FIRST STATUS REPORT ON URBAN AND PERI-URBAN HORTICULTURE IN AFRICA GROWING GREENER IN AFRICA

FIRST STATUS REPORT ON URBAN AND PERI-URBAN HORTICULTURE IN AFRICA

Growing greener cities in Africa

Foreword 3 Presentation 5 Overview 13 Country profiles 33 Credits 4 Bibliography 95 Abbreviations 111

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 2012 The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. The designations employed and the presentation of material in maps does not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of FAO concerning the legal or constitutional status of any country, territory or sea area, or concerning the delimitation of frontiers. The views expressed in this information product are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of FAO. ISBN 978-92-5-107286-8 All rights reserved. FAO encourages the reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product. Non-commercial uses will be authorized free of charge, upon request. Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes, including educational purposes, may incur fees. Applications for permission to reproduce or disseminate FAO copyright materials, and all queries concerning rights and licences, should be addressed by e-mail to [email protected] or to the Chief, Publishing Policy and Support Branch, Office of Knowledge Exchange, Research and Extension, FAO, Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.

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Citation: FAO. 2012. Growing greener cities in Africa. First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Foreword

frica’s urban is Drawing on surveys and case studies growing faster than that of any from 31 countries, the report describes other region. By the end of the the current state of urban and peri-urban current decade, 24 of the world’s horticulture across the African continent. A30 fastest growing cities will be African. Its major finding is that the commercial Within 18 years, the urban population of production of fruit and provides sub-Saharan Africa is projected to reach livelihoods for thousands of urban Africans almost 600 million, twice what it was in and food for millions more. But market 2010. African cities already face enormous gardening has grown with little official problems: more than half of all residents live recognition, regulation or support. In some in overcrowded slums; up to 200 million cities, it is becoming unsustainable: to survive on less than US$2 a day; poor urban maximize returns, market gardeners are children are as likely to be chronically using ever larger quantities of pesticide and malnourished as poor rural children. polluted water. The challenge of achieving a “zero Developing sustainable market gardens hunger” world – in which everyone is to serve African cities requires, first, that adequately nourished and all food systems policymakers recognize the sector’s current are resilient – is as urgent in African cities contribution to the urban food supply and as it is in rural areas. African policymakers to urban livelihoods. Then, they will need need to act now to steer from to zone and protect land and water for its current, unsustainable path towards market gardens, and encourage growers to healthy, “greener” cities that ensure food adopt eco-friendly “Save and Grow” farming and nutrition security, decent work and practices that produce more, while reducing income, and a clean environment for all food contamination risks and protecting their citizens. the environment. All stakeholders will This report draws the attention of need to cooperate in building an efficient policymakers to urban and peri-urban urban fruit and supply system, horticulture, and how it can help to grow one that provides fresh produce at a price all greener cities in Africa. Production of fruit residents can afford. and vegetables in and around urban areas Growing greener cities in Africa will help has a clear comparative advantage over us to win the “zero hunger” challenge. rural and other sources in supplying urban residents with fresh, nutritious – but highly Modibo T. Traoré perishable – produce all year round. It Assistant Director-General generates local employment, reduces food Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department transport costs and pollution, creates urban Food and Agriculture Organization green belts, and recycles urban waste as a of the United Nations productive resource. First status report on urban The contributions of the following are gratefully acknowledged: and peri-urban horticulture in Africa • Gambia • Rabah Lakrouf Momodou Jabang, Editorial board Amie Faburay NeBambi Lutaladio (chair) Benin •• Wilfried Baudoin Françoise Assogba Komlan, Ghana •• Alison Hodder Fortuné Azihou, Jean-Martial Patrick Kumah, Ben Banful, Rémi Kahane Johnson Abdul-Halim Abubakari Rémi Nono-Womdim Botswana • Guinea • Maiba Samunzala Laye Keita Editor Burkina Faso • Guinea-Bissau •• Graeme Thomas Dieudonné Ouedraogo Lourenço Abreu, Burundi •• Rui Jorge Fonseca Production Célestin Niyongere Kenya • Diana Gutiérrez Cameroon •• Nancy K.N. Karanja, Mary M. Faustin Bella Manga Njenga, Diana Lee-Smith This report is based on case Cape Verde • Lesotho • studies prepared by national Eneida Maria Pereira Malechesa Tjabane correspondents in 21 African Rodrigues Silva, Clarimundo Malawi • countries for the International Pina Gonçalves Robert I. Kawiya, Symposium on Urban and Thomson Chilanga Peri-urban Horticulture in Central African Republic •• the Century of Cities (Dakar, Wenceslas Le Parfait Mali •• December 2010), on the results Magoumbala Ngoayo Boubacar Traore of an FAO survey of urban Chad •• Mozambique • and peri-urban horticulture in Moundibaye Dastre Hiten Jantilal Africa, conducted in August Allarangaye Namibia •• 2010, and on a review of recent Republic of the Congo •• Alberto Fosso, Paulina literature. François Elenga, Jean Pashukeni Shilunga Marie Ngatse, Dieudonné Nigeria •• Koguiyagda Henry Akinwumi Akintoye Côte d’Ivoire •• Senegal •• Lassina Fondio, Andé Seydi Ababacar Sy Gaye, Hortense Djidji, Akoua Ndeye Mama Touré Dieng Malick Deza, Mako N’Gbesso, Yannick Assouma, Adolphe Swaziland • Mahyao, Jean Claude N’zi, Fikile S. Mashaba Kracou Agnini Barthélemy Tunisia • Kpangnim Hichem Rejeb, Saida Democratic Republic Hammami, Nizar Sayari of the Congo •• Uganda •• Grégoire Mutshail Mutomb Margaret Azuba Semwanga, Kangaji, Bruno Kitiaka Peter Seruwagi Ethiopia • United Republic Girma Demissie of Tanzania •• Gabon •• Judith M. Kitivo, Tristan Nondah Adah Mdesa Mwasha •• Emelin Mwenda

•case study •survey

Produced with a Design: Cover: contribution from Thomas+Sansonetti Giancarlo de Pol Belgian Development Cooperation A new day in Africa Urbanization of the continent is at a turning point. But which way will it turn?

Africa’s urban population (millions) 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 1960 2050 2005

Between 1960 and 2010, Africa’s urban population grew from 53 million to 400 million. By 2030, the number of Africans living in towns and cities will increase by a further 345 million. In sub-Saharan Africa, the Clusters and chains of light urban population will double, in this night-time satellite image to almost 600 million. reveal Africa’s emerging cities Image: NASA A new era of shared prosperity? Booming economies fuel optimism that the end of endemic poverty is in sight

Many African countries have recorded strong economic growth over the past decade. Annual foreign investment in Africa rose from US$9 billion in 2000 to US$55 billion in 2010. Seven of the world’s 10 fastest growing economies are African. The region’s GDP is expected to grow by 5.6 percent in 2013. Photo: A billboard in Lagos, Nigeria. Africa is the world’s fastest growing cellphone market (Reuters/George Esiri) Or time to “re-imagine African urbanism”? Past economic growth has only exasperated levels of urban inequality, hunger and poverty

Africa has the world’s biggest slum population – 210 million people. In sub-Saharan Africa, 200 million urban residents live on less than US$2 a day, 180 million are without adequate sanitation, and 50 million use unsafe drinking water. Half of Nairobi’s slum children are chronically malnourished. The main cause of urban malnutrition is poverty: a healthy diet would cost the average poor household almost all of its income. Photo: Kibera slum in Nairobi (Reuters/Thomas Mukoya) Many cities are already “green” Forty percent of households in sub-Saharan cities are also urban farmers

Millions of urban Africans cultivate vegetables and fruit trees in home gardens, both for their families and for sale. In Dakar, 7 500 households “grow their own” in micro-gardens. In Malawi, 700 000 urban residents practise home gardening to meet their food needs and earn extra income. Low-income city gardeners in Zambia make US$230 a year from sales. Photo: Preparing a garden in Kigali (FAO/Giulio Napolitano) The key to greener cities: market gardens But in most of urban Africa, gardens have grown with little recognition, regulation or support

National and local governments need to support market gardening, which already produces fresh food for millions of Africans. Today, most gardeners have no title to their land; many lose it overnight. Land suitable for horticulture is being taken for housing, industry and infrastructure. To maximize earnings from insecure livelihoods, many gardeners are overusing pesticide and wastewater. Photo: Watering vegetables in Lubumbashi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (FAO/Giulio Napolitano) Fruit and vegetables need land and water Urban managers should zone land for horticulture and treat wastewater for re-use in market gardens

Market gardens create green belts that protect fragile areas, contain urban sprawl and build resilience to climate change. Large areas of land could be zoned for horticulture: Kigali has reserved 15 000 ha for agriculture and wetlands; Lagos has 4 400 ha of suitable land. Also needed is a “circular” approach in urban water management: treated wastewater is safe and can supply most of the nutrients needed for horticulture. Image: Land reserved for horticulture has survived Maputo's exponential growth (DigitalGlobe) ...and gardeners need to “Save and Grow” Objective: grow more and better quality produce while nourishing the urban agro-ecosystem

Eco-friendly cultivation practices can help African cities grow more fruit and vegetables while lowering contamination risks, cutting production costs and increasing growers’ income. Well-fed with compost, soil produces more using less fertilizer, less pesticide and less water (using biopesticide and compost, gardeners near Dakar increased their incomes by 60 percent). Drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting also reduce demand on urban water supplies. Photo: Senegalese market gardeners study improved cultivation practices (FAO/Olivier Asselin) An efficient horticulture supply chain All stakeholders need to cooperate in optimizing the flow of produce from grower to consumer

A good start is to encourage gardeners to form their own self-managed cooperatives, which can help them to diversify production, negotiate better prices, and improve post-harvest management. City authorities should facilitate loans for agro-processing units, and plan clean, decentralized markets. Informal markets save poor households time and money, and provide an alternative to unhealthy street foods. Photo: Fruit and vegetable market, Cairo (FAO/Ami Vitale) Overview by NeBambi Lutaladio and Graeme Thomas

here is general agreement that and 1995 found that African countries with the urbanization of Africa is at the fastest growth in GDP also had the fast- a turning point. The question is: est growth in urban population. Even those which way will it turn? who believe that urban population growth TSince 1960, the continent’s urban has slowed, or is even negative, concede population has grown from 53 million to that improved economic performance could more than 400 million. In no other region stimulate renewed rural in-migration and of the world has the urban population accelerate urbanization. grown so quickly. According to the latest Well, that economic growth is now here, United Nations projections, between 2010 and it finds many cities totally unprepared and 2030 the number of Africans living in for the projected increase in population. towns and cities will increase by a further African policymakers must find solutions 345 million. In sub-Saharan Africa, growth urgently to the following challenges: will be even more dramatic: the urban population is projected to double, from Urban poverty. An estimated 43 percent 298 million to 595 million. of urban residents in sub-Saharan Africa Many African countries have recorded are poor, surviving on less than US$1 a day. strong, sustained economic growth over But urban poverty may be underestimated the past decade, raising hopes of a new era – national poverty lines often ignore the of shared prosperity. In the past, economic higher cost of living in cities. Using a growth has been a key driver of Africa’s poverty line of US$2 a day, the poverty urbanization. Other factors have certainly level is close to 70 percent, or more than contributed: the post-independence “Afri- 200 million people. canization” of public services; the slump The most glaring manifestation of urban in commodity prices in the 1980s, which poverty in Africa is its enormous slums, crippled agriculture-based economies; which are home to more than 210 million structural adjustment programmes that people, or 52 percent of the continent’s slashed social and development services, urban population. Between 1990 and 2010, especially in rural areas; wars and civil the number of people living in slums in conflicts that raged across the continent; sub-Saharan Africa almost doubled, from and relatively high urban fertility rates and 102 million to 199.5 million. falling mortality rates. Most slums are squatter settlements However, a recent World Bank analysis built, in contravention of planning regula- of economic and census data between 1970 tions and building standards, on unserviced

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 13 land, usually state-owned, by low-income all). A healthy diet would cost the average residents or migrants from rural areas. settlement household almost all of its They proliferate on city peripheries and in income. The urban poor may actually pay zones unfit for habitation, such as steep more for food than wealthier households: slopes, gullies and floodplains. Not only lacking cash and the refrigerators needed to do their inhabitants have no legal title to store food, they are obliged to buy smaller their homes; they must meet most of their quantities at a higher per item price. To basic needs by breaking the law through make ends meet, poor urban families turn unauthorized economic activities and, increasingly to cheaper alternatives, such when they can, by tapping into municipal as starchy staples or “junk food” rich in water and electricity supplies. low-cost fats and sugars. Many cities do not have the resources to provide slums with basic services. Others Disease and ill-health. Densely do not even include slums on their maps, populated slums suffer a high incidence and use bulldozers to remove the problem. of infectious diseases, such as HIV/AIDS, But the problem persists and is worsening: influenza and tuberculosis. Frequent slums now absorb about three-quarters of outbreaks of cholera and diarrhoea are sub-Saharan urban population growth. linked directly to unsanitary living condi- tions. A study in sub-Saharan Africa found Urban malnutrition. The prevalence of that rural-urban differentials that once malnutrition among urban children in favoured urban children’s survival chances sub-Saharan Africa has increased faster – including better access to improved water than the urban population itself. More than and sanitation – had been wiped out, or half of the children in Nairobi’s slums are even reversed. chronically malnourished. A 2006 study in Between 1990 and 2010, the number of Angola, the Central African Republic and residents in sub-Saharan cities without Senegal found that poor urban children access to hygienic sanitation facilities were as likely to be stunted as poor rural increased from 82 million to 180 million. By children. recent estimates, no more than 15 percent The main cause of urban malnutrition is of sub-Saharan Africa’s urban population poverty. Since the poor spend most of their have access to a sewer network. In Nairobi income on food, increases in food prices and Kampala, slum dwellers without access or a drop in earnings compromise the even to latrines have invented “flying quantity and quality of their diets. During toilets” – plastic bags that are filled and the 2007-08 global food crisis, when food discarded. prices also soared in Africa, the poor had The proportion of the urban population no choice but to spend more on food, or eat with access to piped water has fallen since less. More expensive items, such as fruit 1990, from 50 percent to 39 percent. The and vegetables, were the first to be dropped. primary source of water for 24 percent of In ’s urban settlements, the sub-Saharan urban residents is groundwa- level of dietary diversity is “very low” (in a ter from boreholes and wells. Each year, a seven-day period, more than half of women growing proportion of households turns interviewed ate no fruit or vegetables at to surface water for drinking. Uncollected

14 Growing greener cities in Africa Overview

In South Africa’s urban settlements, the level of dietary diversity is “very low”. In a seven-day period, more than half of women interviewed ate no fruit or vegetables at all.

garbage also poses a serious health assumptions indicate that most urban hazard. In Lagos (Nigeria), authorities were workers will remain trapped in informal reluctant to upgrade waste-clogged drains jobs until well beyond 2020. in slums because they “fell outside accepted urban regulation and planning”. Climate change. Higher temperatures Meanwhile, urban diets that are high and less predictable rainfall are likely in energy, but low in micronutrients, are to accelerate eco-migration from rural behind the increasing prevalence of obesity areas to large and mid-sized cities. Many and non-communicable diseases, such as African cities have “ecologically unfriendly” hypertension and heart disorders. configurations that compromise their resilience to climate change. Lack of Low and insecure incomes. As many as vegetation and the use of heat-retaining nine out of every 10 urban workers in Africa building materials raise city temperatures, are employed informally, working very long which leads to shrinking water tables; hours for very low incomes, without secure hotter days in Ouagadougou will lead to contracts, social protection or benefits. In shortages of water needed for drinking sub-Saharan Africa, more than 80 percent and sanitation. In low-lying coastal areas, of informal workers are self-employed, flooding is already a threat to many large entirely dependent on their own initiative cities, including Accra, Durban (South and resources for survival. In 2007, about Africa), Lagos, Luanda and Maputo. 85 percent of Africa’s working population Shantytowns built on hillsides and made less than US$2 a day, almost floodplains bear the brunt of more frequent unchanged since 1997, while the total and intense storms. Floods that destroyed number of working poor had increased by Maputo’s Luis Cabral slum in 2000 were 82 million in the same period. followed by serious outbreaks of dysentery The youth population of Africa is and cholera. Torrential rains in Nairobi and growing faster than that of any other Brazzaville cause flooding and mudslides region. In 2010, an estimated 695 million that affect mainly slum areas. Africans – or more than 68 percent of the Africa has been described as “a victim, total population – were under 30 years not a driver, of climate change”. But the old. By 2030, their numbers could reach lack of effective waste management in 986 million. It is estimated that 74 million most cities helps to generate greenhouse jobs will need to be created in Africa over gas emissions from landfill sites that are the current decade simply to prevent youth three times those of the United States of unemployment from rising. Even optimistic America. With increasing urbanization,

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 15 both the continent’s garbage and its gas people ate on average just 80 g per day, emissions will increase. equal to a large slice of pineapple, and spent most of their food budgets to satisfy their In its third report on The state of African need for calories, not nutrients. cities, scheduled for publication in 2013, Providing city-dwellers with fresh the United Nations Human Settlements food is difficult especially in sub-Saharan Programme (UN-HABITAT) will call for a countries: popular vegetables, such as new vision of African urbanism, including amaranth, sorrel, lettuce and tomato, start “greener” and more sustainable growth to spoil within a few days of harvesting. that employs uniquely African solutions to The poor state of roads leads to heavy losses the continent’s present and future urban of produce in transit from rural areas. It challenges. This report seeks to contribute deteriorates further in the city owing to the to that discussion by drawing the attention lack of cold storage, both in markets and in of policymakers to urban and peri-urban the vast majority of urban households (it horticulture – or UPH – and how it can was recently estimated that, in 2005, less help to grow greener cities in Africa. than 10 percent of sub-Saharan homes had Urban and peri-urban horticulture refrigerators). The result is shortages and is, essentially, a “local food” system that high prices for consumers. provides urban with a wide FAO’s Programme for Urban and range of horticultural crops – mainly Peri-urban Horticulture aims, therefore, at fruit and vegetables, but also herbs, roots, helping cities to ensure a year-round supply tubers, ornamental plants and mushrooms of fresh produce that meets the dietary – that are grown within the city or in its needs of their populations, at a price all surrounding areas. residents can afford. It does that, first, Horticulture provides foods that are rich by promoting market gardening, usually sources of vitamins, minerals and phyto- within 30 km of city centres. FAO also chemicals – essential for good health. Dark supports action to help low-income urban green leafy vegetables and yellow-fleshed households to “grow their own”, as a way of fruit, for example, are recommended to improving the quality of their diet, saving correct vitamin A deficiency, a major cause cash to spend on other needs, and earning of blindness in African children. An FAO/ income from the sale of surpluses. For World Health Organization (WHO) report cities, urban and peri-urban horticulture has established that eating at least 400 g has five major benefits: of fresh fruit and vegetables a day helps to Food and nutrition security. By boost- alleviate micronutrient deficiencies and to ing the physical supply of fresh produce, prevent chronic diseases associated with UPH improves the availability of nutritious unhealthy urban diets and lifestyles. food to low-income urban households. In In most African cities, however, Cuba, the sector accounts for 60 percent consumption is far below the recom- of national horticultural production, and mended minimum. A study in urban areas Cubans’ per capita intake of fruit and of 10 sub-Saharan countries found deficits vegetables exceeds the FAO/WHO recom- in seven of them, ranging from 40 to mended minimum. 80 percent. In the lowest income quintile,

16 Growing greener cities in Africa Overview

Sustainable livelihoods. Horticulture case studies from, 47 African countries. provides livelihoods that are resilient to The aim was to measure the extent of UPH, economic downturns, and it contributes the types of horticulture practised, the to cities’ economic development. Being sector’s role in urban food supply, nutrition labour intensive, market gardening creates and livelihoods, current constraints to the employment directly in production – by sector, and opportunities for its sustainable one calculation, one job for every 110 sq m development. – as well as in input supply, marketing Surveys and/or case studies were and value-addition. Horticulture employs received from 31 countries (listed on around 150 000 people in Hanoi. page 4), which between them account A safe, clean environment. Horticulture for 64 percent of the continent’s urban uses recycled urban waste as a productive population. Our findings, informed by a resource. In Chile, treated wastewater review of recent literature on the subject, from Santiago provides 70 percent of the are presented here. irrigation water for peri-urban vegetables. In India, some 5 million tonnes of municipal solid waste is composted each A snapshot year and used mainly as a soil improver in agriculture. Horticulture creates green First, a note on the data. Urban and belts, which protect fragile areas, contain peri-urban horticulture has never been urban sprawl and build resilience to climate surveyed nationally in any African country. change; by reducing the need to transport Among cities, only Accra appears to have produce from rural areas, it generates fuel conducted a baseline survey of urban savings and less air pollution; it can even vegetable gardening, while Kampala has lower city temperatures. used household sampling to measure the Good governance. Developing a extent of its urban agriculture. In their sustainable UPH sector calls for innovative responses, therefore, countries drew on approaches to urban development. Many sources such as agricultural planning countries in Asia and Latin America have documents, baseline studies and research incorporated horticulture into their urban journals*. planning. China did so in the 1960s; today, Many studies have analysed the phenom- more than half of Beijing’s vegetable supply enon of urban agriculture in Africa. One comes from the city’s own market gardens. estimated that 40 percent of Africa’s urban Healthy communities. Orchards and residents were engaged in some sort of vegetable gardens provide low-income agricultural activity, including production groups with food, income and a focus for of staple crops, vegetables, fruit, milk, eggs, shared enterprise, which helps to build healthier, more stable communities. * The Global Horticulture Initiative plans to test in Gardening offers a constructive channel for East Africa a methodology for measuring the supply and distribution of horticultural produce. FAO is young people’s energy. exploring ways of formalizing the collection of data To assist policymakers in evaluating the on urban agriculture worldwide. In anticipation of potential of horticulture in their own cities, more complete data sets, for publication in the second status report in 2017, this report limits itself to major FAO sent surveys to, and commissioned findings and the country profiles starting on page 33.

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 17 meat and fish. In all of the 27 countries that Home gardening was the most common provided data, horticulture was the main form of UPH in 11 of the 27 countries. It component of urban agriculture, although accounted for more than half of fruit and the production of milk, meat and fuelwood vegetable production in cities in Burundi, was also important in Kenya and Ethiopia. Cape Verde, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique Within the UPH sector, vegetables were and Zambia. At the smallest scale of home the main crop, with fruit production also gardening are micro-gardens: crates, pots, prominent in Cameroon, Guinea and sacks, even car tyres, which are filled with Senegal. Commercial floriculture was soil or substrates and are used to grow widely practised in Nigeria, and growing vegetables and herbs. In Dakar, 7 500 mushrooms was popular among urban inner-city households use micro-gardens residents in Malawi and Swaziland. to grow their own tomatoes, lettuces and Ten countries provided estimates of the cucumbers, and earn extra income selling extent of horticulture in their principal small surpluses. In Nairobi’s Kibera slum, cities and towns. Nationally, horticulture 11 000 households have “sack gardens”, was practised by almost half of urban which provide fresh produce and enough households in Cameroon, one-third in from sales to cover their monthly rents. Malawi, one-quarter in Ghana, and one in Micro-gardens have been adopted by slum ten in Nigeria. In the others – Botswana, dwellers in Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire), and in Cape Verde, Gabon, The Gambia, Namibia low-income housing estates in Kigali. and Senegal – participation was less than Where more space is available – in 10 percent. Among capital cities, the backyards or on nearby vacant land – “greenest” were Lilongwe and Yaoundé, millions of urban Africans cultivate both with 35 percent of households engaged vegetables and fruit trees in home gardens. in horticulture, followed by Nairobi An estimated 700 000 urban residents in (30 percent) and Accra (25 percent). The Malawi practise home gardening to meet largest urban populations that benefited their food needs and earn extra income. In directly from horticulture, through poor neighbourhoods of Maputo, 9 percent consumption and/or sale of their produce, of households consume vegetables they were in Lagos (1.08 million people), Nairobi grow themselves. In Yaoundé, 35 percent (1 million) Douala in Cameroon (950 000), cultivate traditional leafy vegetables which Yaoundé (630 000), Accra (600 000), and “make a significant contribution to the the Nigerian cities of Kano (540 000) and nutrition of the city’s residents”. In Zambia, Ibadan (226 000). a quarter of urban households grow crops Research in sub-Saharan Africa has and half of the production consists of veg- identified two basic types of urban crop etables. Gardening households are usually production: home gardening, mainly for large and poor, and home production allows household consumption, and production in them to “reduce significantly” spending on open spaces, mainly for market sale. Survey food. results, case studies and other sources Community or group gardening were used to measure the extent of those was the source of almost half of locally production systems in horticulture. grown produce in Namibian cities, and contributed from 20 to 35 percent of

18 Growing greener cities in Africa Overview

Studies have described market gardening as a “particularly successful farming system driven by market opportunities”, and a “sustainable livelihood strategy for poor urban dwellers”.

production in urban areas of Côte d’Ivoire, Studies in sub-Saharan Africa have The Gambia and Guinea-Bissau. Located described market gardening as a “par- on city- or community-owned land, ticularly successful farming system driven community gardens provide vegetables by market opportunities”, and a “largely for growers’ families and for needy social sustainable livelihood strategy, especially groups. In Bulawayo (Zimbabwe), more for poor urban dwellers”. It has low start-up than 1 000 low-income residents grow costs and short production cycles, produces vegetables on 13 ha of allotment gardens for high yields per unit of land and water, and themselves and other low-income families. delivers quick returns on investment. In Atteridgeville township, near Pretoria, Throughout the region, market garden- residents of five informal settlements ing is very low-tech and labour intensive. cultivate group gardens that yield each Growers usually cultivate small, individual month around 9 kg of vegetables per plots – of around 600 sq m in Abidjan household; they sell 2 kg of that for “a mod- and as small as 100 sq m in Accra – on est income”. Several countries have school land near a reliable supply of water. They gardening programmes. With FAO support, plant a wide variety of traditional and gardens have been created at 14 schools in exotic vegetables, and usually irrigate them Bujumbura, and at 74 schools in cities of the manually using 10 or 15 litre watering cans. Democratic Republic of the Congo. They often organize themselves in informal Market gardening – i.e. irrigated, com- associations to set the boundaries of mercial production of fruit and vegetables gardens and plots. in areas designated for the purpose, or on In some cities, such as Bissau, market other urban open spaces – was the single gardening is practised mainly in the dry most important source of locally grown, season, when competition from rural areas fresh produce in 10 out of 27 countries, and declines and prices rise in urban markets; the second source in six others. In fact, in others, such as Brazzaville, Kinshasa and urban and peri-urban market gardening Yaoundé, favourable climates and urban produced most of all the leafy vegetables demand encourage production all year consumed in Accra, Dakar, Bangui, Brazza- round. ville, Ibadan, Kinshasa and Yaoundé, cities The number of full- and part-time that, between them, have a total population market gardeners was estimated at around of 22.5 million. Market gardens provide 10 000 in Brazzaville, 2 250 in Bangui, 1 250 around half of the leafy vegetable supply in in Ouagadougou and 1 000 in Libreville. Addis Ababa, Bissau and Libreville. In Kinshasa, some 8 000 growers work in market gardens, some officially designated

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 19 in the 1960s and 1970s; the number of employment for an estimated 40 000 “informal” growers with plots in other people. parts of the city is estimated at anywhere FAO’s review found that women do between 7 000 and 30 000. Similarly, much of the market gardening in several vegetables are grown in organized market countries. In Nairobi, most commercial gardens in Libreville, but part of the city’s vegetable growers are female slum dwellers. supply is produced by itinerant gardeners Women make up 90 percent of market on temporary peri-urban plots. gardeners in Bissau and 70 percent of those African market gardening can be highly in Brazzaville and Bujumbura. Although productive. In a year, one hectare of land horticulture in Nigeria is mainly a male in Accra can yield five crops of lettuce, occupation, increasing numbers of women amounting to 180 tonnes. Brazzaville’s work in commercial plots near Lagos. 500 ha of gardens provide 80 percent of its Female intermediaries often provide leafy vegetables. In Yaoundé, gardens in growers with production loans and have valleys that run through the city produce first rights to harvests. lettuce during the rainy season, and In Accra, Abidjan, Dakar, Yamoussoukro amaranth, African nightshades and jute and Yaoundé, market gardening is the mallow during the dry season. In Nairobi, speciality of migrants from rural areas. kales, cabbages and spinach are grown year- Vegetables are also grown by “circular round in plots near slums, along railways migrants”: farmers from Nigeria’s northern and under power lines. states grow leafy vegetables, cucumbers and Poverty usually motivates urban eggplants near Lagos in the dry season, and residents to take up commercial vegetable return home to cultivate staple crops when production. In Côte d’Ivoire, a typical the rains start. In Madagascar, farmers market gardener is illiterate, with a family from the southern highlands grow water- of from five to 15 people to support. In cress on idle rice lands near Antananarivo. many cities, gardening provides little more Where the line between “rural” and “peri- than a subsistence livelihood. But in some urban” blurs, city demand for vegetables large cities, gardeners’ incomes can place has created opportunities for farmers who them above – even well above – the poverty normally grow staple crops. During the dry line. Their earnings have been estimated season, farmers around Kumasi (Ghana) at up to five times higher than the national switch from , plantains and per capita income in Brazzaville, Dakar to earn “significant additional income” and Nairobi. The income of a gardener in growing leafy vegetables. Maputo is four times the national poverty All the country surveys confirmed that line. urban and peri-urban horticulture – home Market gardeners frequently hire or open space – makes a significant labourers to assist in planting, watering and contribution to urban food security, nutri- harvesting. The 55 ha Kilobelobe market tion and incomes. FAO believes that market garden in Lubumbashi, in the Democratic gardening, given its already important role Republic of the Congo, provides jobs for in food supply and people’s livelihoods in up to 4 000 seasonal labourers. Gardens in many countries, holds the most potential Maputo and its twin-city, Matola, generate for further development. This overview

20 Growing greener cities in Africa Overview will focus next, therefore, on constraints low-income families come to build the first to the sustainable development of market shacks of a peri-urban settlement. gardening in Africa. That is why vegetable plots are often found on land reasonably safe from construction, such as roadsides, and near Market gardening: zones unfit for habitation – and food production – such as garbage dumps and a closer look industrial waste sites. Where pressure from urbanization is more intense, gardeners Market gardening is a highly specialized reduce their risk by sowing indigenous leafy form of agriculture. It has been described vegetables that can be harvested within as “one of the most productive farming a few weeks, and by using low-cost (and systems in Africa”. In their agricultural portable) technologies such as watering development policies and programmes, cans. governments invariably recognize that In Yaoundé, valley bottom market increasing food production in rural areas, gardeners may produce most of the city’s and alleviating rural poverty, depend on leafy vegetables, but “all are farming giving farmers access to: land and water, illegally” because they do not have permits credit, higher-yielding crop varieties, from the state, which owns the land. Most farm inputs, agricultural extension, have been forced, at one time or another, agro-processing and markets. They also to move. In Lagos, growers use vacant land stress the need to ensure women’s access to earmarked for industrial development all of the above. But market gardening in and can be evicted without notice or and around African cities has not received compensation. In Abidjan, loss of land to nearly the same attention. real estate development is one of the main Access to land. The vast majority of threats to gardeners’ livelihoods. In Senegal, market gardeners, in most of the countries where almost all land is legally part of reviewed, operate on land they do not the state’s patrimony and land use titles own, under a variety of temporary tenure are temporary, market gardeners suffer arrangements or without title of any kind. “a pervasive insecurity of tenure”. Many They make their livelihoods within notori- female gardeners were forced to move out ously “fuzzy” systems of land ownership, of Bissau recently to start new plots 3.5 km with overlapping formal and traditional to the north of the city. tenure rights, and rapidly changing land In the few countries where market uses and values. gardening is, or was, a component of urban Without secure title to land, those liveli- planning, land tenure is anything but hoods can be terminated by a council order secure. In Kinshasa’s main market garden- to uproot crops growing in violation of city ing area, Kimbanseke, traditional leaders by-laws; by a local leader reclaiming land have been selling plots for housing con- granted under an unwritten contract; by a struction when gardeners are absent. Along real estate developer staking out a subdivi- the Congo River, other vegetable growers sion for new housing; or by an invasion of face losing their gardens to a new urban development that promises prestigious

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 21 riverfront properties and “indisputable land canals in Brazzaville and Kinshasa that title”. Across the Congo in Brazzaville, the were damaged during civil strife in the market garden at Talangayi is being built 1990s are still in disrepair. on, in violation of a new law that safeguards Where irrigation and drainage are not peri-urban horticulture. provided for horticulture – the case in most While most local authorities in Kenya African cities – vegetable growers make tacitly accept horticulture within urban their own arrangements. In Bujumbura, boundaries, many have, and sometimes many limit cultivation to the rainy season. enforce, by-laws that ban the growing But that is when rural farmers also grow of crops in public areas, which is where vegetables, leading to a glut of fresh vegetables are often grown. In Dar es produce in city markets and much lower Salaam, horticulture is allowed but, since prices. During the dry season, tap water is no areas have been zoned for it, gardens are rarely an option, since municipal networks often started without permission on vacant normally do not reach gardening areas and, land. anyway, drinking water is too expensive to Urbanization has already claimed use on crops. 250 000 ha of agricultural land in Algeria That is why dry season producers usually since 1962 and is consuming it in Tunisia establish plots along permanent water at the rate of 4 000 ha a year. Around courses, including rivers, streams, drains Tunis, factories and low-density workers’ and sewage canals, or in marshy areas settlements have spread across swathes of where they dig wells to reach groundwater. supposedly protected peri-urban farmland. However, owing to the high concentration In Algeria, urban horticulture is regarded of habitations with rudimentary sanitation, as an extension of rural agriculture, and and the failure of cities to treat most of action to protect it is low on the list of their domestic and industrial waste, water planning priorities. Peri-urban growers in from streams and urban drains, and even the country’s second city, Oran, invest little groundwater, are likely to be severely in vegetable production, “knowing that polluted. eventually their land will be built over”. The widespread use of “informal” sources of water for market gardening is Access to water. In the dry season in blamed for chemical and microbiological Accra, a typical 300 sq m plot of leafy contamination of produce. In Yaoundé, vegetables requires around 80 000 litres analysis of irrigation water revealed levels of water over a 30-day period. But in of faecal bacteria and parasites that were a most African cities, good quality water is health risk to both growers and consumers. a scarce and expensive commodity, and In Takoradi, Ghana, irrigation water is water supply utilities see their customers sourced from “highly polluted” drainage as domestic consumers and industry. Only channels. In Kigali, amaranth grown near in countries where horticulture has been marshes contaminated with industrial promoted as part of urban development effluent contained high concentrations of have governments installed irrigation and lead and cadmium. drainage systems for market gardens. FAO’s review found, however, that irrigation

22 Growing greener cities in Africa Overview

Insecure land tenure not only stifles vegetable growers’ capacity to build up working capital; without land, they have virtually nothing to offer financial institutions as collateral.

Access to credit. Investing in their own investments, to vegetables that give much production – for example, purchasing better returns. Even in Maputo, where good seed of higher value vegetables, gardeners do have secure land use titles, or a motor pump, or fencing to protect less than half of them apply for micro- crops from theft – would help market credit; most are discouraged by complex gardeners improve their productivity, their procedures and high interest rates. contribution to the urban food supply and In the absence of formal credit, many their own incomes. A study in Ghana found producers rely on informal loans from that production loans had a greater positive intermediaries. In Algeria, more than half impact on gardeners’ earnings than age, of fruit growers covered their production years of schooling, gender, household size costs with informal loans from traders. or number of agricultural extension visits. Intermediaries appear to dominate the However, insecure land tenure not only sti- supply of credit for the purchase of inputs fles vegetable growers’ capacity to build up in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, working capital; without title to land, they Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Nigeria and Senegal. have virtually nothing to offer financial institutions as collateral. Women, who face Access to inputs. The productivity of higher legal barriers to land ownership, are market gardening is held back by the particularly disadvantaged. general unavailability of certified seed of While some governments and non- improved crop varieties. In sub-Saharan governmental organizations (NGOs) have Africa, government programmes for breed- micro-credit schemes for informal urban ing improved vegetable and fruit varieties enterprises, very little reaches horticulture. are practically non-existent. In the Republic In Dar es Salaam, financial institutions of the Congo, a well-organized seed supply regard urban farming as “backward” system that supported market gardening and a risky investment. Benin includes during the 1990s has “ceased to exist”, and market gardeners in credit programmes in Gabon the sector suffers “prolonged for small-scale food producers, but shortages” of good quality seed. low-income growers “lack the skills needed Most African vegetable growers, there- to make loan applications”. In townships of fore, either sow saved seed or use whatever Windhoek, 96 percent of market gardeners they can find in local supply shops. While were ineligible for bank loans. In Kigali, the saved seeds are often of traditional varieties lack of secure title to land has prevented that are well adapted to local conditions, peri-urban farmers from switching from they carry the risks of inbreeding, low sweet potatoes, which require only small germination rates and diseases that lead to

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 23 chronically low yields. When commercial crop cycles and the repeated sowing of seed is available, it is either imported, solanaceous crops, such as tomatoes, pep- too expensive, and often not well adapted pers and eggplants, lead to higher incidence to local conditions, or of dubious origin of pest infestations and soil-borne diseases. and quality. Many growers have had bad High planting densities also encourage pest experiences with low-quality seed carrying upsurges and fungal diseases. Instead of bogus certification. reducing densities and rotating crops, many Reliable channels for the supply of growers try to save their investment with manufactured inputs, such as mineral insecticide and fungicide. fertilizer and pesticide that are suitable for Advising vegetable growers on good horticulture, are also very limited. Again, horticultural practices and the safe use of growers make their own arrangements. pesticide is the job of agricultural extension Horticulture in Dar es Salaam draws services. But public extension systems heavily on poultry manure. In Libreville, in most African countries have long manure is provided by poultry and pigs. been in decline. In many, NGOs employ In Cotonou, poultry waste is “much more extensionists than the ministry of appreciated” by gardeners, who prefer it to agriculture. mineral fertilizer. Using animal manure as Country case studies said that technical fertilizer is often credited with improving support to market gardening is “weak” environmental health by recycling other- in Côte d’Ivoire and “non-operational” in wise dangerous wastes. But reports from Gabon. Chad has no extension programme Cameroon and Côte d’Ivoire indicate that for urban gardeners. In Benin, growers have animal waste is often not fully decomposed, little contact with the extension service which can affect plant growth and increase and limited skills in nursery management, the risk of contamination of produce. fertilizer application and phytosanitary Of growing concern in many countries treatment. In Enugu (Nigeria), only is the use of synthetic pesticides, obtained 20 percent of market gardeners were even through informal channels by gardeners aware of extension services, and extension- with limited knowledge of their safe appli- ists there said serving urban growers “is cation or of the risks they pose to health not our job”. In the United Republic of and the environment. A survey in Abidjan’s Tanzania, “urban areas are not regarded peri-urban market gardens found 40 dif- as key agricultural areas”, and extension is ferent products in use and dangerously oriented to serving rural producers. high application rates. In Kumasi, some Even where governments or city vegetable growers were spraying cocktails authorities have decided to support of two or more pesticides, including some market gardening, the number of clients banned chemicals, during the harvest far exceeds capacity: in Accra, the Ministry period. of Food and Agriculture assigns extension officers to pay regular visits to market Access to extension. The increasing use gardens, but half of the growers surveyed of synthetic pesticides in African market recently had not seen one during the year. gardens is linked to poor cultivation practices. Very short intervals between

24 Growing greener cities in Africa Overview

Access to processing and markets. At is that intermediaries pay less than the harvest time, the high perishability of agreed price, and sometimes do not pay at produce means that gardeners must find all. In Nigeria, many growers’ incomes are immediate buyers. Extending their crops’ “minimal” after they have paid back debts shelf life through processing – pickling incurred before planting. In Burundi, losses okra, canning tomatoes, or mashing chilies along the marketing chain are deducted into paste – is a luxury: the dearth of agro- from prices promised to producers. processing capacity in sub-Saharan Africa, Those losses are often substantial in both urban and rural areas, is blamed for owing to poor harvesting, handling and post-harvest fruit and vegetable losses that packaging practices. In , produce are estimated to be half of total production. arrives in markets already damaged after Almost all produce is sold fresh, and being crammed into poorly constructed gardeners’ incomes usually depend on the wooden boxes. Post-harvest losses continue length of the marketing chain. In Ibadan to mount in markets themselves. Lusaka’s (Nigeria), they keep it short by selling main market, Soweto, is in a “deplorable directly to the public at the “farm gate”; condition”, with very limited storage many in Dar es Salaam do so from roadside capacity and no cold storage of any kind. In stalls. The do-it-yourself approach does Nigeria, markets are “badly located, heavily not always pay: some peri-urban growers congested, unsanitary, and lacking the in Lusaka transport their vegetables on physical facilities to handle large volumes of wheelbarrows to bus stops and from produce”. there to markets by public transport. Not And low returns to growers do not infrequent breakdowns of the city’s buses necessarily mean low prices for consumers. leave them stranded and their vegetables In Kumasi, traders demand high prices withering in the heat. at wholesale markets to cover service and In most of Africa, gardeners depend on transport costs. In Cotonou, locally grown intermediaries to market their crops. Sale is produce is often too expensive for the usually arranged by producers individually; average Beninese, and vegetables sold in rarely do they deal with traders collectively, Bangui are beyond the pockets of anyone which would give them greater bargaining but higher-income households. power. In Ghana, growers’ earnings are often low “because they are disorganized In most African cities, then, market garden- and have limited capacity to negotiate ing is an informal sector activity, which has prices”. Traders in Bangui have big profit developed with little regulation or support margins because they keep “tight control from governments or city authorities. There over market price information”. is also alarming evidence of unsustainable Vegetable growers are likely to receive intensification: the increasing use by only a small share of the retail price where vegetable growers of ever larger quantities they have taken production loans from of synthetic pesticide and polluted water. intermediaries, who descend on gardens Over-use of pesticides aggravates pest at harvest time to collect crops and problems. A recent study in West Africa consign them to city markets. A common found that vegetable growers sprayed pesti- complaint among Kinshasa gardeners cide excessively for fear of losing crops and

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 25 It is time for governments to adopt firm measures to regulate market gardening. But punitive approaches are unlikely to discourage an activity that provides livelihoods for thousands of urban residents and fresh food for millions more.

the income needed to pay off high-interest Vegetable traders in Yaoundé have informal loans used – to buy pesticide. In delivered a verdict that will probably be Cotonou, gardeners seeking to maximize seconded by health inspectors from Nairobi output from very small plots have been to Dakar: owing to the impoverishment of spraying vegetables with chemicals that are garden soils and the overuse of pesticides banned or severely restricted. In Yaoundé, and untreated wastewater, the quality growers “test on their vegetables products of vegetables grown in the city’s market registered for pests of cotton, coffee, cocoa gardens was inferior to that of produce and bananas”. from rural areas. Unsustainable intensification in Accra is blamed on urban development, which has reduced the average size of urban plots to around 200 sq m, and on continuous The way forward cultivation, which has depleted soil nutrients. To maintain yields, gardeners Unsustainable intensification is both a make massive use of chicken manure and response to rapidly expanding urban wastewater from open drains and polluted demand for fresh produce, and a strategy streams. As a result, one study found that adopted by market gardeners to maximize 70 percent of samples of cabbages bought returns from insecure livelihoods. It can in Accran supermarkets and grocery stores only be exacerbated in the years ahead: carried parasitic worm eggs. urbanization will continue to eat up land In Senegal, gardeners have raised needed for horticulture; improvements in production by over-pumping groundwater living standards generally lead to a decline for irrigation; to dilute the increasingly in home gardening, as busy households saline water, they mix it with untreated purchase more of their fruit and vegetables. wastewater, a practise that has left most It is time for governments to adopt firm of them infected with intestinal parasites measures to regulate market gardening. and “living in constant fear of health But punitive approaches, and all the inspectors”. In Nairobi, where the city health inspectors in Africa, are unlikely council’s objections to horticulture are to discourage an activity that provides based largely on health grounds, the use of livelihoods for thousands of urban raw sewage for irrigation has caused cases residents and fresh food for millions more. of faecal coliform contamination of leafy Policymakers should consider, instead, how vegetables, which made them unfit for support for market gardening could serve human consumption. their broader policy goals, such as poverty

26 Growing greener cities in Africa Overview alleviation, food and nutrition security, job of agriculture ministries in the Central creation, economic development, urban African Republic, Chad, The Gambia, environmental management and climate Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and Malawi. change mitigation. Burundi has a programme for market FAO has four recommendations for gardening and Cameroon has adopted a the sustainable development of market national strategy for UPH development. gardening, which can assist in the design of In East Africa, vegetable growers stand policies for the sector. We review here the to benefit from a general trend in favour extent to which those recommenda- of urban agriculture. Kenya’s Ministry of tions have been implemented in Africa, Agriculture has drafted a policy for the highlighting progress, lessons learned, and full integration of crop production and areas where useful improvement could be livestock keeping in urban areas. The final made. draft of Uganda’s National Land Policy pledges the government to legitimizing 1. Provide political “the land use activities of the urban poor, and institutional support especially in relation to agriculture”. In most countries, the ministry of How policies are implemented depends agriculture is best placed to foster the on the depth of official commitment and development of market gardening. It can on the amount of funding provided by provide extension advice, fund research on governments and donors. In Burundi, the improved varieties, regulate the quality of Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock has inputs, and request support from interna- followed up on its commitment with a tional development partners. It can help to four-year project to develop market gardens place UPH on the agendas of the ministries in Bujumbura and provincial capitals. of planning, health and environment, Cameroon is negotiating with the European and push for the removal of restrictive Union (EU) funding for a national legislation. A key question in FAO’s survey, horticulture development programme that therefore, was whether support for urban will also support horticulture in urban and and peri-urban horticulture was included in peri-urban areas. Sometimes, however, national ministries’ policies for agricultural plans are overtaken by other priorities. development. While Côte d’Ivoire’s Horticultural Master Of the 27 countries that provided an Plan calls for securing market gardeners’ answer, 21 said “Yes”. In a few countries, title to land, there has been little follow-up. such as the Democratic Republic of the Support “from the top” is crucial. In Congo, Gabon and Mozambique, market Kinshasa, the National Urban and Peri- gardening has been officially encouraged urban Horticulture Support Service lacks for decades (Zimbabwe has regulated the clout needed to defend the city’s market urban market gardens since 1912). However, gardens from illegal construction. In UPH and the need to support it have been Nigeria, the absence of policy support has acknowledged by many governments only left vegetable growers with limited access in the past 10 years. to land, water, credit, inputs and extension “Urban and peri-urban horticulture” now advice. Production technologies developed appears in policy and planning documents at Ibadan’s National Horticultural Research

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 27 Institute are practically unknown to the Throughout urban Africa, millions of city’s vegetable growers. low-income residents have no legal title Many African cities are adopting their to the homes they live in, let alone to the own measures to support market garden- plots many of them use to grow fruit and ing, often following “multi-stakeholder vegetables. Often, the problem is urban consultations” organized under the Cities development plans, many of them decades- Farming for the Future initiative of the old, that take no account of population Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture growth and the proliferation of slums and and Food Security (RUAF). In Accra the informal economy. that process led to its Department of Reforming national land tenure systems Agriculture’s being mandated to support and reviving urban planning is now a farming in the metropolitan area. It also priority in most countries. An important helped persuade the national Ministry of contribution to that process is FAO’s Agriculture to improve urban vegetable globally-endorsed guidelines on the respon- growers’ access to extension, inputs and sible governance of land tenure, published good quality water. Kampala City Council in 2012. While voluntary, the guidelines adopted in 2005 ordinances authorizing represent a consensus among states that horticulture, livestock keeping and aquacul- spatial planning should help poor and ture, and now provides food producers with vulnerable people to realize their right to extension services. adequate food and sustainable livelihoods. Similar initiatives are reported in other To do that in African cities, planning countries, despite – or perhaps because of – departments need to map the land that is the lack of a national policy or programme used for market gardening, and research its for urban and peri-urban horticulture. ownership status and production potential. In Burkina Faso, the city council of Bobo Suitable areas should be zoned for horti- Dioulasso is integrating urban agriculture culture (or combined with compatible uses, into its development policy, and the city such as green belts) and protected from of Ndola, in Zambia, recognizes crop and construction. Land-use titles – whether livestock production as legitimate land uses temporary permits or long-term leases, in in its strategic plan. the names of individual growers or their associations – should be registered in the 2. Integrate market gardening into city cadastre. urban planning While most African cities have not yet Following the 2007-08 global food crisis, a done that, a few have, and very successfully. United Nations high-level task force called The best example is Mozambique, which for a “paradigm shift” in urban planning, to created “green zones” for horticulture in one that encourages urban and peri-urban Maputo and other major cities in the 1980s. food production. But the transformation Although Maputo has grown exponentially of market gardening’s current “squatter” since then, most of its green zones are status to that of a planned economic intact, protected by Maputo City Council. activity is yet to happen in most African More recently, Kigali has zoned for urban countries. development 40 percent of the city area, leaving 15 000 ha for agriculture and for

28 Growing greener cities in Africa Overview

Most cities have not integrated market gardening into their urban planning. But some have, and very successfully. The best example comes from Mozambique.

safeguarding its wetlands. Antananarivo’s safe and can supply most of the nutrients master plan protects vegetable growing needed for horticulture. Near Dakar, an areas, and Cape Town, South Africa, FAO-assisted project is installing a treated includes horticulture in land use plans. wastewater irrigation system for 50 ha of In Mali, the government has reserved flower, fruit and vegetable plots. Bulawayo 100 ha of land 20 km southwest of the provides treated wastewater to peri-urban capital, Bamako, for market gardens. Near vegetable growers. Algeria’s national water Algiers, the province of , an important authority has plans to upgrade the quality centre of irrigated fruit production, has of wastewater from the Oran treatment inventoried prime farming land and set plant and use it to irrigate vineyards, procedures to prevent its being taken for orchards and vegetable gardens. housing. A surprising amount of land could be 3. Increase production and improve zoned for horticulture in cities that, so far, the quality of produce have seen no need for it. An inventory of If horticulture is to become part of greener unused land within metropolitan Lagos African cities, it must learn to grow more, identified 4 400 ha suitable for market and better quality, produce while optimiz- gardening. Although Lusaka City Council ing its use of water and reducing its reliance sees “little scope for long-term growth” of on agro-chemicals. That concept is at the urban agriculture, some 4 000 ha in and heart of “Save and Grow”, FAO’s new model around the city are suitable for “cultivation for the sustainable intensification of crop and plantation”. production, which brings together farming Water resource managers need to inte- practices and technologies that boost yields grate market gardening in water planning. while nurturing the agro-ecosystem. In Gabon, for example, designated market One recommendation is to feed the soil gardens are located near permanent sources plenty of compost. While it cannot replace of water and equipped with irrigation mineral fertilizer, even compost that is systems. In Benin, the cities of Cotonou low in nutrients has important benefits: and Sèmè-Kpodji have allocated to growers it improves soil structure and organic some 400 ha of peri-urban land with safer matter content, which slows the loss of groundwater. moisture and nutrients, improves root There needs to be a shift from a “linear” penetration and suppresses plant diseases. to a “circular” approach in urban water With compost, soil produces more using management. Appropriately treated, less water, less fertilizer and less pesticide. wastewater from domestic sources is Each year, African cities generate around

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 29 50 million tonnes of garbage that could be than synthetic products. Oil extracted from composted. However, country case studies neem tree seeds contains azadirachtin, reported few examples of the composting of which disrupts the life cycle of many insect urban organic waste. pests. Another biopesticide, based on If it were recycled, biodegradable solid the fungus Beauveria bassiana, is highly waste could yield 35 000 tonnes of compost effective against diamondback moths, a a year in Accra and 2 000 tonnes of cabbage pest that is resistant to pyrethroid nitrogen in Nairobi. City administrations insecticides. in Africa need to upgrade their solid waste Market gardeners also need good quality management systems and start separating seed of vegetable varieties that are better organic material. They should also encour- adapted to ecological production practices: age small-scale composting enterprises the result will be plants that are more located close to market gardens. That would vigorous, use nutrients and water more help to keep streets clean, create jobs and efficiently, and have greater tolerance of improve the productivity of horticulture. pests and diseases. Great scope exists for “Save and Grow” technologies that African indigenous vegetables. Many have reduce demand on urban water supplies more nutrients than exotic vegetables, include drip irrigation, which also reduces require lower levels of inputs and, thanks loss of soil nutrients, and rainwater to their rich diversity, will adapt better to harvesting. In Tunis, tomatoes are grown climate change. in greenhouses with gutters that channel Those and other good practices could to storage tanks enough rainwater to meet help African cities grow more fruit and 60 percent of irrigation requirements. The vegetables while lowering contamination International Crops Research Institute risks, cutting production costs and increas- for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) is ing growers’ profit margins. promoting an inexpensive low-pressure “Save and Grow” is, however, drip irrigation system that distributes water knowledge-intensive, and requires evenly over a 500 sq m garden and produces well-trained farmers. A proven means of big yield increases. training rural farmers in crop production A low-tech alternative is a traditional intensification is farmer field schools, African system consisting of clay pots filled where small groups of producers meet with water and buried neck-deep next to regularly with extensionists to analyse crops. Since water seeps out to plant roots problems and test sustainable solutions. as needed, the system consumes 10 times Such schools are rare in urban Africa, but less water than that normally delivered experiences are encouraging. After two through watering cans. Options for safe years of field schools, the proportion of re-use of wastewater include small stabi- market gardeners using synthetic pesticides lization ponds, which use algae, bacteria near Dakar dropped from 97 percent to and sunlight to eliminate pathogens while 12 percent, while their incomes rose by retaining nutrients. 60 percent. Growers said the main benefit Another technology with huge potential of their training was learning to prepare is biopesticide, which is generally less toxic seed beds, compost and biopesticide. In and less likely to provoke pest resistance Nairobi, women’s groups have learned

30 Growing greener cities in Africa Overview

Great scope exists for African indigenous vegetables. Many have more nutrients than exotic vegetables, require lower levels of inputs and, thanks to their rich diversity, will adapt better to climate change.

to grow amaranth in raised beds rich in organizations. Throughout Africa, organic matter, which need 50 percent growers’ informal associations are virtually less fertilizer and 30 percent less pesticide invisible to official sources of credit and than conventional beds, and produce eight development services, and have weak harvests a year. bargaining power with other links in the Introducing “Save and Grow” to other supply chain, such as traders. If they were African cities will require much tighter better organized in legally recognized regulation of pesticides, better organization cooperatives or professional associations, of input supply, and the strengthening and growers could offer economies of scale that reorientation of extension services. Field reduce the costs of service delivery. They schools will need to be adapted to busy could plan more diversified production urban lifestyles: an extended “pre-school” to avoid seasonal over-supply, negotiate phase may be necessary to identify better prices, and enter new markets for gardeners with enough spare time to attend higher-value produce. regular sessions throughout the growing A group of 20 growers near Nairobi season. has done just that with indigenous leafy vegetables. They buy seed in bulk from a 4. Build an efficient horticulture local shopping centre, pool produce and supply system sell up to 1.2 tonnes a week directly to Political commitment, land zoned for supermarkets in the capital. Profit margins horticulture, and sustainable production are twice those of unorganized producers. systems are essential for the development of In Maputo, market gardeners use land market gardening in Africa. But building, granted to their cooperative union, with on that foundation, an efficient urban fruit tenure guaranteed by titles issued to their and vegetable supply system requires a far associations. Through the union, 150 grow- greater level of cooperation than currently ers were trained recently in greenhouse exists among the sector’s stakeholders. production of vegetables for sale to hotels Governments, city authorities, gardeners, and supermarkets. input suppliers, processors, wholesalers Cooperatives can help break the grip and retailers – all need to work together to of intermediaries on production loans. In optimize the flow of produce from grower Lubumbashi, 130 market gardeners’ associa- to consumer. tions formed a credit cooperative which, The starting point should be the over the past 10 years, has provided loans strengthening of market gardeners’ – averaging US$60 each – to 6 000 women,

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 31 mainly for investment in the production prices, could promote sustainable produc- of higher-value vegetables. In Bujumbura, tion and the emergence of small-scale, 25 gardening associations have agreements private suppliers. with banks for production loans, and with In their plans for upgrading infrastruc- input stores for the supply of seed, fertilizer ture, city administrations should give and approved pesticides at a discount. priority to their fruit and vegetable markets. Governments should encourage Chaotic, unhygienic central markets built vegetable growers’ cooperatives by reducing decades ago add to the cost of produce and fees for their registration. Building viable increase food contamination risks. Clean, cooperatives also requires the development modern, decentralized markets that offer of members’ organizational and business cold storage and transparent information skills. In the Democratic Republic of the on prices will attract more customers. Congo, the solution to initially high rates Cities should also recognize informal food of loan defaults was training in financial marketing. “Spontaneous” local markets planning. Sometimes, growers’ needs are and stalls provide much needed outlets for very basic: a project launched recently in fruit and vegetable growers; they save urban Guinea-Bissau includes literacy classes for households time and transport costs, and 700 female gardeners. they provide an alternative to unhealthy Other stakeholders also need institu- street foods. tional credit. A study in Ibadan found that the biggest obstacle facing the city’s market And, at the end of the day, that is the gardening sector was the lack of capital to overarching objective of urban and peri- finance production, input supply, process- urban horticulture: to ensure a year-round ing and marketing. To encourage banks to supply of fresh produce that meets the finance horticulture, city authorities should dietary needs of urban populations, at a consider creating guarantee funds to cover price all residents can afford. By supporting loan defaults. Creative policies may also be the development of market gardens that needed to provide “Save and Grow” input supply their cities with fresh produce, packages. Well-designed “smart subsidy” policymakers will be making a long-term schemes, which issue vouchers that growers investment in the nutrition and health of use to purchase inputs at below-market their citizens.

32 Growing greener cities in Africa Country profiles

Algeria 35 Benin 39 Burundi 41 Cameroon 43 Cape Verde 46 Central African Republic 48 Chad 50 Republic of the Congo 52 Côte d’Ivoire 54 Democratic Republic of the Congo 57 Gabon 61 Ghana 63 Guinea-Bissau 66 Kenya 68 Mozambique 71 Nigeria 74 Rwanda 78 Senegal 80 Tunisia 83 Uganda 86 United Republic of Tanzania 89 Zambia 92 Sources of key country data Population Gross domestic product (GDP) per capita Reference year: 2011 Reference year: 2010 Source: United Nations. 2012. World urbanization Source: World Bank. 2012. World development indicators prospects, the 2011 revision population database online database (http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/unup/). (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD). Poverty rate (poverty headcount ratio at US$2 a day) Child mortality rate Reference year: Latest year available, 2002-2011 Reference year: 2010 Source: World Bank. 2012. World development indicators Source: UNICEF. 2011. Levels and trends in child mortality: online database Report 2011. New York, USA, UNICEF, WHO, World Bank (http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.2DAY). and UNDP. Urban poverty rate (population below national poverty line) Life expectancy at birth Reference year: Latest year available, 2002-2009 Reference year: 2009 Source: Millennium Development Goals Indicators Source: WHO. 2011. World Health Statistics 2011. Geneva, (http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Data.aspx). Switzerland. Proportion undernourished Human Development Index country ranking Reference year: Latest year available, 2006-2008 Reference year: 2011 Source: FAO. 2011. The state of food insecurity in the world: UNDP. 2011. Human development report 2011. How does international price volatility affect domestic Sustainability and equity: A better future for all. New economies and food security? Rome. York, USA.

34 Growing greener cities in Africa Algeria Growing awareness of the need to conserve the country’s agricultural heritage

ALGIERS Annabaabaa n Algeria’s independence in SétifS Oran Blida ConstC sttantinee 1962, around 70 percent of the Sidi-Bel-Abidi-Bel-Abbèsidi-Bel-AbbèB b Chlef Batnaa population lived in rural areas. Djelfa Biskra O Milestones on the path to an urbanized society passed quickly. Within 10 years, an exodus of rural people to the capital, Algiers, and other cities and towns on the country’s coast boosted the urban popula- tion to 40 percent, a proportion similar to that of most African countries today. By 1990, the majority of Algerians were urban, and since 1995 the rural population has been shrinking. 200 km The urban population currently numbers more than 26 million and is projected to Key data grow by more than half a million a year Area 2 381 470 sq km Population 35 980 000 over the current decade. While Algiers and Urban population 26 250 000 (73%) the city of Oran are home to 14 percent Poverty rate n.a. of the urban population, demographic Urban poverty rate n.a. growth is more rapid in a dense network GDP per capita US$4 567 of smaller towns and cities, most of them Proportion undernourished n.a. concentrated along the Mediterranean Child mortality rate 36/1000 Life expectancy at birth 72 years seaboard. Human Development Index ranking 96/187 Algeria’s transformation from a traditional rural to an urban mass society Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) has been described as “deeply traumatic”, particularly in Algiers, which has seen an 300 increase in the number of young, poor and 200 unemployed slum dwellers. Nationally, the urban slum population was estimated in 100 URBAN 2005 at 12 percent, or 2.4 million people.

0 RURAL As in other North African countries (see Tunisia, page 83), urban growth in 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 Algeria has often been at the expense of

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 35 Contributing to uncontrolled urban sprawl has been the failure of public authorities, and farmers themselves, to respect laws aimed at protecting urban and peri-urban agricultural land from transfer to other uses.

agriculture. The government estimates that towns on the Algiers Sahel, southwest of more than 250 000 ha of agricultural land the city. However, a decade of intense civil have been lost to construction since 1962. conflict beginning in 1992 provoked a fresh The loss of valuable food-producing areas influx of people from rural areas and the has been most serious on el-Mitidja, a fer- emergence of new squatter settlements. tile alluvial plain that stretches for 100 km Planned or unplanned, urban develop- from Algiers along the Tell Atlas mountain ment over the past 50 years has removed range and includes some of the country’s from production some of Mitidja’s most most heavily populated provinces. Much productive land, including 8 800 ha of vine- of the plain was a malarial swamp before yards. Sidi Moussa, at the heart of the plain, being drained during the French colonial is now an industrial centre, and colonial period. Today, Mitidja’s 70 000 farmers villages across the region have grown into produce annually some 1.5 million tonnes small cities. The total urban population of vegetables, 560 000 tonnes of potatoes of Mitidja’s five provinces increased from and 300 000 tonnes of citrus. 2.1 million in 1977 to more than 3.7 million Conflict between Mitidja and expanding in 2008. A study using satellite imagery Algiers dates from the 1950s, when French found that, in the province of Algiers alone, planners – anxious to contain social unrest the urban area had increased by 50 percent – targeted the plain for new industries and between 1987 and 2003, claiming more for the construction of 50 000 dwellings. than 5 000 ha – equal to 15 percent – of the Following independence, migrants from province’s farmland. rural areas moved to Mitidja to occupy Urban growth threatens food production newly vacated colonial villages or settle in around other Algerian cities. In Oran, shanty towns that proliferated on the city’s where the remains of colonial farms testify outskirts. to the existence of arable land beneath Urban development plans of the housing estates, the construction of new 1970s continued to promote large-scale homes, industries and infrastructure is industrial plant on the east of the plain and encroaching on 4 000 ha of prime peri- encouraged the construction there of public urban farmland, much of which is used for housing, both to attract workers to the market gardening and fruit crops. In Sétif, area and to reduce demographic pressure a city of 250 000 east of Algiers, agriculture on Algiers. Growing alarm over the loss occupied 75 percent of the municipal area of farmland prompted a policy reversal in in 2002. Today cultivated land is disap- the 1980s, when planners sought to divert pearing under housing and workshops, and the relentless flow of migrants to new hill planners expect that the city’s expansion

36 Growing greener cities in Africa Algeria will require, by 2020, at least 960 ha now production, knowing that eventually used for production of cereals, livestock and their land would be built over. The study vegetables. said the city should recognize peri-urban All of which is land that Algeria can ill- agriculture’s contribution to its economy, afford to lose. Through population growth food supply and the urban landscape, and urbanization, the area of agricultural and clearly express a preference: whether land per capita has fallen since 1960 from farming should be integrated into urban 1 ha to less than 0.25 ha, while the country’s development or not. At national level, the food import bill in 2009 amounted to study concluded, “incentive policies that US$5.4 billion, including US$550 million for encourage high-yield agriculture around fruit and vegetables. large cities” were needed to slow the rate of agricultural land losses. Contributing to uncontrolled urban sprawl Such policies are not yet in place, and has been the failure of public authorities, the Ministry of Agriculture has no specific and farmers themselves, to respect laws programme for urban and peri-urban aimed at protecting urban and peri-urban horticulture. However, the Algerian govern- agricultural land from transfer to other ment has recently strengthened legislation uses. A study in Sétif found that local to protect farmland with new provisions government officials had the major say in to ensure that “no transaction involving urban planning and that, while existing agricultural land will lead to a change in its regulations could be invoked to safeguard agricultural use”. It also approved, in 2010, the city’s farming heritage, “they are not a new master development plan to 2025 implemented”. In Oran, the Ministry of for the country’s regions and major cities Agriculture and Rural Development’s which seeks to slow the growth of coastal provincial office was formally consulted on urban agglomerations and relieve pressure proposed land use changes, but its opinion on agriculture by revitalizing rural areas, was not taken into account in urban developing the country’s underpopulated planning decisions. southern regions and building well- The root of the problem, underscored in organized new towns. the Oran study, is the absence in Algeria Nevertheless, a government decree of of a national policy for the development July 2011, which re-zoned more than 760 ha of urban and peri-urban agriculture, of farmland in Algiers and neighbouring including horticulture. Farming within city Blida province for the construction of boundaries is often seen as an extension of public housing, indicates that meeting the rural agriculture. In many urban plans, the immediate needs of low-income urban term “agricultural land” indicates simply residents for decent shelter remains a top those open spaces that are not built-up or priority. In fact, a recent review of urban forested. Requirements that planners iden- agriculture in the Mediterranean region tify high quality farmland are ignored, and warned that expansion of Algeria’s coastal no provisions are made for development of cities would continue in the medium term the urban agricultural zone. and that urban and peri-urban farming Not surprisingly, peri-urban farmers areas had entered “a cycle of accelerated in Oran were reluctant to invest in depletion”.

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 37 Algeria

In the province of Blida, authorities have made an inventory of prime farming land included in urban development plans, and established new procedures to prevent its being used for housing.

The study raised another concern: that national water authority has plans to the loss of open spaces that could be used upgrade the quality of wastewater from for urban food production had left cities Oran’s treatment plant and use it to irrigate entirely dependent for their fruit and 9 000 ha of food crops. vegetable supply on rural areas, and highly There is also growing national awareness vulnerable to supply chain disruptions and of the need to conserve the country’s additional costs. It estimated that transport agricultural heritage for future generations. charges and taxes doubled the price of A recent report on tourism and urban horticultural produce in city markets – for renewal pointed out that horticulture was example, a kilogram of tomatoes sells for up an important asset that could contribute to US$1.30 in Algiers, compared to less than to sustainable urban development, US$0.65 outside the city. Food price infla- employment and the conservation of local tion was one factor behind widespread civil ecosystems. unrest in Algerian cities in January 2011, which forced the government to intervene with direct subsidies of US$3.8 billion to hold down the prices of essential foodstuffs.

For now, recognition of urban and peri-urban horticulture in Algeria is proceeding in small but significant steps. On el-Mitidja, the Ministry of Agriculture has launched a programme to rehabilitate agricultural production, including the construction by 2014 of 500 ha of green- houses to permit three successive crops of vegetables, potatoes and melons a year. In the province of Blida, an important centre of irrigated horticulture, authorities have made an inventory of prime farming land included in urban development plans, and established new procedures to prevent its being used for housing. In Sétif, the municipality has granted land for flower and horticultural nurseries, while the

38 Growing greener cities in Africa Benin Locally grown vegetables are often too costly for most urban residents

ow productivity in agriculture is blamed for Benin’s high rates of rural Lpoverty and rural-urban migration. Natintingou The urban population, which stood at Nikki Djougou 4 million in 2011, is growing by 4 percent a Parakou year, and is projected to reach almost 7 mil- lion in 2025. Unable to meet their needs for fresh produce, Benin’s cities are forced to import increasing amounts of fruit and Abomey Bohicon vegetables, worth almost US$50 million Abomey-Calavi Godomey PORTO-NOVO in 2009. Cotonou To boost food production, save foreign exchange and diversify the export crop 200 km base, Benin’s government finalized in 2010 a Strategic Plan for Agricultural Recovery Key data that gives high priority to horticulture. Area 112 620 sq km Population 9 100 000 While it makes no specific provisions for Urban population 4 087 000 (44.9%) UPH, the plan at least acknowledges its Poverty rate 75.3% contribution to urban nutrition. The plan Urban poverty rate 29.0% aims at ensuring that by 2015 the national GDP per capita US$749 vegetable sector is able to satisfy domestic Proportion undernourished 12% demand for peppers, tomatoes, onions and Child mortality rate 115/1000 Life expectancy at birth 57 years carrots. Human Development Index ranking 167/187 The government’s commitment to Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) horticulture could be good news for the thousands of small-scale market gardeners 300 operating in and around Benin’s principal URBAN 200 cities, where one-third of the population lives in poverty. A study conducted in 2003 100 RURAL identified three major UPH systems serving the cities of southern Benin: very extensive 0 production on the floodplains north of Cotonou; moderately extensive systems in 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 the coastal areas of Grand-Popo and Agoué;

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 39 Benin and fully urban, very intensive gardening recent years has the approach been applied on plots of less than 0.3 ha. The more to UPH. Outside project areas, however, intensive the system, the higher the returns growers have little contact with agricultural – while river valley growers had incomes extension services and limited skills in below the national minimum wage, those in nursery management, fertilizer application urban areas earned up to 2.5 times as much. and phytosanitary treatment. Another The gross profit of commercial horti- constraint to UPH development is the high culture has been estimated at US$32 000 cost of inputs and the lack of a specific per hectare in Cotonou, where 12 large input supply chain for market gardening. market gardens provide permanent jobs Growers complain about the irregular for 1 400 garden managers and labourers. supply of seed, and often have no choice UPH generates income for thousands of but to use mineral fertilizer formulated for indirect beneficiaries, such as input dealers cotton, which causes acidification of garden and vegetable retailers, and also contributes soils. to waste management: on a 15 ha market While government policy seeks to garden in Cotonou, a growers’ cooperative improve food producers’ access to credit, composts vegetable waste collected from the rate of disbursements to urban markets, restaurants and hotels, and uses it vegetable growers is low, mainly because as a soil amendment and fertilizer. they lack the skills needed to make loan applications. Increasing the flow of credit to Benin’s plans for the development of its horticulture requires measures that reduce national horticulture sector should address transaction costs by creating legally recog- the urgent need to protect land used for nized vegetable growers’ organizations, and UPH. The sector has grown in the almost adapt lending procedures to the particular total absence of a legal framework, with characteristics of horticulture (for example, no mechanisms for its incorporation into by delaying repayments until growers begin urban planning. A survey found that to market their produce). two-thirds of growers were occupying land Food safety regulations are almost without legal title and operated under the non-existent for horticultural produce, and constant threat of eviction. vegetables are processed in unhygienic con- Since insecure land tenure discourages ditions. The development of the processing growers from investing in irrigation and sector is hampered by the lack of processing drainage works, dry season water shortages technologies and locally available storage. and rainy season flooding often interrupt production, reducing the supply and increasing the cost of produce in urban markets. In fact, locally grown vegetables are too expensive for most urban residents, and cannot compete with produce imported from Burkina Faso and Nigeria. Although farmer field schools have been used in agricultural development projects in Benin for more than a decade, only in

40 Growing greener cities in Africa Burundi Action to ensure that horticulture is included in the capital’s urban master plan

n 10 November 2011, some 3 000 people gathered in the central park Oof Burundi’s capital, Bujumbura, to celebrate the country’s first National Horticulture Day. Special guests included Ngozi the Minister of Agriculture and Livestock, BUJUMBURA Gitega the mayor, government and municipal Bururi officials and many of the city’s fruit, vegetable and flower growers. The event was a clear signal that Burundi is preparing for an urban future with horticulture. Although its population is still overwhelmingly rural, Burundi’s recent rate 200 km of urbanization has averaged 5.4 percent a year, the second fastest in Africa after Key data neighbouring Rwanda. The urban popula- Total area 27 830 sq km Total population 8 575 000 tion, now 950 000, is projected to reach Urban population 936 000 (10.9%) 2 million by 2030. Poverty rate 93.5% The growth of Bujumbura (estimated Urban poverty rate 34% population: 650 000) is driven by the return GDP per capita US$192 of refugees from a decade of civil conflict, Proportion undernourished 62% and an influx of rural people seeking to Child mortality rate 142/1000 Life expectancy at birth 50 years escape endemic poverty. However, lack Human Development Index ranking 185/187 of employment opportunities has led to a rapid increase in the number of urban poor. Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) Around one third of the capital’s residents live in poverty and spend two-thirds of 300 URBAN their income on food. In 2008, an estimated 200 118 000 of them were “chronically food insecure” owing to the soaring cost of food, 100 RURAL transport and health care. 0 To boost the urban food supply and provide livelihoods for low-income households, 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 Burundi’s National Food Security

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 41 Burundi

Programme allocates US$10.8 million to under a government scheme for low-income promote urban and peri-urban horticulture. areas. It also began consultations with city In support of that programme, the Ministry planners aimed at ensuring that market of Agriculture and Livestock launched in gardening is incorporated in the Bujumbura December 2010 a four-year FAO-assisted Urban Master Plan, which is now being project, funded by Belgium, to develop formulated with World Bank funding. UPH in Bujumbura and provincial capitals. To introduce more productive cultivation Drawing on the strategy that has been techniques, the project trained 140 applied successfully in the Democratic agronomists and association leaders to Republic of the Congo (see page 57), serve as facilitators in a campaign of farmer the project aims at securing fruit and field schools in 2012. It selected promising vegetable growers’ rights to land and local varieties of amaranth, tomato, access to irrigation, training them in eggplant and onion for introduction to good cultivation practices and promoting the city’s market gardens, and is testing increased consumption of fresh produce. As improved vegetable varieties from Europe a first step, the project opened a municipal and other African countries. Agreements horticultural office in Bujumbura staffed have been reached with credit institutions by specialists in horticulture, agricultural to provide production loans to 25 gardening economics, agricultural engineering and associations, and six input supply stores are property law. It also helped to create a gearing up to provide seed, fertilizer and municipal consultation committee, chaired approved pesticides. by the city mayor, to oversee the zoning of The project has also introduced vegetable land for horticulture. gardening to 14 primary schools in Bujum- With institutional support in place, the bura. It supplied gardening tools, seed, project conducted an inventory of market nutrition education materials, and 7 000 gardening areas in and around the capital. papaya seedlings for planting in school It mapped 150 ha of land, including 12 ha grounds. The project’s 2011 programme of beside the international airport, cultivated preparatory work ended with an inventory by 71 informal associations with a total of of horticulture in the provincial capitals of 3 328 members, 70 percent of them women. Cibitoke and Muramvya, and a major step From individual plots averaging 450 sq m, forward: the celebration of Burundi’s first growers produce mainly cabbages, toma- National Horticulture Day. toes, amaranth, peppers, zucchini, celery, spinach, lettuce and cucumbers. While lack of irrigation restricts most production to the September-May rainy season, some growers cultivate plots along watercourses during the dry season, irrigating them with treadle pumps.

The Bujumbura Horticulture Office encour- aged growers who occupy state-owned land to seek provisional titles now being offered

42 Growing greener cities in Africa Cameroon Ensuring the safety of horticultural produce is the most serious challenge facing the sector

n July 2011, Cameroon joined the small group of African countries that Ihave adopted a national strategy for Maroua the development of urban and peri-urban horticulture. The strategy outlines a Garoua comprehensive programme for cities in the country’s five agro-ecological zones, aimed Ngaoundéré at boosting fruit and vegetable production, Bamenda enhancing the horticultural value chain Bafoussam and developing markets for produce. Nkongsamba Kumba For now, the 70-page document is a Douala YAOUNDÉ statement of good intentions that awaits a plan of action for implementation, and 200 km funding from the government and from donors. What becomes of the strategy is Key data being seen as a crucial test of national and Total area 475 440 sq km Total population 20 030 000 international commitment to sustainable Urban population 10 435 000 (52.1%) UPH development in Africa. Poverty rate 30.4% For Cameroon’s capital, Yaoundé, is a Urban poverty rate 12.2% prime example of the challenges facing GDP per capita US$1 147 rapidly urbanizing African cities, of the Proportion undernourished 22% importance of urban and peri-urban Child mortality rate 136/1000 Life expectancy at birth 51 years horticulture, and of the health and Human Development Index ranking 150/187 environmental risks posed by unregulated farming in urban areas. Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) Cameroon made the transition to a major- 300 ity urban society in the decade 2000/10, 200 when its urban population increased by URBAN almost 50 percent, from 7.9 million to 100 11.6 million. Towns and cities are currently RURAL growing by 3.3 percent a year and their total 0 population is projected to reach 16 million by 2020. 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 43 Traders in Yaoundé say the quality of vegetables grown in urban areas is inferior to that of produce from rural farms, owing to the impoverishment of valley soils, the use of untreated wastewater and the overuse of pesticides.

Growth is strongest in Yaoundé and traditional leafy vegetables on plots in the coastal city of Douala, which together upland areas. Their households consumed account for 33 percent of all urban more than 80 percent of the crops grown, residents. Official estimates put the rate and sold or gave away the rest. of income poverty in both cities at just Commercial vegetable production is 5 percent. However, urban poverty has concentrated in the city’s swampy valley other dimensions: in Douala’s slums, bottoms. The typical grower is a married drinking water is heavily polluted by woman with very limited education and untreated domestic and industrial effluent. most likely to be from Cameroon’s impov- In Yaoundé, torrential rains during the erished western highlands. While plots wet season lead to floods and outbreaks are small, commercial growers cultivate of diarrhoeal diseases in low-income on average four plots each. They produce communities. mainly lettuce during the rainy season, and Yaoundé’s tropical highland climate is traditional vegetables – amaranth, African also a blessing: it allows year-round produc- nightshades and jute mallow – during the tion of flowers, medicinal plants, fruit and November-February dry season, when leafy vegetables. Agriculture is practised competition from rural areas declines and in every part of the capital, from intensive market prices double. market gardening in swampy valleys that With irrigation and high levels of inputs, run through the inner city, to rainfed including chicken waste and insecticides, farming of maize and cassava in peri-urban an urban garden can produce 1.5 tonnes uplands. The pig population is estimated at of lettuce a year, equal to 38 tonnes per 50 000, while annual production of broilers hectare. Most growers cite poverty and and laying hens is close to 1 million birds. unemployment as their main motives for According to recent data, 1 445 ha of land taking up market gardening and report are used for agriculture, including 94 ha average monthly incomes of around US$70, under vegetables and 120 ha under fruit or 50 percent more than the minimum trees, within Yaoundé’s urban area. wage. Some 35 percent of households in the While valley bottom market gardening capital grow fruit and vegetables. Research accounts for most of the city’s vegetable supported by the Urban Harvest initiative supply, it is also illegal since all riverine of the Consultative Group on International land belongs to the state. Surveys have Agricultural Research (CGIAR) in 2002- found a wide range of informal tenure 2004 found that the majority of producers arrangements: two-thirds of growers were women, who cultivated maize and paid rent to customary landowners, some

44 Growing greener cities in Africa Cameroon had “borrowed” the land, and less than fields or eating contaminated fruit and 10 percent considered themselves to be vegetables. Moreover, research suggests that squatters. Although urban agriculture the prime source of contamination could be is officially tolerated, more than half the livestock and domestic animals. growers interviewed for one study said they Many growers have little knowledge of had been forced to move to other areas. pest management, and use highly toxic, Both household vegetable production obsolete pesticide without protection. and market gardening make a significant Overuse of insecticide has also been contribution to the nutrition of Yaoundé linked to increasing resistance in vectors residents, with cassava leaves, bitterleaf of diseases such as malaria. A study found and amaranth providing about 8 percent that resistance was particularly prevalent of their protein and 40 percent of their in mosquitoes in areas used for urban calcium intake. agriculture. Floriculture and fungiculture are also Vegetable traders in Yaoundé say the important sources of income for Yaoundé’s quality of vegetables grown in urban areas poor. Flower production occupies an is inferior to that of produce from rural area of around 10 ha, mainly in the city’s farms, owing to the impoverishment of urban core, and provides a livelihood for valley soils, the use of untreated wastewater 500 women. Recent reports indicate rapid and the overuse of pesticides. growth of mushroom production, which generates monthly incomes of US$250. Cameroon’s new national strategy for UPH development recognizes that ensuring But Cameroon’s capital is no garden of the safety of horticultural produce is the Eden. The productivity of its market most serious challenge facing the sector. gardens is due in large part to the use So, while calling for action to increase the of urban wastewater for irrigation. The volume of production and expand markets water is polluted by human waste that for fruit and vegetables, it stresses the need flows from pit latrines and open sewers to educate market gardeners to the health into the city’s inland valleys, and also by risks posed by wastewater irrigation, to livestock waste: while most pig and poultry regulate the use of pesticides and to provide waste is recycled as manure on maize and training in integrated pest management. vegetable plots, it has been estimated that But, for now, the strategy is a statement 6 350 tonnes are “lost to the environment” of good intentions, and a crucial test of every year. national and international commitment to Analysis of irrigation water used in the sustainable development of urban and Yaoundé revealed levels of faecal bacteria peri-urban horticulture in Africa. and parasites that were a health risk to both growers and consumers. The cost to growers of diseases such as bilharzia, typhoid fever and diarrhoea was estimated at US$70 a year in health expenses. Recent studies found that city residents contracted diarrhoeal diseases by walking in irrigated

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 45 Cape Verde The key to productivity increases: higher-yielding and water-saving technologies

frica’s arid Sahelian climatic zone 100 km extends 850 km across the Atlantic Porto Novo Mindelo AOcean to embrace 10 islands that make up the Republic of Cape Verde. With Santa Maria just 11 percent of its land surface cultivable, no permanent surface waters and average rainfall of less than 300 mm a year, agriculture meets barely one-tenth of the country’s cereal needs. Cape Verde’s farmers began abandoning the countryside en masse for urban Pedra Badejo Assomada areas, or emigration abroad, in the early 1980s. The urban population, which is São Filipe PRAIA concentrated on the islands of Santiago, São Vicente and Sal, grew from 70 000 Key data to more than 300 000 between 1980 and Total area 4 030 sq km Total population 501 000 2010. Surveys put the urban poverty rate at Urban population 314 000 (62.6%) 13 percent and unemployment at 23 percent. Poverty rate 40.9% Once completely dependent on emigrant Urban poverty rate 13.2% remittances and foreign aid, Cape Verde GDP per capita US$3 323 now sees the development of tourism as its Proportion undernourished n.a. main source of economic growth. Child mortality rate 36/1000 Life expectancy at birth 71 years Human Development Index ranking 133/187 Horticulture will also play an important role in Cape Verde’s future. The govern- Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) ment’s Agricultural Development Strategy to 2015 aims at modernizing the country’s 300 farming sector, primarily by optimizing 200 the use of irrigation water, particularly for the intensive production of fresh produce 100 URBAN destined for both urban and tourist markets. 0 RURAL During the decade 2000/10, government and private investment in horticulture 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 helped boost local production of vegetables

46 Growing greener cities in Africa – mainly tomatoes and cabbages, but also of inputs and irrigation equipment, and green beans, onions and cucumbers – from seasonal gluts that depressed producer 15 000 tonnes to 20 600 tonnes. Average prices. yields increased by 20 percent. The key to productivity increases was the introduction Cape Verde’s National Agricultural Invest- of higher-yielding and water-saving tech- ment Programme allocates US$46 million nologies, such as greenhouse cultivation for water management and a further and drip irrigation systems. US$9.5 million mainly for horticultural The challenge is to extend those development in the period 2010-2015. technologies to the islands’ estimated The aim is to extend drip irrigation to 4 000 ha of irrigable land. The main source 600 ha of land to allow fruit and vegetable of irrigation water in Cape Verde is ground- production by 1 500 low-income farming water, which is recharged each year during households. The programme includes the the brief August-October rainy season and construction of 12 dams, the installation extracted from springs and wells. Available of 80 km of irrigation canals, and training data indicate that more than 2 000 ha are for agricultural extensionists and farmers. currently irrigated, mainly on the islands of With crop cycles averaging 1.5 per year, the São Antão and Santiago. The most common newly irrigated area is expected to produce practice is surface irrigation and the main 18 000 tonnes of fruit and vegetables irrigated crop is sugar cane, used to make annually. The programme will also help the national alcoholic beverage, grogue. to improve the marketing of fresh, quality The irrigated vegetable growing area has produce. been estimated at 1 000 ha, of which about Meanwhile, FAO is assisting a three-year 600 ha are under drip irrigation. project that will introduce hydroponic The advantages of irrigation emerged greenhouse production of vegetables to clearly in a recent survey of fruit and farmers on eight Cape Verdean islands. vegetable growers near São Filipe, on the The project is installing 16 demonstration island of Fogo. Most of Fogo’s growers have greenhouses and nurseries, and dis- adopted drip irrigation, use locally designed seminating the technology through local greenhouses and harvest rainwater from horticultural entrepreneurs and extension their rooftops. Produce is marketed in São staff. It will also provide training at Cape Filipe, 7 km distant. The study found that Verde’s National School of Hydroponics, full-time irrigated horticulture was the under construction in the capital, Praia. island’s most profitable farm sector, provid- ing average household incomes of US$5 800 a year, 2.5 times more than the earnings of farmers without irrigation. The study also identified constraints to increased production. They included the high cost of irrigation water from the government distribution network, the fuel costs of pumping water from boreholes, the lack of agricultural credit, shortages

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 47 Central African Republic Shifting cultivation of vegetables is blamed for the devastation of urban green belts

hough richly endowed with natural resources, the Central African TRepublic ranks as one of the world’s least developed countries, the consequence of three decades of political crises and armed conflict. Per capita GDP stands Bossangoa Bria at around US$450 and two-thirds of its Bouar Bambari 4.5 million people live in poverty. Carnot Bangassou Trends in urbanization mirror the coun- Berbérati BANGUI try’s turbulent past and ongoing violence: Nola Bimbo while the population of many provincial towns has declined, that of the capital, Bangui, has tripled since 1980. Bangui and 200 km its neighbouring town of Bimbo are now home to some 900 000 people, or half the Key data country’s urban population, and 75 percent Total area 622 980 sq km Total population 4 487 000 of its urban poor. According to recent Urban population 1 753 000 (39%) reports, the state of the city’s infrastructure Poverty rate 81.9% is “appalling”, youth unemployment is Urban poverty rate 49.6% “rampant”, and most of its elderly “have GDP per capita US$457 insufficient savings to guarantee their Proportion undernourished 40% survival”. Child mortality rate 159/1000 Life expectancy at birth 48 years Human Development Index ranking 179/187 Many of Bangui’s residents have taken up home gardening to meet household Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) food needs. However, the bulk of the city’s supply of fresh produce – tomatoes, onions, 300 cabbages and local vegetables – is grown 200 on eight market gardens in and around the city. A study in 2005 found that market URBAN 100 gardens produced about 1 000 tonnes of vegetables annually. 0 RURAL Most of Bangui’s 2 125 gardeners are organized in informal groups that 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 operate, often without secure title, on

48 Growing greener cities in Africa state-, community- and privately-owned partners, has promoted market gardening land along tributaries of the Ubangi river. in Bangui and the western town of Bouar. Many of them are women, who participate Those initiatives have helped some growers through women’s groups or in mixed to secure title to plots in both cities, and groups. Female gardeners are usually one French-funded project is credited with illiterate, use rudimentary tools, spend having helped set up in Bangui a gardeners’ more time than men on watering crops, and federation with 2 550 members. However, use most of their income to meet family the end of external assistance has often basic needs. The strong presence of women spelt the termination of state support. is attributed to the responsibility placed on Sustainable development of UPH in the them for household well-being and to their Central African Republic should begin with lower educational status, which forces them the establishment of a formal framework to seek informal employment. for consultation among all stakeholders, Many growers practise shifting including city and provincial administra- cultivation, which is blamed for depleting tions, Ministry of Agriculture technical soils and devastating green areas around services, urban planners, growers’ groups, the city. Gardeners generally have limited traders and input suppliers. A complete knowledge of good cultivation practices, inventory needs to be made of gardening such as crop rotation and correct planting sites as a first step towards zoning areas for density. They use untreated wastewater for horticulture, securing growers’ title to the irrigation, and sow either whatever seed is land, and organizing them into professional available on the market or their own saved associations. The associations need to be seed. supported with training, especially for Despite high demand for vegetables, women, in good horticultural practices and growers’ profits are low. A study found that financial management, and with access traders kept tight control over the flow of to input supply services, micro-credit and market information, which allowed them market information. to pay low prices and maximize their own At national level, the government can returns. In fact, the price of vegetables in assist the sector by facilitating the import the city’s markets is beyond the reach of of improved seed, small-scale irrigation the city’s poor: a kilogram of tomatoes equipment and fertilizer, and investing in can cost up to US$1.50, which is 50¢ more the breeding of improved vegetable variet- than the daily expenditure of an average ies from local and exotic genetic resources. resident. The main buyers of vegetables are higher-income households.

The Central African government’s strategy for rural development recognizes horticulture as a means of diversifying peri-urban agriculture and improving farmers’ incomes. Over the past decade, the Ministry of Rural Development and Agri- culture, along with national and external

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 49 Chad Recognition of horticulture is emerging in the country’s development planning

lthough 78 percent of Chadians live in rural areas, the country’s rate of Aurbanization, currently 3 percent annually, is accelerating and is expected to reach 4 percent by 2025. Between 2010 and 2025, Chad’s urban population is projected to grow by two-thirds, to 4 million, while that of the capital, N’Djamena, will increase from 1 million to 1.9 million.

N’DJAMENA Despite an oil-based economic boom that tripled per capita GDP in the period 2002-2010, poverty in Chad is described Sarh Moundou as “massive and deep”, especially in rural 200 km areas. The incidence of urban poverty ranges from 20 percent in N’Djamena to Key data 33 percent in the cities of Moundou and Total area 1 284 000 sq km Total population 11 525 000 Sarh. Around one quarter of children in Urban population 2 512 000 (21.8%) urban areas are malnourished, and in 2005 Poverty rate 83.3% more than 90 percent of the urban popula- Urban poverty rate 24.6% tion lived in slums. While urban develop- GDP per capita US$676 ment is essential for the country’s economic Proportion undernourished 39% growth, inadequate town planning has led Child mortality rate 173/1000 Life expectancy at birth 48 years to a chaotic expansion of settlements, the Human Development Index ranking 183/187 confiscation of peri-urban farmland and the loss of urban green spaces. Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) Studies have described a thriving pig 300 production sector in peri-urban areas of

200 URBAN N’Djamena (855 production units and 11 728 pigs in 2005). However, no data is available 100 on the extent of urban and peri-urban RURAL horticulture at city or national level. FAO’s 0 survey of UPH in Chad indicates that along with urbanization, there has been strong 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 growth in consumption of vegetables,

50 Growing greener cities in Africa estimated at around 30-45 kg per person throughout the year on other crops, per year in N’Djamena. The area under particularly cowpea and tomatoes, and had vegetables has expanded considerably little knowledge of application rates or the around Moundou, where the removal risks posed by pesticides to health and the of cotton subsidies has prompted many environment. farmers to diversify production. Around 40 percent of UPH output in Government support to UPH development Chad is from backyard and community has been limited. While one of the tasks gardens, while around a third is grown of the National Office for Horticultural in market gardens. The main vegetables Development, created in 1985, is to support produced are tomatoes, onions, garlic, okra, market gardening, its impact has been weak peppers, lettuce, melons, cucumbers and owing to the lack of a coherent strategy cabbages. In the Sudanese climate zone in for the sector. The national agricultural the south, market gardening is generally a extension service is oriented towards rural dry season activity, with the peak of pro- producers and has no specific programme duction in January and February. However, for urban gardeners. traditional tomato varieties grow well in the However, recognition of UPH is emerg- southern rainy season, and vegetables are ing in the country’s development planning. produced throughout the year around oases The Chadian Institute of Agronomic in the country’s northern Saharan zone. Research for Development has included Many urban and peri-urban growers urban and peri-urban production in its have organized themselves in groups research programme for improving the that cultivate collective plots. Others productivity of vegetable crops, while the have established individual businesses National Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2008- on private land and employ labourers, or 2011, calls for revitalization of horticultural run family operations on plots no larger production and measures to stimulate than 2 000 sq m. A survey of five market urban demand for fruit and vegetables. The gardening associations in N’Djamena found draft National Food Security Programme, that most growers are small-scale and 2011-2015, targets investment of more take up horticulture as a source of food than US$9 million in rural and peri-urban security and income. The associations were market gardening. Planned activities cultivating plots of tomatoes and lettuce, include the modernization of gardening mainly on land along the Chari River that sites, the creation of input supply centres separates N’Djamena and Cameroon. Only and crop management training for 10 000 20 percent owned the land they farmed. vegetable growers. More than 40 percent of growers said their production was limited by the lack of access to irrigation, quality seed, fertilizer and herbicide. The use by gardeners of organophosphate pesticides formulated for cotton is a major concern. A study of pesticide use found that growers applied cotton pesticide

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 51 Republic of the Congo Market gardens have largely withstood the impact of urbanization

n 1960, Brazzaville had a population of 124 000, a peri-urban belt of prosperous Imarket gardens, and a municipal Impfondo jardin d’essai that was used for trials of Ouesso European fruit and vegetable varieties. Over the following five decades, a massive Owando movement of rural people to the city saw its population grow at an average annual rate of 5.2 percent, to reach 1.6 million in 2010. That exponential growth has made the Republic of the Congo one of the Sibiti most urbanized countries in Africa, and Madingou Dolisie BRAZZAVILLE Brazzaville and the coastal city of Pointe- Pointe-Noire Nkayi 200 km Noire home to more than half of the total population. Although its oil-based economy Key data recorded strong growth in 2010, Congo Total area 342 000 sq km Total population 4 140 000 remains heavily indebted and its cities lack Urban population 2 635 000 (63.7%) basic services and proper housing. The Poverty rate 74.4% urban poverty rate has been estimated at Urban poverty rate n.a. 40 percent, less than half of urban residents GDP per capita US$2 970 have access to electricity, and 60 percent Proportion undernourished 13% are employed in the informal sector. Child mortality rate 93/1000 Life expectancy at birth 55 years Human Development Index ranking 137/187 Although most of Brazzaville’s municipal garden has been taken for housing, its Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) market gardens have largely withstood the impact of urbanization. Horticulture 300 is practised by some 10 000 growers on 200 500 ha of land and provides 80 percent of URBAN the leafy vegetables and 20 percent of the 100 tomatoes marketed in Brazzaville. Nation- RURAL ally, the total area dedicated to urban and 0 peri-urban horticulture is about 1 450 ha, engaging more than 30 000 producers, 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 about 70 percent of whom are women.

52 Growing greener cities in Africa Annual production is estimated at 10 000 urban encroachment on land used for tonnes in Brazzaville, 7 000 tonnes in horticulture. Growers in Talangayi protest Pointe-Noire and 4 000 tonnes in Dolisie. illegal housing construction on their land, Very distinct wet and dry seasons in which continues despite legal action against Brazzaville allow the year-round production speculators. While a law of 2008 seeks of a variety of local and exotic vegetables, to safeguard peri-urban zones used for including amaranth, lettuce, endives, horticulture, there is a lack of procedures cassava leaves, nightshade, tomatoes, for legal and administrative scrutiny that cabbages and cucumbers. Market gardening would halt illegal sales of public land. is concentrated in unplanned suburbs and peripheral areas, such as Mikalu, Mfilou The Republic of the Congo is one of the few and Talangayi, where the majority of the African countries to have given priority to poor live. In Mfilou, many young people UPH in its current planning for agriculture, without high school diplomas take up food security and poverty reduction. The horticulture to help support their families. National Food Security Programme, 2008- Growing vegetables is often a profitable 2012, recognizes horticulture’s contribution part-time activity – along the banks of the to urban livelihoods and nutrition security Djoué river, many gardeners are university and provides for construction of irrigation students whose monthly incomes are four works serving 240 ha of market gardens. times the minimum wage. It allocates funding of US$800 000 for organizing growers’ associations, training The resilience of UPH in the Republic of the growers in good production practices, Congo is partly due to the support to the improving storage and processing facilities sector that began in the mid-1980s, when and developing input supply and marketing the parastatal Agricongo Centre launched channels. Another positive development: in a programme that installed irrigation on 2011, the Mayor of Brazzaville announced 50 ha of market gardens in Brazzaville and plans to restore what remains of the jardin opened resource centres to supply growers d’essai, which will be used as a nursery for with training and inputs. Though much of ornamental plants destined for the city’s the infrastructure was destroyed during public parks. civil strife in the 1990s, Agricongo has continued to provide training in fertilizer management, composting and greenhouse production. The Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock has established technical support centres in some gardening areas to provide on-site training. Nevertheless, the productivity of market gardeners is limited by their low levels of technical skills, inadequate tools, lack of irrigation, the high cost of quality seed and the erratic supply of organic fertilizer. An even more pressing constraint is

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 53 Côte d’Ivoire Loss of land to real estate development is a major threat to gardeners’ livelihoods

ôte d’Ivoire was once considered a “model African nation”, thanks to a Korhogo Cboom in coffee and cocoa exports that fuelled spectacular economic growth in the 1960s and 1970s. That period saw the urban population expand by an average Bouaké Man of 8 percent a year, as people from rural areas and neighbouring countries flocked Daloa Yamoussoukro to its principal cities, Abidjan, Bouaké and Yamoussoukro. By 2002, Abidjan’s Gagnoa ABIDJAN population stood at more than 3 million – a 450 percent increase in the space of San Pédro 30 years – and four out of every 10 residents 200 km were migrants. Since then, civil strife, a slump in Key data agricultural exports and the deterioration Total area 322 460 sq km Total population 20 153 000 of basic infrastructure have pushed an Urban population 10 339 000 (51.3%) estimated 2 million people into poverty. Poverty rate 46.8% In 2008, almost half the total population, Urban poverty rate 29.4% and one-third of those in urban areas, lived GDP per capita US$1 154 below the poverty line of US$1.32 a day. Proportion undernourished 14% While high levels of unemployment have Child mortality rate 123/1000 Life expectancy at birth 50 years discouraged the flow of migrants, many Human Development Index ranking 170/187 remain, concentrated increasingly in urban slums. In Abidjan, at least 600 000 people Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) live in bidonvilles, where reaches 340 inhabitants per hectare and 300 the majority of residents hail from Benin, 200 Burkina Faso, Ghana and Mali. URBAN 100 Urban and peri-urban horticulture is RURAL regarded as an informal economic activity 0 in Côte d’Ivoire, and few reliable statistics are available on the scale of production, 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 whether by city or nationwide. However,

54 Growing greener cities in Africa FAO’s survey of UPH indicates that around well organized. In Abidjan, vegetables are 650 full-time market gardeners operate sold directly at gardening sites or through in Abidjan, 200 in Bouaké, and 320 in markets, while much of the production in Yamoussoukro. The area under horticulture Yamoussoukro is bought by traders for sale ranges from more than 190 ha in Abidjan in Abidjan. In both cities, wholesale and and Yamoussoukro to less than 10 ha in the retail marketing is the domain of women, towns of Daloa, Korhogo and San Pedro. usually young and illiterate, whose incomes In larger cities, low-income immigrants range from US$0.40 to US$3.50 a day. are the backbone of the sector. A recent survey found that more than 80 percent of As in other countries of West Africa, urban market gardeners in Abidjan and 75 percent planning in Côte d’Ivoire makes little in Yamoussoukro came from other coun- allowance for market gardening. Master tries, usually Burkina Faso. Most growers development plans prepared during the are males, aged under 40 years and illiter- 1980s and 1990s have not been updated to ate, with families of from five to 15 people cope with the proliferation of makeshift to support. A typical grower cultivates a dwellings, and growers must constantly small, individual plot – averaging less than move to new areas as urbanization 1 500 sq m in Abidjan and 600 sq m in advances. In Abidjan, less than 2 percent Yamoussoukro – mainly on vacant land of market gardeners own the land they beside lagoons, rivers and streams, but also cultivate, and loss of land to real estate along drains and sewage canals. development is cited as one of the main Market gardeners produce crops such as threats to their livelihoods. lettuce, cabbages, peppers, sweet potatoes, The sector receives little support from onions and traditional leafy vegetables all the agricultural extension service, which is year round. Researchers have inventoried directed mainly at rural producers. Control 26 plant species grown in urban and peri- of produce quality is also inadequate: a sur- urban gardens. Intercropping of indigenous vey of pesticide used in Abidjan’s vegetable vegetables – such as okra, amaranth, jute gardens identified more than 40 different and African eggplant – is widely practised, products, many of them formulated for cot- especially in Abidjan, where they fetch good ton, and dangerously high application rates. prices. Pesticides are used by about half UPH development is also handicapped of Abidjan’s urban growers, compared to by the lack of a national seed system for more than 70 percent of those operating on improved vegetable varieties and the high the city’s outskirts, where poor cultivation cost of seed from commercial outlets. A practices, such as high cropping densities shortage of post-harvest and processing and the lack of crop rotation, cause a higher facilities prevents growers from accessing incidence of pests. value-added markets. Horticulture is most growers’ main The government’s Horticultural Master source of income. Per month, full-time Plan, 2006-2025, sees UPH as an integral market gardeners earn from US$120 in part of its strategy for increasing vegetable Abidjan to little more than US$40, equal to production. It recognizes that urban and the national poverty line, in Yamoussoukro. peri-urban market gardeners are excluded The marketing chain for fresh produce is from extension and other services, and that

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 55 Côte d’Ivoire

A survey of pesticide used in Abidjan’s vegetable gardens identified more than 40 different products, many of them formulated for cotton, and dangerously high application rates.

the failure to incorporate horticulture into iron-deficiency anaemia is reported to urban planning has rendered their liveli- affect half of pre-school children and more hoods “permanently insecure”. However, than half of pregnant women in peri-urban while the plan gives priority to securing areas. growers’ titles to land, and supporting Properly organized and supported, UPH them with training, there has been little could make an important contribution to follow-up. economic development, employment and In the absence of a national action plan nutrition in urban areas. The starting point for UPH development, initiatives supported should be firm government commitment mainly by FAO and the National Centre for through institutional and legal provisions Agronomic Research (CNRA) continue to that fully recognize the activity, involve demonstrate to policymakers the sector’s the Ministry of Agriculture in urban potential to boost the supply of fruit planning decisions, and reserve land for and vegetables and create employment. market gardening. A national action plan The CNRA has started a programme for for sustainable development of UPH would improving the quality of vegetable produc- help target investment to building irrigation tion in urban and peri-urban areas, and in infrastructure, promoting seed production, 2011 FAO and the Ministry of Agriculture providing growers with micro-credit, launched in Abidjan’s Treichville district extension advice, inputs and processing a two-year project that will train 200 technologies, and linking them to market- low-income households in hydroponic ing chains. production of vegetables.

Meanwhile, the challenges facing Côte d’Ivoire continue to mount. The urban population is growing by 3.6 percent a year, one of the highest rates in Africa and faster than current economic growth. Between 2010 and 2020, Abidjan’s population is projected to increase by 40 percent, from 4.2 million to 5.9 million. Urban unemployment is estimated at 27 percent and two-thirds of the jobless are under the age of 30. In a country where 40 percent of the population is younger than 15,

56 Growing greener cities in Africa Democratic Republic of the Congo Market gardens decades-old are at risk in Kinshasa’s “fuzzy” legal environment

arket gardeners in the N’djili 200 km valley, 15 km southeast of the city Mcentre, have witnessed Kinshasa’s Kisangani transformation from a well-planned Mbandaka colonial capital of 300 000 into a chaotic

Bukavu megacity with a population projected to reach 10 million in 2013. Kikwit Women and jobless youths were granted KINSHASA Kananga Tshikapa Mbuji-Mayi the first plots in the 1950s, when the government designated 75 ha of land for horticulture in N’djili and the neighbouring rural area of Kimbanseke. Within 15 years Kolwezi Likasi Lubumbashi of national independence in 1960, a still buoyant economy had boosted the city’s population to 1.5 million. To provide Key data Kinshasans with fresh produce, the govern- Total area 2 344 860 sq km Total population 67 758 000 ment opened 430 ha of new market gardens Urban population 23 221 000 (34.3%) around the city, and installed irrigation, Poverty rate 95.2% access roads and on-site centres to support Urban poverty rate 61.5% 4 300 full-time producers organized in GDP per capita US$199 a cooperative union. Kinshasa’s most Proportion undernourished n.a. recent development plan, of 1975, proposed Child mortality rate 170/1000 Life expectancy at birth 49 years building satellite towns and creating green Human Development Index ranking 187/187 belts of forests and farmland. But plans for the orderly growth of Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) Kinshasa were shattered during the 1980s as structural adjustment and economic 300 “stabilization” programmes led to mass URBAN 200 unemployment and poverty. Between 1980 and 1990, the city grew from 2 million to 100 RURAL 3.5 million inhabitants, the vast majority of them impoverished rural migrants 0 crowded into unplanned settlements on the city’s rapidly expanding periphery. When 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 popular discontent exploded in the early

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 57 A recent study at the Mokali garden in Kimbanseke described a fierce struggle between 760 vegetable growers and a local leader, who was selling 200 sq m plots (for around US$500 each) on weekends, when gardeners were absent.

1990s, much of Kinshasa’s infrastructure, The persistence of market gardening is including the N’djili market garden, was due to several factors: highly favourable devastated. conditions for horticulture along rivers By 1997, the country then known as and streams that flow through the city, Zaire had collapsed and its people had the huge urban market for fresh produce, entered a period of traumatic change: the and the tenacity of Kinshasa’s vegetable end of almost three decades of one-man growers. The sector has also benefited rule, a violent civil conflict, and a five-year from a Ministry of Rural Development regional war. Between 1995 and 2011, programme, launched in 2000 with FAO Kinshasa’s population almost doubled, from assistance and Belgian funding, aimed at 4.5 million to 8.8 million, owing to both supporting UPH in Kinshasa and four other natural increase and the continuing influx Congolese cities. of people from neighbouring rural areas Since even members of cooperatives and the war-torn eastern provinces. had no legal title to their plots, one of the programme’s first initiatives was to Today, N’djili and Kimbanseke make up create municipal consultation committees, the city’s most populated area, with more chaired by local mayors, to demarcate than 1.5 million inhabitants. State support market garden areas. Through negotiations to market gardening has withered, the with the state and with private and custom- cooperative union has yet to recover from ary owners, the committees arranged use the looting of the 1990s, and many of the permits for 600 ha of land. city’s green belts have been plundered for The Ministry also revived its National fuelwood and lost to housing, roads and Urban and Peri-urban Horticulture Support industry. Service (SENAHUP), created in 1996, and Yet market gardens in N’djili, Kimban- set up municipal horticulture offices to seke and other areas have survived three promote improved water management, decades of anarchic urbanization. The area intensification of production, and under commercial horticulture has actually cultivation of a wider range of vegetables. expanded, to more than 1 000 ha, while Irrigation and flood control works helped to annual production has risen from 30 000 expand the cultivated area by some 250 ha, tonnes in 1996 to more than 80 000 tonnes, and to extend production throughout the or 65 percent of the city’s supply. The year. Farmer field schools introduced 1 600 number of market gardeners, estimated in gardeners to improved cultivation practices 1996 at 7 250, is now put at 15 000. – including the use of biopesticides and organic fertilizer – and helped them to

58 Growing greener cities in Africa Democratic Republic of the Congo diversify from traditional vegetables, such leaders to seek to reclaim the land and sell as amaranth and sorrel, to more profitable it for housing construction. crops, such as eggplants, cabbages and A recent study at the Mokali garden in tomatoes. The programme contracted Kimbanseke described a fierce struggle development NGOs to provide loans for the between 760 vegetable growers and a local purchase of inputs, especially seed. leader, who was selling 200 sq m plots An FAO evaluation in 2010 reported (for around US$500 each) on weekends, that most of the growers reached by the when gardeners were absent. Similar programme were using improved seed and confrontations have been reported in N’djili crop management practices. It estimated and neighbouring Kisenso municipality, that their monthly incomes had increased where land use permits that growers had fourfold since 2000. obtained through the municipal consulta- tion committees were being disregarded. Other research, however, has underscored In Kinshasa’s “fuzzy” legal environment, continuing constraints to the development SENAHUP and its horticulture offices of Kinshasa’s horticulture sector. Studies clearly lacked the clout needed to defend in the N’djili valley found that the collapse the city’s market gardens. of the cooperatives and of government support had left growers with very limited The Ministry of Rural Development’s UPH access to training, credit and inputs. support programme has been more effec- A shortage of certified vegetable seed tive in the smaller cities of Lubumbashi, forced most to rely on their own saved Kisangani, Likasi and Mbanza-Ngungu. seed, and production was hampered by the In Lubumbashi (population: 1.5 million), dilapidated state of irrigation canals and the programme has guided the expansion access roads. Many gardeners preferred of the area under commercial horticulture to grow less profitable short-cycle crops, from less than 100 ha a decade ago to which required fewer resources and 720 ha. Production has grown from 2 250 provided a regular, if minimal, cash flow. tonnes to some 60 000 tonnes a year. They sold their crops to traders who often Through the municipal consultation paid less than the contracted price and committee, SENAHUP helped 85 growers at sometimes not at all. Naviundu, the city’s oldest market garden, But the biggest problem facing Kinshasa’s to secure land titles that now protect their market gardeners is the threat of losing plots from suburban sprawl. It installed their livelihoods to land speculation. Soar- irrigation canals to provide water to a 55 ha ing rents in Kinshasa are driving more and garden at Kilobelobe, east of the city, which more residents to new settlements on the has become Lubumbashi’s main supplier urban fringe, in areas used for horticulture. of leafy vegetables. The programme also While most of the city’s long-established helped to establish a gardeners’ cooperative market gardening sites were appropriated with more than 8 000 members, of whom or purchased from traditional land owners around 6 000 are women, and provided decades ago, weak governance in recent them with training and US$200 000 in years has encouraged many traditional loans (averaging US$60 each) for the purchase of farm tools and inputs. Market

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 59 Democratic Republic of the Congo

In Lubumbashi, one hectare of market gardens provides livelihoods for 20 producers, 70 labourers and 150 small-scale vegetable traders who, in turn, supply 10 000 consumers.

gardens ringing Lubumbashi now account livelihoods for 20 producers, 70 labourers for half of the city’s vegetable supply. and 150 small-scale vegetable traders who, Similar improvements are reported in in turn, supplied 10 000 consumers. Market Likasi, largely thanks to the introduction gardeners’ average annual income, earned of drip irrigation, and in Mbanza-Ngungu, mainly during the five-month dry season, near Kinshasa, where growers have was around US$2 000, or three times the achieved yields of 30 tonnes country’s minimum wage, while vendors at per hectare. All nine of Kisangani’s market a market pavilion built by the programme gardens have been secured through leases, were earning up to US$600 a month. and growers there have adopted more lucrative crops, such as green beans, carrots The Ministry of Rural Development has and lettuce. plans to extend its programme nationwide, and SENAHUP now has offices in Some 23 million Congolese now live in 13 provincial capitals. However, SENAHUP 100 cities and towns stretching from lacks funding and staff adequate to its Africa’s Great Lakes to the mouth of the mandate, and almost all of the investment Congo River, and their number is projected in the country’s urban and peri-urban to reach 40 million by 2025. Most of the horticulture development has come from urban population depends on informal external donors. Building a sustainable employment, lives below the poverty line, UPH sector requires firmer national and is highly vulnerable to food price infla- commitment, enforcement of regulations tion. Even before the cost of staple foods that protect areas zoned for horticulture, rose by 50 percent in 2008/09, the “best-off” and major investment in capacity-building, category of urban poor ate one meal a day. irrigation, production of quality seed, and Urban and peri-urban horticulture could produce handling and processing. make a big contribution to the country’s urban nutrition, employment and economic development. The FAO survey of UPH reported that market gardening is practised by some 30 000 people in 13 major cities, on an aggregate area of more than 6 000 ha. The largely untapped potential of the sector emerged from a recent report on UPH in Lubumbashi, which found that one hectare of market gardens provided

60 Growing greener cities in Africa Gabon Two decades of state support have integrated horticulture into the urban economy

abon is the most urbanized country in sub-Saharan Africa. Urban Oyem Gresidents number around 1.3 mil- lion, or 86 percent of the total population, Makokou LIBREVILLE and most live in the capital, Libreville, and the city of Port-Gentil. Although GDP per Port-Gentil Lambaréné capita exceeds US$8 700, thanks mainly Koulamoutou to oil and mineral exports, the prevalence Franceville of urban poverty has been estimated Mouila at 30 percent. As a result, 75 percent of Gabon’s poor are urban. Tchibanga Gabon has another distinction: to feed its cities and provide livelihoods for low- 200 km income residents, it has actively encouraged peri-urban horticulture for two decades. Key data Starting in 1992, the parastatal Gabonese Total area 267 670 sq km Total population 1 534 000 Development Support Institute (IGAD), Urban population 1 323 000 (86.2%) in partnership with France and the NGO Poverty rate 19.6% Agrisud, helped establish in Libreville three Urban poverty rate 29.8% market gardens covering 10 ha. Interven- GDP per capita US$8 729 tions were later extended to all nine of Proportion undernourished n.a. Gabon’s provinces under a US$10 million Child mortality rate 74/1000 Life expectancy at birth 62 years programme for peri-urban agriculture. Human Development Index ranking 106/187 A typical market gardening area consists of individual holdings of 500 to 1 000 sq m, Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) established near permanent sources of water, with covered nurseries and a gravity 300 irrigation system. Training focuses on the 200 use of good management practices, such as crop rotation, use of organic fertilizers 100 URBAN and integrated pest management. Around 30 percent of the gardeners are women. 0 RURAL By 2009, IGAD had helped to develop 10 market gardens and 1 200 small-scale 2000 2005 20102015 2020 2025 2030

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 61 Gabon gardening enterprises, which generated growth and the development of new pro- 2 000 jobs in the horticulture value chain. duction areas will require leadership and support in the years ahead. The lessons Including both planned market gardens learned from IGAD’s two decades of experi- supported by IGAD and other “spontane- ence have not been widely disseminated. ous” operations, some 200 ha of land in Agricultural extension services are inad- and around Libreville, Port-Gentil and half equate, and there is a lack of technology a dozen other cities are currently under packages specifically for horticulture. The horticulture. UPH accounts for as much as poor performance of Gabonese agriculture, 50 percent of the vegetables sold in urban in general, underlines the urgent need for markets, and has completely replaced a strong national system of agricultural lettuce imported from Cameroon. Market research and extension and for sustained gardeners can earn up to US$650 a month, investment in agriculture. well above the average civil servant salary. Development of market gardening Nationally, an estimated 11 000 people should capitalize on IGAD’s experience in are engaged in UPH, mainly irrigated and professionalizing the sector. If they were rainfed vegetable gardening but also fruit better organized in professional associa- production and floriculture. In Libreville, tions, gardeners could take advantage of market gardeners include itinerant economies of scale in marketing, improve operators who slash-and-burn unused their access to inputs and micro-credit, peripheral land to create temporary plots, and press for government action to address and entrepreneurs specialized in irrigated competition from imported produce. production of lettuce, tomatoes, European As a starting point, support for UPH eggplants and cucumbers. During the dry needs to be incorporated explicitly in season, growers in more remote wetland Gabon’s new US$26 million Agricultural areas produce African eggplants, okra, Investment and Development Programme, maize, chilli peppers and Guinea sorrel. 2011-2015, which seeks to strengthen The government has taken steps to pro- national food security, reduce poverty and tect IGAD-supported market gardens, but improve agriculture’s share of GDP. Since the tenure security of many other growers IGAD has been chosen to lead the new – who rent their plots, practise sharecrop- programme, it is well positioned to ensure ping or occupy vacant land – is becoming that urban and peri-urban horticulture will precarious in the face of urban expansion play a key role in achieving those objectives. and land speculation. Since most vegetable growers water their crops manually from rivers and creeks, water shortages during the dry season reduce their production and incomes. Fluctuations in supply are also caused by poor production planning and a lack of marketing information.

Although horticulture is firmly integrated into Gabon’s urban economy, sustainable

62 Growing greener cities in Africa Ghana The challenge: translating policies that favour horticulture into “facts on the ground”

he rapid growth of Accra provides a striking example of the “urbaniza- Ttion of poverty”. Between 1998 and Tamale 2005, an influx of rural migrants helped boost the city’s population from 1.6 million to 2 million. In the same period, and even as the rate of rural poverty was falling, the proportion of poor in Accra’s population

Kumasi grew from 4.4 percent to more than 10 percent. Obuasi Koforidua Tema Today, Accra has some 2.5 million resi- Ashiaman ACCRA dents and continues to attract low-income Sekondi Cape Coast settlers from rural Ghana and neighbouring Takoradi 200 km countries, most of whom make their homes in peripheral slums and around its port. Key data In 2007, some five million Ghanaians, or Total area 238 540 sq km Total population 24 966 000 43 percent of the urban population, lived in Urban population 12 955 000 (51.9%) informal settlements, where malnutrition Poverty rate 51.8% is described as a “serious problem” among Urban poverty rate 10.8% children, adolescents and women. GDP per capita US$1 325 Proportion undernourished 5% Two out of every three households in Accra Child mortality rate 74/1000 Life expectancy at birth 60 years engage in food production. They grow Human Development Index ranking 135/187 mango trees around their homes for fruit and shade, graze goats along roadsides, and Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) keep mudfish in backyard ponds. But the dominant agricultural system is irrigated 300 market gardening, which supplies most of Accra’s leafy vegetables and provides 200 URBAN livelihoods for about 1 000 growers, most of 100 them settlers from rural areas. RURAL About 50 ha of land in and around the 0 capital are used for market gardening, while another 250 ha are under mixed 2000 2005 20102015 2020 2025 2030 cereal-vegetable cropping. During the dry

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 63 In a year, one hectare of land can yield 180 tonnes of lettuce. The downside is that urban market gardening relies heavily on wastewater from open drains and polluted streams.

season, irrigation expands the vegetable- source is available – is critical to gardeners’ growing area to around 100 ha. Gardeners livelihoods. produce lettuce, cabbages, spring onions The use of polluted water, and of chicken and cauliflower, and traditional vegetables wastes as manure, is blamed for high such as okra, eggplants and chili peppers, levels of microbiological contamination on plots ranging in size from 100 sq m in of vegetables. Samples of fresh produce the city to 2 ha in peri-urban areas. Typical purchased in Accra, Kumasi and Tamale earnings are around US$50 a month, well for one study had faecal coliform levels above the national average income. that exceeded international recommended In Kumasi, 200 urban market gardeners limits, and 70 percent carried parasitic earn up to US$800 a year growing mainly worm eggs. lettuce, cabbages and spring onions. During the dry season, thousands of farmers in Not surprisingly, most municipal authori- peri-urban Kumasi switch from staple ties associate urban farming with health crops to irrigated production of local leafy risks. By-laws on UPH focus mainly on vegetables, such as jute and amaranth. In controlling wastewater use and provide and around Tamale, Ghana’s third largest little support to growers in accessing land, city, about 110 ha of land are used for agricultural extension, inputs or training. mainly dry season horticulture. Since horticulture is ignored in urban plan- Although most gardeners use simple ning, most urban gardeners cultivate land watering cans to irrigate crops, irrigated under customary arrangements, without UPH is highly productive. In a year, one title, until owners need it for development. hectare of land can yield five crops of As land is lost to urbanization, many grow- lettuce, amounting to 180 tonnes. The ers are intensifying production with higher downside is that urban market gardening rates of fertilizer and pesticide applications. relies heavily on wastewater from open In Kumasi, some vegetable growers were drains and polluted streams. In Accra, found using 26 different pesticides, includ- 1.6 billion litres of wastewater are used for ing banned chemicals, and spraying during agriculture annually. Most gardeners there the harvest period. understand the dangers of using untreated Although the Ministry of Food and wastewater and some have adopted Agriculture assigns extension officers risk-reduction strategies, such as mixing it to pay regular visits to market gardens, with groundwater. However, since Accra half of the growers surveyed recently in can count on only 80 days of rain during Accra had not seen an extensionist during the year, irrigation – from whatever water the year. Another major limitation on

64 Growing greener cities in Africa Ghana

UPH development is the lack of access to livelihood, and to improve producers’ credit. A study at three market gardening access to extension, inputs, technology sites in Accra found that growers funded and good quality irrigation water. Ghana’s production entirely from their own savings. new National Irrigation Policy says the Other constraints include organizational lack of land tenure security and safe water weaknesses in farmers’ associations, is a major constraint to urban farming, the lack of market information and cold and calls for research into safe irrigation storage, and poor hygiene in markets. practices in urban environments. With better organization and support, The challenge is to translate those gardeners could tap into markets for higher policies into facts on the ground. Ghana’s value produce. That was demonstrated by a urban population is expected to increase RUAF-sponsored programme in Accra that by 80 percent, to 23 million, by 2030. To helped register three informal gardening ensure that market gardeners are able groups with the city’s Department of to provide safe, high quality produce to Cooperatives, and provided members urban consumers, the government and city with training in business planning and authorities need to collaborate in a national record-keeping. The growers selected programme for sustainable UPH develop- lettuce as the most promising crop for ment. Along with regulations to protect value chain development, and adopted market gardening areas, major investments improved practices such as seed drilling, are needed to expand irrigation and drain- organic composting and integrated pest age infrastructure, boost urban wastewater management. With greater awareness of a treatment capacity, and increase the supply market-oriented approach to production, of credit and the production of inputs. the groups have begun using piped water Vegetable growers need safer sources for irrigation, and they sell their vegetables of irrigation water, such as tube-wells and through branded kiosks in Accra. shallow groundwater, and training in the use of water-saving technologies, such as According to FAO’s survey of UPH in drip irrigation. Support should also focus Ghana, government support for the sector on enhancing the horticulture value chain, is “minimal”. However, there are signs of involving producers, traders and processors progress. In Accra, representatives of the in identifying bottlenecks and taking Ministry of Food and Agriculture, the city’s opportunities to increase the volume, departments for agriculture, planning, quality and safety of fresh produce. health and environmental protection, farm- ers’ associations, universities and NGOs cooperated in the preparation of a city strategic agenda on urban and peri-urban agriculture and guidelines for a review of the city’s by-laws. That process helped persuade the min- istry to include in its Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy strategies to promote urban agriculture as a sustainable

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 65 Guinea-Bissau Female gardeners need literacy training and title to the land they cultivate

ilitary conflict in the late 1990s destroyed much of MGuinea-Bissau’s social and economic infrastructure and has had a lasting negative impact on the country’s Gabú development. Today, Guinea-Bissau ranks BISSAU Bafatá as one of the world’s poorest countries, with an estimated 78 percent of its 1.5 million inhabitants living below the poverty line. Between 2002 and 2010, the number of extremely poor, who survive on less than US$1 a day, more than doubled, to half a million. 200 km An estimated 44 percent of the popula- tion lives in urban areas, the vast majority Key data in the capital, Bissau, where more than Total area 36 130 sq km Total population 1 547 000 half of all residents are poor. The incidence Urban population 680 000 (43.9%) of poverty is highest in female-headed Poverty rate 78.0% households, reflecting deep gender dispari- Urban poverty rate 51.6% ties. Females in Guinea-Bissau have very GDP per capita US$580 low levels of school enrolment, are more Proportion undernourished n.a. vulnerable to malnutrition, and are severely Child mortality rate 150/1000 Life expectancy at birth 49 years disadvantaged in rights to land ownership. Human Development Index ranking 176/187 Among the major aims of Guinea-Bissau’s Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2011–2015, is to reduce the national poverty rate to 300 below 60 percent and to minimize gender

200 URBAN inequalities. To help achieve that, it calls for priority investments in urban and peri- 100 urban horticulture, given its potential for RURAL reducing poverty and generating women’s 0 employment. In fact, in Guinea-Bissau soil and 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 climatic conditions are highly favourable to

66 Growing greener cities in Africa horticulture, and UPH is a predominantly cost of registration. While members col- female activity. A recent study found that laborate in production, they seldom work out of more than 11 300 members of market together in post-harvest storage, processing gardening associations nationwide, 9 000 and marketing. Illiteracy impedes the are women; in Bissau, 90 percent of the development of management skills among city’s 4 200 vegetable growers are women. female members. Most production takes place in the Gardeners receive little support from September-May dry season, when gardeners extension workers, who have limited obtain temporary rights to land that is expertise in horticultural production. There used to grow rice during the rainy season. is no national seed legislation for vegetable Market gardening is also practised on areas varieties and no input supply chain for reserved for future urban development and market gardening. The agricultural sector, on vacant state-owned land. The crops most in general, has very limited access to bank commonly grown are tomatoes, Guinea loans, and financial services are not tailored sorrel, okra, lettuce, bitter eggplants, to the needs of small-scale producers. chili peppers, cabbages and onions. More Marketing is also poorly organized, than 2 000 vegetable varieties have been depending on a network of female vendors identified in the green belt of Bissau alone. who purchase produce directly from In the dry season, market gardening covers growers’ fields. up to 80 percent of urban demand for fresh vegetables. Nationally, annual UPH A US$2.1 million project of FAO and production is estimated at 60 000 tonnes. Guinea-Bissau’s Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, to begin in 2012, Urban expansion in Bissau and the towns aims at overcoming many of those con- of Gabú and Bafatá has been largely straints. It will assist associations of female unregulated, and peri-urban agricultural vegetable producers in developing 18 ha of land is being lost to the construction existing and new market gardens in Bissau, of housing and small businesses. Since Gabú and Bafatá, and improving their female gardeners do not have title to the skills in both production and marketing. land they cultivate, they are frequently Interventions include training in improved forced to shift to new areas. Many female cultivation and post-harvest practices, gardeners have moved out of Bissau to start a literacy programme for 700 women, new plots 3.5 km to the north, while urban nutrition education, and collaboration with growth around Gabú is rapidly consuming local government authorities in securing low-lying farming areas which are used to growers’ legal title to land. grow both rice and vegetables. Although many of Guinea-Bissau’s gardeners are organized in informal associations, and created a national union, Mon na Terra, in 2005, this grassroots movement remains fragile. Only four of the 70 groups affiliated to the national union are legally recognized, owing to the high

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 67 Kenya Recent policy initiatives could lay foundations for sustainable urban horticulture

our decades of galloping urban growth, in the absence of effective Furban planning, have created in Kenya what its government describes as “a potential disaster”. Since 1970, the country’s population has almost quadrupled, from 11.3 million to 41.6 million, an average Kisumu Nakuru annual increase of 3.3 percent. In the same period, urban population growth averaged

NAIROBI 5.4 percent. Nairobi’s population grew from 530 000 to 3.3 million, and is projected to reach 5 million by the end of this decade. Mombasa Although 70 overlapping and often 200 km conflicting statutes and acts of parliament have governed urban development in Kenya, Key data less than one-third of its 108 urban centres Total area 580 370 sq km Total population 41 610 000 have development plans, and those plans Urban population 9 973 000 (24%) were formulated by central government, Poverty rate 67.2% often without considering local needs. Urban poverty rate 33.7% Nairobi’s growth was guided by a master GDP per capita US$795 plan approved in 1948, and “planning” there Proportion undernourished 33% sometimes took the form of denying services Child mortality rate 85/1000 Life expectancy at birth 60 years to ever-growing squatter and slum areas, Human Development Index ranking 143/187 demolishing illegal settlements and repatriat- ing their residents to rural areas. Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) In the process, Kenyan cities have become emblematic of African urban poverty. More 300 URBAN than 60 percent of Nairobi’s population lives 200 in unplanned and poorly serviced slums. In one of them, Kibera, up to a million 100 RURAL people are packed into corrugated iron and mud shanties covering an area of less than 0 3 sq km. Recent studies have estimated that one-third of the population of Kenya’s second 2000 2005 20102015 2020 2025 2030 city, Mombasa, lives in poverty while in

68 Growing greener cities in Africa Kisumu 30 percent of the adult population is tomatoes, beans, cabbages and spinach, unemployed and half of those with jobs earn often using untreated wastewater for less than US$1.60 a day. irrigation. Many fertilize their gardens with Natural increase of city populations, as wastes produced by the city’s estimated well as rural-urban migration, is now driving 140 000 head of livestock. In peri-urban Kenya’s urban growth. Income inequality in areas of Nairobi, farmers are switching to urban areas is described as “staggering”, and intensive horticulture on small plots as land rising, and infant and child mortality rates is taken for housing. are worse in Nairobi slums than in rural In Kisumu, residents have progressively areas. A 2008 study in Kibera found that reclaimed wetlands for the cultivation of cab- almost half of children aged under five years bages, kales, yams and traditional vegetables. showed signs of chronic malnutrition, and In Mombasa, production of fruit and 23 percent were severely stunted. vegetables is widely practised on balconies, in home gardens and in peri-urban open fields, Urban agriculture has grown along with both for domestic consumption and for sale Kenyan cities. According to the Ministry of in local markets and to tourist hotels. Agriculture, 36 percent of the urban popula- Commercial production of traditional tion practises crop and livestock production, leafy vegetables, such as amaranth, is in household yards, on vacant land and in reported to be booming in Kenya’s urban protected natural areas. Agriculture, includ- areas, with monthly sales in informal ing free-range livestock keeping, aquaculture, markets and, increasingly, supermarkets and intensive peri-urban production of estimated in 2007 at more than 600 tonnes, maize, groundnuts, beans and sorghum, worth US$100 000. Strong demand has is the dominant activity on 80 percent of prompted many entrepreneurs, particularly Kisumu’s land area. In Nakuru, an estimated women, to take up small-scale production. 7 000 families earn their living from farming. Even in crowded Kibera, vegetables grown Within the Nairobi city boundaries, from in home gardens provide some 11 000 30 to 40 percent of households are engaged households with a nutritious meal two to in agriculture, as producers, processors or three times a week and generate total income traders. The capital has an active movement of more than US$50 000 a week from sales. of urban farmers, the Nairobi and Environs Food Security, Agriculture and Livestock Despite horticulture’s contribution to the Forum, founded in 2004. urban food supply and livelihoods, it has While most urban residents produce food been excluded, along with agriculture gener- for their own consumption, FAO’s survey ally, as a land use in Kenya’s cities and towns. of UPH in Kenya indicates that more than During the colonial period, agriculture was 70 percent of horticultural produce is sold. In officially designated as a rural land use and urban Nairobi, market gardening is practised independent Kenya perpetuated that policy. in the usual places: along riverbanks, roads While most local authorities tacitly accept and railway lines, under power lines and on the existence of urban agriculture, many private plots and public land. The majority – including Nairobi City Council – have of producers are low-income, female slum enacted by-laws that ban the cultivation of dwellers, who grow crops such as kales, crops on public streets and unoccupied land,

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 69 Kenya and the Ministry of Health is empowered That draft policy joins an array of recent to prohibit irrigation within and around policy and planning initiatives which, if townships. Even by-laws that authorize effectively implemented, would lay the urban agriculture are so stringent that most foundations for rational urban development farmers could not meet their requirements if and, along with it, sustainable urban and they were fully enforced. peri-urban horticulture in Kenya. Councils’ objections to horticulture are The National Land Policy, approved in based largely on health grounds. Tests have 2009, recognizes the importance of urban found high concentrations of heavy metals in agriculture, and the need for the zoning of vegetables irrigated with polluted well water land in ways that allow it. The 2011 Urban in Kisumu and of lead in kales grown along Areas and Cities Act, aimed at establishing roadsides in Nairobi. Low-income growers in a nationwide legal framework for urban the capital regularly block sewers to extract governance and management, requires irrigation water; one test on leafy vegetables that every city and municipality prepare an sold in informal markets revealed parasitic integrated development plan that should larval and faecal coliform contamination that “provide a framework for regulated urban made them unfit for human consumption. agriculture”. Over the past decade, however, other The government’s strategy for the growth influential voices – including the CGIAR’s and development of the Nairobi metropolitan Urban Harvest initiative, the Kenya region to the year 2030 also calls for “active Agricultural Research Institute, the Nairobi measures” to prevent urban sprawl on prime urban farmers’ forum and the environmental peri-urban agricultural land, and proposes NGO Mazingira Institute – have argued that – at long last – to include agriculture among urban agriculture is an essential survival metropolitan land uses. strategy for Kenya’s urban poor which, if properly promoted and regulated, could make a great contribution to the country’s economic development. That view is shared by Kenya’s Ministry of Agriculture. The Ministry’s extension service provides training for urban farmers, and recently launched a US$2.3 million project to promote urban and peri-urban agricultural cooperatives in Nairobi, Mombasa and five other cities. Late in 2011, the Ministry was reported to be finalizing a national Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture and Livestock Policy to guide the full integration of agricultural activities in urban areas. It calls for reform of legislation affecting the sector, and measures aimed at developing appropri- ate production technologies, and improving waste management and product marketing.

70 Growing greener cities in Africa Mozambique Maputo’s green zones provide livelihoods for 13 000 market gardeners

he bloody civil war that raged in Mozambique's countryside through- Lichinga Pemba Tout the 1980s forced five million Nacala-Porto rural people to abandon their land and seek Tete Nampula refuge in urban areas and neighbouring countries. Faced with massive urban Quelimane unemployment and the disruption of food Chimoio Beira supply lines, the government responded by organizing cooperatives to farm areas designated as “green zones” in and around Maputo and other major cities. Since crop Inhambane Xai-Xai production is considered a female activity Matola MAPUTO in much of Mozambique, the vast majority 200 km of cooperative producers were low-income rural women. Key data By 1990, Mozambique’s urban population Total area 799 380 sq km Total population 23 930 000 had grown from 1.6 million to 2.9 million. Urban population 7 463 000 (31.2%) Almost a quarter of the Maputo city area Poverty rate 90.0% was under agriculture, and 12 000 of its Urban poverty rate 49.6% green zone female farmers had joined a GDP per capita US$410 General Union of Cooperatives (UGC) that Proportion undernourished 38% was producing some 200 000 chickens and Child mortality rate 135/1000 Life expectancy at birth 49 years 5 000 tonnes of vegetables annually. Human Development Index ranking 184/187 Structural adjustment and a 1992 peace agreement ushered in a period of market-led Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) economic development. Between 1996 and 2008, Mozambique’s economy grew by 300 8 percent a year, one of the highest rates 200 in Africa. Urbanization has also been URBAN spectacular: between 1990 and 2010, the 100 population of Maputo and its nearby “twin city” of Matola grew from 1 million to 0 RURAL 2 million. The benefits of strong economic growth 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 have not trickled down to much of the

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 71 urban population. Half of the country’s an important source of self-employment for 9 million urban residents live in poverty, poor urban households, particularly those 36 percent of urban children under five headed by women. Maputo and Matola years are malnourished, and two-thirds market gardens provide employment for of Maputo’s population are slum dwellers. an estimated 40 000 people, including Over the past decade, income inequality has thousands of female traders, known as widened more in urban than in rural areas. maguevas, who buy crops directly from growers’ fields. Food price inflation and unemployment The daily income of a commercial vegeta- have made food production a common ble grower in Maputo is around US$4, well practice in urban Mozambique, particularly above the national poverty line of US$0.50. in smaller cities and towns in the north and Since less than 20 percent of growers’ centre of the country. In backyards and on households have a member in formal vacant lots, residents grow vegetables, fruit, employment, market gardening is critically maize, cassava and beans on small plots, important to family survival, representing known as machambas, mainly for home almost half of average household earnings. consumption. Commercial horticulture is concentrated Government commitment to UPH dates in the green zones of Maputo and the back to the 1980s and the designation of the cities of Beira, Chimoio and Nampula. green zones. Although Maputo has grown In Maputo, as many as 13 000 market exponentially since then, with virtually gardeners operate on 2 300 ha of land in no planning or administrative control, the the Infulene and Mahotas valleys. They land under horticulture has largely escaped include some 5 000 women belonging to urban sprawl. Most of the original 5 700 ha UGC member associations who farm land, of green zones – including a 500 metre- mainly in the Mahotas area, granted to wide strip of gardens running for 15 km the cooperative union in the 1990s. Com- through the city – are intact, and areas for mercial horticulture is also practised on urban agriculture are formally demarcated 2 600 ha of land near Matola, on 2 000 ha and protected by the Maputo City Council. in Chokwé, on 7 000 ha around Beira, and A bigger problem for small-scale vegeta- on 460 ha near the town of Inhambane. ble growers has been attempts by better-off Maputo’s green zones were created private farmers to take control of their on high quality agricultural land, with land. However, the growers’ membership soil and water resources that make them of associations has helped most of them to particularly suitable for intensive vegetable defend their plots. A recent survey found production. On individual plots of around that the majority of market gardeners had 300 sq m, gardeners produce a variety of either occupied the land or had received vegetables, including cabbages, lettuce, it free as part of post-independence tomatoes, onions, eggplants, beans and land redistributions. Encouraged by the pumpkins. As many as eight cycles of agricultural extension service and NGOs, lettuce can be grown in a year. they had joined associations, which played As well as being the capital’s main sup- an important role in the allocation of plots plier of fresh produce, its green zones are and actually held the land use titles. In

72 Growing greener cities in Africa Mozambique general, producers were “not afraid that While most growers grew cabbages and someone might take their land”. lettuce, far fewer cultivated higher-value Some 200 Maputo-based cooperatives crops, such as onions, carrots, beets and and farmers’ associations are affiliated peppers. Producers who had diversified to the General Union of Cooperatives their crops reported average daily incomes which, with support from the government twice as high as those who grew fewer than and external donors, has grown into three crops. The reluctance of growers one of Mozambique’s biggest farmer to diversify was explained by their fear organizations, one of its top 10 business of losing crops to thieves and wet season enterprises, and one of the most successful flooding, and the lack of reliable markets. examples in Africa of organized women’s Growers’ associations were handicapped empowerment. The UGC is a major supplier by the low education levels of both mem- of poultry, fruit, flowers and vegetables. bers and leaders, the failure of members to It runs a savings-and-loans cooperative, pay their dues and – as a consequence – a a training centre, a poultry hatchery, a lack of financial resources. Although credit fruit tree nursery, four health clinics, two was available from local microfinance schools and a community radio station. institutions, less than 40 percent of garden- The union was chosen recently as the ers had taken out production loans. Credit main partner of an International Trade made a big difference to average incomes: Centre programme aimed at improving the those who obtained loans earned twice as skills of market gardeners in the Mahotas much as those who did not. valley and linking them to more lucrative Other constraints included inadequate markets, such as tourist hotels, restaurants technical assistance, the salinization of and supermarkets. As part of that soils, limited knowledge of pest and disease programme, 150 growers were trained in control, and the concentration of produc- advanced horticultural techniques, includ- tion in the April-September dry season, ing greenhouse production. Improvements which led to overproduction and depressed in the quality of produce are expected to prices. In Matola, vegetable growers increase their incomes tenfold. say they need better technical support, particularly in fertilizer use, while those in The Government of Mozambique’s strategy Nampula have requested the installation of for an agricultural “Green Revolution” irrigation systems to overcome dry season includes a specific programme for UPH water shortages. development aimed at satisfying urban demand for fresh produce all year round and creating employment, especially for women. To achieve those objectives, the government should capitalize on the UGC’s experience and increase its support to the sector considerably. A 2010 study in the Infulene and Mahotas valleys highlighted constraints to higher productivity and profitability.

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 73 Nigeria Horticulture has survived, and even thrived, in a challenging urban environment

rban and peri-urban horticulture was officially launched in Nigeria under the federal government’s Kano Maiduguri U Operation Feed the Nation of 1976–80, Zaria which encouraged urban residents to grow Kaduna Jos crops around their homes and on vacant ABUJA land as a source of food and income. At Ilorin the time, the urban population stood at Ibadan 16.6 million, and more than 48 million Lagos Benin City Nigerians lived in rural areas. Much has changed since then. Over the Aba past three decades, the total population Port Harcourt has more than doubled, to 162 million, and 200 km is projected to reach 258 million by 2030. Nigeria’s rate of urbanization is even higher: Key data since 1980, the urban population has grown Total area 923 770 sq km Total population 162 471 000 by 270 percent, to 80 million. Today, half of Urban population 80 635 000 (49.6%) all Nigerians live in towns and cities and by Poverty rate 84.5% 2030 they will number 156 million. Urban poverty rate 43.1% Urbanization is most intense in GDP per capita US$1 278 the economic capital, Lagos, and its Proportion undernourished 6% hinterland, which are growing by 600 000 Child mortality rate 143/1000 Life expectancy at birth 54 years new inhabitants a year. Lagos ranks as Human Development Index ranking 156/187 sub-Saharan Africa’s biggest city and one of the world’s poorest. Seventy percent of Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) the population – or more than 7 million people – live in shantytowns, where average 300 densities exceed 12 000 people per sq km. 200 URBAN Half of all slum dwellers are unemployed or self-employed, and households spend 100 up to 80 percent of their incomes on food. RURAL Nationally, 40 percent of the urban popula- 0 tion lives below the poverty line, and there is evidence that the severity of poverty has 2000 2005 20102015 2020 2025 2030 increased more in urban than in rural areas.

74 Growing greener cities in Africa A study in Ibadan found that vegetable production generated individual incomes of up to US$3 000 a year for a network of producers, input suppliers and vegetable traders.

While urban growth has covered over value chain in Ibadan found that vegetable most of the gardens that sprouted under production generated individual incomes Operation Feed the Nation, horticulture ranging from US$330 to more than has survived, and even thrived, in Nigeria’s US$3 000 a year for a network of producers, challenging urban environment. One input suppliers and vegetable traders. household in 10 in Lagos grows vegetables Floriculture is a long-standing local in micro-gardens and backyards. Com- industry in the southern city of Port mercial horticulture is also well established Harcourt. Flower growers are usually well- in urban and peri-urban areas, generating educated males who operate on rented land employment and income for thousands along major roads and employ permanent of people and supplying city markets labour. Along with the rapid growth of Port with a wide range of fruit, vegetables and Harcourt over the past 20 years, the area ornamental plants. under vegetables has also expanded, with In the Ojo area, on Lagos’s western edge, low-income growers cultivating roadsides, market gardeners grow amaranth, lettuce, open spaces and large tracts of public land. cabbages, cucumbers, eggplants and spring In Kano, northern Nigeria, fruit and onions, mainly during the November to vegetables are grown on plots within the March dry season, when urban demand is walls of the old city, while river flats around highest. Many of Ojo’s market gardeners the capital of Niger State, Minna, produce are rural people for whom horticulture is a year-round fruit, vegetables, rice and profitable, temporary occupation. They use . In urban and peri-urban areas of locally purchased inputs, such as poultry Jos, capital of Plateau State, farmers practise manure, and simple farm tools, and hire rainfed production of staple crops during local labourers to assist in planting, water- the wet season and irrigated vegetable ing and harvesting. During the wet season, production in the dry season. Horticulture when production is limited by pests, floods is important also in smaller cities, such as and competition from rural areas, growers Lokoja, capital of Kogi State: along with a return to their home states to cultivate 124 percent increase in population since staple crops. 1987, the area under vegetables and maize In the neighbouring city of Ibadan, UPH has doubled. provides as much as 80 percent of the Although horticulture in Nigeria is vegetable supply. Produce is grown on some described as a mainly male occupation, 320 ha of plots and sold at the farm gate or increasing numbers of women work in through intermediaries, usually women, in market gardens. In Port Harcourt, women city markets. A study of the horticultural make up the majority of low-income

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 75 Since urban planners do not consider horticulture’s water needs, most production is rainfed or depends on wells, boreholes, streams and – increasingly – urban wastewater.

vegetable growers. In Lagos, one study developed at the city’s National Horti- noted a gender division in crop selection cultural Research Institute were virtually and access to resources – men tended to unknown to most growers. In Enugu, grow vegetables that sold for higher prices, southeastern Nigeria, only 20 percent of and women’s plots were smaller and on less vegetable growers were aware of extension fertile land. services, and extensionists said serving Some market gardeners in Lagos urban growers was “not our job”. and floriculturists in Port Harcourt Most small-scale gardeners continue to export produce to Europe. However, for rely on their own saved seed or other local most small-scale growers, horticulture sources, such as neighbours and markets. guarantees little more than a subsistence At harvest time, profits are reduced income. In Minna, average annual income considerably by the need to repay produc- was reported as US$425, equal to the state’s tion loans supplied at high interest rates minimum wage. A survey in Lokoja found by intermediaries. While central wholesale that most growers lived below the state’s markets offer fixed prices, most markets poverty line. in Nigeria are congested, unhygienic and unable to handle large volumes of fresh Despite its contribution to nutrition, food produce. security and livelihoods, UPH is largely ignored in Nigeria’s development planning The main obstacle to UPH development and investment. A search of the National in Nigeria, identified in numerous studies, Economic Empowerment and Development is current urban land use policies that Strategy found no mention of horticulture, make no provision for horticulture. In fact, let alone urban and peri-urban horticulture, one study observed, many of the urban while the word appears in only three of 37 residents who heeded Operation Feed state strategies. the Nation’s call to take up horticulture The absence of policy and institutional effectively became squatters on public land. support means that UPH development is Competition for urban open space is held back by a lack of land, water, credit, intense, and in many cities UPH is being inputs, agricultural extension advice, pushed into environmentally fragile areas. improved technologies and marketing As an economic activity, vegetable growing infrastructure. In Ibadan, a survey found simply cannot compete with other land “abysmally low” levels of linkage between uses. For example, between 2001 and 2006, growers and extension services. Improved the built-up area of Nigeria’s federal capital, vegetable production technologies Abuja, grew from 155 sq km to 235 sq km,

76 Growing greener cities in Africa Nigeria claiming more than 9 000 ha of cultivated and to introduce leasing agreements to land. In Lagos, many growers use vacant secure growers’ access to land and water. land earmarked for industrial development. Even in Lagos, there is no shortage of Since they could be evicted without notice, natural resources for horticulture. A 2010 the growers are reluctant to invest in inventory of areas within Lagos metropolis permanent structures, such as fencing, suitable for market gardening identified and do not qualify for bank loans. In Port 675 ha of prime arable land along natural Harcourt, vegetable growers have been drainage channels, 3 300 ha of highway, fined for cultivating public land, and even railway and power line corridors, 250 ha on successful floriculturists operate on land military estates, 100 ha in residential buffer owned by investors with an eye to future zones, and 75 ha of vacant residential lots. development. However, many prime sites were threatened Kano State’s Land Use Act of 1979 makes by land speculation, illegal settlements and no provision for urban crop production, garbage dumping. considering agriculture a rural land use. The study called on the Lagos State As a result, over the past decade, two ministries of justice, agriculture, environ- extensive sites used for horticulture at the ment, planning and urban development to edge of the city of Kano have been reduced collaborate in drawing up guidelines and by half, owing to evictions or compulsory legislation for an effective urban agriculture acquisitions of land for construction. In policy for the state and the metropolis. Minna, too, most growers have no secure Other Nigerian states are urged to take title to their plots, and urban development similar action. is described as “a major threat” to their livelihoods. Since urban planners do not consider UPH’s water needs, most production is rainfed or depends on wells, boreholes, streams and – increasingly – urban wastewater. In Kano, most water is sourced from drainage channels, which are often highly polluted with household and industrial effluent. A study of heavy metal loads in amaranth, lettuce, carrots and parsley found that while contamination was within international recommended limits for vegetables, increasing use of wastewater posed a health risk to consumers. In Jos, peri-urban lettuce crops contained “very large concentrations” of heavy metals.

A study of Nigeria’s urban agriculture pointed out 10 years ago the urgent need to integrate the sector into town planning,

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 77 Rwanda The Kigali master plan envisions a city set amid farmland and community gardens

ver the past two decades, Rwanda’s urban areas have been among the Oworld’s fastest growing. Swollen by rural migration and the return of refugees from the 1994 genocide and civil war, Ruhengeri the population of Kigali and 13 smaller KIGALI cities grew from 390 000 to 1.9 million Gitarama between 1990 and 2010. The number of Butare Kigali residents increased from 220 000 to 960 000, and is projected to almost double by 2025. Among African capitals, Kigali has been the most successful in meeting the 200 km challenge of rapid urbanization by fostering food security, decent work, a clean environ- Key data ment and good governance for its citizens. Total area 24 670 sq km Total population 10 943 000 It has recently upgraded its transport and Urban population 2 090 000 (19.1%) sewage systems, launched a programme of Poverty rate 82.4% slum resettlement and improvement, lined Urban poverty rate 23.2% its streets with trees, organized an efficient GDP per capita US$530 garbage collection service, and banned Proportion undernourished 32% plastic bags and public smoking. Child mortality rate 91/1000 Life expectancy at birth 59 years Human Development Index ranking 166/187 Kigali has also given urban agriculture a privileged place in its development planning. Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) About one-tenth of the 730 sq km city URBAN area is urbanized and home to half of its 300 population. The rest consists of sparsely 200 inhabited rural and natural areas, including river valleys that drain into the extensive 100 RURAL Nyabugogo marsh northwest of the city centre. Both valley lowlands and upstream 0 sections of the marsh are used for crop and livestock production, which provides an 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 estimated 25 percent of the city’s food supply.

78 Growing greener cities in Africa A planning report to the Kigali City been adopted by the City Council and the Council in 2001 estimated that 37 percent Ministry of Local Government. The plan of the city’s workforce was employed in outlines measures to increase production small-scale agriculture. The total area and add value to Kigali’s farm produce for under food crops – mainly sweet potatoes both urban and export markets. and beans, but also potatoes, soya beans, maize and cassava – was around 3 500 ha. Sustainable development of horticulture in While farmers in rural areas consumed Kigali faces familiar constraints: growers’ 80 percent of the food they produced, those limited access to inputs, insecurity of land in Kigali were selling almost 40 percent of tenure, rudimentary farming methods and their crops in local markets. low producer prices. The 2001 planning Recognizing agriculture’s contribution study noted that since half of the city’s to Kigali’s food supply and livelihoods, the farmers had no title to their land, they council requested assistance from the Min- preferred crops, such as sweet potatoes, istry of Agriculture and FAO in promoting which require only small investments of a shift from subsistence to commercial food time and money. To diversify production production in the city. Between 2004 and away from traditional staples to higher 2009, through a project funded by Italy and value vegetables, growers will need secure the city of Rome, FAO helped to develop title to land and access to production loans. horticulture and livestock production, and There are also concerns about the to improve soil and water management. quality of produce. The Nyabugogo marsh The project’s horticulture component estab- is increasingly polluted with untreated lished fruit-tree nurseries, trained vegetable wastewater, particularly industrial effluent, growers in improved cultivation practices, and concentrations of lead and cadmium introduced rainwater harvesting systems in samples of amaranth grown near the and treadle pumps for irrigation, and marshes exceeded EU limits for food crops. transferred urban micro-garden technology Finally, Rwanda depends heavily on to slum areas and new housing estates. external aid, which accounts for more In 2008, Kigali City Council took than 40 percent of the government budget. another major step forward with the Continued investment will be needed approval of its Kigali Conceptual Master to realize the vision of Kigali as a model Plan, which envisions a city set amid for Africa of environmental, social and farmland, green belts and open spaces with economic sustainability. community gardens. The plan zones for urban development 40 percent of the city area, sufficient to accommodate a future population of two million, while leaving some 15 000 ha for agricultural activities and protecting the city’s wetlands. To provide a framework for the develop- ment of Kigali’s agricultural sector, FAO assisted in drafting a strategic plan for urban and peri-urban agriculture which has

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 79 Senegal Insecurity of land tenure makes investment highly risky for most market gardeners

ver the past 40 years, recurring drought and declining income Ofrom agriculture have driven an exodus of rural people to Senegal’s coast and its capital, Dakar. The population of Saint-Louis Louga Dakar has grown since 1970 at an annual Pikine Touba Mosquée rate of almost 4 percent and reached DAKAR Thiès Diourbel 3 million in 2011. In the period 2010-2025, it Mbour Kaolack Tambacounda is expected to grow by a further 2.1 million people, only slightly less than total rural Ziguinchor population growth. Nearly 80 percent of urban residents live in the coastal regions of Dakar, Louga, 200 km Saint-Louis and Thiès, where the popula- tion swells during the December-April dry Key data season with rural migrants seeking jobs. Total area 196 720 sq km Total population 12 768 000 Many remain, and join the ranks of the Urban population 5 430 000 (42.5%) urban poor in sprawling informal settle- Poverty rate 60.4% ments, such as those stretching between Urban poverty rate 35.1% Dakar and the neighbouring city of Pikine. GDP per capita US$1 034 By 2015, most Senegalese will be living in Proportion undernourished 19% urban and peri-urban areas. Child mortality rate 75/1000 Life expectancy at birth 62 years Although Senegal managed to reduce Human Development Index ranking 155/187 the proportion of slum dwellers by more than 20 percent in the decade 2000-2010, Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) much of urban housing is in areas unfit for habitation, and water sources are increas- 300 ingly polluted by untreated sewage and 200 industrial waste. About one-third of urban URBAN households lives in poverty, and in 2006 100 one in 10 urban children was malnourished. RURAL 0 Urbanization has stimulated rapid expan- sion of horticulture in the Niayes zone, 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 a 180 km-long strip of rainfed wetlands

80 Growing greener cities in Africa between Dakar and the northern region in which vegetables are grown on gravel, of Saint-Louis. Favoured by a long dry peanut shells and coconut fibre. In less than season, ample groundwater and good roads, two months, 3 sq m of micro-gardens yield the area accounts for about 80 percent 11 kg of lettuce or 4.5 kg of carrots, provid- of Senegal’s horticultural output, which ing food for the household and a surplus amounted in 2010 to 710 000 tonnes of for sale. vegetables and 200 000 tonnes of fruit. Horticulture in the Niayes zone Most fresh produce is destined for urban generates livelihoods for more than markets and neighbouring countries, while 400 000 people. In Dakar, they include some 20 000 tonnes are exported annually local youths hired as day labourers, to Europe. seasonal workers from Burkina Faso, Horticulture is practised on 3 600 ha of and a multitude of intermediaries, called land on Dakar’s Cap-Vert peninsula and a banabanas, who provide production loans similar area in Thiès, on 1 360 ha in Louga, and have first rights to the harvests of most and on 4 450 ha in Saint-Louis. Production small-scale growers. is most intensive in a series of fertile shallow basins, known as niayes, which give Sustainable development of UPH faces the coastal zone its name. several challenges. First among them Studies over the past decade have docu- is urbanization itself, which competes mented distinct horticultural production intensely for increasingly scarce land systems in and around Dakar. One study and water. In Senegal, almost all land is found that 70 percent of the horticultural legally part of the state’s patrimony. Land area was occupied by 200 enterprises use is granted free of charge, but the user producing French beans, cherry tomatoes receives no permanent title, and cannot and mangoes, mainly for export. Alongside pledge the land as collateral for loans. In those capital-intensive ventures were more the rapidly changing urban environment, than 2 700 holdings, generally of less than that pervasive insecurity of tenure makes 0.5 ha, cultivated mainly by migrants from medium-term planning highly risky for rural areas. The principal crops – tomatoes, most market gardeners. onions, cabbages, potatoes and watermel- At the same time, strong demand for ons – were sold through local markets and peri-urban land has led to widespread provided growers with their main source of “illegal” transfers, usually to well-off income. Unlike export-oriented producers, beneficiaries. As municipal authorities these growers were highly vulnerable to expropriate land for sale to developers, gar- land use changes: only 3 percent had title dening basins have been filled in and local deeds. farmers driven out. The price of peri-urban Horticulture extends deeply into urban land in the Niayes zone has quadrupled in Dakar, where gardeners produce lettuce 10 years, and expropriations in Thiès have and tomatoes on plots of 500 sq m. On caused conflict with the rural community. patios and in backyards, 7 500 Dakar city Not all land is taken for construction. One residents have taken up home production study noted the emergence of horticultural in micro-gardens – plastic-lined wooden entrepreneurs who enjoyed “privileged crates, custom-built tables and old car tyres entry points” to land and credit.

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 81 Senegal

Small-scale growers have responded to horticultural exports as a key sector for tenure insecurity by abandoning fallow wealth creation, and seeks to boost annual periods and intensifying production. Many exports of fruit and vegetables to Europe to have increased the pumping of groundwater 55 000 tonnes. There is concern, however, for irrigation, which is lowering water that a priority focus on exports would levels in the Niayes aquifer, the source of marginalize small-scale growers. A recent most of Dakar’s drinking water. Another study said production and marketing assets effect of excessive pumping is seawater were “unevenly distributed”, favouring a intrusion into wells. Growers have resorted few large companies over thousands of to diluting saline groundwater by mixing it growers with limited skills and financial with untreated wastewater, which has left capacity. an estimated 60 percent of them infected To compete in domestic and emerging with intestinal parasites. export markets, small-scale growers will need support in intensifying production Recognizing horticulture’s economic sustainably and improving the quality of importance, Senegal has created a national produce. Investment in water control is directorate for the sector, has increased urgently needed in the Niayes zone, where funding for research, storage and transport growers lack simple technologies, such infrastructure, and has encouraged private as drip irrigation, that would save water investment in the supply of inputs. Two and raise productivity. Measures are also national programmes provide assistance needed to reduce the high cost of fertilizer to small-scale growers, while a master and to enforce pesticide regulations. plan for the Niayes zone aims at protecting Current land tenure legislation effectively horticultural areas and Dakar’s peri-urban excludes urban and peri-urban growers green belt. from borrowing the investment capital they Senegal is also helping to pioneer in sub- need to modernize production, increase Saharan Africa efforts to reduce pressure profitability and resist the conversion of on water resources by providing market their land to urban real estate. A recent gardeners with treated urban wastewater. study warns that without a genuine land Since 2008, a sewage treatment plant has reform in both rural and urban areas, supplied wastewater free of charge to a Senegal will see further increases in rural limited number of Pikine growers. An FAO- poverty and accelerated migration to its assisted project is installing a wastewater already overcrowded coastal cities. irrigation system for 50 ha of flower and vegetable plots; it includes measures to secure growers’ title to land and to provide training in good horticultural practices. Other FAO projects have promoted inte- grated pest management and the diffusion of micro-gardening in Dakar, Pikine and Thiès. Meanwhile, the government’s Accelerated Growth Strategy has identified

82 Growing greener cities in Africa Tunisia The plains of Greater Tunis produce 10 percent of the country’s fruit and vegetables

n 1970, most of the plains around the Bizerte Ariana medina of Tunis were countryside TUNIS – in Arabic, rif – dedicated to the El Mourouj I Sousse production of cereals, fruit, vegetables and Kairouan livestock. Today, Greater Tunis covers an

Sfax area of more than 260 sq km, with a total Gafsa population of 2.4 million, and Ariana and Gabès Ben Arous, once satellite farming villages, are municipalities of more than 100 000 inhabitants. Rapid urban growth for the past 40 years has caused the loss of large areas of prime agricultural land that were once Tunis’s 200 km primary source of food. A green belt of small-scale farms, known as swani, has Key data disappeared beneath roads, residential Total area 163 610 sq km Total population 10 594 000 quarters and industries. Little remains of Urban population 7 024 000 (66.3%) the once thriving market gardens of the Poverty rate 8.1% Zahrouni neighbourhood. In La Soukra, Urban poverty rate n.a. 6 km from the city centre, water shortages, GDP per capita US$4 199 soil salinization and the fragmentation Proportion undernourished n.a. of holdings are slowly strangling orange Child mortality rate 16/1000 Life expectancy at birth 75 years production. On the fertile Sijoumi plain, Human Development Index ranking 94/187 southwest of Tunis, suburban sprawl threatens some 3 000 ha of farmland, Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) provoking tensions between the farming community and new residents. 300 Elsewhere, urbanization has claimed 200 orchards of almonds and apricots in the city of Sfax, citrus groves around 100 Hammamet, half the arable land in the URBAN coastal oasis of Gabes and, along the 0 RURAL tourist coast near Sousse, market gardens cultivated for centuries within metres of 2000 2005 20102015 2020 2025 2030 the Mediterranean.

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 83 Nationwide, some 4 000 ha of itself has prompted many farmers to agricultural land are lost each year to switch to market gardening. Since orange urban growth. Yet Tunisia was one of the cultivation is barely profitable on less than first African countries to recognize the 3 ha, more than half of the plots in La threat posed by urbanization to its food Soukra now produce vegetables. On the production. In 1983 it enacted a law that outskirts of Tunis, intensive production of no farmland could be converted to other fruit and vegetables destined for the city’s uses without a permit from the Ministry central market has become a profitable of Agriculture, and quickly mapped and investment. As a result, Greater Tunis and zoned farmland across the country. A 1996 its surrounding plains constitute one of the amendment recognized agriculture as an country’s most productive horticultural important component of urban planning. regions, supplying the metropolis with That legal framework provides effective some 380 000 tonnes of fruit and vegetables tools for protecting urban and peri-urban a year (equivalent to 10 percent of national agriculture. However, the ministry lacked production). the resources necessary for implementation In fully urban areas and on the immedi- and monitoring, and urban plans have ate periphery of Tunis, UPH is practised failed to keep pace with urban growth. on family holdings that rarely exceed 3 ha In Tunis, a shortage of public housing and produce mainly fruit, such as peaches and zones for industries has led to the and apricots, and vegetables, such as construction of factories and the prolifera- lettuce, parsley, radishes, celery and okra. tion of low-density workers’ settlements on Compared to their rural counterparts, swathes of supposedly protected farmland. urban growers have easier access to inputs With a hectare of peri-urban land selling and market information, which allows them for up to US$70 000, many farmers became to adapt quickly to consumer demand. real estate developers. As Tunis grows, and access to the central Loss of farmland is also put down to market becomes more difficult, more pro- the fact that regulations are interpreted duce is being sold through neighbourhood in different ways by institutions involved markets, small shops and street vendors. in urban development, including the Short distribution chains help growers ministries of tourism and housing. A study cut transport costs and avoid wholesale of the impact of tourism infrastructure on market levies. Locally marketed fruit and Tunisia’s east coast found that while most vegetables are, therefore, cheaper than resorts had been built on salt flats and those sold in supermarkets, an advantage consolidated sand dunes, they had created for low-income residents who spend up to a “diversity of guardianship” over adjoining 40 percent of their budgets on food. agricultural land that encouraged land speculation. While traditional horticulture has adapted to urbanization, sustainable development Tunisia’s rif may have retreated from its of UPH is constrained by the high cost expanding cities, but food production of production inputs and equipment, the continues in some urban areas or has fragmentation of land holdings, labour relocated to peri-urban zones. Urbanization shortages and water scarcity. A study in

84 Growing greener cities in Africa Tunisia

Tunis found that 80 percent of urban In Gafsa, an oasis 370 km south of Tunis, growers could not make a living from agro-tourism is being promoted to protect horticulture alone, and supplemented surrounding farmland. Sfax has set aside their earnings with income from informal land to conserve its fruit genetic resources, employment, such as taxi driving. Increas- and Hammamet recently hosted a festival ingly, young family members seek other to celebrate traditional techniques of citrus occupations. culture. In urban planning to the year 2050, More intensive production technologies the government has given priority to reliev- would make horticulture much more profit- ing pressure on farmland by increasing able. In La Soukra, a recent project funded the density of housing and creating urban by Canada’s International Development green belts. Research Centre developed a greenhouse At Sousse University, the Chott Meriem with gutters that channel rainwater into Higher Institute of Agronomy has launched storage tanks, capturing enough to meet a research programme on horticulture, 60 percent of irrigation requirements. landscape and the environment, and Each greenhouse produces up to 6 tonnes collaborates with Euro-Mediterranean of tomatoes per year, much of it in the universities to promote an “urbanisme vert” off-season, when prices are higher. Growers with horticulture as one of its core features. market produce directly to consumers, There are encouraging signs that which increases their profit margins, ordinary Tunisians see urban agriculture and many invest their earnings in more in that new light. In 1985, a study found greenhouses. widespread adversity to the rural environ- Beyond Tunis, urban horticulture resists ment and aspirations focused on urban in a variety of forms. Near Sousse, small- life. Surveyed 15 years later, 40 percent of scale growers have moved to intensive city dwellers saw the rif instead as a place irrigated production of higher-value crops. of “calm, beauty, nature, freedom and For a radius of 7 km from the centre of traditional values”. Sfax, fruit trees are still planted around A more recent survey of suburbanites on suburban homes, a style of housing that Tunis’s troubled Sijoumi plain found that has been adopted in Tunis as well. An almost half had moved to the area in order emerging trend is “farming for pleasure”: to pursue an urban lifestyle in a pleasant families tend their swani on weekends, both rural setting. Recognizing the multifunc- to produce food for the household and to tional character of UPH, and its advantages guard their land from illegal construction. for all of the community, will help to ensure that, in Tunisia, urban development and Tunisians’ attachment to their gardens and horticulture are compatible. orchards could play a key role in efforts to defend them from urban sprawl. The past decade has seen growing recognition of horticulture’s “intangible benefits”, such as the preservation of farming traditions and the greening of urban landscapes.

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 85 Uganda Urban growers needed support particularly in marketing and enterprise development

xcellent conditions for agriculture 200 km – fertile soil, a mild climate and Eample rainfall – help explain why Gulu Uganda remains one of the world’s least Lira urbanized societies. More than eight out of 10 Ugandans live in rural areas, and farm- ing provides 48 percent of the country’s Mbale exports, 73 percent of employment and the Kira Jinja bulk of raw materials for industry. While Nansana the rate of urban population growth is Kasese Entebbe KAMPALA accelerating, and will average 5 percent Mbarara Masaka a year between 2010 and 2030, Uganda is expected to be a predominantly rural society even in the year 2050. Agriculture is a conspicuous fact of life Key data in the capital, Kampala, where farming Total area 241 550 sq km Total population 34 509 000 systems inherited from the Buganda king- Urban population 5 371 000 (15.6%) dom are still practised on hill slopes and in Poverty rate 64.7% wetland valleys. It has been estimated that Urban poverty rate 9.1% half the city’s households produce food. GDP per capita US$509 They cultivate small plots of plantains and Proportion undernourished 22% graze goats in the densely populated inner Child mortality rate 99/1000 Life expectancy at birth 52 years city, squeeze vegetable gardens and cattle Human Development Index ranking 161/187 into tight spaces between suburban slum dwellings, and produce poultry, pigs, maize, URBAN Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) cassava, fruit and vegetables on larger, peri-urban holdings. 300 Studies conducted over the past decade 200 indicate that urban agriculture in Kampala is practised by all socio-economic groups RURAL 100 and provides up to 60 percent of the capital’s food. What’s more, as Kampala 0 expands, the proportion of the population engaged in food production appears to 2000 2005 20102015 2020 2025 2030 be growing. But the sector’s dynamism is

86 Growing greener cities in Africa due not only to favourable agro-climatic up farming as a source of food that did not conditions; equally significant are the city’s depend on the availability of cash. Almost high levels of unemployment and poverty. none of the farmers who grew only crops did so for commercial purposes. In fact, Kampala’s population doubled, from across all sites, the main products sold 755 000 to around 1.6 million, between were poultry, milk and pigs. While many 1990 and 2010, and is projected to double households grew amaranth, eggplants and again by 2025. The city’s growth is driven spinach for home consumption, market by migration from rural areas, where more gardening was practically invisible in than one-third of the population lived in Kampala. poverty in 2006. Lack of overall planning As a result, most of the fresh produce and the prevalence of customary land sold in the city’s markets was being sup- tenure have led to unregulated expansion plied from rural areas. An Urban Harvest of the urban area. Today, about 85 percent survey of marketing opportunities found of Kampalans live in poorly serviced set- that, while Kampala was becoming a major tlements, and most households are without market for fruit and vegetables, few farmers stable sources of income. in the capital were growing leafy vegetables While strong economic growth helped for sale, even though they were ideally reduce levels of urban income poverty suited to urban and peri-urban production. between 1993 and 2006 – from 27 percent Some households sold avocados, mangoes, to 14 percent – severe food price inflation in papayas and jackfruit, but the volume of 2007/08 exposed the vulnerability of urban marketed fruit was also low. dwellers’ purchasing power. The soaring Vegetable growers cited various obstacles cost of food drove an additional 3.6 percent to increased production and to more com- of the urban population – or 150 000 mercial operations: their lack of agronomic people – below the poverty line, compared skills and investment capital, dry season to an increase of 2.4 percent among the water shortages, pests and diseases, and rural population. limited access to fertilizer. While there was A series of studies coordinated by the an abundance of fruit during the harvest CGIAR’s Urban Harvest Initiative in 2002- season, there were also high levels of 2004 found that the majority of people losses owing to a lack of storage facilities. in Kampala grew crops or kept animals The study concluded that urban growers either to reduce spending on food or simply needed extension support and assistance “to prevent starvation”. They typically particularly in marketing and enterprise cultivated more than one plot, usually near development. their homes, and grew mainly staple foods, such as plantains, beans, cassava, sweet At the time, however, urban food produc- potatoes, maize and cocoyam. Many kept tion in Kampala was actually illegal. It animals, such as poultry, and planted fruit was not until 2005 that, after a decade of trees in and around household compounds. lobbying by an alliance of Ugandan public, For most farmers, the main benefit of research and civil society organizations, urban agriculture was “having enough to Kampala City Council finally adopted a set eat”. The majority were women, who took of five ordinances that recognize the right

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 87 Uganda of residents to raise crops, livestock and provides little guidance, citing peri-urban fish. agriculture only once (as an area where Thanks to that legal framework, the “policies are urgently needed”). council’s Department of Production, At the same time, however, support Marketing and Environment has a mandate for urban and peri-urban agriculture to support urban food producers in order has emerged strongly in Uganda’s plans to improve the nutrition and welfare to correct decades of unregulated urban of Kampala residents. The department growth. Its new National Development provides crop, animal and fisheries Plan stresses the need to raise the country’s extension services, formulates agricultural level of urbanization, seeing it as the key development projects within the city to achieving more rapid socio-economic boundaries, and facilitates farmers’ access transformation. To guide the review of to credit and central government develop- existing laws on land administration and ment programmes. management, it calls for the finalization Five years later, the impact of the and implementation of the country’s ordinances had not been evaluated and National Land Policy, which has been in reports suggest discontent among some development since 2001. urban farmers over the cost of permits. It is The final draft of that policy recognizes also unclear how the ordinances are meant explicitly urban and peri-urban agriculture. to complement more development-oriented It pledges the government to regularizing measures, such as training and marketing. land tenure for residents of informal A report by the Department of Production, settlements and slums, and to legitimizing Marketing and Environment in 2008 noted the urban poor’s land use activities, a “lack of full recognition of the sector by “especially in relation to agriculture and decision-makers” and – echoing the find- silviculture”. It calls for the development ings of Urban Harvest’s market survey four of a legal framework to facilitate and years earlier – found that “much of urban regulate urban agriculture, and for the agriculture remains on a subsistence level integration of the sector into overall urban due to lack of resources needed to practice development planning. Those provisions, commercial agriculture”. once implemented, offer a solid basis for the sustainable development of horticulture in Kampala’s local laws on urban food Kampala and Uganda’s other urban centres. production have been developed in the absence of a national policy on urban agriculture. A 2007 study in Kampala and seven Ugandan towns found that local government perceptions of the practice varied considerably. While the municipality of Entebbe regarded it as a legitimate land use, by-laws in Mbale and Mbarara were still largely prohibitive. The country’s five-year Agriculture Development Strategy and Investment Plan, approved in 2010,

88 Growing greener cities in Africa United Republic of Tanzania An integral part of the urban food system, horticulture is expanding as cities grow

he population of the United Republic of Tanzania stood at 46.2 million in 2011 and is growing Mwanza Arusha T at an annual rate of 3 percent. While almost Moshi three out of every four Tanzanians live in Kigoma Tanga rural areas, current urban growth is close Tabora Dodoma Zanzibar to 5 percent a year. At that rate, the popula- Morogoro tion of cities and towns, now numbering DAR ES SALAAM more than 12 million, is expected to reach 30.2 million in 2030. Mbeya The country’s urban areas face enormous problems of unemployment, poverty, lack of basic services and environmental degrada- 200 km tion. In the largest city, Dar es Salaam, an estimated 16 percent of residents live Key data below the poverty line, while the poverty Total area 947 300 sq km Total population 46 218 000 rate in other urban areas is put at around Urban population 12 351 000 (26.7%) 24 percent. In Zanzibar, urban poverty has Poverty rate 87.9% increased owing mainly to steep increases Urban poverty rate n.a. in the cost of food. GDP per capita US$524 Proportion undernourished 34% While no systematic survey of UPH, at Child mortality rate 76/1000 Life expectancy at birth 55 years city or national levels, has been made over Human Development Index ranking 152/187 the past decade, it is believed that urban agriculture employs more urban residents Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) than any other sector of the informal economy. A study of horticulture in Dar 300 URBAN es Salaam, conducted in 2000, found it 200 being practised throughout the city, over an area estimated then at 650 ha. As the 100 RURAL city has grown, from 2.1 million inhabitants in 2000 to 3.6 million in 2011, UPH has 0 also expanded. Even in densely populated areas, horticulture is a common land use, 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 while in lower density areas, residents keep

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 89 Technical support for fruit and vegetable growers is inadequate. While the agricultural extension system uses farmer field schools, the main beneficiaries are rural producers.

livestock and grow fruit and vegetables commercial production. Produce is grown around their homes. School and factory for both household consumption and grounds are used for market gardening. The sale. It was estimated in 1997 that urban same scale and intensity of UPH is found and peri-urban gardens in Dar es Salaam in other cities, such as Arusha, Mbeya supplied the city with about 60 000 tonnes and Morogoro, and food production is of leafy vegetables and 25 000 tonnes of widespread in Stone Town, the historic core non-leafy vegetables per year. of Zanzibar City. Urban agriculture is a profitable On the mainland, urban dwellers enterprise for both low-income residents practise short-cycle production of highly and large agribusinesses, and generates perishable leafy vegetables, including income for an estimated 30 percent of Dar amaranth, Chinese cabbage, African es Salaam’s households. It has diversified kale, Swiss chard and the leaves of sweet the city’s economic base, provides informal potatoes, pumpkins, cassava and cowpea. employment for settlers from rural areas, Production is very low-tech, requiring and is a reliable source of income during little more than a hoe and a watering can. economic downturns. It has also stimulated A promising new trend among inner city the development of micro-enterprises that residents is fungiculture, which is practised supply agricultural inputs. In the United indoors and uses locally available crop Republic of Tanzania, therefore, urban food residues as growing substrates. production is not a relic of the past; it is an Non-leafy vegetables, such as tomatoes, integral part of the urban food system and eggplants and okra, are grown mainly on is expanding as cities themselves grow. larger peri-urban plots, along with fruit trees, maize, cassava and rice. While some Urban agriculture has long been recognized growers water their crops through hoses or in national legislation and development pipes, they rarely have access to advanced strategies. The Town and Planning irrigation systems. Soil fertilization depends Ordinance of 1992 defines “urban farming” heavily on poultry manure, and there are as plant and animal husbandry within well-established bartering arrangements statutory township boundaries and sets among poultry keepers and vegetable a limit of 1.2 ha of land per urban farmer. growers. The Agricultural and Livestock Policy of The majority of urban horticulturalists 1997 states that urban agriculture “has are women, who are most active in home the potential to provide employment and gardening, while males are more often income and is a supplementary source of engaged in open-space and peri-urban food supply”. Political and institutional

90 Growing greener cities in Africa United Republic of Tanzania support to UPH is, however, still very environmentally sound horticultural limited. Chief among the constraints to its practices. development is the lack of clear policies and That will require the integration of guidelines for the sector, particularly on horticulture into urban planning and the zoning of land for vegetable growing. stricter regulation of the sector. Specific In and around Dar es Salaam, an estimated zones need to be allocated for UPH, and 900 sq km are suitable for agriculture, but by-laws and regulations should be clearly urban planners tend to favour allocation documented and explained to stakeholders. of land to housing rather than to vegetable Extension services should work with growing or other agricultural activities. peri-urban commercial growers to increase UPH is, therefore, often practised productivity and ensure produce safety. illegally on government- and privately Training should focus on good agricultural owned land, especially in inner city areas and post-harvest practices, including mixed (in peri-urban areas, informal agreements cropping systems and crop rotation, the with land owners usually provide growers use of organic fertilizer, and integrated pest with greater security of tenure). Since the management. Improving peri-urban market town water supply is often unreliable and gardeners’ access to credit is essential for too costly to use for irrigation, many urban increasing production. gardeners resort to untreated wastewater Urban and peri-urban growers already from streams and drains. Urban pollution, have a competitive advantage over rural excessive use of pesticides, and reliance producers in accessing city markets for on unsafe water pose increasing risks fresh leafy vegetables, mushrooms, herbs to consumer health. Quality and safety and flowers. But public investment in standards for fresh fruit and vegetables logistics and quality control is needed to exist, but enforcement is weak. connect them to horticulture value chains Technical support for fruit and vegetable and to new markets, such as supermarkets growers is also inadequate. While the and hotels. Finally, there is a clear need agricultural extension system uses farmer to conduct a new, detailed survey of UPH field schools and farmer-to-farmers exten- in the country’s towns and cities in order sion methods, the main beneficiaries are to inform policymaking and provide the rural producers. Owing to a lack of storage sector with the adequate institutional and and processing facilities, growers suffer technical support. high post-harvest losses, and are usually forced to sell produce immediately after the harvest, when prices are falling.

There is a growing awareness of the important role that UPH could play in the United Republic of Tanzania’s urban development. In order to realize the sector’s potential, however, it must be fully recog- nized as a legitimate land use in all cities, and supported by policies that promote

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 91 Zambia Backyard vegetable gardens help low-income households to make ends meet

n the crest of a copper export boom, Zambian cities were among the world’s fastest growing in the Kasama O immediate post-colonial years. However, a protracted economic crisis beginning in Chingola the 1980s slowed the rate of urbanization Mufulira Kitwe Luanshya Ndola significantly, from an annual increase of Kabwe around 8 percent in 1965 to just 1.4 percent by 2000. In Lusaka, the peak of the crisis LUSAKA saw an explosion of food production, characterized by abundant fields of maize, Livingstone to the point where the city was described as “the capital of urban agriculture in Africa”. 200 km In the 1990s, subsistence agriculture accounted for about one-third of the food Key data supply in its peripheral townships. Total area 752 610 sq km Total population 13 475 000 Following a period of stabilization and Urban population 5 276 000 (39.2%) structural adjustment, urbanization is Poverty rate 82.6% now accelerating and the country’s urban Urban poverty rate 26.7% population is projected to more than GDP per capita US$1 253 double, to 11.8 million people, between 2010 Proportion undernourished 44% and 2030. In Lusaka, growth is driven by Child mortality rate 111/1000 Life expectancy at birth 48 years high rates of migration from other parts of Human Development Index ranking 164/187 the country and is accompanied by rising levels of poverty. Most Lusaka residents live Population growth, 2000-2030 (percent) in poorly serviced townships and, owing to the decline in wage employment, work in 300 URBAN the informal sector. 200 A study in 2004 estimated that more than 100 RURAL 25 percent of Zambia’s urban households were engaged in food production of some 0 kind. A survey in Lusaka in 2005 showed that 90 percent of urban residents practis- 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 ing agriculture were women and that, for

92 Growing greener cities in Africa Zambia

Lusaka lacks well managed marketing facilities for vegetable wholesaling. A study in 2010 found that the city’s sprawling Soweto market had almost no infrastructure suitable for fresh produce.

the majority, the activity provided from one most households were poor and grew crops quarter to one half of household income. primarily for subsistence. About 70 percent of growers were cultivat- However, in many households, urban ing small fields of less than 0.5 ha, usually agriculture not only met family food and on land belonging to the city council or nutritional needs, but produced a surplus, private individuals. which was sold on the open market. The A more recent survey of 400 urban volume of sales is unknown, but recent farming households in four cities – Lusaka, research indicates that it is “meaningful”: Kabwe, Kitwe and Ndola – found that the 80 percent of Lusaka’s supply of the green most common form of agriculture was leafy vegetable rape is produced locally backyard gardening and crop production and marketed mainly through a network of on communal land. While the crop most small vendors operating along city streets frequently cultivated was maize, half the and in residential neighbourhoods. production consisted of horticultural crops, It is estimated that urban growers’ mainly pumpkins, beans, onions, rape, annual profits range from US$67 in Lusaka tomatoes, groundnuts, sweet potatoes and to US$230 in Kabwe, where larger areas of Chinese cabbage. land are available for cultivation. Revenue The households were typically large, with from sales accounts for 18 percent of annual low levels of education, and more than half household income in Lusaka and about were cultivating at least some land they did 50 percent in Kabwe, Kitwe and Ndola. not own. While many growers held other The survey concluded that, if properly jobs in the formal or informal economy, integrated into urban development plans, their average monthly income was less than agriculture could help significantly in the US$400 required to meet the basic alleviating income poverty. needs of a family of six. The survey showed Achieving that integration is a major how food production was an important challenge in Lusaka, where urbanization household strategy for ensuring food threatens most agricultural activities, security and saving money: 80 percent of including horticulture. Lack of land now families consumed from 80 to 100 percent prevents many residents of overcrowded of what they grew, allowing them to reduce townships from growing vegetables. The significantly their spending on food for city’s gardeners complain about the high an average of 3.2 months each year. The cost of town water, and in some areas high proportion of produce consumed in they are using untreated wastewater to all four cities was ascribed to the fact that irrigate crops. The city also lacks well managed marketing facilities for vegetable

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 93 Zambia wholesaling. A study in 2010 found that use planning, although they are provided Lusaka’s sprawling Soweto market had for by Local Government Acts. Planners in almost no infrastructure specifically Lusaka say there is insufficient land for suited to fresh produce. Nearly all whole- allotment gardening and that, in any case, it saling took place in an uncovered dirt would not make a meaningful contribution field at one end of the market complex, to the city’s food supply. with no dedicated entry and exit points, Although some 4 000 ha of land in and very limited storage capacity, and no cold around Lusaka are suitable for “cultivation storage of any kind. and plantation”, a recent council planning report states that “there is little scope for The growing shortage of urban land and long-term growth” of urban agriculture. A water for horticulture reflects the lack of more optimistic view has been taken by the clear national policies for the sector. The city council of Ndola, Zambia’s third largest National Agricultural Policy, 2002-2010, city, where food crops are widely cultivated makes little mention of horticulture in in backyards and forest reserves, along general and completely ignores urban and roads and river banks, and on rented plots peri-urban horticulture. and small holdings. Many city administrations are Following multi-stakeholder consulta- ambivalent about urban farming. While it tions in 2008, the council has prepared is regarded as illegal under the Public an urban agriculture policy that will Health Act, regulations are seldom incorporate crop and livestock production enforced. At the same time, Lusaka has not as a legitimate land use into the city’s integrated allotment gardens into its land strategic plan.

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110 Growing greener cities in Africa Abbreviations

CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GDP gross domestic product ha hectare IGAD Gabonese Development Support Institute NGO non-governmental organization RUAF Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security SENAHUP National Urban and Peri-urban Horticulture Support Service sq m square metre UGC General Union of Cooperatives UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UN-HABITAT United Nations Human Settlements Programme UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UPH urban and peri-urban horticulture WHO World Health Organization

First status report on urban and peri-urban horticulture in Africa 111

African policymakers need to act now to steer urbanization from its current, unsustainable path toward healthy, greener cities that ensure food and nutrition security, decent work and income, and a clean environment for all their citizens. This report highlights a key component of sustainable urban development: urban and peri-urban horticulture (UPH). Based on an Africa-wide survey and on case studies prepared by national experts, the report reviews the current state of UPH in countries across the continent, from Algeria to Zambia, and in cities from Nairobi to Dakar. It presents major findings, detailed profiles of urban and peri-urban horticulture in 22 countries, and recommendations for the development of market gardens to serve Africa’s rapidly growing urban population.

ISBN 978-92-5-107286-8

9 789251 072868 I3002E/1/07.12