Considerations Concerning Fighting Actions in the Subterranean Environment

International Conference KNOWLEDGE-BASED ORGANIZATION Vol. XXVI No 1 2020

CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING FIGHTING ACTIONS IN THE SUBTERRANEAN ENVIRONMENT

Daniel SOLESCU

“Nicolae Bălcescu” Land Forces Academy, Sibiu, Romania [email protected]

Abstract: The topic addressed in this article is a current, highly discussed one and modern armies carry out numerous analyzes and make diverse comments on this issue. In this article, the author presents the general framework of operations in the subterranean environment and, based on the operational requirements necessary for conducting such operations, analyzes the perspectives that such operations have in urban operations and suggests directions of action needed to train forces. A separate analysis is performed on how the light infantry subunits from the Romanian Army should be equipped and prepared to deal with this kind of threats / requirements in accordance with the current acceptance of the phrase “Train as you fight.”

Keywords: urban operations, subterranean operations, instruction

1. Introduction The study aims to demonstrate that, in an The era of urban warfare has already begun urban conflict, in which there is a wide and can no longer be avoided, and the urban range of military missions, it is necessary to environment is complex including airspace, study the military actions that can be ground space and subterranean space. carried out in the subterranean environment Subterranean military operations is the and presents the directions of action official name of military actions that take regarding training and equipment in order place in underground cavities (existing to successfully manage these types of natural caves, artificial underground operations. installations built for military or civilian The most important urban areas include a purposes) or tunnels. Our study begins with whole range of tunnels, starting with those a presentation of the concept of operations for underground transportation, in the subterranean environment from a maintenance, water, sewerage and general perspective of the operations in the telecommunications or military tunnels that urban environment. The conceptual are designed for attack or defense. delimitation of these specific operations, Military tunnels can be used to penetrate the analysis of the manner of action of the enemy territory to execute a surprise attack, forces in the subterranean environment, or they can strengthen a defense, creating become relevant topics of knowledge for the possibility of carrying out an ambush or the military operations carried out in an counterattack, but also increasing the ability extremely hostile environment such as to transfer forces from an area of the cities or towns. combat zone in another unseen and protected area. The tunnels can also serve

136 as a shelter for combatants and non- offer a series of facilities in both offensive combatants against enemy attacks. and defensive actions. The greatest surprise in the recent war During the offensive operations, the between Israel and the HAMAS militias in attacker can use besides the ground routes Gaza was the discovery of the sophisticated nearby the underground ones, allowing the network of tunnels that Hamas has been infiltration of smaller forces behind enemy developing since previous years. The defenses. The purpose of this maneuver is existing network of tunnels under the Gaza to break the enemy’s defense and to block Region offers a strong juxtaposition against the routes of withdrawal of the forces from the modern aviation, drones and artillery contact. Even if the subterranean actions do that Israel has on the ground. not achieve immediate success, the defense Even though the use of tunnels belongs to forces must defend themselves on two an older type of war, this does not mean levels: ground and underground, being that it should be regarded as a curiosity of constraint to divide their forces that must be military action. Compared to the most capable of both street and underground sophisticated weapon systems used fights. throughout history, tunnels have stood the During the course of the defensive test of time, and for centuries, have allowed operations, the tunnels offer camouflaged military units to approach undetected and protected routes on which the forces of enemy and have helped turn the battlefield reinforcement can move or counterattacks to the advantage of weaker fighters. can be launched. These passages can be Currently, we cannot estimate how long the used as communication routes, routes for supremacy of lasers, drones or missile moving the reserve troops, supplies and defense systems will last on the battlefield. evacuating the wounded. The tunnels can But one thing is certain, that as long as be used to install armoires to be used by there are wars, underground tunnels and contact forces. Through the underground facilities will certainly be part of the passages telephone cables can be installed, battlefield. which are protected against the movement of any tracked vehicles and against fire 2. Conceptual Delimitations executed with artillery or aviation. In the age of electronic warfare, where it is Underground passages provide limited almost impossible to hide military forces, firing sectors and amplify the effects of the fast passage in the underground offers a fragmentation ammunition. The interior of solution. Underground facilities are an the tunnels offers extremely low almost constant reality in an asymmetric possibilities of protection and concealment, warfare. In irregular urban warfare, tunnels it is dense darkness, and the air could be and bunker systems are essentially toxic. Combat support forces – air, tanks, advanced methods of covering up actions artillery – are useless. The walls and ceiling and hiding forces. “From a simple war can collapse at any time, and radio instrument, the underground war has communications do not work. evolved into a global security threat for all The obstacles located in the intersections of states,” wrote Daphné Richemond-Barak in the tunnels enable the creation of excellent his 2017 book, “Underground warfare.” [1] places for executing the ambushes, In major cities there are underground allowing the transformation of the garages, underground passageways, subway underground passages into areas of lines, utility tunnels, sewer tunnels or storm destruction. These obstacles can be quickly water drainage tunnels. From the tactical created using barbed wire, piles of debris point of view, the underground facilities and rubble, pieces of furniture between

137 which there are remote-controlled explosive a) Defining and developing the concept of devices or mines. subterranean war in an official doctrine The efficient use of the equipment The Land Forces do not have a doctrine provided, the techniques of moving and elaborated to deal with the underground communicating, the adaptation and the facilities, namely the fight in the survival in the subterranean environments subterranean environment, nor any are foreign skills to most soldiers of the comprehensive set of TTPs (tactics, Land Forces. techniques and procedures). The US Army The actions in the subterranean published in 2017, “Small Unit Training in environment carried out in dark and tight Subterranean Environments,” and in 2019 spaces are very similar to the operations “ATP 3-21.51 Subterranean Operations” performed during the nights and are but it acknowledges that it is incomplete. enhanced due to the narrow space in the Given the extremely complex subterranean tunnels. This type of action can trigger environment we need a new approach to feelings of fear and helplessness, of fight. So far, we have thought of the increasing the feeling of isolation even to underground as an obstacle that must be the most experienced soldiers. It is the most avoided if we encounter it. The large primitive and the hardest combat a fighter underground world existing in most major can face in the modern era. urban areas must be treated as a separate and unique environment and develop 3. Directions of Action capabilities not only to cope with this Given that the main mission of the infantry situation, but rather to dominate it. subunits and units is to “locate, fix and Specialists in the Land Forces should think destroy the enemy by fire and maneuver,” about the major implications, advantages if the enemy can prevent us from locating and disadvantages of conducting the entire or fixing it, it will be almost impossible to range of subterranean military operations destroy. (especially offensive and defensive) and An approach aimed at solving our lack of why not, even when conducting the competence should include four directions resistance struggle on the temporary of effort including: occupied territory. a) defining and developing the concept It is necessary to set up a commission of of subterranean war in an official doctrine; experts, officers and non-commissioned b) designing and implementing a course officers to deal with the gathering and with a curriculum specifically dedicated to compilation of all available information on training soldiers in the skills they need to the history, actions and underground fight and win in the subterranean operations and to be responsible for the environment; creation and further development of a c) including the tactics, techniques and specific doctrine, taking into account the procedures (TTP) specific to the fact that the subterranean war is not new. subterranean war in the course of combat in b) Designing and implementing a course the existing urban environment; with a curriculum specifically dedicated to d) creating and developing a specialized training soldiers in the skills they need to Kit designed for military actions in the fight and win in the subterranean subterranean environment. environment; Following these directions together with After defining the subterranean war, we involving several types of forces, has the must set up a training center that will advantages of using more resources and prepare the soldiers to fight in the experience. subterranean environment and to offer

138 courses built around the doctrine specific to to provide the best examples for soldiers. the subterranean war. Many civilian companies work daily with Training within a center should not be and in underground facilities and have limited to the formation of individual skills; extensive experience in this field and here the soldier should also be capable of we refer to mining companies, those that training entire subunits. Together, build and maintain subway tunnels or use individual and subunit training will achieve underground pipelines. Geologists, cohesion and increase the subunit’s fighting archaeologists and speleologists have spent power. years studying and mapping their complex The training program would start with a cave systems – each with a unique theoretical stage, where the underground perspective. We should use their expertise. domain will be thoroughly defined. It would also be beneficial to reach allies Furthermore, the course would provide an that have developed and maintained their overview of the history of subterranean underground expertise, such as the US and warfare, from the sieges of ancient cities to Israel. Vietnam, Korea, Afghanistan, Syria or The course should also include a working Israel – carefully examining all case visit where trainees visit different types of studies. underground facilities such as subway It is vital to look at the subterranean war as tunnels, mines, natural caves networks, or a complex concept, not in isolated and other complex infrastructures. disparate cases, this being determined by The culminating event of the course should the vision of the Land Forces to be prepared be 2-3 STX and1LFX which will cause the to fight anywhere in the world against close trainees to use underground facilities in threats and non-state actors. case of war. The subterranean warfare course also needs The soldiers must leave the Training Center a practical stage, where the soldiers will not only with theoretical knowledge and develop the skills needed to conduct the practical skills that will help them subterranean war– from communication and successfully counteract the advantages of interior movement techniques, to firing and the enemy’s underground facilities, but also use of explosives. with the abilities to exploit our own Tactics, techniques and procedures must advantages. We will win the fight in the start with tunnels detection, as the first step subterranean environment when not only in addressing the underground threat on the can we not deny the enemy’s underground battlefield is their discovery. This is best spaces, but we use them to achieve our own done with a combination of ground search goals. and aerial search techniques using drones. In addition, the specialists at the Training Next, trainees need to learn how to Center should be responsible for further systematically search and map underground improving the doctrine and developing facilities. They must master any equipment underground tactics, techniques and specially designed to be used in the procedures, according to the principle set subterranean environment, such as air by General Charles Krulak that “military pumping or wired communications doctrine cannot be allowed to stagnate, facilities. After the trainees have gained especially an adaptive doctrine, such as these skills, they should be tested again in maneuver warfare. Doctrine must continue complete darkness and with NBC protective to evolve based on growing experience, equipment. advancements in theory and the changing In order to achieve the proposed objectives, face of war itself.” [2] the organizers of the course should work The center must also offer specialized with as wide a range of partners as possible courses in the field of communications,

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NBC instruction, use of specialized dogs, of the following alternative variants should neutralizing explosive devices and be considered: combating NBC threats. These specific a) incendiary grenades – before using courses will complete the training of these grenades in confined spaces, specialized fighters. precautions must be taken, because the fire c) The inclusion of the TTP specific to the will quickly consume the oxygen existing subterranean war in the course of combat in enclosed spaces; in the existing urban environment; b) smoke grenades – the smoke can The third line of effort to improve our displace oxygen from the air, because of fighting capabilities in the subterranean this the use of smoke grenades is dangerous environment is to incorporate specific basic and the gas mask does not ensure the skills into the existing course. This is the protection of the soldiers against the smoke fastest way to obtain information and grenades; develop the specific skills needed to prepare c) sound and light grenades can be used current forces. In order to adapt and create in confined spaces to produce limited shock new TTPs, we consider necessary the study and to distract, without causing casualties of TC 3-21.50,Small Unit Training in among their own troops. Subterranean Environments manual, published in November 2017.The combat 2. Light sources and optical equipment for techniques described in this manual largely night visibility correspond to the current needs of It is necessary for each subunit and fighter conducting combat in the subterranean to have light sources of different shapes, environment. weights and intensities. Current long-lasting d) Creation and development of a lighting solutions are powered by specialized Kit designed for military generators, which are obviously not feasible actions in the subterranean environment; in confined spaces and with the limited air A unique environment requires unique supply in the underground. Any lighting equipment. Finally, we must develop a new solution will need to address other aspects kit to meet the particular requirements of of power supplies as well, in order to get rid the subterranean environment. It is simply a of the weight of the batteries. fact that the underground combat involves A device that produces a dazzling light is unique equipment needs that are not met by also required. A large, blinding light current tools. (having a reliable and long-lasting power At the most basic level, the kit must provide source) would give the soldiers a great soldiers the ability to see, shoot and advantage. communicate underground. We have to take into account that in the underground there is complete darkness. 1. Weapons Current night-vision optical devices will be The current assault weapons will need to largely inefficient in an environment be replaced with machine guns and pistols without ambient light and low temperature that will provide automatic fire, have variations to no degree. The specialized compact dimensions and be equipped with forces should also be equipped with tactical flash lights. Also, the combat knife reflective or infrared ropes, so that only plays a major role in carrying out combat their own soldiers can see them. actions in narrow spaces. The use of offensive or defensive hand grenades can 3. The communications system lead to the tunnel collapse or the creation of Actions in the subterranean environment an overpressure that can adversely affect also require cable-based communications the soldiers in those confined spaces. Use (telephones or even Morse transmission

140 systems). The supplied radio stations, surface that has a contrast of dielectric which are based on antennas, are inefficient properties. in subterranean labyrinth environments. These devices are widely used in many Unfortunately, cable communications, areas, from archaeology, construction and which are an essential part of the even mining. It is preferable for a portable transmission equipment, is currently being device to see through the walls of the removed from the land forces. tunnels (in all directions – lateral and vertical) and to indicate the distance from 4. Protective equipment the surface. Sonars that can be used in Soldiers need adequate hearing protection, conjunction with the radars which penetrate preferably over the ear, active Peltor-type into the ground. protection, as gunfire noises and explosions are significantly amplified underground, 7. Powerful sound sources however forces must be able to hear and The sound systems used for outdoor communicate effectively. concerts would be a solution, and the There are many pros and cons in using environment is ideal for using loud sounds ballistic protection equipment in that would make an enemy unable to fight. underground actions, but one thing is certain: the helmet, knee pads and elbow 8. Security and reconnaissance robots pads are mandatory in equipping fighters. Similar to the concept of “guardian angel” In larger underground spaces it is that these UAVs have, these robots would recommended to use ballistic shields that offer protection due to the different sensors, can ensure the fighters move in optimal knowledge of the local situation and even conditions. fire support. In order to prevent their loss when carrying out reconnaissance missions 5. Equipment for ventilation, monitoring they can be attached with a cord. of the quantity and quality of the air and for the detection of toxic gases and 9. Military dogs substances Military dogs are a powerful advantage and Other items that should be considered are can be successfully used in underground individual air tanks and air quality and tunnels. Currently, specially trained dogs quantity monitoring devices. The devices are mainly used by special forces and for detecting toxic gases and substances military police. However, their capacities could be supplemented with a canary in a and abilities are also very useful in the cage like the one used by mine workers in subterranean environment. coal mines to warn them about the appearance of carbon dioxide. 10. Industrial foam containers Rapid industrial foam containers are 6. Ground-penetrating radars (GPR) and required to block the various branches of sonar the tunnels as we clean them to prevent the The GPR uses high frequencies (80 and enemy’s surprise attacks. over 1500 MHz) of electromagnetic waves, transmitted with a radar antenna. Radar 11. Modernized and adapted drilling pulses are reflected by various interfaces in machines and sapper tools the basement, and these are detected by the Soldiers must have skills in the use of radar receiving antenna. Reflective specialized drilling machines and other interfaces can be: geological horizons, sapper or specialized tools (steel concrete groundwater surfaces, rock/earth interfaces, cutting pliers, pickaxes, crowbars, jack objects of human origin or any other

141 hammers, welding machines, cordless saws, underground operations – both the winches, etc.). offensive and the defensive ones – can be a This list is far from a complete list of separate field from the asymmetrical war equipment needed to conduct operations in equivalent to the terrestrial, maritime, aerial the subterranean environment. but it might and cybernetic fields, which require give some ideas to the decision makers. doctrine and their own TTP. Without a specialized unit, a research In modern conflicts, tunnels have been used center, a school or a training center, taking by insurgents, revolutionaries and urban measures to develop new ways or tools to terrorists, such as Chechen rebels during the approach military operations in cities is two Grozny battles until the wider use of almost impossible. underground territory by ISIS in Iraq and The opponents of these proposals will argue Syria. Russia, China, North Korea and Iran that we do not have the necessary resources boast of complex facilities with enhanced and that the underground operations should command and control and the ability to be treated as part of urban operations. deploy thousands of soldiers, tanks, Training in underground operations has the missiles and even launch aircraft from value of every money invested, even at the underground passageways. cost of cutting investments elsewhere. It is The army must be able to fight and win a set of skills that the soldiers need both in anywhere, in “any climate and place.” symmetrical threats, but especially in the Currently we are not prepared to fight in the case of asymmetrical threats. subterranean environment. We cannot Arguing that actions in the subterranean afford to ignore the subterranean war or to environment should be treated as part of expect to adapt after the hostilities have operations in the urban environment simply begun. We must train our soldiers to fight shows that this threat is not taken seriously. and win in the subterranean environment with a new Subterranean War Center and 4. Conclusions our goal should not be to deny the use of If the conclusions drawn by the military underground spaces by opponents, but to specialists who have studied the conflicts of dominate them. the last decades are correct, the

References [1] Daphné, Richemond-Barak, Subterranean Warfare in Urban Areas (February 25, 2018). Subterranean Warfare (book) (OUP, 2018). available at: https://ssrn.com/abstract=3129690. [2] MCDP 1, Warfighting, Department of the Navy Headquarters United States Marine Corps, Washington, D.C. 20350-30004 April 2018.

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