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Archive of SID ORIGINAL ARTICLE Medical Ethics in Egyptian Fatimid Caliphate 61 Abstract Masoumeh Dehghan1 Medical ethics is one of the oldest and most important branches of ap- 1-Faculty Member of Department of His- plied ethics. Development of medicine and revolutions in human life as tory, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran well as advancement of mental and physical health in human civiliza- Correspondence: tions have led to great progress of ethical debates in this field of human Masoumeh Dehghan Department of History, College of Lit- sciences. Islamic civilization, as one of the dynamic and lasting human erature and Humanities, University of civilizations which promises Islamic spirituality in all aspects of mate- Shiraz, Eram Sq., Shiraz, Iran rial life, could not possibly ignore medical ethics or an ethical approach [email protected] to personal and public hygiene along with social health. In Islamic civilization, medical ethics is derived from Quran, Prophet Muhammad and Imam Ali’s (PBUT) traditions. Ethics in medical profession can be classified under various branches, and its instances can be traced in dif- ferent civilizations. Healthcare and hygiene comprise a vast collection of ethical topics, in which the issues of medical ethics, nursing ethics, pharmaceutical ethics and ethical issues related to medical and social work centers are considered as its subcategories. In fact, medical ethics is concerned with issues related to the physician, his relationship with the patient and his close relatives, physician’s interactions with other physicians, conditions and characteristics of the hospitals, monitoring medical centers and authorities in the field of healthcare, etc. This article seeks to study medical ethics in the Fatimid civilization which ruling Egypt from 358 to 567 A.H. In this regard, ethical issues in the area of healthcare and medical centers of the Fatimid Egypt as well as supervi- sion over medical authorities will be taken into consideration and then, www.SID.ir Res Hist Med 2017; 6(2) Masoumeh Dehghan Archive of SID distinguishedakhsgjhgfgjhfgjhjhjhgjhzj Fatimid Egypt physicians akhsgjhgfgjhfgjhjhjhgjhzjin the field of medical ethics 1- Kamel Hosain, 1963 :66-87. will behzjjzgjzjzjzgjzjfgjzfhg discussed. hzjjzgjzjzjzgjzjfgjzfhg 2- Ibid: 87. 3- Atta Allah, n.d.: 210, 214, 215. sgszfgxfgxzfgxzfg sgszfgxfgxzfgxzfg Key words: Medical Ethics, Ethics, Fatimid Egypt, Muhtasib (Supervi- 4- Tamer, 1991: 202, 225. sor), Ibn Al Jazzarxzfgxzfgxfgxzfg Al-Qayrawani, Ibn Rezwan xzfgxzfgxfgxzfg xzfgzxfgxfgxzfg xzfgzxfgxfgxzfg Received: 19 xzfgxfgzxfgzxfgNov 2016; Accepted: 16 Apr 2017; Online published:xzfgxfgzxfgzxfg 8 May 2017 Research on History of Medicine/ 2017 May; 6(2): 61-76 Introduction Development of sciences in Egypt has been due to advance- ment and the flourish in these sciences during the Fatimid era. In this period, Egypt became powerful enough to com- pete with other Islamic regions in the field of medicine1. Fatimid caliphs summoned scholars to Egypt, favored and encouraged them and also supported the students. To manage the affairs of the scholars and students, a special judge had been hired. Students received food and facilities until gradu- ation2. Various sources of income had been considered for students and physicians’ payments3 as well as wages for their services4 and grants had been allocated for their education. The Fatimids worked hard to advance medical sciences and as a result of caliphs’ generosity, physicians came into pos- 62 session of great property and were appointed to high govern- ment positions. It was to cure the diseases common in Egypt which caliphs really supported the physicians; they built, re- paired or equipped many hospitals so that along with theo- retical medical courses at scientific centers, students gained practical experience in these hospitals. In Egypt, like other Islamic countries, general medicine was practiced but some physicians diagnosed and treated internal, ophthalmologic and local diseases and also performed surgeries. One of the basic requirements for studying medicine was learning dis- ciplines such as philosophy and foreign languages especially Syriac and Greek. In Fatimid Egypt, a large number of scholars/physicians emerged, and medical sciences progressed during this pe- riod, just as philosophy did. During this era, physicians had numerous debates; their debates led to the advancement of medical science, broadening its horizons and increasing the number of books authored in the field of medicine. The medical profession was somehow monopolized by the Dhimmis within the Fatimid territory; this can be verified by referring to the long list of physicians which Qefti mentions in his book Akhbar al-ulama fi akhbar al-hukama and Ibn Abi Usibia (595-668 A.H.) in his book Oyun al-anba fi tabaqat www.SID.ir Res Hist Med 2017; 6(2) Medical Ethics in Egyptian Fatimid Caliphate Archive of SID al-atiba. With the establishment of Dar Al-Elm in Cairo in 5- Abdulaziz Salem, 2002: 188. 395 following the example of Dar Al-Hikma in Baghdad, 6- Tamer, 1991: 225. numerous scholars and physicians taught or studied at this scientific center. Al-Hakem Biamrillah (Death 411 A.H.), the third Fatimid Caliph of Egypt, was keen on promoting sciences. In Jamadi al-Akhir of 395 AH, he founded Dar Al-Elm in Cairo follow- ing the example of Dar Al-Hikma in Baghdad. A number of scholars and physicians taught or studied at Dar Al-Elm. This place was rightly named Dar Al-Elm (literally; the house of science), because in this place numerous books were collect- ed, and the most famous scholars in the fields of mathemat- ics, logic and medicine were employed5. Among distinguished figures in this era, Yaqub bin Kals (318-380AH/930-991), the famous minister to Al-Muez (Death 365 A.H.) and Al-Azizi (Death 386 A.H.) (the first and second Egyptian Fatimid Caliphs), was also influential in the advancement of medical science in the Fatimid Egypt. He had over four thousand guards including servants and owned slaves in his palace. In addition to these guards, he also had servants and handmaids at his court. He employed physicians to diagnose and treat the diseases of people as well as his ser- vants. The required medications were mixed in the drug store 63 of Ibn Kals’s palace, and patients were not charged for the medication they were prescribed. In this period, many books were published by scholars, poets and physicians in the name of Ibn Kals6. The issues that will be studied in this research include: 1- What effect did development of medical institutions in the Fatimid Egypt have on improving the quality of health in the Fatimid Egypt? 2- What effect did supervisory institutions in the Fatimid Egypt have on the ethics of medical authorities? 3- What were the accomplishments of medical ethics in the Fatimid Egypt? Medical Ethics in Islamic Civilization Historical studies in various medical fields suggest that medical ethics has been considered by physicians in the Is- lamic civilization, and this particular attention has been due to the emphasis put by Quran as well as the conduct of Proph- et Muhammad (PBUH) and Imam Ali (PBUH) to the extent that ethics in the medical profession can be divided into dif- ferent categories and its instances in the Islamic civilization can be mentioned. www.SID.ir Res Hist Med 2017; 6(2) Masoumeh Dehghan Archive of SID Medical ethics is one of the most important and ancient 7- Majlesi, 1949:382. branches of applied ethics. Development of medical science and its impact on human life as well as development of the issues related to mental and physical health in human civi- lizations led to extensive evolution of ethical discussions in this field of human knowledge. Islamic civilization as one of the dynamic and lasting human civilizations that promises Islamic spiritualism in all the aspects of material life, could not ignore medical ethics and ethical issues in the fields of personal and public health. Medical ethics in Islamic civilization originates from Quran as well as the conduct of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and Imam Ali (PBUH). Ethics in this profession can be divided into different categories and its instances in the Islamic civi- lization can be mentioned. Healthcare and hygiene comprise a large set of ethical issues including fields of medical ethics, nursing ethics, pharmaceutical ethics and ethical issues relat- ed to medical and social welfare centers. In fact, medical eth- ics discusses issues related to doctors and their relationships with patients and their families, their interaction with other doctors, conditions of hospitals, supervision over medical in- stitutions and healthcare officials, etc. 64 It is crucial to consider the principles of Islam in all areas including medicine, in order to make progress in the path of scientific and ethical perfection; because Islam is an ethi- cal religion and the Prophet Muhammad’s mission was to perfect moral virtues; “My mission is to complete moral vir- tues”7. The ethical points included in the medical oath are limited to the ideas of previous philosophers such as Hip- pocrates. But ethical instructions and points are comprehen- sively manifested in the Hadiths by Prophet Muhammad and the Imams, which as the principles of Islamic medical ethics, can be sued as a suitable complementary to or alternative for the existing principles, calming the patient and considering the mediating role of the physician in treating the diseases (Quran: “He is the God who heals me when I am sick.”), pi- ety, compassion and seriousness in medical profession, sense of responsibility, perception of urgency in treatments, keep- ing patients’ secrets, the necessity of expertise and experi- ence (Prophet Muhammad emphasized that “if a physician does not have full knowledge of medical science, he must not interfere with medical issues and if he does so, he will be responsible for the fate of the patient.” He also ordered that between a knowledgeable and a more knowledgeable physi- cian, the more knowledgeable one must be selected for treat- www.SID.ir Res Hist Med 2017; 6(2) Medical Ethics in Egyptian Fatimid Caliphate Archive of SID ment of the patient.8 8- Ibn al Qayem Jozeh, 1949: 203.
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