isthiswotld, to Sadat, reason,the reversed region to fewthe to astonishmentEgyptiansa the decade nation wereof and of to prevent being pushed theguestthat,insulting"0 back when Chief and seat sittingnot forEngineer" by merelya inlanehimself.) a taxi, malea or fare: one "0A passenger persoo Amman.itis isa temporarytherefore of to'high (Note sit in nownedsneerSimplyare seen for atbeing ksstheiras slick, fromsophisticated arming. thefast-talking Cairenes,capital compatriots, allows and like immoral. themNew toYorkers a or Cockneys, thanandhousesspotlesslyfree, womentheirhad always aEgyptian unique are freshly apt chann. neighbors to painted,be Nubian mote and enterprising villages both men are clean, the spacious mudbrick Left, three generations of a Cairo Teacher"social"0indeterminatePresence," Professor."standing or "0 whileshould Pilgrim." standing Ana bepersonof older addressed theos hater person respectable referringas " Your but '0 President" or is "0 106Cairenenot find habit endearing. that their Uneasy country and cousins often down- do t.) 341 numerous tribes, haveThe not desert given Bedouin, up their of which there are '3 EST COPY AVAILABLE wheel.family. Above, man, boast and water- of courserig:image to someoneto Mecca. whoEven has Tutkish made titles the - 342 107 courtesy'shavebot, no pasha. legal sake hanemstanding, or humorous and effect. are used for survive, though they averagetestifiestom ol the toworker socialgeneral apile, year poverty. Sul to theirearn It would very the priceexistence take ofthe a undermoneyremoved; the came floorboards.and outluxury ol Swiss unisonsFortunes banks boomedWere or made from as Schools10011Is Millin Cairo inure already menacingly operate on thethree horiton. shins world-viewratherunderlinesof charm than to sees theitsthe disparateness:cohesiveness simplestall men as Thisexchanges, equals, diversity, ofthe the Egyptianbut society in allots whilefact lending a great deal butDickens'Cairo-New also ofLondon, their York majority. the round-trip vastDisplay majority ticket.and of are wealth consciousAs poor in in Egypt not only is often,ol their to poverty, workpre-Revolutionarybothovernight the profitably Nasser-era and a newabroad, landed technocraticclass InjitahAllowing gentry.of fat catshas elite Egyptians broughtreplaced and the underpaid at home to meantfkefightertheand on armya new theaircraft,that had Egyptian school no to moreimposed re-equip must people. than be Fouranfrom builttemporaryShortage inimense warsbootstraps every in of day.30sacri- reliefcash years, to after three of which toe,arerolesoftenSo each bureaucrats rich withremarked amen specifica sense so howso fat,status ofbureaucratic Egyptiansthecriminals and dramatic. with soactfrom it acomicallyoutNowhere role. head these It tois isplestige.torichesWestern otherwisecount only Aspennies,eyes, conlinns a modest, rich vulgar. merchant,money that, commented, Hut in carries thea whose society flaunting a "Yes,speciallik-style forced of 1 ness.expectationsthing,formimproved oland Neither more a richer andliving TVs, the undermined diet, standards poormore but nor itcars, has social thegenerally alsobetter okl cohesive- inflated elites clo- in the ofburgeoningancould tOreign 1970salready be foundcould aid inadequatepopulation. beganfromthe giwernment the to burdensOnly infrastructurepick whenup begin imposed in the to byflowlatetackle im a speechthenal.fullsinister, ofclothes In Aspsthe sodmovie West,they oropinions mothersstars wear people so andthey glitzy,so seek in haplesslyadopt. the intellectualsindividuality mannerisms, Egyptians mater- soin provingdon'twouldn'tthingwould have myself. otherrather tobelieve waste have thanI get how spenttimeinstant much my respect." money it saves on some-me. a Mercedes. Of money But you I utopialifenewnowapprove of duigeneration toilor theof theunrelieved thequick simplicity notapau-riche must money by laceof dreams thehas the good been ofprospect oftoday; old socialistmade, days. andof a healthAlexandria'sandage.such problems,drinking electricity.basic and water.sewage while long-termtelephones, Cairn's neglect remain problems air drainage,of monumentalpollutioneducation as trafficsew- and countries,prefer to look sham like whatdiritiesIfisleag they of an. wealththe As inexist. many other Third World mid-1970s,tentation has when been President particularlyOMR Sadat DOOM rife reversed sinceClaud the 20Oplions: Materialist os- pressingEgypt place. The primaryA country condition without of dreams can be a de- too many people doesn't help. In haslow led literacy to a frightening rale. plunge in the already theotherwastimeThere contrast counby importingin we the between some inlate the More1970s, 50,000 world. the Mercedes elegance millionaires,On Cairo's carsof i streets thanand for any a verty-stricken Egypt outredistributepolicy.announcementyears the great Before the feudal country's him,of estates, his Nasser , wealth, wiring hador parcelingOpenthe worked prop- DOOf to of socialist legislation with the hodinhabitantsquest1968, ken of the madewhen of Sinai the homeless,Israel citiespeninsula was along reveling and the halfSuez ina Canalmillionits con- journalist asked thosefrustrationandcuriosity more who and regardingyoung dopromotes not Egyptians gothe Waning onfuture.Products to feel university byAmong arote, ofsense a moremen, school otof system Wm stifles eythe "garbageluxurycan pathetic is oftenand heap people," the shocking. of rolling a trash-collector'sTrash slum collectors, of a pack:Myst donk- known as zabbalin or live initiative.ofbroughtinerty newthe of few,the statedignity Not richest but many to also the families landlords majorityfrightened and botheredat reinvestingthe oll expense private even ii industnes. Nasser's policies generationthousandWithoutPresident newNasser Egyptians what his born major every worry day." was. A hesitation, later, the hepopulation pyramid replied, "The marriage,cities,conditionsthreemanage yearsmany to butof obtainyoungerof extreme the military majority an women hardship.exemption service, stay find at In oftenjobs homemustthe before biggerunder laceand Mg.hornputridappalling The the mounds zabbalin city,squalor, sort of representtheirthrough refuse, homes andwhich the nestled sell absolute they for amongrecycl. bring bot- in conditions of itsoftaxto painthaving people.man, their whole to With feed,houses, the Infaah, clothe, state for theabsorbedfear house lid of Wasattracting and the abruptly employ burden the woventiveLeft, scene funeral by children.of ina wedding.the Fayuni. Tapestries Above, na-are ovetcrowded,immutionsattendonehope on for tenuniversity, the youngundershdledol hest. higher Egyptians Hetter but learning theand prospects olcountry's disorganized. bothare appallingly sexes await dozen who the 108 343 , 344 109 emergetheyDespite hope barely rigid to qualifiedenter. eliminations, for the many professions graduates home.thecan oil-richoften Remittances earn Gull as as muLli the; limn inwould a expatriates cimple in a ollifetime years have atin countries"Thief!"solidarity in on the makesthe world. street. EgyptWhen every someoneone shop of theempties shouts saiest as rhythmswhile- dervishes of the (flair dance (chanting to exhaustion in remembr- to the hasmentless been followed lot that every the auniversity Egyptian policy Untilof graduate.bureaucracy providing recently, The employ- theand result government neverthe- prices.emigresEgyptbecome and has the the beenkey i-elative foreign a inaier wealthcurrency factor in of pushing earlierreturning forup mob.theisall almost and nearest Throughout sundry invariably police help Egypt,station tocaught chase fewerby and thea gesticulatinghauledmurders culprit, off who are to astrength. wholeshootingance of asweek God), their the elderslocal town kids look or try onneighborhood outbenignly. the swings, For galleries and assorted tests of employeehavecatastrophicallyploypublic-sector half shown of actually the that industry, non-agricultural overstaffed. theworks average which for betweenVarious together governmentworkforce, studiessix em-and is typicalprovidesworryyears Of lifespan griefno passport before is not they tolong Universallya litereach of ease.the aspired stage The to in Egypt, marriage and many Egyptians appear to die of perhaps 55 societycomparisonincommitted any typicalallows in reflecting a feweryearlarge than peoplecity the take infact toAmerica place thathe marginal- Egyptian annually a dy Respectableanaroundand ebullience unorthodox the tomb middle-class of excitementofmawalid. the saint Butfolk Video andwill evenscorn resound goodtapes funthe will. Ofdow- iswith not what it used to be. employmentsimplyobfuscation,and30 abuses minutes intolerable policies at every a day.have rudeness level Low encouraged salaries to the apathy ordinaryawl lenient absenteeism, obstructioncorruption, and or educatingparticular,frequentlywhen they causesand inadequaterequire underwriting endless medical anyway. anxieties: the care, marriages Money, which feeding, isolin themarginhisized. specialfacts Every are of niche personthe life intellectuals,or in thehasthe Among issuesschemehis recognized those of theol politics things. whofew place, whotake too are pushed to the cialmodemmenttictelevision, sloganiting, soap of lifeoperas,the with havemajority. now their trashy a powerful provide fare These foreign of tinny. effectappunenancesthe serials entertain- overdrama-in aand largely (offi- of taxpayer, who foots the bills. smallestWest,videcosts.whennumerous a respectability Whiletheydegm problems children also familiesof support eliminate mustis quicklyand not unimaginable beneighborhoods cheap, privacy; maintainedbecome especially and every- in at pro-the all seriously.runs contrary Burdening to Egypt's oneself propensity with principles for en- traditionaland society. Glorifying the bourgeois "liberal altitudes ol the t ay, Cairobody'sroom.thethat where business.sametoo many the house; averageThepeople housingand are density there often shortage are is cooped three districts means to up a inof In such conditions, already living causedbuildings,calamitiesrelegatedmanyunder byconstantEgyptians burstingthat murderous to insensationalist otheremotional sewers, additionally countries traffic bizarreand fiction: or facephysical have industrialaccidents thecrillapsing been strain,sort of salientcholylangml.mnsabonthazards, pervades characteristic Kafkaesque life, but oflawsuits strangelythe Egyptians Of enough,bureaucratic is their the An atmosphere of melan- topicsanalyzedwithsituationsing.cheerfulness. a ofLife'ssense amusement that perpetualan ofthey Theysodrama. cndendlessly areThe torment by Ail past talesbecoming problems discussed mastersis of approached intrigue, mere atand cop-and ernmentworkingIncreasinglying for jobs the as havebureaucracytaxi-drivers, one lost finds must university plumbers,has Mrsof theirmeant Posides: prestige. mechanicsgraduates that Low gov- pay and a general loath- Thousandqualitynectionthatfrustrated even with the love,and their simplest One good own Ahghis. fortune personalpeople Everyone or relate livescatastrophe inietain has con- a of wonder reminiscent of The joyingtherethanwounds; mostfew andother other if peopleEgyptian people's, Time**who wounds laughso Egypt's likewise SO are easily.true more are carnivals, in the form the inoment. Laughter heals all Egyptianalsohomogenizing deprived people it oflose Egyptianmuch their of appeal its IIlik, willvitality. television beSensitivity a long hastime yet, though, before the manylimitedto getmenand aremarried, the standavailability obliged like. a Thelikelierthough to money ofscrimp chance decentwith is inflationfor better of apartments,years saving and and before intrades- the order distinctthanlovestory. crowdsexpression.in other is countries that an emotionalOne of the vitality reasons re- Egyptians therefore far more, somehow, each face has a vyingmachineof thismawalidPush-cans for street guns space or energyto hawkingsaint's withchick thein peasdays, everythingconcentrated tents sprout offer and overnight. Irmosleeping form. plastic a glimpse care.deed,ablywelfareand for kindnesshelpful, example,almost of their tohospitable still sinceafenows. fault: abound. the asking Egyptians responseand Soliciting: directionsfriendly mayare for invari-beneeils the in- powegonepeopledecadethey can abroad,of famed over savingestablish threefor most enough their amillion household.of love them money ofEgyptians homewith to In getthethe mar-solepast have a of itreinallowssociety,flecting unhappy. to Egyptian their depthsbased Theemotions. ofon men personalprotective the and strength laintlics. women experielice, structure ol tofamilyneighbors give much of ties,free bodies of country pilgrims. On the Ilig Night. bygenerated learlymuchactual to ofoffer for knowledge.beingby granted athanks senAe insulting. thin too ofGenerosity socialit profuselyisThe considered duty warmth is rather fortaken aunseem-ot thangift sohuman for relations brings 1 10ria fromSince 75 typical to 150 salariespounds a in month, Egypt emigrants range forand compassion. countrymen commiserationat large can all345 orbe help relied This on 3EST COPY AVAILABLE drink.Lett, an Above, orqsuat pottery a vendor kiln. ol lecodce alwaysEgypt a been doudeur, the best a soli pad sweetness, of its charm. that has 34E_ I I I ,-.4.m Until 1965, when the Aswan High Dam ENDANGERED MONUMENTS which has become an endangered monument, Imhotep'smoreoutlionsheld their backofthan structures history architecturalaits few first months were flood,built revolutionbyeveror atEgyptians mastintended ata fewSaqqarah through- toyears. last very few of the mil- repaired.sandtory,Thoughmight ituntil had cleared Since have1925, been itsbeenwhen manyallowed stone itpreserved timeswas is to very clearedrest in soft,its safely by earlier againhowever, this loader tactic.andhis- of permanencestructures.butpossiblemade for themost as permanence earlyEven ofwas the as extendedthe ensuing the pharaohs' third of onlycenturiesbuilding millennium to palaces, religious inthe stoneB idea for tendedstepsWearbyit is the subject waswere sand-blast to hardenobserved taken. andof Chemical andGin's consolidate the incessant most the winds. Sion, , once expaed, to massive erosion injecut=1:- example,ingnowere 1965.different of built any which Ancient of fromtypical perishable must those dwellings villager'shave that materials, been went have house delightful,into therefore esseniially the before mak- dis- suchwere treatmentmade, though were the *ill k -term effects of . Wong- ancienttangibletheirtheappeared, pharaonic survival put, link while abetweenan linktombs anomaly.ancient that andmodern may religious Theytemples, often Egypt are structures,look theremain, and mas-most its cuhuralbybeingsive, the ain tenuous necessityheritage, is in reality and the forvery all question maintainingthe vulApart more offrom precious conserving Egypt'sthe obvious for motives provided beendocumented,Onceconsiderations:pharaonic fulfilled; anditsmonuments archaeological as far as archaeologists involves purpose two hasaremajor a building archaeology and tourism. has been thoroughly requestedEgyptianreference.concerned1946 to Antiquities outlineWhenita candistinguished thethenthe Secretary-Generalbest Organizationbe filed mpthod Belgian away for forexpen officiallyconserving futureof the in lybeneaththata pharaonicbeen athe well-sealed used,wholethe sand.tomb not monument doorAndonlyor tethple, shouldthisbetween shouldmethod thebe digging installedanswer be has reburied actual- sea- wasand rather'Ludy, thanit resulted strengthening in weakening it; and subsequentthe Sphinx traordinaryOrganization,example.workingsons, but the insixth-Century asFrench collaborationexcavated a long-range Archaeological aad monistic with tactic.cleared the complexInstitute,In Antiquities an1969, ex- for beingtheareerosion nowpainted sacrificed has fears proceeded tombs that to itsklYrisffi, al headat Luxor, slichThe may whkli Sphinxa israte topple dmis that not raPay off. thereonly , like the Solar Boat and many of fetureyearsreburiednear Esna, later.generations. it, publishingsecuredThe Sale the has aMil completenecessary thus the been fahlrie data, saved ea then for lbw: The Sphinx, report three servation.includingOrganizationalsoan important excavation,Egyptian and industry all archaeologistsits restorationmultifariuus in patrol for andactivities,therefore Egypt, con- but specifically supports the Antiquities Minders.Mop**,Lan, paw dotal, and from of doapfdrix. Tempi* of French)mans,supportedarchaeologists,face theor by Pates, theiran asendowment government thewell, Egyptians for unless(like (like the andthethey Swiss). Ger- theare a dilemma. So do many foreign BLE I 348 I ..42. exercise a special clai.ni to "preservation," as material gam. Living and working near these - lows political. economic, tit - uiltumjl iirele - s OdleoftenAmericans)they are.,oddBaked Theproblem dependent ironies upon with privatetourism.wounding of(like the donations, the Sphinx reconstructBritish underlines which and theiooare some theculturaluntilrepresenting rock-cut 1813,inheritance. Abu are a best Simbelvital But understood part motives tempks. of an asfor international unknown a moving mixture of ernusedEgyptiansites abstractions longthem villagers belore only as forthe "the have theiremergence cultural therefore own evolving heritage,"of traditionally such mod- pur- Caireneintact.C'enturyvance buildings onward dating still remain from the snore seventh or less these materials have insuret1 that 4! 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Abu Simbel Cairo. 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Right, BEST COPY 4AILABLE 151 352 95 JOSEPH PIRO

EGYPTIAN JOURNAUSM: AN OVERVIEW

I,Brief history of the Print Media in Egypt (1) Dates back to the later Eighteenth Century when Napoleon beganthe "Courier de l'Egypte" (2) Two journals published by the Egyptian government 1827Journal al-Khadyu 1828al-Wazal al-Masriyya (3) Later rise of Egyptian-based newspapers al-Ahram ('The Pyramids"): 1875 al-Akhbar (:The News"): 1952 al-Gumhuriyya ("The Republic"): 1953 al-Masa' ("The Evening"): 1956 liagneraLtnctiouttheArabnedia (1) To convey news and information of general interest to its readership (2) To interpret and analyze news events (3) To reinforce social and cultural norms (4) to provide a communications vehicle for advertising (5) To entertain

III. Conditions affecting Egyptian and oher Arab News Media (1) Weak Economic Base (a) High cost of printing (b) Relatively small circulation due, in large part, to low literacy ratesand greater accessibility of broadcast media (c) Short supply of resources such as newsprint and otherraw materials (d) Exception may be Egypt's "al-Ahram", wherea "conglomerate" publishing house has successfully diversified Its operations (2) Politicization (a) Close alignment of many information media to politicsmostly foreconomic reasons (b) Tradition of alignment dating back to Napoleon's "Courier del'Egypte", whose major objective was to inform and instruct French expeditionaryforces (c) Undue control exerted by the government (d) Arab-Israeli conflict sometimes used asa rallying point to lustily" government press intervention (3) Cultural Influences (a) Historically strong ties of newspapers in Egypt to Arab culture (b) The "mission" of some journalists to reinforce socially acceptablenorms, especially those of the intellectual elite (4) Continuing government patronization (a) Weak economic base has led newspapers to seek financialsupport from government organizations (b) More pervasive in broadcast journalism than in print mediadue to higher operating costs and greater viewership (5) Media credibilly and Prestige of Journalist

353 2

(a) As a profession, some feel It has not achieved the same status as in the West (b) Somewhat more "risk" in press involvement e.g. political, economic, or social repercussions (c) Prestige of many journalists is relatively low in comparison to other countries but It is gaining

IV and Censorship Questions (1) Post 1952, a publishing house of the revolution was established in Egypt to make the policies of the new leadership known (2) Government licensing power" over the press was exercised as a means of control (3) Journalists not reflective of an acceptable political position were frequently jailed e.g. lhsan Abdul-Quddus (4) Seders Egypt was more tolerant of newspaper publishing freedom, but Sadat was quoted as stating I wanted freedom of the press. At the same time, I want it to be a dedicated press." (5) Present-day Egyptian press tends to be predictable fare with, as one journalist put it, "only one relevant reader.. .the President"

V. The role of the Egyptian Press in Contemporary Society (1) Basically a loyalist-type press with some notable exceptions (2) More freedom of opinion is allowed although readers take it upon themselves to read between the lines (3) Because newspapers employ other writers such as journalists or novelists, opinions can be expressed in more subtle ways (4) In the 1970's the power and influence of the press was greatly affected by the Haykal-Sadat relationship. Hassanein Haykal, a writer for "al-Ahram" and confidante of Sadat was removed from his position after criticizing Seders foreign policies (5) During the current administration in Egypt, newspapers tend to have relatively free if predictable rein. The long history of journalism, relatively high pay and high status of journalists have contributed to this development

VI Extracts from an Interview with Mohamed Sald Ahmed. a writer for the Eayptian paper "al-Ahram" The history of the press in Egypt has been a complex one. He attributes his staying power to a confluence of events both social and political He feels that in the press, there are those who would argue that in Egypt there is one relevant reader the President Under Mubarak things have improved considerably for the press He feels that each readership for each newspaper knows what to expect from It and is good at "reading between the lines" He feels that government has a tighter rein over broadcast than with print journalism, probably due to broadcasts' vastly greater audience Although he has experienced periods of what could be called "control", he is relatively sanguine about the future of the Egyptian Press

354 Fulbright Seminar Bill Predmore

Contemporary Egypt! Peace without Prosperity

My academic background in Modern Latin Americaas well as my responsibilities in non-Western history, including contemporary political and econbmic develoOmentsin the Third World, inclined me toward an exploration ofEgypt's contemporary relationship with both the Westernand the non- Western world, as well as her approach towardmodern economic development. It became apparent as I did backgroundreading thatI could find what I wanted by focusingon on the pivotal Camp David Accords, the subsequentEgyptian-Israeli Treaty of 1979, and the and the consequentspecial relationships developed with the United States. Rather than confining mYself to the treaty itself,my approach was to ask two general question: 1) What factors led Anwar el Sadatto move toward this higoly significant agreement? and 2) What have been the political andeconomic results of this peace with Israel and the connectedrelationship with the United States?

This study is obviously somewhat limitedand it does not seek to propose any definitive conclusions. It is merely an exploration. The content is based upon theuse of written materials which time and availabilityhave allowed me to consult as well as on general informationand opinions obtained from lectures by ProfessorsSalwa Gomaa, John Swanson, Hossan Al Tawil, Hoda Ragheb,and Adel Beshay of the pr General Ahmed M. Abdel Halim,iournalist Mohammed Said Ahmed, author and educator William Cluandt,and William Ramsey and Peter Eicher of the U.S. Departmentof State.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

1!".4 35-5 Fulbright Seminar Bill Predmore

I.

"The legacy of Nasser left me was in a pitiable condition." (Sadat, p. 210)

"Great leaders are unique figures who cannot be replicated and have to be followed bysuccessors in a different mold with theirown style." (Derek Hopwood, P.105)

Gamal Abdel Nasser (1954-70) wasa charismatic leader tremendously popular in Egypt, widely respectedin the Arab world and, along with Sukarno. Nkrumah, and Nehru,one of the maior leaders of the non-aligned nations. In Egypt he had brought about the redistribution of massiveamounts of farmland to previously landless peasants, madeuniversity education free, applied rent control, providedsubsidies for the poor and nationalized industries. He was a hero who made Egyptians proud and he gave the Arab worlda unifying savior. Nasser's sudden death in 1970 brought to thepresidency Anwar el Sadat (1970-81), an unknown quantity who wouldhave to find a way to prove that he wasa worthy successor.

What factors led to Sadat's support for recognitionof the state of Israel and his inclination to fashiona special relationship with the United States? If we are to take Sadat at his word (his autobiography is quiteuncritical), his main reason for change was based on his evaluation that Nasser's administration was largely a failure. For Sadat the defeat of Egypt in the 1967 war with Israelwas both a national shame and a sign of the hollowness of Nasscrism. "I myself was completely overwhelmed by our defeat", said Sadat, "I thought about it day and night." (p. 194)

Moreover, Sadat felt Nasser left him witha collapsing economy, a repressive political state,poor relations with the United States and Western Europe,and saddled with a special but difficult relationship with theSoviet Union. "The Soviets," claimed Sadat, "had thoughtat one point that they had Egypt in their back pocket andthe world had come to think that the Soviet Unionwas our guardian." (p.23) Setting the twin goals of" Peace" and "Prosperity" Sadat will ultimately set about to end the conflictwith Israel, presumably because peace could reducemilitary costs and because it would allow him to turn his attentiontoward the economy. When Sadat stunned the world by going to Israel

.1 356 Fulbright Seminar Bill Predmore in November 1967, he regarded itas related to reviving a struggling economy. The Sinai with its oilreserves could be regained, money would not be spenton military ventures and the United States would substantiallyincrease its financial support. (Sadat had already expelled 15,000Soviet advisors in 1972). Sadat also spoke of the "infitah"("opening up") which would open the economy toprivatization of some industries and encourage foreigninvestment.

Perhaps most interesting, however,was Sadat's need to rise out of his predecessor's shadow. "Nasser," says Derek Hopwood, "was worshipped and respected andbrought Egypt back to Egyptians. Egypt basked in his glory. He.was a colossus." (p. 184) It is easy to see that in addition to Sadat's need to prove himself there Wasalso an utter frustration over the fact that despite thedisastrous defeat of 1967 and the poor condition ofthe economy, Nasser's popularity remained high insulated by a myth-herocover. He was like a "living corpse"between 1967 and 1970 according to Sadat but he retained hispopularity after defeat andeven after his death.

The October War of 1973 and Egypt'searly success against Israel had provided Sadatwith a new.standing. He was referred to as "the Hero of the Crossing."Nasser might still be larger than life, but itwas Sadat who restored Egypt's pride. It was with this enhanced reputationthat Sadat felt he could go the furtherstep in pursuit of "Peace and Prosperity" by speakingbefore the Israeli Knesset in November 1977, agreeing to theCamp David accords in February 1979 and signing theEgyptian-Israeli Treaty of March 1979. There is little doubt that in additionto receiving material benefits for hiscountry he was hoping to focus more attention upon himselfand help to bury the myth of Gamal Abdel Nasser.

f_ 37 Fulbright Seminar Bill Predmore

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"Egypt is both the Arab world's most accomplished state and one of its poorest a tough combination, difficult on Egypt's pride and on those states in the Arab world that have to deal with Egypt." (Fouad Aiami p. 14)

"Sadat added a dramatic sense in history,a willingness to step outside the normal limits set by his own society. This was both a strength and, ultimately a weakness." (Cluandtp. 318)

SaHat's strategy achieved notable benefits. Among these was the retrun of the Sinai region a boost both to Egypt's pride as well as to her economy. It also guaranteed peace in the forseable future after Egypt had suffered significant casualties in four previous wars.

Equally significant was the increase in aid from the United States (presently 2.7 billion per year). While much of this aid goes toward the military (more than 507.),Egypt now receives close to $1 billion in economic assistanceper year (though by AID admission, at least 40% is used to purchase American products). This economic assistanceis directed toward four general goals: 1) repairing a deteriorated infrastructure 2) improving technical and scientific tieswith the United States 7) helping to revitalize a stalledeconomy and 4) improving health and educational standards.

The range of activities is extensive and impressiveand is catalogued in the substantial AID publication Status Report: United States Economic Assistance to Egyp.t(November 1989). More specifically, funds from thisprogram have financed repair work on the Suez Canal, expandedelectrical power output, improved telecommunications, reduced infant mortality, built schools, improved water andsewage treatment, financed irrigation proiects'andfunded research for improving agricultural productivity.

However, Sadat's strategy has alsocome with liabilities. His move confused the rest of the Arab world and it reacted bitterly by expelling Egypt fromthe Arab League, severing diplomatic relations, and stoppingthe flow of annual subsidies. President Nasser had led the Arab world by preaching nationalism and resistance to the West. Sadat

358 Fublnig0Pe@mai-gar

swerved toward a close relationship with the UnitedStates while showing little regard for Arab feelings.Critics have asked whether the risk was too great for Egyptand whether it left the Arab world without balance..

Further criticism has been directed twoard the question as to whether Egypt has rapidly moved toward becominga dependent state seeking a solution to its problems by sacrificing its independence. Another criticism hasfocused on the fact that Egypt has allowed itself to be used by the United States to facilitate American interestsin the Middle East. As a consequence Palestinian interests havebeen sacrificed. With Egypt at peace the threat of Arab attacks on Israel has diminished and Israel has less incentiveto come to terms with the Palestinians.

It is quite evident that the current state ofthe economy hardly approachesthe goal of prosperity as sought by Sadat. David Lamb provides one of the most dismal evaluations on record: "The capital is sinking under the weight ofpeople, people, and more people, and Egyptseems in danger of becoming a Bangladesh on the shores of the Mediterranean, an impoverished land gripped by lethargy and decay." (p.26)

How much of this should be blamedon Sadat's legacy of creating dependency is debateable. One might advance the argument that a nation which sustainsa 2.6 population growth rate is fighting a losing battleno matter what economic solutions are applied. The statistics are, in +act, astonishing. In Egypt a baby is born every 19 seconds. Cairo grows by 1,0)0 people per day. The population of Egypt has doubled in the last 30years (now 55 million) and will double again in the next 25years.(Lamb, p. 6) According to AID figures only 38 % of Egyptianwomen are currently using any form of birth control.(Status Report p.105) There are other considerations. What are the economic possibilities for a nation where 98% of thepopulation lives on 4% of the land and where there are limitednatural resources? Additiona,ly it has been argued thateconomic mismanagement associated witha bloated and inefficient bureaucracy created during the Nasserera is principally to blame.

A final note must be added in evaluatingSadat's legacy. Most recently Egypt has been readmitted tothe Arab League and each Arab nation has restoreddiplomatic relations. This turn of events may very well signifya growing acceptance of Egyptian policy. As Fouad Aiami has noted : "Sadat's diplomacy dragged Arabs, with most of themscreaming and feeling defiled, into an honest encounterwith the problem of Israel." (p. 107) It has forced Arab nations to recognize

359 Fulbright Seminar Bill Predmore

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the serious differences which exist inthe Arab world and the fact that Pan Arabism may very well bea myth - the storm over Sadat's move was partially due to the desire tokeep this myth alive.

Egypt, partly because of its politicalstability and national unity has successfully asserted herown independence, serving notice that it will foll,owa policy best suited to her own needs. She can rightfully feel that she has in the past paid her dues towardArab unity and has the scars to prove it. Fulbright Seminar Bill Predmore

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Concluding Remarks

It is still not entirely clear whetherSadat's policies were correct +or Egypt as events continue to unfold. Any evaluation must include an array of factorsand will inevitably be based on one's own biasor perception.

Despite American assistance, Egypt hashardly achieved the prosperity of which Sadat dreamed. Moreover, there are signs that Egypt is slipping towardthe economic predicament of many Latin Americn nations whoowe colossal sums to foreign creditors (Egypt's foreign debtis now $50 billion). It is also clearthat while Egyptmay have made a mature political choice by recognizing the politicalstate of Israel, she has been dissappointed by theresponse of the United States a nation crippled by an immense ignorance of Arabs and Islam and, as George Ball hasnoted, with a "peculiar indulgence" and an "idiosyncraticand uncritical defense of all Israeli actions." (Ball,pp. 1, 4)

It is still an open questionas towhether or not Egypt's patient optimism regarding theU.S. ability or willingness to eventually rein in Israeland secure a .commitment to autonomy for the Palestinianswill pay off. A full evaluation of the Sadatlegacy will hinge on the answer to this question.

July 17,1990

1CO 361 1 Fulbright Seminar Bill Fredmore

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Bibliography

Aiami, Fouad. The Arab Predicament. Cambridge University Press, 1981.

Ansari, Howard, "Egypt in Search ofa New Rnle in the Middle East," American-Arab Affairs XII (Spring 1985) 43-49.

Ball, George, "America's Waning Moral Authority,"American- Arab Affairs XII (Spring 1985), 1-8. Bassiouni, M. Cheri+, "Egypt in Transition:Perspectives on a Rapidly Changing Society," American Arab Affairs XXVII (Winter 88-89), 70-96.

Fisher, Sydney and Ochsenwald, William.The Middle East: A History. McGraw Hill, 1990.

Freedman, Robert 0.(ed). The Middle East since CampDavid. Westview Press, 1984.

Hopwood, Derek, Egypt: politics andSociety 1945781. George Allen and Unwin, 1982.

Hirst, David and Beeson, Irene. Sadat Faber and Faber, 1981.

Islam, Nazli, "America's Aid toEgypt Reaps Benefits and Controversy," Middle East Times EgyRt Edition, Vol. VIII, #27 (July 3-9, 1990).

Lamb, David, The Arabs:Journeys Beyondthe Mirage. Vintage Books, 1986.

Sadat, Anwar el.In Search of Identity An Autobiograahy. Harper and Row, 1977.

Spencer, William (ed). The Middle East. Dushkin Publishing Group, 1990.

Status Report: United States EconomicAssistance to Egypt. Publication of the Agency for InternationalDevelopment, Department of State, 1989. Fulbright Seminar Bill Predmore

Ouandt, William B. Camp David: Peacgmaking and Politics. The Brookings Institution, 1986.

Waterbury, John. The Egypt of Nasser and Sadat: The Political Economy of Two Regimes. Princeton Un. Press, 1983.

Young, Ronald. Missed Opportunities for Peace: U.S.Middle East Policy 1981-86. American Friends Service Committee, 1987.

363 Suggested Sources

A History of the ModernMiddle East Fred W. Sakon

I. Introduction:

The purpose ofmy attending the seminar inEgypt and Jordanthis summer is to begin collecting information which will behelpful developinga course in the history of the modern Middle East. The initial step in this endeavor is to prepare a bibliography of selected sources to prepare lectures whichcould be included in this course andserve as suggested readings for my students.

While not pre-5 umingto suggest anyorganization for anyone else's class. I envision that this course will be organizedalong the same lines as a current course which I teach --A History of the Modern FarEast. In this course, therefore, I will emphasize the geography of North Africa and Southwe*rnAsia and its effects on the history of the area, the Islamic influence in the Middle East, and the modern historyof some of the countries. Because of the breathof such a course. I will have to eliminatecertain countries. As

1

364 a result, there are no works cited 'onTurkey orthe

Magreb in this bibliography-- although many cyood works

exist for these countries as well.

I havetried to organize the bibliography chronologically; however, the sectionsdealingwith

individual states do not lend themselves to this. I am afraidthe user will find these sections a bit jumbled.

Finally, when I could find comments about a source or had enough time to read enough to form an opinion of it.

I have briefly annoted the entry.

II. General Textbooks:

One of the first problems that is encountered when preparing a new course is toselect a textbook. The problem withchoosing one for this course is that

there are only a few works which are organizedso that they can be used as a textbook. As a solution to this problem. I would suggest three: LOIS A. AROIAN and

RICHARD P. MITCHELL, The Modern Middle East and North

Africa (Macmillan Publishing Co., 1984), COLBERT C.

HELD, Middle EastPatterns: Places,Isouptag, and

Politics (Westview Press, 1989), and SYDNEY NETTLETON

FISHER. andWILLIAMOCHSENWALD, The Middle East, (4th ed., McGraw Hill Publishing Co., 1990).

2 Each of these works have their own strengths so whenchooisngone of them keep in mind its particular

focus. AroianandMitchells' bookemphasizes the history of the modern Middle East since well over half the text deals with the niaeenth and twentieth centuries. It is organized chronologically so that students should have no problem associating contemporary events. The bibliography, whichare organized by chapter, are extremely useful. The Middle East by

Fisher and Ochsenwald is anoldstandard text. It would be helpful if you wanted to emphasize the total

Scope of the history of this area becausealmost half of the text is devoted to preninteenth century history.

Coverage of the twentieth century is topical and would be extremely useful if you plan to use a country by country approach in your lectures. The bibliography is very extensive and includes a largenumber of journal entries. It is also annotated which in particularly helpful. Finally Helds' book emphasizes the current socioeconomicpolitical problems faced by each of the states in the Middle Eastwhilegivingonly summary descriptions of their history. The content and organization of the work would be particularlyhelpful

3

366 in generatingdiscussions if you are interested in the problem solvingapproach foryour class. It also includes an extensive bibliography although it has no particular organization.

For my course. I have decided to use The Modern

Middle East and NorthAfrica by Aroianand Mitchell because it correspondsmostnearly to the way I will organize my course. In addition to emphasizing the modernhistory of the states in the Middle East, the first four chapters deal with geography, people, and the Islamic heritage of area.

III. Supplemene.Reading

No one textbook can cover all aspects of the history of a country or an area. As a result,I plan to use several works as collaterial reading for my students. Obviously, the choices are numerable, but I would offer the following:

A. John Esposto, Islam, The Stra crht Path (Oxford University Press, 1988)

This work which is written by one of the

best known scholars in the field, emphasizes

4 the traditional and modein influence5of Islam in the Middle East.

B. Philip K. Hitti, Islam: A Way of Life

(Regnery Gateway, Inc., 1987) Written by a distinguished scholar, this

book examines Islam as a religion,a state, and a culture. It is particularly valuable because of its emphasis on Islamic culture.

(NOTE: I have included two works on Islam. Obviously,

I feel that every student should be exposed to this important part of the heritage of the Middle East. For your purposes, you may wish to choose only one of these4 works. Either of them would serve your purpose)

C. Fouad Ajdmi, The Arab Predicament

(Cambridge University Press, 1984) This work is a very thought provoking

account of the crises in Arab political

thought since 1967. Parts of it are

particularly enlightening about the growth of the Islamic fundamentalist

movement and the current position of

5

388 Egypt in the Arab World.

D. David Lamb, The Arabs: Journeys

Beyond the Mirage (Vintage Books,

1988)

Written by a Middle East correspondent

based in Cairo, this book is a good effort

at examining the problems of the Middle

East. From Cairo to Beirut, Lamb offers

his firsthand observations. The work

is written with the joir.vnAlist in mind,

but students of the Middle East would

find it interesting.

6

369 IV. Selected Reading List

A. in the NinAgfith Century

Anderson, Matthew S. The , 1974-1923. (St. Martins Press, 1966) A detailed study of European deplomacy as it relates to the and the Middle East.

Antonius, George. The Arab Awakening. (I.e. Sippincott, 1939) Even though this work is somewhat dated, it is still one of the best at explaining the foundations of Arab nationalism in the Nineteenth century.

Dawn, C. Ernest. From Ottomanism to Arabism: Essays on the Origins of Arab Nationalism. (University of Illinois Press, 1973) This work shows some of the more subtle aspects of the and Arab Nationalism. It brings out many mis- conceptions about bath and is a good contrast to The Arab Awakening.

Marlowe, John. A History of Modern Egypt and Anglo-Egyptian Relations, 1800-1956) (Archon Press, 1965).

Sharabi, Nisan. Arab Intellectual and the West: The Formative Years: 1875-1914. (John Hopkins Press, 1970). An explanation of the intellectual and idealogical background which results in the transformation of the Arab World.

B.

Busch, Briton C. Britain and the Persian Gulf 1894-1914. (University of California Press, 1967. This study uses extensive primary sources to analyze the formation and implementation of British policy in the Persian Gulf.

7

370 Helmreich, Paul C. From Paris to The Partition of the Ottoman Empire at The Peace Conference of 1919-1920. (Ohio State University Press, 1974)

Kent, Marion, ed. The creat Powergand the End of the Ottoman Empire (George Allen Unwin, 1984). A good survey of European diplomacy and the partition of the Middle East after World War I.

Lawrence, T.E. Seven Pillars of Wisdom. (Jonathan , 1935). The account of his activities during World War I.

Mousa, Suleiman, T.E. Lawrence: An Arab View. (Oxford University Press, 1966). A revisionist study of the importance of Lawrence during the war.

Nevakivi, Jukka. Britain, France, and the Arab Middle East, 1914-1920. (Oxford University Press, 1969)

Sachar, Howard M. The Emergence of the Middle East: 1914-1924 (Knopf, 1969) A good survey of the period, but it has a decided European slant

To nbee, Arnold J. Survey of International Affairs, 1925 Vol. I. The Islamic World Since the Peace Settlement. (Oxford Universily Press, 1927). c. World War II and After

Boutros-Ghali, B.Y. The Arab League 1945-1955. (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1955).

8 Enayat, Hamd. Modern Islamic Politfcal Thought. (University of Texas Press, 1982). This work is not for the .Faint at heart, but it does contain agood discussion of the Sunni and Shi'ite views.

Khadduri, Majid. Arab Contemporaries: The Role of Personalities in Politics. (John Hopkins Press, 1973). A survey of the personalities of twelve post-war Arab leaders including Nasser, Jumblat, Aflaq and Bagdash.

Rubin, Barry. The Great Powers in the Middle East, 1941-1974: The Road to the Cold War. (Frank Cass, 1980).

Sachar, Howard. Europe Leaves the Middle East, 1936-1954. (Knopl, 1972) A good work to consult concerning European withdrawal. The last five chapters deal with the Palestinian problem.

Voll, John Obert. Islam: Continuity and Change in the Modern World. (Wostview Press, 1982). This is an outstanding work dealing with the relationship between modern fundamentalists and those of earlier periods.

D. Egypt

Bergue, Jacques. Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution. (Faber and Faber, 1972). A study of the rise and fall of England in Egypt.

Daly, M.W. Empire on the Nile: The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, 1898-1934. (Cambridge University Press, 1986). An excellent study which includes chapters on education, economics, health, the British, and politics.

9 372 Halt, Peter. Egypt and the , 1516-1922. (Cornell University Press,1966). A good survey written by an authority in the field-particularly good on Ottoman-Arab relations.

Hopkins, Harry. Egypt: TheCrucible.: The Unfinished Revolution in the Arab World. (Houghton Mifflin, 1969). Ccvers from the revolution in 1952 up to 1969. Good sections on Arab socialism and the Palestinian problem.

Hopwood, C)erek. Egypt: Politics and Society, 1945-1984). (Allen and Unwin, 1985). A good standard survey ofthe period.

MARSOT, AFAF LUTFI AL-SAYYID, Egypt in the Region of Muhammad Ali. (Cambridge University Press, 1984). A valuable political biography of this important figure in the early periOd of modern Egyptian history.

A Short History of Modern Egypt. (Cambridge University Press, 1985).

Vatikiotis, P.J. The History of Modern Egypt. (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980). A detailed book on Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Egypt. It is particularly strong on social and intellectual movements in the rise of .

Waterburry, JohnThe Egypt of Nasser and Sadat: The Political Economy ofTwoRegimes ( Press, 1983).

Zayid, Mahmudy. Egypt's Struggle for Independence. (Khayats, 1965). The author taught at the American University in Be it. The book isagood analysis of the revolution of 1952 and is particularly valuable for the background of the revolution.

10 373 E. Israel, Palestine, and Arab/Israeli Conflict

Bernstein, Narver H. The Politics of Israel: The First Decade of Statehood. (Princeton University Press, 1957). The best study of early government, administration, and politics.

Cobbon, He/ena. The Palestine Liberation Organization: atople,_Egwer, and Politic. (Cambridge University Press, 1984).

Cohen, Michael J. The Origins and Evolution of the Arab-Zionist Conflict. (University of California Press, 1987). A well written and concise study of British Policy to 1948.

Elan, Amos. The Israelis: Founders and Sons. (Holt, Rinehort, and Winston, 1971). A stimulating account of the personalities, idealogy, and feelings of the zionist movement.

Herzog, Chaim, The Arab-Israeli Wars: War and Peace in the Middle East. (Random House, 1982). Covers , 1982 war in Lebanon, and others. A valuable and detailed military account.

Khouri. Fred7. The Arab-Israeli I4lemma. (Syrause University Press, 1985). Best work on the subject.

Laqueur, Walter and Barry Rubin, eds. The Israeli-Arab R,,ader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict. (Penguin Books, 1987).

Palk, WilliamR. The Elusive Peace: The Middle East in the Twentieth Cent.gry., (St. Martins Press. 1979). A very thought provoking book on the role of the Palestinians and the Arab-Israeli conflict.

Eachar, Howard. A History cf Israel from the Rise of Zionism to Our Time. (Knash, 1979) An excellent general survey.

11. 3"4 Smith, Charles D. Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict. (St. Martins Press, 1988).

Smith, Pamela A. Palestine and the Palestinians 1876-1983. (Croom Helm, 1984).

F. Iran, Iraciland. the

Abdulghani, Jasim. Iraq and Iran: The Year of Crisis. (John Hopkins University Press. 1984).

Abrahamian, Ervand. Iran Between Two Revolutions. (Princeton University Press, 1982). A detailed book on the political and economic . Good section on Tudeh Party development.

Avery, Peter. Modern Iran. (Praeger, 1970). A good general survey with emphasis on period from 1850 to 1900.

Bakhash, Shoul. The Reign of the Ayotallah: Iran elld the Islamic Revolution. (Basic Books, 1986).

Banani, Amin. The Modernization of Iran, 1921-1941. (Stanford University Press, 1961). Survey of the importance of Reza Shahon his country from Iranian sources.

Binder, Leonard. Iran: Politica) Development in a Changing Society. (University of California Press, 1962). A very important study of society and politics in reCent Iran.

Helms, Christine Moss. Iraq: Eastern Flak of the Arab World. (Brookings Institution, 1984). A useful study for the development of the Ba'th party and the war with Iran,

Ismael, Tareq. Iraq and Iran: Roots of Conflict. Syracuse University Press, 1982.

12 375 Keddie, Nikki R. Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive HistAory of Modern Iran. (Yale University Press, 1981).

and Eric Hooglund eds. The Iranian Revolution and the Islamic Republic. (Middle East Institute, 1982). This book includes insightful essays on economics, religion, ideology, women. Khomeini, and foreign policy.

Khadduri, Majid. Independent Iraq: A Study in Iraqi Politics, 1932-1958. (Oxford University Press, 1960). An excellent survey.

The Gulf War: The Origins and Implications of The Iraq-Iran Conflict. (Oxford University Press, 1985). A detailed book on the war from Iraqi point of view.

Len4awshi, George. Iran Under the Pahlavis. (Hoover Institution, 1978) Very favourable view of the Shahs' accomplish- ments in social change, economy, oil policy, land reform, education, and culture.

Marr, Phebe. The Modern . (Westview Press. 1985). Fine survey in series that deals with Middle Eastern Countries.

Wilbk..cr, Donald. Iran, Past and Present. (Princeton University Press, 1982). A Classic.

Zabih, Sepehr. Iran Since the Revolution. (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982).

G. Jordan. Lebanon, and Suyria

Aruri, Naseer H. Jordan: A Study in Political Development 1921-1965. (Nijhaff, 1972). A good survey of domestic politics.

13 376 Cobban, Helena. The Makina of Modern Lebanon (Westview Press, 1985). An excellent general survey.

Devlin, John F. Syria: Modern State in an Ancient Land. (Westview Press, 1983).

Gilmour, David. Lebanon: The Fractured Count (St. mArtins' Press, 1983).

Gorden -avid C. The Republic of Lebanon: Nation in Jepardy. (Westview Press, 1983).

Khoury, Philips. Syria and the French Mandate: The Politics of Arab nationalism 1920-1945. (Princeton University Press, 1987). Outstanding study of growth of nationalism in Syria.

Lelvis, Norman N. Namads and Settlers in Syria and Jordan, 1800-1980 (Cambridge University Press, 1987). A stimulating study of normadic tribes and their interactiom with the Ottoman Empire and the national state in the Twentieth century. Russsell, Malcolm B. The First Modern Arab State: Syria under Faysal 1918-1920. (Bibliothera Islamica, 1985). The 1,st work in English concerning the foundations of the modern state.

Seale Patrlck.,The Struggle for Syria: A Study of Post-War Arab Politics, 1945-1958. (Tauris and Company, 1986). A scholarly work built around the thesis that domination of the Middle East must be contingent upon control of Syria.

. Asad. (Tauris and Company, 1988). A well written biography of this controversial leader.

14 377 ZamirMeir. The Formation of Modern Lebanon. igroom Helm, 1985). This studconcentrates on the 1920's and the role of the and French.

H. Saudi Arabia and the Gulf States

Anthony, John Duke. Arab States of the Lower Gul : People, Politics, Petroleum. (The Middle East Institute, 1975). A detailed analysis of political, economic, social and tribal structure of the Emirates by a leading authority.

Abir, Mordechai. Saudi Arabia in the Oil Era. (Westview Press, 1988).

Cottrell, Alvin J. ed. The Persian Gulf States: A General Survey. (John Hopkins Press, 1980). A massive study which includes Saudi Arabia as well as the Gulf States. de Gaury, kierald. Faisal, King of Saudia Arabia. (Praeger. 1967).

Howarth, David. The Desert King: Ibn Saud and His Arabia. (McGraw-Hill, 1964). A well written but sympathetic account.

Netton, Ian Richard, ed. Arabia and the Gulf: From Traditional Society to Modern States. (Barnes and Nable, 1986). The edition contains insightful essays on the history, politics, economy and society of Saudi Arabia.

Peterson, J.E. The Arab Gulf States: litmg_ipylrA Political Participation. (Praeger. 1987).

Shwadran, Benjamin. Middle Eastern Oil Crises Since 1973. (Westview Press, 1986). An especially valuable study of the politics of oil diplomacy concentrating on the period from 1979 to 1985.

15 ii378 Troebler, Gary. The Birth of Saudi Arabia: Britain and the Rise of the House of Sa'ad. (Frank Cass, 1976). Thiswork is particularlyvaluable for the period from 1910 to 1926.

Winder, R. Bayly. Saudi Arabia in the Nineteenth Century. (St. martins Press, 1965).

Yassini, kpman Al. Religion and State in the Kin dom of Saudi Arabia. (Westview Press, 1985). An indtspensable study for understanding the the role of Islam in one of the most orthodox of the Arab states.

16 379

, CAIRO AS THE CENTER OF WORLD TRADE AND COMMERCE DURING THE MIDDLE AGES

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3 CAIRO AS THE CEt'ITF WEIRD TDE AND COMMERCE DLIPINF T|fE MIDDLE AGES

C.117,12r.c f:Pnr4ntl Until the advent 0- the Sreco-Roman period of history, Edvptian civilization dovrInped in relative isolation from other world cultures, Thi., period of isolation was a result n4 twr, major factors: Ocserts to the east and west of thr Ni1=, c",:i:er Valley 4+104 r..H Qff trade with civilizations in the rertile Crescent\T:gris, River Valley and the Mediterranean cr,.-,r-tal waters to the north -1114- preve.nted +rade and rotprperce with civilizations op the Monitorra,:ran world. As a result Egypt rc.,1rd to benefit frem or be affected by the cultural Irc.f,smission of-ideas from surrounding areas. Tho deYelooment rr ihe Hellenistic City of Alexandria npened Eg,)pt to the ct,lturr of the Greeks andRomans. Trade Ale.!andria Nis.,,r,d through a coastal area betweenthe Trland and thr n!.-ilrland that had been dredgedto cc,r:;lit,,Its entry bv dcrp.hlled merchant vessel unableto navin thy: naturally .:hc%llow waters before thi5time. In 4o this, the Ptel'.,mies built a canal connecting M.Irr.,"- with the cracr+. A second canal was built to allnw tr paTs from thjs 1:-e to a tributaryof the Nile. This rrTultrd in Ale.:a;ldri-:'s becoming oneof the busiest and welihirF-.t ports. in the wr-0-1d.(The physical geography of has bern ,:igniFirm-itly during the i_o45..r,)rnind centurirs e'lnging course of the Nile is Ri:Er .!!!! rhifting thr. t:ltA Area. Lake Maeorti5, n Mar yuttndr, v ;-tr'. murh Rik 1. er thani t wr= pt Mur.lims time.) In A.D. ti,,44, fr,11-,t,ing the arrival of the fhat connected Crgypt with r7"-.;vrt, an anrient r,-nnE,1 thr RFd Sea watt-, openrd trade to devFlop betwrrn -.roviding arrf....sto am! Eind the , rnr, 11, w.,dsr route for tradr P;o-t Lhrough

complete. r(v A.D. 442, th' ronquest of Egypt was r,tled first by theUmayyad then the From 642 to 868 Egypt was Tulun (24P- Abbasid dynasties, thrr.:+rc:nrlest ruler being Ibn capital was located Atal- 9R2). During thiF time rn./nt's merirrn-day Cairo. In 969, the Shi'ite Fustat, a sector of capital in Fatamids came to powerrInd established their 4he name, Cairo. During the rej,12n Pahlra, From which we '7)F' university of the cf the Fatamids,the eldest. n'tisting

1E0 3EST COPY AVAILABLE We,,-trrr-, world wes estehl,-hed je raireat the Meegue of al e.de,7e- and a wall wes eteilt to fertifythe al-Oahira aree. In lee, Fustat, the tecine,l7, centerof the area, was destroyed hv !es Crusaders, end Ceiro wee left asthe political ceetEr ef Egypt. Soon after, Cairo beganits development as a conter cf world tradG and cemmewye. Infact the aided the development of a symbioticrelationship between the Christians and the Melle merchantswho supplied them with goode from the Orient(Abu-Lughod, 1989). Under the rule of , the city begen teexpand enormously. The Citadel In was built eignifyingEgypt's politicalindependence. 1250,.following a series ofmilitary coups, the Mamluks came These rulers. who were the sonsof slave-warriors te power. but, in ruled through militerv coupand with much brutality, to Islamic spitc of this, they madeenermous contributions erchitecture, buildinq no lessthan twelve major mosques. taking meusoleums. endlegenques. They succeeded in the Mongol the last Crueader stroegeeldat Acre and defeated rev the 14th century/Cairo had expanded force in Palestine. 400 years and ie the bounderees it wec.te fill for the next its pepuletion crew to e..era half million.It is against that Cairo is seen inthe throes as !his hietorical backdrop lasting from a world*center of trade end commerce appro':imately the tenthto the early sixteenthcentury.

Eceeemee Deeeploeeeet

centuries many partsof the ev the eleventhend twelfth participated in Fal erc!nomJce:,:charmge that had The peoc' of thise':change CrlarP Ty':t,tic benefitskr: .:11. century eed the end thr- i-teteenth aeeet between the eferfece...itrino. thethirteenth centor.: eegiening of the.fl.,rtici.tha t.;:t nos demirlatedby eight different 17:Istern hemisphere p. e4, ('-i99)- routes :7,ee map, ebu-Lughod, intersecting trade ran bedivided into three ME.:se eightsubsystems r4 trade Eastern tr.-er WestfPrn Fttrpeantrade, Middle m.-ijor groups: re/ this time evenFee-nee end f,wav end Fer Easterntrede. (eee di"71:t' culltactwith each other rhin had esteblce,hee eughed, 1999). finde it= reutrc The modernwerld..1:.ereen,/ ectuallv quite dlffereet center./ ie asystem that is the tie.rteenth This system :y the eette,*eilcentery. fr:.m that of r-entrast to thatwhich theIteliee pr,.r.r It inelved dominated tem:century later. l'tv states complex thanany.that caee Irede systemthet wec fr more f'ci.F.111, it canbe said thatit'resrmblee hefors, and to '77.Q" today (Abu-Lughed, eloba] world economythat exists 4 leeel.

3EST COPY AVAILABLE Although this ecanamic system was worldwide, it waa, a narrow networe of rmrhaage. Specialty and agricultural iteea, particular1v rz repreaentrd a tignificant lea'rel Lien of thPaareaaae, eawever eanufactured orands warp at hraart an0 aitenat thaar, the ayatem could notsuatain ;taalr. This eyetem jnaalaad a wide variety ofmerchant caa,aeitipa. Carranries aarir.d; languages andmeasuring aaataaa were different aert cala-ndars werenot consietent. F;ill goods were ea:ahanged, prices: harter exchangee wera agreed upon, contractsentered rrpdit extenderia partnershipsformed, and agreements honarad. , a For a number of geographic,economiet'and political hptween sub-systems was notgenerally reaseaa, direct contact the poaeiLle. Given the limitednavigational technology and of a long journey ofthe thirteenth time aonauming aspects with cantury, few of the majarcities did business directly .Ports and naaes betweenplaces served as Pave time, F-chaage and dletrihatinnterminals, while, at the same araduation of any giyrncommodity took place in asingle bound places laratian. Sea lanpe,riaareaand overland routes tagfather'. By the time theFurnaeans entered thiseconomic system, partnership other thanwith the Crueades preaentea aea Mamluk atate in Cnnetantinople and Egypt,The strength of the the Red Sea. Egypt blocPed directItalian trade beyond the Italians had accessto trade itema Hawever through Egypt, China and India. fram areae throughoutthe Middle East, of traae hetaaenthe Italians andNorthwestern 'gri% a result tee Haral'ala atatea werealso able to Earapr, England and 1737). aart:aipate in thia ayatem (Ahu-Lughod, r.--aad half of thethirteenth eentera CeadnElly durinu tea Egyat ranfara a; traae,other than through MIddle Eastern dee to thefragmentation of the were beingcut off. Thia aaa of tee "PlacaDeath; inte!nal Ielamic Empire, waves The reducedstatus of insurrections, andtee Caaaades. the Muslim Cairo to aacrmethe capital of eaghdad caused to rout theCrusaders from world. TheMamla&-sultan waa able forced to operate and Europeantraders were the Middle East access toonly twofunctional out of Cretend Cyprus vath Sea or throughEgypt overlana'from the Black preferred routes to Asia, =erond routebecomjng the Ocean, tha the most to the Indian thia was thatEgypt became The result of East, a circum,7t:,Le one. pawar pfthe Middle important commercial and resultedin through theaiateenth century that lasted "Mother of theWorld" (Abu-enghod, Cairo gainingthe title of tQa9). was organizedis a From its verybeaiaaing, Cairo century, IbnTulun A= rarly asthe ninth commercial center. for marketplacessurrounding began to haveplans drawn up 3c,3.

3ESTCOPYAVAiliBLE the mesques. These rowe of markets wereeetensive and were distinguished by their individualcommercial spiecialties. Special buildings were set asideto store 'and display merchandise as well as to lodgemerchants. These buildings had.a variety of names, khans,qaysaria, fondugs, and wikalas. These buildings had a somewhatuniform structure. Each ORS erected around alarge paved courtyard andhad a portico which supported agallery. The ground floor was made up of spaciousstores; on the secondfloor were apartments or cells to housethe merchants. The merchants had to and prepare all theirmeals in provide their own furniture business and theee.cells. Everything was done to encourage A typical wikalacontained twelve to protect the merchandise. rooms, a shops, ten booths,fifty-eight stores, six large seventy-five rooms forlodgers. In court, five attics. seventy such Cairo during thefifteenth century, there were highly specializedwith buildings. Each building was ethnic group frequentlyall selling the merchant= of a eipgle taken in Cairo atthe same typeof.merchandise (See slides Wiala El Ghur-y.)(Weit,19b4). elthTegh mingled inwith the suqs Three wikalas. Each suq or market were qoitediel-inct from them. hendreds of outdoorstalls fronting the place consisted of merchant. Each livino end productionqoarters of the local in ils own typeof product. There were et:J:1 epecialized that specializedin vecjetahle suqs, liveenimal suqs, sucis prodecte and spices. Prepared foods such heloed geode, grain were'sold each day atthe suqs. In as roasts orfried feede merchants suq, addition there werethe camel suq,the cloth tentmaker Bugs, thebook deelers,the enedlemaker and iust to name afew, rnmh maPpr and the iewc1,yhaars, ;nr th, 'u--rE5.7 ofproducts bnth mar+etnlacee merchants (Weit,i2A4), 1 r-,1 pnpulre pndthe fn-ciqn they are still part f Suqs areinteretinn heralise people indigeneuF r-t,mrrrial Cairotoday. 7(oth tourists and eection DC Cairorely on themfor much (-,F to the medieval architecture therethat has they buy. There iF en and baeicelly a responsetO the climatic eereleted that was Tall buildingwith .s.-conc!mic needsor-the Middle Ages. of the sun, streets hlockedout the heat e,!tremely narrow .ronts of thebuildings while endlessadditinne to thn contained need= ;,f thegrowing enterprise ArcDmmodating the to lose them offand en theetreets so as by therein encroached deadend passagesnavigable only creete an endlessma-e er (Abu-Lughod, 1971). of medievalCairo.) foot. (see slide= which to ihpeechitectural elements In eeeitn crf.thr- internrtlional trade,the culture faLilitaied this working withinformal conducive to place 1111.;lim people was trust that amerchant must clgroements andthe =nese of partners in otherlocations. This in4oro,,7-1 in his trading It refers tothe arrangements cooperation istermed sadaqa.

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3ES1 COPY AVAILABLE3 Area That Need Further Prr!earch and Explanationin the Racknrcould Section of thi LeFon:

1, A Fectinn needrs tr h reearched and written outlining thp rt.,ltural channes bevrndtW)ce of architecture that :fripRrtc'd Cr:tiro. Cairo 2. A ssction is r-td r.rfthe way the government of hrth accrmmodatrd andta.:rd the foreign merchants. fer improvement would be very 7. Further suggestierc e. wslcomed. and .5-/roiescx.reot:baelif- 4.firmar, courciequAahtilor745 /a Ate- ar,a/ 4.117/be foa/gdoce 4re01 lesson"Pia ieria

386 J.. P.RgPo.D LE5sTis).Elpfdy THE DEVELOPMENT OF tgDIEvAL cAxRo As isi0F;LD CEtjTER FslE TReDF eND commERcE

iyee.

I. The students will he able to understand and explain the economic role of Cairn ac a center of world trade during the Middle Ages.

2. The students.will be able to explain how trade and co(rfmer.ee affected the gengraphic, economic and cultural development of Cairo.

3. The studentS will be able to explain how geographic and cultural factors affected trade and commerce in medieval Cairo.

4. The students will be able to comparemedieval Cairo as it today to medieval Cairo as it existed inthe eleventh through the early si.:Iteenth centuryand speculate about reasons for change or16cJ thereof.

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19P?) flT wrld tradepatterns (Abu-Luchod, lic-ing the map help them io s':udents answer,-ile,,!;mns which will e./c,rlapping trade routesand the tleveiep hvputhese,- cepditions OP the.-e impar:t of geographicind seicerz.frc41 e.g. If aVencd.i: mprrhant wishes to buy I d hee c..nir,..s have tobe tradp,0 Tridi. in what pmr-t c Where do von thir& f.-entually reach the merchant" Wily? helar.gest trade center17oould develop? from travel booksabout Cairo and 2, Using slides made 1902) (Lambert and copies of woodcutprints qane-Poole, it stvdtglts to comparemedieval Cairn Ac, lambelet, 1990) ask the Middle Ages the wav itlooked during ]onkcF today with differences. Ask them to draw citing bothsimilarities and based on their t..:-,ncluions aboutchange in Cairo, (c,Tparisons. A diagramof the wikala l'Eing slides,pi ctnr m eattuta, 7. primary sourcedescriptions (Ibn (khanque), and about reasonsfor the ask studentsto hypothesize

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ANNOTf\TFD BIBLIOGRAPHY

iThn-Lynhod, Janet: Cal.rc,: ANt. Years pt the City Victprioup (Princeton: Princeton University Press) 1971. This source provides a description of political and F-rrnomic conditinns nnd their relationship to the p.:pansion and eventkial decline of Cairo as a trade crnter. Abu-Luclhod, Janet: Evlore. European hegemony: The &rid A.D.125n:117,7,0 (New York: Oxford University Press) 1989. This is an excellent source for maps that showtrade patterns and the'interrelationshipof.these routes throughout the world during the MiddkeAges. Birown and Company) Aldridge, James: CF:siy...2 (Trronto: Little 19e,9. This hnok'was urnrrallyhelpful in terms of providing a crncise rpvipw nf thehistory of Cairo during theMiddle Ages.

Goitein, S.D.: "Meditrrr,npanTrade in the EleventhCentury" in M.A. C,(24'.'; FluOes inthe Economic History of the to the Present Day Middle EaF,t,frroll thr FAse of Islam (London: ft!ford Prti.ss) 1970. abbreviated description ofthe This article nrovinc= an documents.(Fee A rontents and significanceof the Geniza MpOiterranean St7.!c1F2ty.) 5pgiety8' mg JewishCgmmwntty foitein, S.D. A Neditprri,ipftc,nPortrayed 0 tteppcpmentm of thle cF i,t)E? Aro? W(..Irld (Berl'eley: f:airo Geniza,yolLIme 1: Economic Fotanciatigns CalifLrnia Press)1967. University of in providingprimary This, source ispartirularly useful eements description,: t:F tradearrangements and agr snurce among descripti:tn,-, oftrading conditions as well as rest of the worlddurind the JPWs of thetew;;.a and the the eleventhcentury. pf Bulag inMamluk and Hanna, Nelly:An Lir.tan 17isj=y :71.4,pl.gmqut AU>:Annales.Iskamolpgiques, Pttpman Peniods:. Institut FrancaisD'Archeologie C,FThier Ng, 3 (Lu-Caire: Orientale) 1907. Bulaq sectorof Cairo where This hoc& is astmi), of the located duringthe port of rp:irocame to be the actual it is stilllocated today. late MiddleAges nnd where and Afrir:a 1325-1547, Ihn Battuta: anri VeganPaul) 1983. (loncion: PutlednP that providessome vivid This is arrimi;rv s!,,,rco Middle Ages. HPsrriptions nf dttring the

C 3 11-) 1404 .5.. -BEST COPY-NAIL-ABM Lambelet, Kurt and Edoard Lamhelet: Ancient Cairo Illustratigns: DLawings Oy Qwen B, Ar_chitect Cairo 1270., Calendar, 1991 (Cairo: Lehnert Landrock) This calendar providps a number of prints of medieval Cairo including two of Khan el Kalili and one of each of thp principal .gatos into the medieval city, Bab Zuwaleh. and Bab El NaEr. Theso are useful in helping studerits to makp comparisons betwpen the medieval city during thp olpventh through the sixteenth century and the medieval city of today.

Lanc-Pnole, Stanley! The F,tory of calf° (COndons 3. M. Dent and Comnanyl 19()2. Aside from being nenerally useful io providing a dsscription of Cairn's history,-there are severalgood woodcut imageq in this bc,ok which can becopied to provide student5,ii U1 a look at-the craftsmen and the merchants eif Cairr, during the MiddleAges.

Wr-it, Ga7,tont (7.itv pf Pirt e5Q1 Commgtag (Normans Univerrity of iiklAhoma Press) 1964. 'This was the best generaldescription of trade and crmmnrce in Cairnduring the Middle Ages. It providPs f.t,merous prima ry ,i!urre descriptionsfrom the "travel honks" of thos:e on pilgrimagesand trading expeditions in rairo during the MiddleAges. It also provides descriptinnt= ofthe wikala arr-ngement for iravel.ing traders.

391

-1747 r 1 1

JANE SMIT1-1

FACTORS RELATED TO EMPLONMEPRODUCTIVITY IN EGYPT: ACASE STUDY

Table of Contents Objective Page. Method 1 intemiew Oontents 1 Conclusion 4 Bibliography 4 Appendix After p. 4

Objective: To determine what factorsenhance or inhibit the productivity ofEgyptian emploYees

Metb21: Interview employees in the profitand non-profit sectors in Egypt Alsointerview American corporations engaged inbusiness in Egypt as well as Egyptian employees. Interviews were conducted with: (1) Larry Coleman, Human ResourcesManager, General DynamicsTank Program, Cairo (2) Ted Cudnick, Human ResourcesSpecialist, General DynamicsArmor Program, Cairo (3) Nancy Elias, Elias Printing Company(Elias Modern Press), Cairo (4) Dr. Robert Brown, Dean c4 ContinuingEducation, American University in Cairo (5) Dr. George Gibson, Provost, AmericanUniversity in Cairo Intent*/ Sesmtenta Driltlertilstism Question: What doss your organiL_Jon do? Anwar. We are the continuing educationarm of the American University. We began in 1920 offering programs,courses, and training in credit and non- credit education. We have twelve locationsthroughout Egypt In our Division of Public Service vie offer career-relatedprograms and teach approximately 25,000 students English. We also havea program geared to educators in particular subject areas. All commercial andindustrial training off site are offered through the DMsion. We doa large amount of computer and business trf:ining through this DMsion. Question: How is your staff organized? Answer. The organization is a simple hierarchy withthe President at the helm with the Dean d the Facuity and the Dean of ContinuingEducation reporting to him. I have three directors reporting tome. There is a gowning committee that ultimately makes all decisions. A staff committeemakes recommendations to the Gowning Committee. The Staff Committee iscomposed of secretaries, maintenance, etc. The whole university is dominated byadministrators. There is little partIcipation from the staff and there isa ruling clique. Question: What systems of rewardare offered to good performances of employees? 2

Anwar There is no reward for productivity. Question: What factors affect productivity? Anwar We are strapced by the labor laws c4 Egypt whichprovide an employee employment for life after an initial probationary period. There isnothing in the law requiring good to exceptional work but ifan employee steals or commits other deeds specified In the law there is someavenue for action. The prospect of life-long employment definitely effects theproductivity negatively in many cues especially since we do not have a specialized wardsystem.

Question: I recently talked with Dr. Brovm at AUG and he toldme about the tenure law in Egypt Do you believe the law affects the productivityof employees? Amor Yes, I believe that it does MUM problemsor at least has an effect on employee attitudes. For example, when I firstcame here I UN/ a student (or perspective student) wandering aroundcampus obviously In search of eomething. I started talking with him and determined hawas thinking about coming to AUC but wanted to know more aboutour curriculum. I took him over to admissions and stood at the desk for an interminabieamount of time until finally demanding some attention. Whena peraon responded I said that this young man needs a university catalog. The clerk responded by saying he could buy one at the bookstore. Since themwas a stack of them behind the desk I told her to give him one immediately. She did. Later Ithen talked to her supervisor who explained his dilemma under existing laws. Question: As dean of the faculty is there anythingyou do to enhance the contributions of your faculty? Armor The first thing I did when arrivingwas establish an open-door policy between me and the faculty. I encourage dialogueas often as possible. I am restricted by the AUC budget consequently I spent time iookingfor outside funding to enrich our offerings. I have increased the size of thefaculty since my arrival which eases some faculty burdens. There is alwaysmore that can be accomplished. Mr.Iitt.Q4Anirch Weed= Tell me about your organization and your job here. Answer I work for General Dynamics Corporation. tt isa company based in the United States that manufactures and maintainsweapons of war. The division I work with Is the Services Company that presently is under contract to service the Egyptian armory. Question: There is an Egyptian labor law that guarantees life-longemployment. Does this have an effect on your organization? Answer Not realty. We find that there are manyavenues available for ensuring productivity and when necessary terminating an employee. Queetion: I was not aware that there were many options availableb an employee. What are these options? Answer When we are dissatisfied with an employeewe terminate him, and usualty the employee goes to a tri-partite committee that reviews employee terminations. The committee (=sista of three repreeentatives:a company representative, an employee representative, and a labor board representative. On the C1130 of an Egyptian employee before the board, the labor board rules 90% of the time in favor of the employee. In the case ofa foreign employee before the board, the board rules 1006 of the Mr.:: in favor of the employee. Question: Do you have to face termination very often?

C 393 $

AMMer Actually no. There isan inherent goodness in the Egyptianpeople that permeates the work environment Question: Is the law ever circumvented Inthe corporation's favor? Ammer We try very hard b work withinthe laws of a host country. However,I have heard of cases in other corporationswhere the law Is circumvented.Some companies give employeesan undated letter of resignation to signupon employment In the eventa termination is needed. When the legal limitshave expired, an employee has the letterdated and submitted. Actually,I'm not exactly sure how this is done butI have heard of theoccurrence. Some organizations also have a resignationbonus that is enticing toan employee. We have the resources throughour legal department to work within the laws of the land; so, consequently,we adhere clog* to these laws. Question: How do you assure to the bestof your ability a productive work force? Anwar: We begin by monibringvery closely employees just hired. (See Appendix A) We have periodic reviews and requireclose attention from our supervisors to employee performance. Question: D003 the law haveany effect on productivity in your organization? Amor: Ibelieve that the educated Egyptianin our employ appreciates the opportunities afforded him in the privatesector of the economy. They know performance brings merits, promotions,and higher pay. If we havea problem it is more with the less-skilled workforce. I'd also like to think that the interactions and incentives offeredto all employees transcend the legalities the tenure system. of Mr,lenyStsgeman Question: What Is done at this facility? Answer. We as a division of an Americrncompany, General Dynamics, assist the Egyptian government to overhaul andproduce tanks. Question: What can you tellme about the Egyptian tenure law and your workforce? Answer: Our workforce isvery good and pmductive. I think It is inherent inthe Egyptian employee who takes pride inhis work There are rare occasions when an employee has to be termirated.We at Genera! Dynamics do not keep an unsuitable employee. Wework within the law and its mechanisms but we maintain a high performance amongour workforce. We do this with appropriate compensation andan interactiwe participative organization. Each employee is valued for his/her contribution. Regarding the tenure lawwhen in therare occasion that we terminate an employee, we amass considerable documentationand present our case to the labor board. The case then inevitabtygoes to the courts where a severance fee is determined and General Dynamicspays the fee. As mentioned by my colleague, American companiesare ruled at fault 100% of the cases. Thus, we pay. The amount requiredis fair and we this to be the cost of maintaining a productive workforce. Question: After having seen this law (AppendixB) are there any aspects of it you find noteworthy? Answer. Yes, there is a section that automaticallyaffords women up to 50 days off with pay to give birth to a child andup to 18 months an hour off each day to nurse the baby. I find this an interesting reflection ofwf.4# society and its values. (See Appendix C.) Ms. Nancy Elias Question: Tell me about whatyou do in this organization.

394 BEST COPY AVAILABLE 4

Meow This is a printing and bindingcompany hiring approximately 40 Egyptian people. We have been in existence forthree years and am considereda high- quality print shop. I am one d theowners. OuseNon: How do you enough about printingto get Into this business? Am= My family hu been in the publishingbusiness for many years. Weldon: When you opened your businesswhat criteria did you have in hiring? Anwar. In the binding areawe hired people we knew being particularlycareful not to pirate employees from other printinghouses. With both the binders andthe printers we told friends and printingcontacts of our needs, and applicants came to us. Printers are in demend and most other standards are paid well. Therefore, we chose our employeescarefully. What Ilooked foe in an employee most specificallywas a person I could communicate well with. Interpersonal rapport was most important Question: Does salary affect the productivityd an employee? Anwar Salary very definitely hasa bearing on productivity. I first determine salary by experience, then years of empioymentfollowed by productivity.If an employee exceeds my expectationsor the norms d the woridorce I pay extra. The system works well. Question: Knowing the laws of tenurecan you dismiss an empioyee? Ammer. Things in Egypt have a way of functioning within themselves. Ihave respect for and rapport with my employees.They are my friends. On occasion have had to dismiss an employee andI have done it by puttingso much pressure on him he resigned. On the whole that isthe method I use and it works. I've not had to face the laborboard or the courts. We work withinour own system.

ctonclusion: The Egyptian labor lawsinhibit productivity whenresources or cultural connections are limited. In thecase of the Egyptian firm the productivitywas more culturally connected than legally. In thecase of the American company, the laws were adhered to but ultimabsly circumvented with financialresources. In the case of the non-profit organization lacking bothtraditional cultural connecdons andthe financial resources to pay a levied fee,the law seemed to havean effect on productivity, However, regardless of lawsand rules employees whoare empowered by administrators witha sense d self-respect do their work well whether in Egyptian or foreign organizations.

Bibliography

Davies, Michael H. ausintlfiliawin_liza(Deventer/Netheriands: Kiuver Law and Taxation Publishers, 1984)

Center for Adult and Continuing EducationCatalog. The American UnNersity in Cairo (Cairo: AUC Press, 1988) GENERAL DYNAMICSSERVICES COMPANY EGYPTIAN ARMORWORKSHOP 101

PROBATIONARY PERIOD

LOCAL EMPLOYEE EVALUATION SHEET ortp.**1 I cu.!. tAi Ico Jitpi;

NAME: : r.-----..V1 CLASSIFICATION: L.....-4.6.41 EMPLOYMENT DATE: : csiroail 6)1: DEPARTMENT: : 4,1.0/I

EVALUATION BASED ON WORKING PERIOD OF: :j...... ; 0111111MMIal 4AI ,,sj j 41 jrifi: 30 DAYS 60 DAYS 80 DAYS CD 0..--v A.

ji-P-P 4.5J to Id.ur 41r. J1.---.1. POOR FAIR V.GOOD EXCELLENT

QUANTITY OF WORK : =I MI C=3 j-...... 4.1 I

QUALITY OFWORK : = E 1 1 I j--..A.II :J1.>1

TAKEN INITIATIVE : 11111 CD 1----1 j...... "i I j;Am.4: KEEPS ORDERLY WORK PLACE: CD = f 1 J---....^.11c.,5.. priaz FOLLOWS SAFE WORK HABITS: =3 CD 1 1 -...V 1Q.1...1.JdI.,.:1 COOPERATES WITH OTHERS: IMO fi twrim.Vicail:,6,4,344

SUPERVISOR'S COMMENTS' :),...... ,z141...0.1,1)1l1;,..)L,

EVALUATING SUPERVISOR: J----.....A.---1.0110.r4J41

DATE COtlil DEPARTMENT HEAD REVIEW: ;.) I ..) 11laftjj

DATE CV Ihj HUMAN RESOURCES REV/EW: cr....y.1.WI cot.:jr

DATE CyILI I

FILE: PERSONNEL FILE. -c c c t1.1.66.11 csLa ..01 A "n:41.611 a _ 9 _ *7044i/5 CHAPTER III INDIVIMAL.LADOUNMATIONS Section 1 - INDIVIDOAL LABOUR CONTRACT. Art. 29 -The provisions of the present chapter shall apply to the individual contract whereby the employee undertnkes tre work at the Employer's under his supervision end management against a salary of uhntever nature.

Art. )0 -The labour contraot shall be established in writing end worded in Arabia, in triplicate, one copy to @soh ofthe two parties, the third going to the Social Insurance concerned.

The contract shnll indicate, in particular 1

a) the nnme of theReployer, and address of his workplace,

b) the employee'snam, quelifioation, profes- oion, domicileand whatever oan confirm his person. o) nature nnd kind of work stipulated in the oontraot. d) the salary agreed, terms and timing of pay- ment, all wish and benefits in kind agreed.

In the absence of a written alntract, the em- ployee - alone - can prove his rights by all means of proof. He shell begiven receipt for suoh vipers and certificates as he may have deposited with the Beployer.

Art: 31 - Probationperiod shall be fixed in the con- traot. Noemployee me; be appointed under probationin excer-, of three months, nor con he beprobationer with the same Saployer more khanonce. Seotion II - Salaries

irt. 32 - The minimum salary of en employeesubject to the provisions of this guaranteeis the threshold salary es may be determined by ouch laws ns the State may promulgntein this oonneotion. The threshold salary may be increasedin respect of employees engaged inceltain in- dustries or crafts or jobs or incertain

1,6 397 -10 -

geogrephiosl grames the oommitteos stipuloted in artiole79 of the low may determine. present Donstion and ouchmeals my the employee may be served shall notbe scoountodes port of the thresholdsalary. Art. 33 - Oeleries nod other mountsse may be due to the employee obeli be rged inthe current legal tenderOUStelloy. 116 34 Oelnries shall bepaid inone of the wor- king dem dueregnri being token following s of the A - Oelnry-enrners shell be paid et once a month. least

B - If wage is by work piece,end the em- ployee has beenon the job formore then two weeks,the employee shall collect wages eachweek - ina single payment- consistent with the work achieved, the balancebeing payable within theone week doting from deli- very of his assignment.

0 - Apart from whatheo been mentionedabove employees shall receivetheir wagesonce a week, posoibly alsoonce a fortnight, or once a month incase they houldogre. in writing to suoh mods, of payment s Art: 35 The Employer'sobll:ntion topay tho emplo- yee's salary shallbe cleared only whenthe employee hen acknowledgedreceipt of his :apiary by oigning thepnyroll registeror statement or n formalreceipt, with indica- tion of the voriousindividual oonstituonts of the salary. Arti 36 - If the employee attends at the workplsoeat the fired working time,ready to start his job, hut wns preventedfrom so doing by clau- ses stemming from the Employer, heshall be deemed to hnve dischargedhis duties and en- titled to fullpay. 398 However, should he beprevented from atten- ding to the job by emergenoy causesbeyond the Ber,lcver's control andvolition he shall be entitled to half pay.

its 31 - The Bnployer maynot transfer a salary-earner to the cotegory ofjourneyman, or of wage- earners peid bythe week, the hour or gel:le- work except by writtenconr,nt of the mnplo- i yes, in which onsethe tranuferred employee shell be entitledto suchnights as he ray have acquired whilehe wee a alary-earner. is 'fermi:11)M, the fills 19 If the vork relationship employee shell beentitled to receive on the . 'Tot ell the amounts dueto him except if he ehould leave the jobof his min free will, in which case theDaployer shall pay him his enlery and n11 other emsdue within a maxi- mum timelimit of seven days datingfrom his leaving the job. shell not be forced tobtu, food Atte 3, - The employee shop or or othercommodities fror a given from the EMployer's rangeof products. than 10 * Art. 40 - TheAMployer may not deduot more from the employee'ssalary against cashloans renetved while thecontract was runningits oeuree, nor canhe levy interest. Thisorovi- eion shall applytO salaries paid inadvance. the Irte 41 - neither thefirst L/1.9 vf nelnry nor first P.T. 30 of tha4aily wage may be atta- ched or ceded ercepl upto one fourth of the sellry or wage inconsideration of alimony debt or egninst ramsdue for supplies(food and olothing) providedto him or to his de- of that pendents. Howeverwhat is in exoess percentage may be nkteohedor cededagainst exceeding one fourth,preference any debt of being gtven to alimonydebt in the event concurrence. ahnll npply to all sums The sbova erovietons of the present due to theemployee by virtue law. salary is de- In one. portof the employee's ducted in a000rdanoewit!the proviaions of -12-

the present section, the remaining portion rubjeot to attnchment or oession shell be added to the outotanding belanoe of salary after eubetraotion of the deducted sums.

Alto 42 - 71ithout prejudice to any better eoheme, employees in establishments employing five.honds or more dating from promulga- tion of the present low or dating from appointment after that date shall be enti- tled to an annunl increment of 7 % of the

salary agninst which opoial insurance is . contributed, amounting to s minimum LB.2 up to n maximum LB. 7 over s period of 20 years sterting from the first increment in implt- mentation of the provision of the present ertiol. The Bnployer mey deprive the employee of annual increment, wholly or partially, in implementation of the Penalties Regulations stipulated in article 59 of the present lew which vete the professional or behavlourel guidelines for entitlement to the periodical increment. Seotion III- LEAVES

Art. 43 - A 21-day annual leove with full pay shall be accorded to whoever he,' been on service for whole year, laove rising to one month after 10 consecutive yeors'aervioe.Binployees over 50 years oreentitleeto one month. Leave is reduced to 15 dmys in the first year's service following the lepoe of six months dating from going into service.

The Hininter of Manpower and Training may raise the period of leave by a maximum of seven days in favour of employees engaged in hav or dongenue lhbour and in suchremote area as the Minister may determine. The employee may not cede his annualleave.

1; C.C.. 400 - 13 -

Att. 44 - The employee may onsuslly absenthimself for maximum three days duringthe yesr, such ebsenoe kl0 be disoountedfrom the annual leave to whioh he isentitled. lit. 45 - The EMployer shall fix the timingof ordi- nary leaves as the oircumstenoesof ongoing operations may permit buthe may notour- tail defer, or cut leave except forcom. pelling reasons dictatedby the work in hand. In ellcoseo, however, the employee must obtninR minimum six-day uninterrupted annual leave.

in;a employee shall be entitledto determine the time of his annual*Leave if he is to sit for exsminntions in any phase oflearningon condition however that headvises the Beplo- yer of his going on leave twoweeks et least Iedvanoe. At the written requestof the employee, the annual leave inexcess of the six days refer- red to may be lumpedup on condition however that leave does notexceed three months in the aggregate.

The provision skipulatingsubdivision, lum- ping up or deferment of theleave shall not apply to mina's.

Art. 46 - The Esployermoy deprive the employee from his salary relating;:o the period of leave or recover such .t.leryam he may have given for that period if it isestablished that while hewas on.leave he was engaged ins job for another Blisployer.

Art. 47- The employee nlu,ll be entitled to salary relevant to the leeve owing him inpropor- tion to that portion of it thathe could not exhaust because he leftthe job prema- turely.

Art. 48 - The employee shell be entitledto leave with full pay on the ocoasion of such feastsas the Minister cif Manpower and Trainingmay decree, on condition however that, in the aggregate, these leaves a:e not inexcess of thirteen days perannum. 4'1 2uu 14

Out the employer mey require the employee to remain on the job during these festive days, if vo needed by the work in hand, in which case he shell be paid double sa- lary.

Art. 49 - The Deployer may grant the employee who has been on his servioe for three conse- cutive yearn, leave with Wolf ply for a. maximum period of one month in order to go on Pilgrimage or to visit Jerusalem only once during his service period.

Art. 50 - The employee who can establish his illness shell be entitled to rick leave with 75 % of his salary during the first 90 days, ri- ling to 85 ro over the following ninety dnym during the one and memo year. By derogntion to the provision of the prece- ding paregrnph, the employee of an industrial estsblishment subject to the provisions of ex- tidies 7 & 8 of Law No 21/1958 (Organisetion end Promotion of Industry) shell be entitled to sick leave as indicated hereunder every three yeers passed on the job - if he onn prove that he is actually sick.

One month with full pey, followed by eight months with 75 % of pay, th(on three months without pay in case the competent medical authority declares that he may re- cover.

The employee e,n11 exhnust the frozen por- tion of hir annual lesve alongside the nick lesvi.s he is entitled to, and he may request the Fick leave to be converted , into ennual leave if he still has an out- etnnding balance of annual leaves per- mitting nuoh conversion.

The employer may not terminate the emplo- yee's service due to illness unless the period referred to hes been exhausted.

Art. 51 - By derogation to the provision ofthe pre- ceding nrticle, the employee afflictedwith tuberculosis, leproey or mental illness,

BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2 4 02 - 15 -

or soy obronic disease shell be entitled' to sick leave with fullpay until recove- ry or until his oonditionso stablilises to enable him resume his job,or that he is proven to be totallyincapacitated and unable to engage inany profession or oreft.

These diseases shall be determined by de- claration from the Minister of Mete for Health in conjunction with the Minister of Manpower end Training.

Art. 52 - Without prejudice to the provisionsof the Social Insurance Low, physicalunfit. ness for work shall be diolered by the proper medical authority, end proof to the contrary shall be establishedby me- dical certifiontion, in whichcase either party mey request the Ooperadministra- tive authority to refer theosse to s Medical Arbitration Panel setup by vir- tue of decision emanating from the Mi- nister of State for Henpower and Training who shall oleo determine the prooedures of arbitration and the fees duet. ofa ma- ximum P.T. 100.-

The proper administrative authority shall inform both the Daployee and the BMployer or the cohcern of the outcome of arbitration when once it is uvailable. Both parties shell then comply with the obligations set by the Arbitrativn Panel.

In all cases, however, no employeemay be dismissed or hio ,ontrnot terminatedfor physical uhfitleas except in oonformity with the current Social Ineurance Law,

The work oontractmay not be terminated by the 1Mployer except on the employee's ttai- ning a minimum eixty years of ego, and without prejudice to the provisioni of the Social Insurance Law. In cane nge cannot be proven by the birth oer- tificate or officio/ abstrnot of thnt certi- ficate, proof shall be established by medi- cal certificate, in whioh case either pasty mny resort to the medioel arbitration refer- red to in order to settle such dispute es may arise in Ois oonnaokinn between ilhem. 21J2- -16-

Art. 53 - The proper medicalauthority or the phy- . eioinn of the Medioal InsurenoeAuthori- ty shell forbid the employee mixing vith a patientofflioted with oontsgious dis- ense to proceedwith his job for such period es may be appropriate.This pe- riod shell. not be discountedfrom the annual leave of the employeeuho hall levy his salary in full.

Section IV RBOULATIONS OOVERNINO INDIVIDUAL WORKRELATIONS

Art. 54 - The Bpployer mnynot deviate from the ref- triotions of the conditionsenshrined in the agreement, or assignthe employee to Job other than the one agreedexcept in oases of necessity inorder to prevent occident@ or to repair whet hesresulted therefrom, or in the event of foroe me.- Jeure, on condition thet suchassignment ie temporary. He mayhowever ensign the employee to e job other than the one ao. greed if it is notfundamentally at va- riance end 9rovided thatthe employee's material rights ore notimpaired.

Art. 55 - The Ktployershall open n dossier toenoh employee, Atnting his name,his profession, reting of his skills,domicile, social con- dition, dnte of startingservice, salary, and such modifications anany ensue; pe- nelties inflicted,leavestdate of end-of- service and oause oftermination.

He phnll file irtothe dossier investi- gation minnteti, theeuperiors report on vork perfoimanoe, endNigh papers es'may be relevant to theemployee's service.

He shall keep the saiddossier for at least one year skprtingfrom the employee's end-of-sevice. the employee Art. 56 - The Blaplo...ershnll transport from the ereo wherecontract wee concluded workplace and fromthe with him to the three porkplace back tothat area within

ar) 404 -17-

days dating from termination of the Service contract for any cause whatsoever, for any of the onuses indionted in the lew, lrdu- ring probation period, unlessthe employee should in writing refuee to returnduring tho period referred to. Should the Eleployer fail to do sothe admi- nistrative quarter shell - et theemployee's request - zetvrn him to the areawhere contrao- ting Wee effected, et ite oeu expense,and recover what it hasdisbursed thiough ad- ministfative lien.

Art. 57 - If the EMployershould entrust another with execution of one of thejobs within the field of his work, andthat ruoh job was in a singleworksite, the letter shall settle ell rights with theemployees of the original EMployer who shellbe held jointly liable. Section V - EUPLOYEES OBIIOATIONS AND DISCIPLIVARf MBASURES

Art. 58 - The employee shall 1.- do his job by himselfin ecooruance with the directives of theBaployer end under his supervision and ale° inconformity with what is set down inthe contraot, es stipulatedby the provislions ofthe law, work regulntions andoonective con- tracts, exert4.ng suchattention and care as may beexpeoted from an average man.

2.- comply rith 1",,,employer'sinstructions regardinc e.:ecution ofthe job within the province of hie duties orprofession no agreed,except if such instruotions ere inviolation of the oontrnot,the low and public more]ity,and provided tlmt obedience shnll not exposehim to danger. 3.- take cari of the meansof production pie- ced at his disposal,preserving them with

4 i; 5 A, -18-

the onntion and attention ofthe average man through suohprocedures es may be required to safeguard them.

4.- refrain fromdivulging work secrets.

5.- nlwnys striveto develop his*ilia and expertise,professionally and culturally, inoonformity with suoh regulntions endprocedures es the EMployer may formulatein oonjUction with the proper tradeunions organi.- sations end withio theframework of the means available.

6.- refrain from usingwork tools outside the worksite exceptby permisaion from theEMployeroutting away such tools in their proper pleoes.

7.- carry out alldirectives relevant to ncoupntional safety andhealth fixed by the conoern eitherin implementation of the law, theindividual or colleotive contracts, work reguletionsend rules, and the instructionsreceived. workforce numbere five Art. 59 - TheEmployer whose or more handsehell poet in aoonspicuous pines the set ofregulations governing work, disciplinary measures,the work system duly retified bythe proper administrative authority who shnllseek the advice ofthe trade union organisationto which the amplo- yeesPorthe concernare affiliatedbefore endorsing thereguletions in cisme theadmin- istrative authorityrefrains from ratifying these regulnti 1;, orobjects to them within thirty dive dntingfrom submisoion,they ehali be deemedexecutory end theMinister Training shall issuemodel of Menpower end for regulations andcenelties as guidance Employers. refrain frominflicting Art. 60 - TheEmployer shell of for a singleinfringement fine in excess five days or layhim off by the salory of for a periodin' way ofdisoiplinsry measure consecutive dsysfor a signle exoese of five five dayls infringement ordeduct more than - 19 -

aviary in the one andmmme month against fines or ley him offfor a period then five days of more in the one andsame month. Nor can he inflictdisciplinarymeasure Inter than thirty daysafter infringement hes been establishedon salary-earners and fifteen dayson other employees.

PUrthermore, no disciplinarymeasure shall be token against actions whiohare not men- tioned in the set of regulations. The disciplinary penalties,the rules and procedures of disciplining shallbe deter- mined by decision emanatingfrom the Minis- ter of Manpower and Training. lit. 61 - No employee may be dismissed exceptfor grievous mistake, notably inthe following

1.- if the employee shouldaseume a false personality or submits forgedoertifi- motes or recommendations.

2.- If the employee hes committedsuch gross mistake no has entailed grievousloss to . the EMployer, on conditionhowever that the Niployer advises theproper authorities accordingly within four hours fromhis knowledge of the faot.

3.- if the employee fails to complywith the directives issued toensure safety of the workforoe and of theconcern, in spite of the written summons served,on condition however that these directivesere in writ- ten form r-i ?osted ina conspicuous place.

4.- if the employee has keptawny from the Job on no legitimate grounds formore than twenty discontinued days withinthe one end same yeer or more than tenconsecu- tive days, in the first instnnce,and five days in the second instance,

5.- if the employee refrains fromdischarging the cruoinl duties inoumbenton him by virtue of the work contract.

6 - if the employee should divulgesecrets re- lating to the concern where he isoperating. 407 2C6 20 00

7.- if the employee ham beendefinitively convioted for crimeor seriouo offence affecting honesty, loyaltyor public morality.

S.- if the employee should be foundin an obvious gists of drunkeneusor under the influence of addiction tonesoo- tics.

9.- if the employee should esseult the linployer or the exeoutivomsnoger or anothar one of the superiors whileon the job or because of it. krt. 62 If s grievous disoiplinery mistake midi- ling dismissal hes, been ottributed toan employee, the Enployer'shell- prior to deciding on dismissal- apply to the three-member committee composed of the following t

- The Director or Deputy Director of the Manpower ne__p_ k President B Workforce representative selected by the trod* union concerned *amber O - The Bnployer or hie representative Vf1P..lp Member The Bnployer's epplioation shell be ac- companied by the employee's service dossier end memo describing the grounds of dismis= sal.

Art. 63 - The committee shall look into the appli- cation within a moximum two weeks dating from submission; the oommitteele presi- dent shell serve notice to the employes, the Employer end the workforoe represent- atives indicating the date and place of the meeting, by registered meil with aok- nowledgement of receipt within three days dating from reoeipt of the epplicstion by the committee's eeoretariat. Signature of aoknorledgement by the person conoer- .ned shall be deemed in lieu of notice.

4138 -21-

Should the EMployer or hierepresentative. fail to stkend in spite of thenotice germ vett to him, hie application shell be deemed null end void. If the workforce's represem- tative should fail to ettend,the employee shall be his own representative on the committee (or whatever person he may choose); and if the employee or his representative. should fail to attend the meeting despite the summons, the Xresident of the oommittee may approve etoppnge offurther payments ( of salary ).

The employee and the workforoerepresentati- ve shall be ndvised of s newdote for the meeting of the committee, and if both should default then the application shall be examined in obsentis.

In order to proceedwith its assignment the committee shall first socordhearing to the employee's own defence, cell witnesses for evidence, and review suchdoouments, papers statements and registers es it meydeem ne- cessary.

Art. 64 - The committee'n decisionwhich shall be pas- sed by majority vote shall be of aconsul- tative character; the committee shelldrew up minutes ofthe proceedings in triplioete (original + two copies) reportingdeclara- tions expressed in the hearingend the mo- tivated opinion of esoh member.Om shell be delivered to theEmployer for filing on the. 'employee's servicedossier, copy to kho workforce representativefor filing with the i'rede unionorganisation, the original going to the Labour Offioewithin the die- triot of the ',Aplooe.

Art. 65 - The employer maynot dismiss an employee before putting his caseto the %hree-mem- bex oommit%ee referredto in article 62, otherwise hie dmcisionmould be deemed null and void and he wolldbó bound to pay the employet's

Art. 66 - The employee whohas been dismissed on no motivating grounds shell pressfor stey of - 22 -

execution of dismiosal nnd apply to the proper administrntive authority within the district of the workplace within a IMAM= time limit of one wek doting from the IMployerle notice by registe- red mail. This authority shell take steps to settle the dispute amicably, end if no settlement is reeemod it shall refer the nIplication within maximum two weeks to the 0ourt of Sum- mary Prooeedings within the district of the workplace, or to the maginstre- te of the competent court of first instence concerned with labour effnirec,.1- in his capacity es adjudioater of ur- gent affairs in towns where these oourts already exist or are due to be set up, reference being nocompanied by memo in five copies comprising sumMery of the dispuke nnd the pleas of the two perkiest es well es the remarks of the proper administrative authority. The Clerk's Office of the Oburt shell then within three days doting from commil- nioation of the application to the Court fix the date of a hearing to look into stay of execution within a ma:im-m of two weeks dnting from such communioetion. The. 'employee, the anployer and the pro- parridministrative authority shell be dulrnotified hy registered mail,notice being accompanied by oopy of the memo of that nuthority. The megistreie shell adjudicate the ap- plication for stey of execution within a maximum two weeks datingfrom the firpt hearif%, and his ruling chillbe definitivu. If heshould rule in favour of stay of execution, he shall at the same time condemn the Diplomto pay the employee s sum equivalent to his snlary dating from dismiasal, end refer the case to the competent courtwithin the district of the workplace or to the court conoerned with labour affairs in towns where such courts exist. This court shrill nettle the dispute by com- pensation, if there be ground for

410 - 23 -

compensation, withina mnximum period of one month doting from the first hearing. If the substance of the suit 14 notad- judicated within the time limit estin the preoeeding peragraph theBloployar may - instend of pnying tbe employee hill foo- lery - deposit an equivalent amount with the court cash officeuntil the me is adjudicated.

The sum of money thet the employee had obtained in e;:eoution of the sentence of the magistrate of Summary Proceedings or from the Court's cash office from the amount of oompennntion that the employee

would be adjudged, or from any other 11.- mounte due to him. The court hell rule in favour of the dismissed employee'e return to his job, if he had been die- miased for trade union activity,

Onue of proof that dismionel was not on thnt Account shall lie with the EMployer. Appeal against sentences stipuieted in current lawn shell elplr to ruaings re- turned over the onse. Appeel shell be filed within ten deyo and the court shell edjudionte within a maximum one month dating from the first hearing.

Art. 67 - If the employee hne been charged with criminal or selious offence affecting honour, loyalty or public morality, or any other carious offence within the scow pe of work,tlif, Brployer may ley him off, as a precautionary measure, and put the case before the committee referred to in article 62 within three deye of layoff.

The'onid committee shall adjudicate the cese.within one week dating from trubmis- sion of the application. If itabould en- dorne layoff the employee shell be paid one hulf of his selnry, but if layoff is not endorsed, the employee shell be paid full salary.

If the proper authority finds that there

(. . . ; 4 - 24 -

in no mill for arraigning the employee, or clears him off the oharge, the employee shpll be returned to his job, failure of which shall be deemed arbitrery dimmiesP).

If it ehould be established that the ohsrge had been fabricated by the limployer or by his executive deputy in charge, the rept of the salary due On the period of layoff shall be poid end if it should over to the proper authority orthe court that fabric's- tion did in fact occur, suoh fabrication shall be pointed out in its deoision or en- tence. The employee shall likewise be entitled to the balance of his salary during layoff in ,0880 he should be cleared. In tido event, one half of the salary shell be paid until the committee issues its de- cision. If the committee'e decision does not endor- se deemissel or termination ofservice the other half of the employee's salary shall be paid upon hia return to the job, and lnyoff shell not impair any of the emplo- yee's rights stipulnted by law or the work contract.

In this event, inyoff shallnot be deemed disciplinary penulty, whether ornot layoff or termination ofservice is approved by the committee.

Art. 68 - If the empinvee an sresult of his own mis- take has onused the loss, damage ordestruc- tion of equipmont or machinery orproduoto belon4ng ko the employer or entrustedto him, he shall have to provide counterpart of the loss, &spiv, or destruction. After inveatigoting the matter endadvising the pmployee, the EMployer shelldeduct the countervolue referred to from theemployee's selarl'i up to a maximum fivedays' woges per single month.The employee may contest the Employer's estimationbefore the commit- tee referred to in ertiole77, end in cam 2 412 - 25 -

the workforce is fewer than 50 hands, opposition shall be. made before the committee referred to in ertiole 62 of the present luw.

In both oases the committee:ledecision shnll be subject to appeal withinten deys dating from issue beforethe °oust of Summary Proceedingswithin the dis- trict of the workplaoe. If Judgement does not oorroborste theamount of com- pensation estimated by theEmployer or that a lesser amount wee assessed,he shall refund suoh surplusdeduotion as he may have effectedwithin seven days dating from declarationof the judgment or fromendorsement of the committee's decision. However the Employer may nobredeem his claim through deductions, as perthe sti- pulation::: of the present article,if the sum involvedamounts, in the aggregate, to two months' salery.

,t. 69 - The provisions of thepresent section' shall not impair the guaranteesstipu- lated in the Trades Unions Lawin fa- vour of members ofthe board of trade unions organisational ouchguarantees being equally applicnbleto members elected to the board onbehalf of the workers.

rt. 70 - The employershall record in anad hoc register such cash penalties eshe may inflict on th- zpaployee,stating the cauee and alsohis name end emountof his salary. Proceedsof thee penalties shall be entered in anindependent ac- count to be used as theMinister of Sta- te for Manpower addTraining may decide in conjunctionwitn'the Trade Unions Federation. Seotion IV - mystwqmOF yoitkpsj.knoNs!uP terminnted Irt, 71 - Workrelationship shall be following onuses : for one of the I-) ' 4r 413 -26-

First a A - Ehd of thework contrsot if it stipuleted a fixedperiod.

B - End of the missionof the sea- stoma employees.

..1 - Endof temporary work or work nssigned to sick employee.

Seoond ,Denth of theemployee, either mos. hull or by judgement.Declaration of death ky judgementshall be by virtue of s. definitive court sen- tence.

Third Resignation of the employe*. The employee's absencefrom the job for more then 10 oonseoutivedays or 20 nonconsecOivedays during the one and ewe yearwithout acioep- table excuse, often bedeemed resi- gnation on conditionhowever that notice is served tothe employee after on absence offive days, in the first instance,and 10 days in the sectond instance,in which case the motter shell bereferred to the Ommittee stipulated inartioel 62.

Fourthi Totn1 incepocityof the employee to do his originalJob or partial per- manent disabilitywhen it is proved tbelt therl is no otherjob evens- ble, condition however thatthis ir duly establishedin conformity with the SocialInsurance Lew.

Fifth t Proof ofnegative probation. fixed period end Art. 72 - If thecontract is for a tbe two pnrties pursueexecution after ef- fluxion of the period,the oontreot shall period. be deemed renewedfor an indefinite Renewal would alsobe deemed for onindefi- comprises new nite period evenif renewal conditions. 414 -27-

Casual, temporary and seasonal work shall not apply to foreigners' work oontreots.

73 - If the eal loYoesbould die while he is in service, he Itnployer shell pay to his fa- mily whet is equivalent to two months' full selery to defray funeral expenses nt a minimum LE.50, plus a grant-in-sid amounting to full salary of the month of decease end the two following months as stipulated by the Sooisl Insurance Lew No 79/1975.

The EMployer shall equally Resume props., ration and tronsport of the corpse to the area whence he engaged the employes unless the fumily should request transport of the oorpme to another area et its teen expense. EXpenees incurred by the EMployer shall be deducted from the funeral ello- wence referred to in the pzeoeding para- graph.

.t. 74 - The Employer shnll give the employee st the latter's request end free of oharge a "character" symdioatingdate of his going into pervice, Ante of his going out of servioe, the nature of his Job, emount of salary, end fringe benefits, if day. A certification of expertise stating hie piofeeeidhal skills and performenot shall also be delivered frel of charge to the employee while the oontreot is running its course.

The employer shall return immediately upon the employee's request, such papers or certificates as may have beenlodged with him.

&rt. 75 - After attaining 60 years of age,the em- ployee shall be entitled to anend-of-6 service grntuity of one halfmonth sa- lary to eeoh of the subsequentfive years, unless he should be entitledto other rights from that periodrelnting to old age pension,inospsoity end death, am 415 presnribed by the gocialInsursnoe Lew promulgtAed by virture ofLew No 79/1975. Chapter IV

WORK CROUP RELATIONS

SECTION I - CONSULTATION& COOPERATION. Decree e Irt. 76 - By virtueof s Presidential Higher ConsultativeCouncil shall be set up underthe chairmanship ofthe Minister of Statefor Manpower end Training comprisingmembers (due to of their positions)end en equal number members representingthe ihiployere AsA- sociation end membersrepresenting le- ' bour. TheCouncil'e prerogatives end competence shell bedetermined by the

be Art. 77 - Jointconsultative councils shall set up in enterpriseswith a steff of fifty employees or morecomprising six members, half ofthem representingthe enterprises und theother half repre- senting labour, thelatter helf to be selected from theemployeen of the en- terprise by the trndeunion committee ptefe- et the beginningof eech yeer, all the emotionsof rably representing be the workplaoe, esfor hs this mey possible. The committee, orthe xepresentntive of the porkfo.ce,or theenterprise may invite onerepresentative of the authority to properodminintrative attend its meetingwhen vexed matters nre beingexNnined . VlitHniifteen days oftheir consti- tution the midoommittees shellhave formulated internalregulations re- gulntions organisingthe manner of selecting itsohnirman from among the EMployers nndlabour in alternnte

416 - 29 -

rotation to preside over its meeting.. In cases when s delegate from the administra- tive authority is invited, chairmanship shell be aseumed by that delegate. The in- ternal regulations shell also indicate how the meetings ere to be organised, their ti- ming, the place where meetings are to be held end must be ratified by the proper ad- ministrative authority.

If this committee has not been formed within three months dating from implementation of the law, the proper edministrative authori- ty shall seleot its members.

Art. 78 - The committee referred to in the preoeding article shall be competent to issue direo- ' tives shout the following mattersi

- proposals regardingorganisation of 'fork and improvement of productivity. 2 -improvement of working conditions. 3 - overseeing professional training plans within the framework of general topionl levels.

4 - organising social relation. between la- bour end emoloers, end affording op- portunities of 000perntion between them to promote joint interests. 5 - assessing t:i sums needed to repair whet the employee may have damaged in conformity vith article 68.

Art. 79 - The Ministey of State for Manpowerand Training ehall set up - by dicieions - consultative or cooperation committeeS in the fields of employment, vocational trainingoaleries-at the Republic, go- vernorate or sector levels.

The Minietsr'n decision shall determine the competence of these oommittees, the manner of running their affairs,end to what extent their resolutions shell be mandatory. The oommittees referred to shall comprise representntives from khe proper edminetre- t. 216 417 IMO

tive authority, the Suployers,labour and whoever may assist Iv their expe- rience.

SECTION /I - COLLECTIVELABOUR CONTRACTS AND AGEREEMBATS

!rt. 80 - The collective(group) labour oontrnot is en agreementformulating the working conditions end circumstancesbetween one or severnltrede union organisations nnd one or meveralEmployers or whoever employ labour affiliatedto these orge- nisakions orermployersIOrgenisations, in e,hid to providebetter oonditions, benefits or circumstances.

The employer may delegatethe Federation of Industries, theChamber of Cbmmerce or any &organisationto which he is affiliated to conclude the contract onhis behalf.

Nmployers Organiontions maylikewise con- clude these contracts esrepresentatives of EMployers.

Art. 81 - In case severnlTrnde thion Organisationa should be involved asparty to a collective labour contleot, they mustrepresent allied or kindredcrnns or industries orcrafts, end industries engagedin the menfaoturing of one product.

Art. 82 - 011lective lobourcnntrsots shall be written failing which nhall be null end void. They must liki,wise beagreeable to two-thirds of the Boerd ofDirectors of the oontreoting Trade UnionOrganisation. not Art. 83 - The colleotivelobo= contract shell be binding exceptafter it hed beenrevised and recorded withthe proper administrative authority. If the properadminstrative

2:7 _418 - 31 -

authority shouldcontest the contract it shell 'Ovine theinterested parties of the motivating causesof its opposition within thirty daysdating from submis- by sion. If noopposition is declared authority within the the administrative shall time limit ofopponition, the contras:it be deemedexecutory. appeal the Any perty tothe contract mey decision of theadministrativeauthority before the Courtof SummnryProceedings within of the districtof the authority thirty clear daysdating fromopposition* concerned shall begiven an The parties such abstract of uppen1after payment of fees Rs theMinister of Statefor lianponer and Training mnydecide. contracting 'Trade UnionOrganisations, irt. 84 - Non them EMployers ofOrganisations representing the contraot afterit hes been re- mey join the two labOur corded uponagreement between affiliation, without parties requesting contrac- further ac.reementof the original such affiliationto be applied ting parties, parties to the for,duly signedby the two properadministrativeauthority. collective labourcontracts ut. 85 - Theprovirions of shall apply to t Bmployers, A - Trade onionorganisations, the orgnnisatonsrepregenting them would be or theenterprises whioh col*enot et.thetime of party to the its its concluair, orjoining it after conclusion na shownin the preoeding er- tiole, ns yell asthe Orgnnisntions substituting for thecontracting Orge- hitations andaubstikutes ofcontracting employers. affiliated to aTrade Union Or B - Workers would be partyto the geniention whichagreement, or to e contract or the would have Trade UnionOrganisation that joined it afterconclusion.

419 - 32 -

EMployees on whom the provisionef this article apply shall remain subject to the Provisions of the contract or the agreement throughout its duration even if they should have retrnoted membership from these orgeni- notions prior to ffluxion of its duretiOn.

Art. 86 - Any conditions enshrined in the collective labour contract thet may be in violation of nny of the erovisions of the present law shall be null and void, unless it affords better adventage to the employee.

Art.117 - Anr condition enshrined in the collective labour contract likely to impair seourity or jeopnrdime the economic interest of the country or be in violation of the provisions of current lawe end regulations or the ge- neral order end publio morality shell be null end void.

Art. 88 - Each party to the collective lebour contreot shell petition for ruling terminating it in if crucisl chaeges in the working conditions occur which would justify termination on con- dition .however at least ont yeer has elapsed sinoe implementation.

Art. 89- A collective labour contrect may be concluded for a limited eeriod or for such period as may be necessary to finalise a given project on condition, however, that the period in both oases is not in excess of three years.

If the period has elapsed, the contract shell

. be deemed eelf-renewed for another year un- tees the contract should provide otherwise.

The conhract shell come to an end with the effluxion of its original or renewed period if either lenity should one month st least ahead of end of the contract, advise the other party or the proper edminietrative authority that it does not wish to renew it.

27r.) 420 - 33 -

If one of thetwo whole to thecontract la-determined, effluxionof its duration in respect of oneof them shall notentail termination in respect ofthe rest. contract is reoorded Art. 90 - TheRegister where shell be annotatedaccording to whether the contract hen runits course, been renewed, terminated orextinguished. collective labour Art. 91 - Theprovisions of the contract concludedby the TradeUnion Organisation shallapply to all the workforoe of theenterprise even if affiliated eome ofthe employees arenot Organisation oncondi- the Trade Union unionist mel- tion howeverthat the trade for one bore of theworkforce come in half of theenterprise staffet the time when contract weeconcluded. Union Organisationsthat are party Art. 92 - The Trade shall file to the collectivelabour contract out of violationsof the a all suits arising of its snid contract onbehalf of any one members, no rowerof Attorneybeing required in this inatanoe. he may That member mayjoin litigation, as elso bring aseparate oese. Section III

AMICABLE SBITTLEMENT -ADJUDICATION OF COLLECTIVELABOUR DISPUTES present sectionshall Art. 93 - Theprovisions of the apply to anyconflict ordispute regarding conditions that mayarise between work or its all the workforce one or moreEmployerm and of s team ofthat workforoe. conflict shouldarise of ansture Art. 94 - If any preceding subject to theprovision of the

421 - 34 -

article, the two conflicting parties or their repreeentetivsfshnll seek emionble n000modntion through collec- tive negotintions.

Art. 95- If the two conflicting parties fuil to rench settlement of the dispute, wholly or partially or thet either of the two perties should decline to enter into collective negotintione, either party navy refer the dispute to loonl commit- tees or the central council ooncerned with settlement of disputes that shall be created by virtue ofn decision emit- !riling from the Minister of Stets for Manpower end Trnining, providing for their getting up nnd npeoifying their competenoe nnd procedures.

If settlement cannot be reached within sixty deys doting from eppliontion, the plpers sholl be referred to the proper Arhitretion Fonel within one week of fnilure to ngree on settlement.

Att. 96 - If the npplicotion referred ho in the preceding erticle is filed by the Em- ployer, it shnll be signed by himself personally or 1,:y his nuthorinedernie- eery.

If epplication Yon been filed by the employees, it sholl be submitted to the !lend of the Tro.'.n Union Orgoninntion to which t'ley belong, subjeot to the epprovel of tha Botird of Directors of the Trede Union Orgeniestion. In close they should not belong to eny 2rnde Union Orgnnieotion, the implication shell be filed up by th3 majority of the workforoe or the mnjoxity of the employees of the entexpriee division who ere concerned with the dispute, such appliontion to oompriee ?omen of thore who will negotiote for en omicehle eolutton ond ndju4iontion on behelf of the Trnde Union Orgnniention or the em- ployees on condition, however; thot they

221 422 35

do not number more than three.

The proper ndministretiveuthority in- volved shell give receipt ineoknowledgement of the npplicntion,duly signed by its President or his Deputy whereindate of keception shall be specified.

Art. 97 - The ArbitrationPanel shall be composed of

1 - One of the .Jircuits ofthe Appeal Oourt that the Oenerul Assembly ofeach Court shnll determine at the beginningof e- very Judicial Yeefr.

2 - Representative fromthe Ministry of Man- power nnd Trainingdetailed for that purpose by theMinister. The Heed of the saidcircuit shell not es Chairman.

Art. 98 - If the dispute concernsemployees of one of the brenches of theenterprise engaged in operatione in various areas,arbitration of the dispute shell lie withthe panel within the district of the HeedOffice of the enter- prise.

Art. 99 - The President ofthe Arbitration renalMen determine the heiring ofdjudicetion within a maximumfifteen days dating fromreceipt of the mere of the disputefrom the Disputes Settlement Council. The membersend represen- tatives of the lisputingpnrties shell be advised by registeredletter at least three dayenheed of the dote ofthe hearing.

Art. 100- The two membersof the ArbitrationPnnel shall take the of,th before itsPresident that they will dischnrge their dutyin bone fide nnd truthfully. - 36 -

101 - The Arbitrntion Pnnel shalllook into the dispUte.referred to itsattention and adjudicate it within a meximum pe- riod of 20 duys &king fromoommunios- tion. The two parties shell attendbefore the Arbitration Panel in person orthrough their respective deputies.

The Psnel shell coilwitnesses after swearing them in, delegatsexperts to survey the plent andworkplace, get em- cees to all the documentsaria s000unt books referring to the dispute endtske such proceedings no may enable the panel members to orbitrate.

The Panel shsll infliot suohpenalties es nre ntipuleted bycurrent laws, if one of the litigating partiesshould fail to submit the dicuments end memorendnin nupport of his derenoe or ifthe witness chould - without acceptable exonse -fail to attend, refuse to take theoath or reply.

102 - The Arbitration Psnelshell apply the our- rent lows end may groundits decisions on the provisio.ls of Sharis(Islamic Law), none, and theprinciples of juntioe in accordance with thesocio-eoonomio condi- tions of the nrea.

The Penel' xqp-tution shellbe passed by mnjority vote, duly motivatedend deemed ruling returned by the appeal%tut after drafting it in executoryterms from the Ulorkb! Offioe of thecompetent Appeal Court. Itther party to the dispute maycounter- nppeal the resolution beforethe Supreme Court, in socordanoewith the conditions, terMs'and procedurestipuleted in current execUtive laws. The President of thePanel shall notify the two parties to thedispute by communiosting Ai 4 4:4 -37-

copy of the ArHtretion qeso/ution ky registered moil within three days of itm Adoption. The Arbitration Panel shall relay the dossier of the case nfter noifying the two pnrties to the dispute, es indicated in the preceding porapraph, to tht prc- per administrative authority to hors the wording of the resolution recorded in an Ad hoc register. The dossier cht0.: bo de- posited in its urchives from which extracts may beiissued to whoever may be oonoernei.

Art. 103 - Resolutions emanating from the Arbitration Panel shall be subjeot to the provisionS regarding correction of judgements and their interpretntion stipulated in laws in force. Rejection of the members who are not Justices snd their dismissal shall be subject to whet applies io the ?resident of the Ponel in res- pect of the provisions governing rejection of ustices end their dismissal stipulated in these laws.

Art. 104 - Problems of execution shall be referred to the Arbitrntion Panel in its capacity as Justi- ce concerned with urgent matters if whetis re- quired is e temporery formality. These pro- blems shnll be subject to the provisions re- lating to execution problems stipuloted in laws in force. Art. 105 - Termination of the 'about oontroct or dismis- sal of the reprr-entatives of employees or the Ttnde 'Won Orgsnisetion shell not pre- o1u6e dlenharge of their duties before the lonnl committees or the Disputes Settlement PonnOVI or the Arbitration Pune/ so long se the Oployeen or the Board of Directors of the OkgpnisAtion has not provided others, 56 The arbitration authorityshall send the fi.

of the matter Etter announcingtee tIc disputax.4. parties an Drescribed abase tc the ealpetent aa-inistrative

authority to have the version of thesentence ant- . ered in a special register and to dopositthe file with their archive while giving

authentic copies to the people concerned.

11.. Art. 103: The provisions related to rectifyingand xplaining

judicial sentences stipulated by lams in forceshall ap,lv to the sentences adopted by the arbitration

authorities also thos provisions in respect of withering the non juduo neLbers of the arbitration

authorities stipulated in such laws in force Art. 104 : Any complexities arisinu fromexecution Abell

tt submitted to thearbitration authority in its capacityas an ur:ent matters Judge in a

,ase a momentary procedure is required and the

measures in force as regards execution complexities

stipulated in the laws in force shall be Art. 105 The termination of thelabour cuntraot, the dialltitsal of the workers or the synaical

ofganisationshall not prevent them from con- tinuing to perform their jobs before the local

comnittees, the dispute settlement councilar

the arbitration authority unless the vorkeror tne ayndical ort;anisation board shall choose

others. Art. 106 : The Minister of Justice in agree:lent rith the

!Anis-ter of State for Latour Forts and Train -

atail specify !bet:umber required of arbi- tration euthoritien, their localities and the local functions for each in addition to hear-

426 A, 4 ing attendance fees forthe represent- 3EST COPY AVAILABLE atives of the concerned ministries sitting . SUSPENSION

PART POUR

Art .107- Thepremier minister shall issue decision rorsing

a Committee todeterLms theapplications of firms to totallyor partly suspend nark,to changethe scope of the firmor its acti- vity in a way that will.affect tho labour volume and uch a d.eiai al3 cpecify k tle fuootios of Vor COMMOttOO,ite procedures and the ministries and authorities to be represented in this cos:Attar.

Employers shall notstspend work whollyor pa.rtly or change the labourvolume ofthe firm or its activityunless tbey obtain the approval of such acommittee. Any provision contrarythe above stipulation :tau be oonsideredas voidandbe cancelled. CRAPTER PIVE UnC=I=SILUZUMUZUUK VocationalMMIM Heathand Safe ty

Part Ons - Definitions andScope ANio of Application Art. l08 - On theapplication of thischapter's

provision a firm shallmean:-

Any project or utility Ounedor managed byoneofthe persons ofthe general or pecialtaw. Art.1u9 - The prvvisions ofthe prosiest ahapter shall sp..ly to all thefirms of the private

4 'e)7sector-Umunits of the publicsector and

the state administrativemechimery av well *figel -55-

Section III EMPLOYMENT OF FEMALES

Art. 151 - Without prejudice to the following provisions, female employees shall be subjeot to all the texts governing employment of sale workers, without distinction between the two,

Art. 152 - remote employees may not be put to work bet- ween 8 h. p.m. and 6. h. a.m. except in suoh jobs and circumstances as may be determined by the Minister of State for Manpower and Training.

. Art. 153 - No female employees may be assigned to jobs as may be bodily and morally harmful to them, nor in arduous and other jobs es the Minister of State for Manpower and Training may deter- mine.

Art. 154 - The female employee who has seen Berri!), for six months with her employer shall be entitled to a delivery leave of fifty dope with full pay, ouch leave to comprise prenatal and postnatal periods on condition that she submits a medical certificate indiosking the date of delivery. The female employee shell not be entitled to this leave more tban three times, throughout her service period.

The female employee may not be put to work du- ring the forty days following delivery.

Art. 155 - Within the eighteen months folloving date of delivmry, the female employee who gives suck to her infant shell be entitled- additionally to thwrest period e.t - to two additional perioda for that purpose, each of not less than half on hour. The two periods may be lum- ped into one period.

These periods shell be oounte4 as part of the working hours and shall entail no reduction from salary.

Art. 156 - In the enterprise whose workforoe comprises fifty or more hunds, the female employee shall be entitled to lei've without pay for a maxi- mum period of one year, to bring up her infant. Only three such leaves shall be granted throughout her service period.

C.;) C . f 428 Art. 157 --In case the latployershould have :ieeverel female one or employees on hisstaff he 'shell post thoregulations male workers governing fe- in a oonspicuousplace. Art. 158 - The Ehployer who hasone hundred female workers or more on his staffnoting in single workpinoehall setUp a nursery as per the terms and conditions thatthe Minister or Statefor Manpower .shall specify. and Training

Likewise, theenterprise which than one has less hundred femaleemployees staff shall be on its bound to thetext of the foregoing paragraph as per the termsend .00nditions thatthe Minister Manpower and of State for Training.shalldetermine. Irt. 159 - Female workers engagedin purely agrioul- tural pursuits shall be exemptedfrom the provisions of thepresent chapter. Chapter VII

INSPECTION AND JUDICIALREPORTING Art. 160- Rhiployess who are vested with judicialstnius in the implementationof the provisions this present of law and itsexecutive decisions ni*llvisit the workplace to ascertainthe pYbper executionof the law.

Thee. offioialsand their superiors take the oath shall from the Ministerof State for Manpowerand Trai-iug when to the effect appointed, that they shalldisoherge their duties honestlyand loyolly and thatthey shall refrainfrom divulgingany secret per- taining to ongoingoperations to industrial patent that theymay have had access to by virture of theirposition, even afterthey have retired.

. 1 1 Art. lt1 Offioials whoare vested with judicial status

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