Appendix I: Analysis of Abbé Sicard's Library in 1822 (June 26–July 4

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Appendix I: Analysis of Abbé Sicard’s Library in 1822 (June 26–July 4, 1822)

Subject No. of Volumes % of Collection

Philosophy 471 23.05 Ecclesiology 407 19.9 History 369 18.06 Grammar 218 10.67 Literature 120 5.87 Natural History 95 4.65 Pedagogy 83 4.06 Classics 56 2.74 Government 54 2.64 Foreign Languages 35 1.71 Geography 34 1.66 Arts and Métiers 30 1.46 Poetry 23 1.12 Museums 21 1.02 Mathematics 16 .078 Non-Christian Religions 5 .024 Art 3 .014 Drama 3 .014

Total 2043 99.95%

Most of the creditors of the estate are named, but the relationship to Sicard is mostly unknown. The library, on the other hand, is itemized in a breakdown of eighteen categories from philosophy to art, which can be visualized in the table above. The inventory of any library is problematic. That of Hérault de Séchelles, the member the Committee of Public Safety, contained many works of theology that would not seem to have been his reading matter. Did it derive from an earlier period in his life? Was it inherited and never read by him? In Sicard’s case, the presence of butchers and 140 Appendix I wood merchants among his heirs suggests a working- and merchant- class family—persons unlikely to have had educated or “philosophical” backgrounds. Sicard, the academician and “célèbre instituteur” was conspicuous in this family. We proceed, therefore, by assuming that these were books bought by or given to him during his career. The extent of his debts could be due in good measure to their purchase. He was probably, like most academicians-educators-authors, a bibliophile, if not a bibliomaniac. The second question is whether Sicard read the volumes he acquired. Since the library was sold in 1822, there are no ex libris or marginalia to document acquisition or use. Sicard did not cite a great number of these or other books in his own works. The age of the twenty-centimeter footnote or the fifty page bibliography lay in the future (after the 1870 German invasion of troops and erudition). Certain voluminous titles weigh heavily, such as long or entire runs of the Mercure, the Journal de Trévoux, the Encyclopédie, and even the works of Voltaire. But their mere presence on his shelves indicates an interest in them, if not a spiritual affinity. The preponderance of certain categories is fairly typical of a man of letters: philosophy occupying first place (471), history (369), and classics (56) considerably lower in the scale. There are very few works related to the Revolution, the most significant being abbé Grégoire’s, Essai sur la régénération des Juifs (1788). Sicard had a great love for history and the classics, which were interrelated, since much of his history holdings were classical. They included Demosthenes, Epictetus, Plutarch, Virgil, Horace, Cicero, Pliny, Tacitus. His history holdings also included over 40 volumes of the Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions, a biographical dictionary, 10 volumes of the Sorbonne historian Rollin, 9 volumes of Montequieu, Condorcet’s Esquisse d’un tableau historique du progrès de l’esprit humain, Gibbon’s Memoirs, isolated histories of Louis XVI, the Jews, the Franks, and the Roman Empire, and a universal history. Only one relates to the Empire, that being the campaigns of Pichegru, with whom he was involved. Characteristic of the eighteenth-century notable was a lively interest in natural history, collections of speci- mens, and cabinets d’histoire naturelle, many of which were confis- cated by the Commission des Monuments after 1790. Sicard was no exception to this fashion. Natural history ranked sixth in his book holdings and included 20 volumes of abbé Pluche’s Spectâcle de la nature (the creationist alternative to Holbach’s materialist Système de la nature). Buffon made up eighteen volumes; Robinet, 2; the metric system, 9; and 5 on insects. One is struck by the total absence of any Appendix I 141 works of the science faculty of the Ecole Normale of Year III or the National Institute from the Empire and Restoration—the foremost scientific body in the world. The notable exception to the pattern is the large number of works of ecclesiology (407)—a choice perfectly consistent with an abbé who took the church seriously. His interest in language is marked by significant representations in grammar (218), foreign languages (35), literature (120), pedagogy (83), and government (54). He had little interest in collecting the laws and pamphlets of the Revolution that were the staple of many nineteenth-century bibliophiles. Sicard collected books almost equally from the Grand Siècle and the Enlightenment. This will come as a surprise. An orthodox abbé, who was so critical of the Enlightenment in the Annales religieuses of the Directory, evidently esteemed Boileau (5 volumes), La Rochefoucauld, La Bruyère (2 volumes), Bossuet (7 volumes), the Port-Royalists, Pas- cal, and Malebranche, as well as Fontenelle (120 volumes), Rousseau (17 volumes), Diderot, Voltaire (65 volumes), La Mettrie, Helvétius (2 volumes), Buffon (18 volumes), Condillac (18 volumes), the Ency- clopédie (35 volumes), and the abbé Raynal (2 volumes). The significant number of seventeenth-century works is not surprising for a traditionalist and an imperial grammarian in the lycées, where these works were prescribed. The heavy representation of the Enlightenment is more puzzling. Sicard matured in its heyday, and deaf education and sign language were one of its products. When he became critical of philosophes after the Terror, it was because he, like his caste, blamed the Terror on lumières (see Darrin McMahon). But Sicard was more reasonable than the theocrats or the abbé Barruel, who attributed the Revolution to Freemasonry and illuminism (philosophie). He performed a triage of the Enlightenment, rescuing Bacon, Buffon, and Annisson-Duperon, who were compatible with Christi- anity, and emphasized any evidence of last conversions of the philosophes (D’Alembert, Voltaire). Works such as his Cours d’instruction des sourds-muets drew from the common Enlightenment font of linguistics, learning, and Aristotelian metaphysics. The works Sicard did not own are equally significant as the ones he did. For a grammarian, it is astounding that the works of Buffier, Beauzée, Dumarsais, Domergue, and even Epée are missing, as are the reports on public instruction of the Convention, which estab- lished the institution he presided over in 1794. The educational works of Humboldt or Pestalozzi are missing. Doubtless some of these were wrapped up in the 60 packets that fatigued his heirs so much that they chose not to even open them. 142 Appendix I

Aside from obvious dictionaries, grammars, and school manuals, he owns an infinitesimal number of nineteenth-century works, proving that he was an “ancient” rather than a “modern.” What he definitely excluded from his shelves were the radical Idéologues who sought to eliminate theology and metaphysics from their philosophy. Nei- ther Garat, Volney, Destutt de Tracy, nor Cabanis are present. The split between Sicard and them was one of the intellectual “faults” of the age. But he also surprisingly owned no Chateaubriand, no Mme de Staël, no Benjamin Constant, no Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, and no M. J. Chénier, or any works of living members of the Académie Française, of which he had been a member for more than fifteen years. Appendix II: Johanna von Schopenhauer Visits Sicard’s Institution

J. Schopenhauer. “The Abbé Sicard’s Institute for the Deaf and Dumb.” In Youthful Life, and Pictures of Travel: Being the Autobiog- raphy of Madame Schopenhauer. Translated from the German in two volumes (London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, 1847). I was very much interested one morning with a public examination in the Abbé Sicard’s Institution for the Deaf and Dumb: an exhibition like that which I witnessed took place at that time almost every month. We started with the indispensable card of admission at ten o’clock in order to secure good seats; for the crowd of persons whom curiosity draws together on such occasions in Paris is very great, and the hall of the good Sicard, which was neither spacious nor handsome, would soon become overcrowded. This time, however, we had arrived too soon, the large room was still closed: we were therefore obliged to walk about for some time in the corridor and in the entrance hall, until the doors were thrown open. Of this delay we had no reason to complain, as it afforded us an opportunity we should not otherwise have enjoyed, of seeing the pupils quite unconstrained, to observe them in their ordinary pur- suits, and to obtain ocular demonstration that they were not crammed for public performances, but educated for actual life, as well as their unhappy condition allows them to be so prepared. A large number of these unfortunate children passed us in all the bloom of health, moving about as silently as little elves. Their sad condition is here ameliorated to the utmost, and they looked anything but unhappy. It was a strange sight, causing at the same time both pain and plea- sure. The little girls of their own accord separated themselves from the boys: many of them were very fine children. They walked arm-in-arm, or, in maidenly style, they broke up into little groups, and seemed as 144 Appendix II they went up and down to have a great deal to say and tell each other, for heads, and eyes, and fingers were in unceasing motion. The amusements of the boys seemed rougher. In their own fashion, they ran after each other, played tricks, quarreled, and made it up again, and all without the least noise: as they never heard, probably they do not feel the same desire as other children to shout and bawl. Conversation, meanwhile, was maintained with equal life by them as by the girls, and in the same way. They were often talking three or four together, and yet they appeared to understand it all; the want of hearing and speech seemed hardly felt by them. But the impression this profound silence in the midst of such bustle and life made upon us was quite indescribable: I could almost fancy I had become deaf and dumb myself, when I saw all these animated sports carried on without a note of that noisy merriment that always accompanies the diversions of childhood. The hall was thrown open, and we had hardly secured our seats in the front rank, when it was so completely filled with spectators that, to use a common proverb, you could hardly stick another pin. A well-dressed lady, leading a sweet little girl of about nine years of age, was conducted to a seat near us. She thrust the child in between us, and I soon discovered that this little creature belonged to the same unfortunate class as those who were here being elevated to the rank of humanity under the instructions of their noble instructor. The child and the lady who accompanied her belonged apparently to the upper class of society. As yet no other instruction had been imparted to her than to make her conscious of the affection of her friends to her, and to enable her to testify what she felt for them in return. She was probably brought now for the first time with the intention of confiding her to the care of Sicard, and with a desire to observe what impression the sight of so many young fellow sufferers would make on her. So much intellect shone out of her large dark eyes, she seemed to have attained such a degree of education, and displayed such intelligence and sensibility to all external impressions, that, if she be still living, and has enjoyed the benefits of Sicard’s train- ing, she must be well qualified to fill her station to the delight of her friends, instead of wasting her life in dullness and melancholy. My sisters and I had acquired a kind of dumb language from our childhood, in consequence of the intimacy maintained for many years with an intelligent female relative, who lost her speech and hearing when about twenty years of age; this language of signs was in part invented by our aunt and ourselves, and we were thus able to hold communications with her in a way perfectly unintelligible to strangers. Appendix II 145

I now called up my old acquisitions, and tried to converse with my little deaf mute neighbor in the same manner as I had formerly done with my aunt. To my great delight she comprehended my meaning; she answered me by signs and gestures, the import of which I understood. With a touching expression of confidence, and eyes full of tears, the child turned to me for an explanation of all that was going forward, of which she wished to be more fully informed, and a species of silent conversation was thus carried on, which greatly interested us both. At a little after eleven Abbé Sicard made his appearance, followed by a long train of deaf mutes of both sexes; Massieu, his pupil, friend, and assistant, was at his side. The external appearance of the good old abbé made at first sight a disagreeable impression, which gradually wore off. Nature had not treated him handsomely in the forma- tion of his features, and in his figure: time had not improved them, and as during his many years’ intercourse with the deaf and dumb he had habituated himself to accompany every word with an expressive gesticulation and change of countenance bordering on grimace, his features seemed so distorted as to render him a caricature. His young friend Massieu, who stood by him, presented an agree- able contrast: he was tall and well made, modest, and yet dignified, like an angel from the upper world. A speaking eye and expressive features, no one endowed with speech could have been finer. I have never seen in any living man such a genuine Grecian profile, the tran- sition from the noble forehead to the well-shaped nose being marked only by an imperceptibly delicate curve above the eyes. And how well did this young man’s noble soul correspond with the handsome tab- ernacle in which it dwelt! The key-note to his whole existence was genuine and hearty love to his preceptor Sicard, whose prop he had become: this sentiment was displayed in all his looks and motions. To him he consecrates his life, and Sicard declares that he is under infinite obligations for his assistance. The second feeling of Massieu’s heart is compassion for his fellow-sufferers. It is hardly possible to express in words all that he does on their behalf, and at how great a sacrifice; how he shuns no toil, and spares no patience to rescue the poor fettered soul from the darkness in which it is imprisoned. All Sicard’s pupils, on their entrance into the institution, are first put under Massieu, who, with infinite pains and patience, devises ways and means to make himself understood by them, and to gain an influence over them. He is able to tame even the wildest, and gradually to prepare them for the great intellectual transformation that is to be wrought in them. 146 Appendix II

Disinterested love alone, and not regard to pecuniary interest, has led these noble men to make such unprecedented sacrifices. Massieu is not only of a good family, but has property enough to live as he pleases, so far, at least as his unfortunate privation would allow him: he enjoys an income of from twelve to fourteen thousand francs per annum. But gratitude, “the memory of the heart,” as he once defined it with equal truth and beauty, attaches him inseparably to his teacher and benefactor; to part from him and his protégés seems an idea that he cannot entertain. Though a circumstance once well known, yet, as it is now probably forgotten, I may be excused for mentioning it here, that Massieu, when a youth of sixteen or eighteen years of age, saved his beloved Sicard from the prison where he was awaiting the pitiless guillotine during that Reign of Terror, the remembrance of which causes a shudder. Any mark of sympathy with one confined on suspicion was regarded at that time as high treason against the majesty of the people, and brought certain death on him who had been indiscreet enough to show it: notwithstanding, the poor deaf and dumb lad had the cour- age to present himself before those monsters who then sat as uncon- trolled arbiters of life and death, and to lay before them a petition he had drawn up for the life of his benefactor. The artless eloquence of a soul unused to the ways of the world moved those tigers, whose ear had never before been inclined to the sweetest prayer. Sicard was released, and sent back again to his benevolent calling. Massieu’s petition appeared at the time in several of the public prints: every word of it, and especially the style of its expressions and his answers to the questions proposed to him, bear indisputable marks of its authenticity, and show the strong feeling he had of good and evil, right and wrong; but the manner in which he expressed these sentiments is truly surprising. I never saw Massieu in company, but I have heard many interest- ing traits of him from persons who knew him well. All were full of his praises, and could not find words to express their admiration at his rare benevolence and mental endowments. He is naturally very sociable, and of a cheerful temper, without a trace of that mistrust which lowers over the life of most deaf mutes. He has been introduced to a few families, with whom he occasionally spends the evening as a welcome guest, for he is loved and respected by all. In one of these houses, where he was a very frequent visitor, a few young people once took it into their heads to provoke him on purpose to see whether so gentle a nature was capable of the angry passion. Conversation in company was generally conducted with Massieu by means of a slate: Appendix II 147 his mischievous young friends wrote a few words reflecting injuriously on the memory of Abbé l’Epée, his former teacher and benefactor, who had received him when a helpless child: but they soon had cause to repent of their experiment. As soon as Massieu had read the insulting words a fearful change passed over him. His hair stood on end, his dark eyes flashed fire, his countenance, his whole frame, assumed an expression of uncontrol- lable rage; he broke out into a fearful cry like that of a wild beast, and for the moment became the savage he would probably have always been but for the kind attentions of his teacher. He regained his self- control; with a trembling hand he dashed off on the slate a few strong words, which his just indignation suggested at the moment, and then hastened from the room. All hurried after him: tears and entreaties were used to soothe his resentment at the unjustifiable joke that had been played on him, which, however, they had no idea he would have felt so keenly. He was persuaded to return, and again became the gentle, cheerful, and affectionate creature he had always appeared. But no one ever wished to see him angry again. In the oration which Sicard delivered at the commencement of the meeting, he took great pains to explain to us how he endeavoured to make the deaf and dumb children comprehend his meaning when they first came to his house; how Massieu and he observed for this end their gestures, their signs, and their whole deportment with the greatest attention, sometimes for months, before he fully succeeded, and how he led them on gradually, performing a kind of pantomime which they imitated, thus making himself understood by them in their own way. When he has partially succeeded in this, the instruction is carried forward with the aid of the pencil. To illustrate this part of his system, Massieu held up a knife to the children; he then sketched an outline of it with a piece of chalk on a large black board; the children gave us to understand that in the drawing they recognized the object which had just been exhibited. Massieu next wrote couteau in the middle of his sketch, which he rubbed out after allowing the children to look at it for some time; the written word then stood alone; and this exercise was repeated till the children had learnt to recognize in it the thing that it signified. In this manner they are taught the names of all the objects that come under their eyes, thus learning to read, write, and think; how wearisome a process! But even this is not enough: emotions cannot be expressed with a pencil, at all events not to beings so limited a range of ideas. Sicard in these cases was obliged to have recourse to mimicry, and endeavoured to show us how he had accomplished this arduous task. 148 Appendix II

Two baskets containing fruit and flowers were set before him: he tried by gesture and mien to express a wish to have the one that stood on his right hand, when Massieu wrote in large characters on the board “vouloir.” Sicard repeated the pantomime with greater earnestness, and Massieu wrote “vouloir, vouloir.” Sicard endeavoured to heighten the expression, and his assistant wrote vouloir three times. The good Sicard now exerted himself to the utmost to display the most eager and passionate desire to get possession of the basket. It was a repulsive exhibition, which nothing but the thought of the good motive that prompted him to it could render bearable: the features of his countenance, by no means attractive under ordinary circum- stances, now became a hideous caricature. Massieu, however, did not fail to catch his meaning, and wrote vouloir four times on the board. This was what Sicard termed the language of the dumb. Massieu had next to translate these vouloirs into French, when the whole stood as in the following table:

Vouloir | vouloir Vouloir vouloir | aimer Vouloir vouloir vouloir | désirer Vouloir vouloir vouloir vouloir | s’impatienter.

Thus Sicard and Massieu taught the children the prescribed form and signification of all words expressing anything visible: thus, as far as practicable, they go through all the passions, teaching them not only to read, write, and think, but also to distinguish right from wrong. It is natural that the circle of their ideas must, after all, be limited, and the train of their thoughts widely different from ours. They do not learn a great many subjects; but whatever they learn, it is thoroughly; because they cannot learn it without understanding it, and, parrot- like, repetition is with them out of the question. This part of Sicard’s instruction seemed to me by far the most inter- esting. Among other things, he explained to us also how he began to teach the alphabet: he then brought forward a very pretty, smiling girl of twelve years of age, whom he had taught to pronounce the letters. He grasped the hands of the little child, who looked intently up in his face: he then framed his mouth as if he were going to say B; the child imitated him, and distinctly uttered B: he then squeezed her hand, and the little one said P; so with D, T, and several other letters which he made her speak. The strange tone of her voice was disagreeable, resembling rather that of a parrot or magpie that had been taught to speak, than the voice of a child. The whole struck me as a piece of unmeaning show; but it met with a cordial reception. Appendix II 149

The exercises which he performed with his pupils afterwards seemed to me better calculated to divert the spectators than to improve the children. They obviously served no higher purpose than to display his institution in the most striking light. In Paris, however, this is an object which must not be lost sight of, and the little pieces of char- lantry to which Sicard occasionally descended for the sake of keeping up the public interest, were certainly not the smallest sacrifices that he made for that benevolent object to which he had dedicated his life. Throughout the whole of these performances, no one had been more attentive, or had taken a more lively interest than the little deaf mute next to me. Her whole soul was in her eyes; not a movement of her youthful fellow-sufferers escaped her notice, and almost uncon- sciously she copied many of them. I fancied that, though she did not know the alphabet they talked with on their fingers, she understood much of what was passing among them by the signs and gestures they made. She was especially interested in the little girl of about her own age, whom Sicard brought forward to exhibit her talents. She often twitched my arm, and by signs inquired if such and such children were deaf and dumb, pointing to them at the same time: when I answered yes, her eyes displayed great surprise, and a happy smile lighted up her sweet face. Massieu attracted comparatively little of her notice; probably she had no idea at first of the infirmity under which he laboured: at last something occurred, I forget what, that suggested the idea he, too, was deaf and dumb. Her eyes were riveted on him. She then seized my arm with both her hands, and inquired, with great earnestness, whether he also could neither hear nor speak. I answered yes; but she could hardly believe I had understood her question: she repeated it with still greater anxiety in her manner; I answered as before. A suspicion that I was imposing on her, or mocking her, seemed to cross her mind; tears started into her eyes; she leaned forward, and took hold of my two hands, and gazed half imploringly, half angrily, up in my face. I endeavoured, by signs, to make her comprehend that I had actually understood her question; and, solemnly laying my hand on my heart, I assured her, in the pretty lengthened conversation we were carrying on by gestures, that Massieu could no more hear or speak than the others. The impression this made on her was as strong as it was gratify- ing. She clasped her little hands together with an expression of the utmost astonishment; she jumped off her seat, and made signs from the elevated place we occupied that she wished to leap down and run to the abbé. Her companion and I had great trouble to pacify her. 150 Appendix II

The remainder of the time she sat as if nailed to the pillar, and did not take her eyes off Massieu, her expressive countenance all the while showing the lively interest she felt in him, so that she seemed almost to have forgotten me. A ray of light had fallen on her tender mind, and was struggling with the gloom and darkness within: hopes that found no vent in words, aspirations and desires were called up in her, and pressed heavily at first on her, like a dream when one is half awake. I was sorry I could not remain till the conclusion of the performance. The heat and the oppressive state of the air, owing to the great crowd congregated in so small a space, compelled me, sore against my will, to go out into the open air. I was informed that these examina- tions often lasted four or five hours; far too long; enough to wear out the attention this benevolent institution merited, however good the will of the spectators might be. The wild boy of Aveyron had been placed under the care of Sicard and Massieu some five or six years before: he was a boy apparently about nine years of age, who had been found in the woods near that place. Some dreadful circumstance must have separated him in early infancy from his parents; perhaps they had been killed, and his life had been preserved almost by miracle. Alone in the dreary forest, without any one to care for him, without shelter or clothing, a prey to the elements and to the changes of the seasons, he had grown up like a wild beast. So the poor creature was found; but no trace could be discovered of whence he came, or of whom he belonged. Perhaps his father and mother had fled during the sad days of the Revolution, or perhaps, in giving birth to him, his parent had yielded up her own life. The news of his discovery spread through France; but no one could be found to claim him. Probably his relatives had all perished, for many families disappeared at that sad time in France, leaving not a trace behind, and of whom nothing has since been heard. Sicard and Massieu devoted infinite pains to the poor boy; but with no good result. His bodily strength is prodigious; but not a spark of intellectual existence have they excited in him: he continues in an animal state, and is incapable of being humanised. Neither we nor any other persons were allowed access to him; his appearance must doubtless be both disgusting and humiliating. What is man left to himself, far from the companionship of his fellows? How much is the new- born infant inferior to the beasts, whose lord he afterwards becomes! I could not rid myself of the idea that Sicard and Massieu were more deserving of pity and sympathy than almost any men in Paris. What perseverance and patience had they displayed; how had they Appendix II 151 taxed their moral and physical powers to walk on unfalteringly in the toilsome path they had chosen! They cheerfully offer up all the enjoyments of life, nay, life itself, in the service of the unfortunate, without producing any spending results, or expecting gratitude for their labours. Long after my visit to Sicard and his institution, my mind pain- fully exerted itself to fathom in what mode these deaf mutes could express their gratitude to him. Words they have none: even Massieu, so far in advance of his fellows, is in this as deficient as they: they all are acquainted only with the conventional symbols which represent them to the eye. They cannot form their thoughts in words, for they have no idea of the way in which they are uttered; they know not what voice or intonation are; they have not even a distinct idea of what hearing and speaking really are, any more than a person born blind can comprehend what is meant by sight. They become conscious, to be sure, of the influence of speech and hearing on others; but how this is exerted they cannot possibly imagine. But amid the perplexity in which I find myself in my apparently fruitless efforts to solve this rid- dle, I feel the idea of the spiritual existence within us greatly exalted; for it is capable of being thus perfected without having language and words, that aid us so essentially in learning everything else as to make us believe them to be indispensable. Notes

Chapter 1

1. Catéchisme des sourds-muets (Paris 1792): The phenomenon of Revolu- tionary girouettes, or “weathercocks,” has been analyzed by the present occupant of the chair of the French Revolution at the Sorbonne, Pierre Serna: La République des girouettes: 1789–1815 et au-délà une anomalie politique: la France de l’extrême centre (Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 2002). The only biography of Sicard to date is that of Sicard’s deaf student Fer- dinand Berthier, L’abbé Sicard, Célèbre instituteur des sourds-muets, successeur immédiate de l’abbé de l’Épée (Paris: Charles Donioul, 1873), 207. 2. Michel Foucault, Birth of the Clinic (New York: Vintage, 1975); Disci- pline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Vintage, 1977). 3. Ferdinand Berthier, L’abbé Sicard, introduction, ch. 1, 8. This online edition is not paginated. Berthier’s biography is a solid, quite accurate, nineteenth-century work of scholarship. I have used the documents in his appendix when I did not have the originals, but with a few exceptions, I have not relied on his narrative. 4. Alexis Karacostas, “L’Institution Nationale des Sourds-Muets de Paris de 1790 à 1800, Histoire d’un Corps à Corps” (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Université de Paris V [Faculté de Médecine], 1981; 1975). M. C[oste] d’Arnobat, Essai sur de prétendues découvertes nouvelles, (Paris: C. F. Patris, 1803). François Buton, “Les Corps saisis par l’État; L’Éducation des sourds-muets et des aveugles au XIXe siècle. Contri- bution à la socio-histoire de l’État (1789–1885)” (doctoral dissertation in Social Science [Paris: Ecole des Hautes Études, 1999]), revised and published as L’Administration des faveurs; l’État, les sourds et les aveugles (1789–1885) (Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes, 2009). Alexis Karacostas et al., Du Pouvoir des signes; Sourds et citoyens (Paris: Insti- tut de Jeunes Sourds, 1990). An excellent general treatment of signs in the Enlightenment, particularly pantomime, is Sophia A. Rosenfeld’s A Revolution in Language: the Problem of Signs in late Eighteenth Century France (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001) and “The Politi- cal Uses of Sign Language: The Case of the French Revolution,” Sign Language Studies (Fall 2005): 17–37. For an eloquent, early recognition of the importance of revolutionary deaf language, see Keith Michael Baker, Condorcet: From Natural Science to Social Mathematics (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1975), 331. 154 N o t e s

5. État civil, ADHG, 5Mi185; Sicard traces his genealogy back to a Pierre de Sicard of Marseille. After the 1720 plague, this branch emigrated to Portugal. Sicard’s ancestors included nobles, military officers, and dip- lomats as far back as the twelfth century. This descendance is based on several “armorials.” They do not show proximate links to the Sicards of Le Fousseret, BM Toulouse, 1 Z 407. 6. AN ET/XLIX/1038; Diocèse de Rieux, subdélégation de Rieux, ville de Fousseret, [1743]”; ADHG, C1925; Emile Saurel, L’Instituteur des sourds- muets, sa vie et son oeuvre (Toulouse: Imprimerie Fournié, 1958), 9–10. This is the only source on Sicard’s early years in Le Fousseret and Toulouse. Saurel mentions a relic of the holy cross preserved in Le Fousseret, which was given to him by Pius VI (1775–1799), during a trip Sicard supposedly made to Rome in recognition of his service to the deaf. But this relic may well have been given to Sicard by Pius VII in Paris in 1805, as there is no evidence that Sicard ever went to Rome. See chapter 4. 7. Cadastre of 1767, ADHG, 1m/1/699; Georges Frèche, Toulouse et la région Midi-Pyrenées au siècle des lumières (vers 1670–1789) (Toulouse: Cujas, 1974), 386; Robert Forster, The Nobility of Toulouse in the Eigh- teenth Century (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960); e-mail of Robert Forster to author, November 7, 2011. 8. Jean de la Viguerie, Un oeuvre de I'éducation sous l’Ancien Régime: les Pères de la doctrine chrétienne en France et en Italie, 1592–1790 (Paris: Edition de la Nouvelle Aune, 1976), 620–627; “Agrégations depuis l’année 1700 dans la Congrégation de la doctrine chrétienne,” ADHG, 13D.73, fol. 14. Sicard’s appointment to the canonicat of Cadillac was made by the archbishop of Bordeaux, Prince Ferdinandus Max: Meri- adec de Rohan, who wrote the letter of appointment in Latin from Lon- don on March 28, 1776. Cf. AD Gironde 33: G778. François Cadilhon. L’Honneur perdu de Monseigneur Champion de Cicé; Dieu, gloire, pouvoir et société à la fin du XVIIIIe siècle (Bordeaux: Fédération Historique du Sud-Ouest, 1986), 212–35, n119. On the canonicats of Guyenne, see Philippe Loupès, Chapitres et chanoines en Guyenne aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Paris: Ecole des Hautes Etudes, 1985); Sicard’s social origin—neither peasant nor noble, but rural notable—was typical of a Doctrinaire. Cicé encouraged priestly vocations, which were declining nationally over the century—those in Bordeaux by 20 percent. See Tackett, “L’Histoire sociale du clergé diocésain dans la France de XVIIIe siècle,” Revue d’histoire moderne et contemporaine 26 (1975): 198–211. Champion de Cicé was often absent from Bordeaux, where some ten canons, among them Sicard, took his place. This did not make de Cicé less of a philanthropist. See Patrick Taieb, Le Musée de Bordeaux de la musique, 1783–1793 (Rouen: Presses Universitaires de Rouen, 2009), 4, 52–88 on Sicard and Cham- pion de Cicé’s role in this Musée. The Affiches, Annonces et avis divers de Toulouse printed an anonymous letter to the editor in late January or early February 1787 (pp. 46–47), citing the commencement speech the previ- ous September 1786 in which Sicard was praised for his “indefatigable Notes 155

zeal . . . for the instruction of deaf-mutes from birth,” which raised them out of an “animal” state. Sicard also belonged to a masonic lodge, the Amitié and/or la Vraie loge anglaise, and authored a long denunciation of wayward members. The latter harbored several future Girondins, such as Dominique Garat, Armand Gensonné, and Jean-François Ducos. It excluded theology from its elaborate rituals. See Johel Coutura, La franc- maçonnerie à Bordeaux: XVIIIe-XIXe siècles (Marseille: Laffitte, 1978); Louis Amiable, Une loge maçonnique d’avant 1789 (Paris: Alcan, 1897). There is no evidence that Sicard belonged to a masonic lodge after 1789. On the phenomenon of provincial academies, see Daniel Roche, Le Siècle des lumières en province, 2 vols. (Paris: 1978). For Bordeaux, see AD ironde 33: G778. Sicard demanded restititution of his 10,000 livre salary from his canonicat in Bordeaux during the Terror, Archives parlementaires (hereafter AP), January 8, 1793: LVI, 604. 9. Sicard’s Exercices que soutiendront les sourds et muets de naissance le 12 et 15 septembre 1789, dans la salle du Musée de Bordeaux, dirigé par M. l’abbé Sicard, instituteur royal, sous les auspices de M. Champion de Cicé, Archevêque de Bordeaux, et garde des sceaux de France (Bordeaux: Racle, 1789), 1–18. This may be the first of Sicard’s famous séances in which he showcased his students. As secretary of the Musée, he sent out more than five hundred convocations in early 1786 with the heading “Musée, Lib- erté, Egalité.” See his invitation to his friend Laffon de Ladebat to attend one of these sessions in Bordeaux. Arch. Mun. de Toulouse, 1Z 407. 10. Royal brevet: ADGironde 33:1 B 1497, 3602, 3762. 11. “Exposition de la méthode talygraphique ou l’art d’écrire aussi vite que la parole”; ADGironde 33:1 B 1497, 3602, 3632. 12. Sicard to Pierre de Léotard, [October] 1788, De Léotard family papers. This and all translations below are by the author. Adrien Cornié, Étude sur l’Institution nationale des sourdes-muettes de Bordeaux, 1786–1903 (Bordeaux: Peels, 1903), 8. 13. C. Bloch, L’Assistance et l’état en France à la veille de la Révolution (Paris, 1908), 235; on Epée and his predecessors, see Du Pouvoir des signes, 1–30 (on Epée, see 35–50). Allegations of charlatanism were made against Epée and Sicard, who were seen as mere followers, rather than innovators. Pierre Coste, Essai sur de prétendues découvertes nouvelles dont la plupart sont agées de plusieurs siècles (Paris: C.-F. Patris, an XI [1803]). 14. De l’Epée, Institution des sourds et muets, ou Recueil des exercices soutenues par les sourds et muets pendant les années 1771, 1772, 1773 et 1774; Bazot, Eloge historique de l’abbé de l’Epée, fondateur de Sourds- Muets (Paris: Barba, 1849), 22 and passim; “Extrait des Mémoires de l’Académie Royale des Sciences,” July 9, 1749, regarding Jacob Péreire’s success in teaching D’Azy d’Etavigny; J. J. Valade-Gabel, Péreire et de l’Epée, Discours prononcé à la distribution des prix de L’Institut National des Sourds-Muets de Bordeaux, 25 avril 1848 (Bordeaux: Imprimerie de Durand, 1848); Maryse Bézagu-Deluy, L’Abbé de l’Epée, instituteur gratuit des sourds et muets, 1712–1789 (Paris: 1990), 145, 154, 160–61, 223, 156 N o t e s

238–39, 251, 269–70. This special book is the best to date on Epée. See also Camille Bloch and Alexandre Tuetey, Procès-verbaux et rapports du Comité de mendicité de la Constituante 1790–91 (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1911), 740–41. C. F. Deschamps, Cours élémentaire des sourds et muets (Paris: Debure, 1779); Pierre Desloges, Observations d’un sourd et muet, sur un cours élémentaire d’éducation des sourds et muets (Amster- dam: Morin, 1779). De l’Epée, Institution des sourds et muets, 1774, 23, 18–19, 40–52, 92, 126–27, 140–41, 145; Institutions, 1777 (Paris: Butard): 14, 29–30, 35, 94, 101, 105, 161. See the engravings of Bene- dictine Pedro Ponce de Léon, of Jacob Péreire, and of other predecessors of Epée in MS. No. 3504, Bibliothèque Sainte Geneviève (Paris). 15. Sicard, Théorie des signes, ou introduction à l’étude des langues ou le sens des mots, au lieu d’être défini, est mis en action, 2 vols. (Paris: Institution des Sourds-Muets, 1808), 68; [De l’Epée], J. A. A. Rattel, ed., Diction- naire des sourds-muets (Paris: Ballière, 1896) v. “austère.” A photocopy of the original MS exists in Gallaudet Library archives. The significance of Sicard’s Théorie is that it described gestures in print without which Epée’s signs would soon disappear. Gestures alone, especially when made conventional, as Epée attempted to do, promised to provide a universal natural language as opposed to conventional or arbitrary written language. Chinese pictographs are visual, but also are arbitrary rather than natural. See James R. Knowlson, “The Idea of Gesture as a Universal Language in the XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries,” The Journal of the History of Ideas 26 (1965): 495–508. See also Ferdinand Berthier, Sicard’s student and first biographer, L’abbé Sicard, 207. Before the Revolution the abbé J. Ferrand left a manuscript dictionary of signs that was not published until 1897 (by J. Rattel). It does describe gestures that differed from Epée’s. It predates Sicard’s dictionary in composition but not publication. See Renate Fischer, “Abbé de l’Epée and the Living Dictionary,” in J. V. van Cleve, ed., Deaf History Unveiled: Interpretations from the New Scholarship (Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 1993), 19, 15. While Epée wrote no dictionary of signs, he considered himself “a living dictionary of signs” (Fischer, 15). Apparently the “first” work of this nature was a manual alphabet by the Spanish priest Juan Pablo Bonet (1573–1633) entitled Reducciòn de las letras a enseñar a los mudos. Bonet followed the path blazed by the Benedictine monk Pedro Ponce de Léon (1520–1584) in the latter part of the sixteenth century. A certain amount of deaf historical scholarship has been devoted to unmasking claims of having “invented” sign language (as Coste did already in 1804). Epée’s contribution was to have made signs methodical and systematic, and to have made them dominant (over oral methods, which prevailed in the Germanic states) and finally to have been one of the first (with Wallace and the Braidwoods in England, the Storcks in Austria, and the Heinickes in Berlin) to introduce classroom instruction for the deaf instead of tutoring. We argue below that Epée’s Notes 157

reputation as the founder of deaf instruction is exaggerated. See Henk Betten’s very helpful survey/dictionary, Deaf Education in Europe: The Early Years, (n.p., 2013). 16. Louis-François-Joseph Alhoy, De l’éducation des sourds-muets de naissance, considérée dans ses rapports avec l’idéologie et la grammaire, sujet du discours prononcé à la rentrée de l’Ecole nationale des sourds-muets, le 15 Brumaire Year VIII (Paris: Imprimerie des Associés, Year VIII [1800]), 7–8; de l’Epée, Institutions 1772, 69. See also the fuller list in the JdD of Year XI cited below; Christopher B. Garnett, Jr., The Exchange of Let- ters between Samuel Heinicke and Abbé Charles Michel de l’Epée (New York: Vantage, 1968), 50–66. Heinicke was an early oralist who disputed Epée’s signs. De l’Epée, Institutions, 1772, pt. 2, 104–27; De l’Epée, Institutions, 1774, 24, 76–104, 30, 15; Yves Bernard, “Approche de la gestualité à l’institution des sourds-muets de Paris, au XVIIIe et au XIXe siecle” (doctoral dissertation, Université de Paris, 1999), l350 ff. Also see the abbé Storck. 17. Furet, Penser la Révolution française (Paris: Gallimard, 1978). 18. C. Bloch, L’Assistance, 142–45; and Pierre Trahard’s masterpiece, La Sensibilité révolutionnaire, 1789–94 (Paris: Bowing, 1936; 1967). A more recent scientific treatment is Anne V. Vila, Enlightenment and Pathology: Sensibility in the Literature and Medicine of Eighteenth-Century France (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998); Thomas M. Adams, Bureaucrats and Beggars: French Social Policy in the Age of Enlightenment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990). 19. Abbé Fauchet, Oraison funèbre de Charles-Michel De l’Epée (Paris: 1790), 47, 50; cf. [Louis-Pierre] Paulmier, “Elève et adjoint de M. l’abbé Sicard,” Une fête de l’abbé Sicard, Institut Royal des Sourds-Muets de Naissance, n.p., n.d.[ca.1822] B.Nf:, Ln 27/1895; Letter in Bazot, Eloge historique, 33–73; S. Lacroix, Actes de la Commune de Paris, series 1, 7 vols. (Paris: Cerf, 1894–98), III, 499; IV, 81–83; V, 11–20; VI, 403–04; Bernard, 174. 20. Sicard, Cours d’instruction d’un sourd-muet de naissance (hereafter abbre- viated CISMN), second ed. (Paris: Le Clere an XI [1803]), appendix. Should we doubt the authenticity of these letters, the manuscripts of which have not been found? They do delineate Sicard’s divergence from Epée’s methods. 21. Ibid. 22. See Bernard, ch. 1, and notes, pp. 20–13 to Sicard’s correspondence with Cicé, the deaf students of Epée, Masse, and Dom Mulot the Benedictine. Brousse-Desfaucherets, a member of the Paris Commune (which also had its say) was involved in the jury and later became a member of Sicard’s school administration. 23. Bernard, 376. Mayor Bailly, who was also a member of the jury of the concours, wrote to Sicard on February 27, 1791, confirming the defini- tive attribution of the Célestins convent to the deaf-mutes. Bailly asked Sicard to confirm whether he was “entirely satisfied.” BHVP, MS 479. A brief account appeared in the Moniteur, April 22, 1790, 458. 158 N o t e s

24. Sicard, Mémoire sur l’art d’instruire les sourds-muets de naissance (Bordeaux: Racle, 1789): referred to as “First Memoir.” The “Second Memoir” is entitled Mémoire sur l’art d’instruire les sourds-muets (Paris: P. Knapen [1790]), 3–8, 21–22, 24–25. 25. Seconde Mémoire; Bernard, ch. ap 1; Oxford Handbook of Deaf Stud- ies, eds. Marc Marschark and Patricia Elizabeth Spencer, eds. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011). 26. Journal de la langue française (July 16, 1791), 90; the articles continued on July 23, 132. See Léotard correspondence. 27. Moniteur, April 22, 1790. Sicard mentions Condorcet approvingly in his correspondence with Pierre Léotard. 28. M. Diebolt, “Les activités manuels dans une classe d’enfants déficients auditifs,” Revue générale de l’Enseignement de Sourds-Muets 53 (1961): 51; AP (July 21, 1791), 28: 489. 29. Sicard to Léotard, see above n10; Sicard to [?], April 17, 1791, L’Amateur d’Autographes no. 286–87, July [August 1877]; Jean-Claude Meyer, La Vie religieuse de la Haute Garonne sous la Révolution: 1789–1801 (Tou- louse: Université de Toulouse le Mirail, 1982), 113. Dominique Julia believes Sicard was not subject to the oath. Donald Sutherland also believes that he was not technically a “refractory” priest. Sicard may be concealing typical religious objections to the oath, common among refractories; see T. Tackett, Religion, Revolution and Regional Culture in Eighteenth-Century France: The Ecclesiastical Oath of 1791 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press,1986), 61–67. A year later Sicard would be arrested, nonetheless, on the grounds that he was a refractory, or nonjuring, priest. Sicard’s former patron, Champion de Cicé, now garde des sceaux or lord chancellor, persuaded Louis XVI to sign the Civil Consti- tution of the Clergy in July, but he later emigrated to London rather than sign the actual oath after it was condemned by the pope. 30. AP, July 21, 1791, 28: 489–91; Sicard’s address of gratitude was also published in the Journal de la langue française, August 1, 1791, 211– 123.There are two letters from Sicard to Prieur de la Marne of July 26 and 29, 1791, in AN F/15/2584 cited by Dora B. Weiner, The Citizen- Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), 108 n24. Weiner devotes significant attention to Sicard. On October 29 the Assembly accepted Sicard’s invitation, AP XXXIV: 501. 31. Ami des lois, no. 818, 21 Brumaire Year VI, 2, 3. Furet, Francois et Denis, Richet, La Révolution francaise (Paris: Hachette, 1999). 32. “Une lettre de l’abbé Sicard à Laffon de Ladebat” in Revue historique de Toulouse XII (1925): 208–209. 33. Ibid. Laffon de Ladebat had made a fortune in wine, sugar, and the slave trade with Saint Domingue and was ennobled in 1773. His father, a Huguenot refugee, had reentered France from the Netherlands by 1744. Although Ladebat was a deputy from the Gironde, he was not included in the proscription list of the Girondins. Unlike them, he was a royalist Notes 159

and volunteered to save the king in August 1792. He was later arrested under the Terror. He was reelected to the Council of Elders under the Directory. Cf. Tulard et al., Histoire et dictionnaire de la Révolution fran- çaise (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1987). The M. Delacourt mentioned probably refers to another Bordelais vintner, Philippe Delacourt, who had built the chateau Le Bourdieu. Sicard’s connections with the Bordelais merchant class reveal a predilection for high society, which supported his educational undertakings. Henri Rivière, with whom Sicard had conspir- atorial relations during the Empire, was also a “Girondin” deputy. The Dictionnaire de biographie of Michaud states that Sicard also had ties to Hérault de Séchelles, a future member of the Committee of Public Safety and principal author of the Constitution of 1793. 34. Journal Encyclopédique, no. 6746 (February 15, 1776) on Epée and no. 14068 on Sicard and Massieu.

Chapter 2

1. One example, in July 1794, was the Idéologue Destutt de Tracy while he was in prison. He learned of the fall of Robespierre when a woman appeared at the prison window and did a pantomime throwing open her robe, casting a pierre (stone), and finally making the motion of executing herself. Emmet Kennedy, A Philosophe in the Age of Revolution: Destutt de Tracy and the Origins of “Ideology” (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1978), 37. 2. “Relation adressée par M. l’abbé Sicard, instituteur des sourds et muets à un de ses amis sur les dangers qu’il a courus les 2 et 3 septembre 1792,” Annales religieuses 1 (1797): 13–85. See almost identical words in the Moniteur, September 4, 1792, 1051. Sicard reproduces in vol. I (206–07) the warrant for his arrest, dated September 1792, as a “prêtre insermenté,” or a nonjuring priest. It also stipulated that Salvan (of the Institution) would replace him. Berthier, Note C. Also see Jean Gabriel, Dernier tableau de Paris, ou récit historique de la Révolution du 10 août 1792, third ed., 2 vols. (London: Chez l’auteur, 1794), II, 293. Peltier complains that Sicard’s case was squeezed in during routine business of the Assembly, which hardly reacted adequately to the massacres. Although P. Caron discounts the reliability of Sicard’s account, he notes that it was regarded as one of the two foundational narratives of the massacres in the nineteenth century: Les Massacres de Septembre (Paris: Maison du livre français, 1935), xxvii–xxviii. Cf. 1792, Les Mas- sacres de Septembre (Les Carmes, L’Abbaye, Saint-Lazare) (Mairie de VIe arrondissement, September 11–October 4, 1992. n.d., n.p. [Paris, 1992]). This is a carefully documented, bicentennial account by Parisian experts, containing iconography and excerpts of survivors’ memoirs, sta- tistics, a biographical list of victims, and the texts of their 1926 Vatican beatification. 160 N o t e s

3. One version is in AP, September 2, 1792, 49:219. The variant is found in Sicard’s “Relation,” which has Monnot call him the bienfaiteur de l’humanité. The gouache of Sicard’s rescue by Monnot at the Abbaye is by Jean Baptiste Lesueur (1749–1826). It helped immortalize Sicard as a popular hero of the Revolution. The original is at the Musée Carnava- let, in Paris. Lesueur was included in a Napoleonic list of terrorists in 1801. This is one more instance of Sicard’s favor among radical Jacobins beyond Prieur de la Marne and Chabot. Cf. Thibaudeau below. See also Annie Duprat, “Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution,” Annales historiques de la Révolution française 342 (October–December, 2005): 265–67. 4. Archives of Philippe de Ladebat (Paris): “Mémorial,” ADLdL, p. 35; J. Tulard et al., Histoire et dictionnaire de la Révolution française (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1987); AP, August 31, 1792, 49:150; AP, September 4, 1792, 49:333, 343; (AN F/7/4775/18, ds.3); Moniteur, September 6, 1792, 1060. 5. Moniteur, September 6, 1792, 1060. 6. Letter of Sicard to his (unnamed) brother-in-law, November 24, 1792, from the convent of the Célestins in Bulletin de la Société Centrale de l’éducation et d’assistance pour les sourds-muets en France, (November– December 1876): 95–96. Sicard, Relation, 85, 33. Monnot was greatly honored as well. 7. P. Pisani, L’Eglise de Paris et la Révolution, 4 vols. (Paris, 1908–11), I, 297. 8. Letter of Sicard. 9. For quote, see Sicard, Annales religieuses, I, 204–07, 210n and Berthier, 30. 10. Catéchisme, v–viii, 58–59, 65, 111. 11. D. Berman, “Deism, Immortality and the Art of Theological Lying,” in Deism, Masonry, and the Enlightenment: Essays Honoring Alfred Owen Aldrich, J. A. Leo Lemay, ed. (Newark, NJ: University of Delaware Press, 1987), 61–78. 12. Journal encyclopédique, 10 juillet 1793: 287–310. One can only assume, given journal publication turnarounds of the period, that this was written in 1793. 13. Ibid. 14. Ibid. 15. Dictionnaire de biographie française , V. Haüy; Bernard, 381. Abbé René Haüy was a member of the Académie des Sciences and is considered a founder of mineralogy: Dictionary of Scientific Biography (Charles S. Gil- lispie), V. René Haüy. 16. PVCIPAL, April 10, 1792 : 14; May 25, 1792: 177n, 314. 17. BHVP 1213, fol. 457; AN/F/7* “Procès-verbal du comité de surveillance de l’Arsenal,” September 1, 1792, 139. 18. Letter of Comité de Salut Public de Département au Comité de Sûreté Générale, October 13, 1793, AN: F/7/4775, ds 3; BB 3/81A, fol. 339– 343; A. Tuetey, IX, nos. 1429, 144, 7. Notes 161

19. Tuetey, IX, 1437, 1447; X, 534; AN F/7/3366; “Procès-verbaux du comité de surveillance de l’Arsenal,” 132–133 bis., AN F/7/3366; See also the accusation of Dame Duplanoir, 2 jour, 1er mois, l’an deux, Archives de la Police de Paris, AA II A782; H. Calvet, Un Instrument de la Terreur à Paris; le Comité de Salut public ou de surveillance du départe- ment de Paris (8 juin 1793–21messidor an II) (Paris [thèse ès lettres]: Nizet, 1941), 13, 13n, 362, 318. Of the three thousand priests in Paris at one time during the Revolution, two hundred formally abdicated their faith to avoid execution, while Sicard continued to say Mass. Bernard Plongeron et al. Les Prêtres abdicataires pendant la Révolution française (Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1965), 13–14. Also Jacques Godechot, The Counter-Revolution, Doctrine and Action, 1789–1804 (New York: How- ard Fertig, 1972), 148. Godechot states that 24,000 of France’s clergy emigrated. 20. BHVP, 811, fol. 30: Catalogue Caravan, no. 28, Letter dated 8 Prairial, Year III [May 27, 1795]; Raymonde Monnier and Albert Soboul, Réper- toire du personnel sectionnaire Parisien de l’an II (Paris : Publications de la Sorbonne, 1985), 393. 21. AN F/74775/18; F/7*/2595, p. 139. 22. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Lakanal . . . (Paris: 1849) quoted in John Charles Dawson, Lakanal, the Regicide (College Station: University of Alabama Press, 1948), 61–62. This is the only contact found between the refractory priest and the regicide, both of whom were Doctrinaire novices in Toulouse before the Revolution and major figures in the history of education during the Revolution. 23. PVCIPCN, III, 188–89, 236, 353–54, 453, 271–72, 265–271, 367, 528; V, fasc.1:59–60, 168, 470, 602, 608; VI, fasc. 54, 239, 283, 702– 03. There was a general review of funding deaf-mute education toward the end of the Convention: III, 234, 268–71, 238–348, 367. For the exact date in Year II for the decision to grant the former seminary of Saint–Magloire to the Institution Nationale de Sourds-Muets, see Procès- verbaux des séances de la Convention nationale, table analytique, Georges Lefebvre, Marcel Reinhard et Marc Bouloiseau, eds., index, 3 vols., Paris, III, 195; Décrets de la Convention Nationale, I, 25 pluviôse, Year II (Feb- ruary 13, 1794), 243. 24. Speech of Nicolas Raffron in Convention on proposed deaf-mute schools, 13 pluviôse an II (February 1, 1794), PVCIPCN, II, 346; Thibaudeau, 11 ventôse an II (March 1, 1794) in Thibaudeau, II, 362–63. The trans- fer to Saint-Magloire was approved by the Convention on 25 pluviôse an II. (February 13, 1794); Jouenne decree, 16 Nivôse, Year III (January 7, 1795), PVCIPCN, III, 368; Moniteur, 27 Fructidor, Year IV (Septem- ber 13, 1796), XXVIII, 432 and 3 Vendémiaire, Year V (September 24, 1796), 445. 25. Thibaudeau in PVCIPCN, new ed., III, 528. We have evidence of Sicard’s case coming before the Departmental Committee of Public Security, not Robespierre’s Great Committee of Public Safety, of which Thibaudeau 162 N o t e s

was not a member). While his memoirs were not published until 1825, characterization of the abbé seems nevertheless exact. See same text in J. F. Pascal, ed., Thibaudeau, Mémoires sur la Convention et le Directoire (Paris: SPM, 2007). 26. AP, July 1791: 28:21. 27. AP, 49:31 August 1792: 155–56, 219. 28. Archives of Philippe de Ladebat, ADLdL, p. 35. Massieu, “Notice sur l’enfance de Massieu, sourd-muet de naissance,” in Sicard, Théorie des signes, II, 627–49. See also Laurent Clerc, “Sketch of Jean Massieu,” American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb 2 (Hartford, 1849, 1879): 84, 203; “Autobiographical Notes,” Laurent Clerc papers, Yale University Sterling Library, MS 140, Box 1, Folder 13; “Autobiography of Laurent Clerc,” 852. http://www.saveourdeaf schools.org/tribute_to_gallaudet .pdf, PDF pages 105–15. On Sicard’s paternalistic references to Massieu, see Annales catholiques, I, 79, “Bordeaux Memoir,” see above chapter 1, nn. 24, 25. Berthier draws the following portrait of Massieu:

Dans le cours de mon long professorat, j’ai eu l’occasion de me con- vaincre de plus en plus de la grande influence que l’emploi mieux entendu de la mimique est capable d’exercer sur le développement tant intellectuel que moral de nos jeunes élèves. N’est-ce pas, d’ailleurs, un argument péremptoire contre l’absurde prétention de lui substituer la prononciation artificielle, si ce n’est pour restreindre cette dernière comme un complément secondaire à ceux de ces rares infortunés qui y montrent certaines dispositions? Il ne suffit pas que le maître soit instruit, il faut surtout qu’il sache si bien manier le langage particulier de l’élève, que celui-ci puisse saisir, à première vue, toutes les nuances de la pensée et toutes les délicatesses du sentiment. Avant l’abbé de l’Épée, on n’ignorait pas que l’homme, par des signes divers, plutôt inspirés par un instinct naturel que découverts par la réflexion, peut exprimer ses sentiments et ses pensées. La physiono- mie étant, en particulier, le miroir de l’âme, qui de nous n’a pas senti quelquefois le pouvoir d’un geste, d’un regard, de quelques larmes, d’une inflexion de voix, d’une posture suppliante? N’est-ce pas de tout cela que se compose dans l’orateur cette éloquence du corps, que les anciens mettaient, avec raison, au-dessus de celle des paroles? L’histoire a conservé le nom d’un célèbre Romain qui, par sa pantomime d’une vérité frappante, rendait fidèlement tout ce qu’il y avait de plus noble, de plus délicat, de plus varié, de plus nombreux dans les périodes de Cicéron.” Ah! que n’eût pas dit encore cet illustre prélat, s’il avait été plus à portée de découvrir les profondeurs d’un art qui peut être une énigme pour la plupart, et dont les prérogatives ne le cèdent pas toutefois à celles de la parole. Ces deux dons également merveilleux Notes 163 ne sauraient s’expliquer qu’en les faisant descendre immédiatement du ciel. On remarquait, du reste, autant de simplicité et d’originalité dans les habitudes de Massieu que dans ses expressions. A considérer son extérieur, on eût dit un étranger au monde civilisé, quoiqu’à la vérité, il eût fréquenté les sociétés les plus choisies et approché les plus hauts personnages, jusqu’à des souverains. L’abandon et la naïveté du jeune âge semblaient identifiés à sa personne. Il ne savait rien cacher à ses jeunes camarades; il les consultait non-seulement sur ses goûts, mais sur ses affaires les plus sérieuses. Il avait une passion si enfantine pour les montres, les cachets, les clefs dorées, qu’on le voyait porter sur lui jusqu’à quatre de ces petites horloges. Il les regardait à tout moment, et les faisait admirer aux personnes qu’il rencontrait. Quant aux livres, il en achetait dans tous les quartiers; il en empor- tait dans ses poches, sous son bras, entre ses mains, et après les avoir montrés à tout le monde, il allait les troquer pour d’autres. Il essuyait sans sourciller les brocards que l’on se permettait contre lui. Ce n’est pas néanmoins qu’il abdiquât une certaine brusquerie, quand il se voyait piqué au vif. Au reste, il compensait ces légers défauts par mille qualités estima- bles. Il était fidèle à l’amitié; il ne se souvenait que des services qu’on lui avait rendus; sa reconnaissance pour l’abbé Sicard ne se démentit jamais. “Lui et moi, disait-il, nous sommes deux barres de fer forgées ensemble.” Il se montra calme et résigné en apprenant que son cher maître, sur le point de mourir, ne laissait pas de quoi lui rendre, à lui Massieu, le fruit de trente années de traitement comme fonctionnaire, ainsi que nous l’avons dit. Plus d’un an s’était écoulé depuis la perte du respectable directeur, que son élève de prédilection fut forcé de quitter son poste pour aller recevoir l’hospitalité généreuse que lui offrait à Rodez l’abbé Perier. Ce fut, sans doute, sur les instances de ce dernier que Massieu consen- tit à unir son sort à celui d’une parlante de cette ville, dont il eut deux enfants doués de tous leurs sens. Massieu jouissait, en outre, d’une modique pension sur l’État et de quelques subsides du département. Deux fois un habile orateur voulut bien prêter aux exercices pub- lics de l’Institution l’appui de son éloquence, en traçant à l’auditoire le tableau de la situation de ces êtres si intéressants par cela même que la nature les a maltraités; il lui montra les abbés de l’Épée et Sicard renversant, d’une main hardie, mais sûre, cette barrière élevée, depuis tant de siècles, par un préjugé humiliant entre ces malheureux et le reste de la société, les rétablissant dans leur dignité de citoyens et de chrétiens, admirablement servis eux-mêmes par la science philosophique et l’amour de l’humanité. . . . 164 N o t e s

On aurait voulu entendre un nouveau discours de ce brillant orateur sur un sujet qu’il possédait si bien et qu’il traitait sans l’épuiser. . . . C’était M. le docteur Leglay, archiviste général du département, qui faisait partie de la commission de surveillance de l’établissement. Pose pressait, dans le mois de septembre 1836, autour de ces infortunés, sur la tête desquels allaient descendre les couronnes décernées au travail et à la bonne conduite. Stupides étrangers au milieu de leur propre famille, inquiets de ce qui se passe, de ce qui se dit; tristes et impatients de leur ilotisme, ils finissent par aller se jeter sur le sein de leur mère comme pour l’interroger. Elle les serre dans ses bras et elle pleure! Pauvre mère qui, comme Rachel, ne veut pas être consolée, mais qui envie peut-être le malheur de Rachel! . . . Voici quelques passages de cette allocution: “Messieurs, s’écria-t-il d’une voie émue, après les paroles saintes et consacrées que l’Église achève de faire entendre en fermant la tombe qui est devant nous, je me suis demandé s’il était bien convenable qu’une autre voix, une voix sans mission et sans autorité osât s’élever, à son tour, dans cette enceinte funèbre. . . . Oui, quand le prêtre a ter- miné son pieux ministère, quand les chants de douleur et de consolation, de mort et d’espérance ont cessé, l’amitié, jusque-là, recueillie et silencieuse peut, ce nous semble, payer à celui qui n’est plus un tribut public de regrets et d’hommages. Et puis, ces infortunés enfants qui se pressent autour de nous, et dont plusieurs sans doute voient la mort et son grave appareil pour la première fois, ne s’attendent-ils pas que quelqu’un parlera ici pour eux? Massieu lui-même n’a-t-il pas compté sur un filial et amical adieu à cette heure suprême? “Du reste, Messieurs, je serai bref. La vie de Jean Massieu se compose de peu d’événements. Cet homme a été tout à la fois glorieux et obscur; sa renommée fut grande et son existence modeste. Tout le monde sait en France que l’abbé Sicard, illustre instituteur des sourds– muets, eut un élève chéri que les éclairs de son génie et la beauté de son âme ont rendu célèbre, mais qu’est devenu ce sourd-muet si applaudi autrefois, si prôné partout; comment cette intelligence émi- nente a-t-elle concouru au bonheur de celui en qui Dieu l’avait mise? c’est ce dont on ne s’est guère informé, et ce que beaucoup ignorent. Jean Massieu a raconté lui-même sa vie dans un écrit de quelques pages un bout de lettre de sa main, daté de New-York le 12 mai 1826, 18 juillet 1869, il est mort à l’âge de quatre-vingt-trois ans, . . . pour empêcher le pillage d’un temple que l’on confond mal à propos avec les églises supprimées?”

29. AN F/7/3366. 30. Cf. Karacostas, Annexe. Popular language, as opposed to the parliamen- tary and journalistic prose studied by Alphonse Aulard, has been studied by Sonia Branca-Rosoff and Natalie Schneidern, L’écriture des citoyens. Une analyse linguistique de l’écriture des peu-lettrés pendant la Révolution Notes 165

française (Paris: Klincksieck, 1994). Several others have studied popular writings of the revolutionary surveillance committees: Michel de Certeau and Dominique Julia and Jacques Revel, Une politique de la langue: La Révolution française et les patois, L’Enquête de Grégoire (Paris: Gallimard, 1975). The language of the deaf during the revolutionary period belongs somewhere in here. Also, by contrast, Brigitte Schlieben-Lange studied the efforts of the Convention to impose a uniform, universal French in place of dialects and patois: Idéologie, Révolution et uniformité de la langue (Sprimont: Mardaga, 1996). See also Branca’s dissertation “Grammaire générale et éducation des sourds-muets au dix-huitième siècle; l’oeuvre de l’abbé Sicard” at the Université Paris III. 31. AN F/15/2459. A general account of philanthropy is Catherine Duprat, Le Temps des Philanthropes: La philanthropie des Lumières à la monarchie de Juillet (Paris: Editions du CTHS, 1983). 32. Archives de l’INJS, 2,17 cited in Catalogue des manuscrits dans les bib- liothèques publiques de France, I, 485; F/17/1145, 10. For the extraor- dinary careers of the deaf in painting, see Nicholas Mirzoeff’s excellent Silent Poetry: Deafness, Sign, and Visual Culture in Modern France (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995). 33. Moniteur 88: 28 Frimaire Year IV [December 19, 1795], 352; cf. ibid., no. 163, 13 Ventôse Year IV (March 3, 1796); R. R. Palmer, The Improvement of Humanity: Education and the French Revolution (Princ- eton: Princeton University Press, 1985), appendix. Palmer’s chart of total budgets of all former Parisian collèges combined in the Prytanée français in 1800 was less than one quarter of the 1789 allocation. “Le Prytanée français . . . ,” Annales historiques de la Révolution française 143 (March– April 1981): 133, 150, 151. 34. F/15/2459. 35. “Autobiographical Notes” by [Laurent] Clerc, MS 140, Sterling Library, Yale University. (The idea of an absolute divide between pre 1860 signs- and 1860-oral methods of deaf education is very inaccurate.) 36. See texts in Karacostas (1975), Annexe P, 88–95. 37. Règlement of 18 Vendémiaire, Year IX [October 10, 1801], hand-written copy drawn up by the minister of the Interior, in Karacostas. Annexe, A 71–85. 38. “En réponse aux demandes qui m’ont été faites par le Directeur Général d’Instruction Publique, Nivôse-Pluviôse-Ventôse an 4 [spring 1796]; Règlements pour l’établissement de sourds-muets et des aveugles, Kara- costas, Annexe, A 91. 39. Règlements, A 91. 40. Règlement of Year IX, Karacostas, Annexe. See the approval of smallpox inoculations in the Décade philosophique 20 (20 Germinal, Year VI [April 8, 1798]): 65–74. The disciplinary rules for Year IX are greater. (Sicard’s response to the Committee of Public Instruction in Year IV is purely theoretical.) 166 N o t e s

41. Règlement of 18 Vendémiaire, Year VIII (September 30, 1799); Buton, L’Administration des faveurs, passim. The Règlements of the institution seem mild compared to those of Year X at the famous Benedic- tine Abbaye-Ecole de Sorèze, Archives de l’Abbaye-Ecole (a military school under the Empire). This document was kindly communicated to the author by the archivist of the Abbaye, Marie-Odile Munier. Cf. Pat- rick Clastres, “L’internat public au XIXe siècle, Questions politiques ou pédagogiques?” in Pierre Caspard et al., Lycées, Lycéens Lycéennes: Deux siècles d’histoire (Paris: INRP, 2005), 397–419, and Jean-Claude Caron, A l’Ecole de la violence. Châtiments et sévices dans l’instruction scolaire au XIXe siècle (Paris: Auber, 1999). 42. Manuel de l’enfance contenant des éléments de lecture et des dialogues instructifs et moraux (Paris: Le Clere, an III [1794–95]), 92–94, The Idéologue review (La Décade philosophique, 12 [1797]: 204–07) quoted Sicard’s recommendations in favor of gentleness and against rote learning and cruel punishment. But the journal took exception to Sicard’s “metaphysical” instruction for Massieu and faulting what they judged his rather clumsy proof of the existence of God and an immortal soul. 43. Manuel. 44. Council of 500, 9 Pluviôse, Year VII (January 28, 1799). 45. See Tribunal Criminel de Nancy, JdD, 19 Prairial, Year IX (April 8, 1801). 46. A. Debidour, Recueil des Actes du Directoire Exécutif, 4 vols. (1910– 1917), I, 534–35. Hauterive, II, no. 36; July 20, 1805, no. 916; March 15, 1806. For instances in 1792 of fraudulent impersonations of the deaf in order to receive public assistance, see Tuetey, Répertoire général des sources manuscrites de l’histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution française, 11 vols. (1890–1914), VII, 1072, 1110. The Council of 500 also took up the question of legal procedure (“instruction”) in the judgment of deaf-mutes on 14 Pluviôse, Year IV (February 3, 1796). See A. Debi- dour, I, 534–35n. Two years later, a proposal was made by a former deputy, Charles Chasset, against nominating a deaf-mute as a juge de paix (Débidour, III, 114). 47. Fragments d’exhortations prononcées, le 8 mai 1801 dans l’Eglise Saint- Roch, aux différentes stations de la Croix, par M. l’abbé Roch-Ambroise Sicard . . . recueillis et publiés par un assistant. . . [(S. l. n. d.).

Chapter 3

1. Erika Hültenschmidt, “L’art de la parole à l’Ecole normale de l’an III et la place topographique de la grammaire dans les institutions d’enseignement de l’Ancien Régime et de la Révolution,” http:// www.geisteswissenschaften.fu-Berlin.de/v/grammaire_générale/Actes_ du_colloque. [Tübingen, 2001], 3, 22. Hereafter cited as Tübingen Colloque; Bouquier in Guillaume, ed., PVCIPCN, 3:56; Paul Dupuy, “L’Ecole Normale de l’an III,” in Le centenaire de l’Ecole Normale Notes 167

1795–1895 (Paris: Hachette, 1895, 1994), 103. For a brief, accurate account of the Ecole Normale along with other “special schools” of the Revolution, like the Ecole Polytechnique, see Charles G. Gillispie, Science and Polity in France at the End of the Old Regime (Princeton, NJ: Princ- eton University Press, 2004), 495ff.; R. R. Palmer, The Improvement of Humanity (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985), 215; Dominique Julia, “L’Ecole normale de l’an III: Bilan d’une expérience révolutionnaire,” Revue du Nord 78 (1996): 856–57, 871. The expression “republic of professors” is François Furet’s. For Bouquier’s mot, see PVCIPCN, III, 56. 2. The model of the new chemical nomenclature for Sicard’s language of signs was indicated by the Décade, Year VII (1798–1799): 335 and ibid., April, no. 20 (1799). 3. Julia, 856–57, 871; Jean Dhombres and Beatrice Didier, eds., L’Ecole Normale de l’an III; Leçons d’analyse de l’entendement, art de la parole, littérature, morale—Garat—Sicard—La Harpe—Bernardin de Saint Pierre (Paris: Editions rue d’Ulm, 2008), 52–53; PVCIPCN, III, 56. 4. Palmer, 213, 218, 223–24; Julia, 884. The estimated total number of students and of students who were clerics is a revision of Dupuy’s figures, given to me by Dominique Julia (e-mail, September 8, 2012). 5. Moniteur, 30 germinal an III (April 19, 1795), 853–54. 6. The nomination can be found in A. Debidour, I, 94 (29 Brumaire an IV [November 20, 1795]); PVCNCIP, VI, 834. There were two lists of nominations—Lakanal’s, which omitted Sicard, and that of the Direc- tory, which named him. Sicard belonged to the subsection “Grammar,” together with Garat. He was a member, not an associate. The second class was “Moral and Political Sciences,” which would be made notorious by the “Ideologists” Volney, Destutt de Tracy, and Cabanis. 7. Sicard produced two memoirs in this class: “Premier mémoire sur la néces- sité d’instruire les sourds-muets de naissance, et sur les premiers moyens de communication avec ces infortunés,” lu le 13 messidor an IV (July 1, 1796), et déposé à l’Institut le 3 germinal an V (April 2, 1799), Mémoires de la classe de littérature et beaux-arts de l’Institut (Paris: Baudouin, Thermidor an VI [1797–1798]), I, 37–63; and “Examen de l’Hermès d’Harris, traduction de Thurot,” par Sicard, lu le 23 frimaire an V (December 13, 1796), et déposé . . . [a] l’Institut le 3 germinal suivant [An VI]. Ibid., I, 64–83. 8. Jean DHombres et al., l’Ecole Normale. The chapter on Sicard runs from pages 163 through 520. The 2008 edition is used here for the “debates” and editors’ commentary, while references to the actual “lessons” refer to the 1800–1801 edition. Séances des Ecoles Normales, 13 vols. (Paris: Imprimerie du Cercle Social, an IX [1800–1801]). See especially I:23– 523 for Sicard’s lessons. These are all entitled “Art de la parole” but will be referred to as Séances. References will be to the number of the debates in the text, where possible, since these are uniform in different editions. 9. Destutt De Tracy, “Mémoire sur la faculté de penser,” in Mémoires de Morale et Politique (Paris: Fayard, 1992). See Jean-Luc Chappey, La 168 N o t e s

Société des Observateurs de l’Homme (1799–1804); Des Anthropologues au temps de Bonaparte (Paris: Société des Etudes Robespierristes, 2002), 26–27, 31–81. 10. David Hartley, De l’Homme, Ouvrage traduit de l’anglais avec des notes explicatives de R. A. Sicard (Paris: Ducauroy, an X [1801–02]); on the association of ideas, see I, 264–67, 392–94n, 399–401; II, 427; Séances, 1:336–45. 11. For a parallel interest, see Destutt de Tracy, “Réflexions sur les projets de pasigraphie,” Mémoires de l’Institut, Classe des Sciences Morales et Poli- tiques 3 (1801): 535–51. A universal language was a concern of the Idéo- logue section of the institute and the Décade philosophique 7 (1795): 370, which published a favorable estimation of Sicard’s “analysis of human understanding” and his “better philosophical grammar” (10 [1796]). Cf. Rosenfeld, 185; cf. 191–216 and passim. 12. See Patrice Higonnet, “The Politics of Linguistic Terrorism and Gram- matical Hegemony during the French Revolution,” Social History 5 (1980): 41–69. For theatrical reverberations, see P. Y. Barré and F. P. A. Léger, Le Sourd guéri, ou Les tu et Les vousl; comédie en un acte, mélée de vaudevilles ([Paris] 1794–1795). 13. Jean DHombres, “La Question des deux cultures dans l’Ecole Normale de l’an III et dans les Ecoles Centrales: . . . La Règle des signes,” Tübin- gen Colloque, 4; Dupuy, passim; D’Alembert, “Collèges,” in Ency- clopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, 35 vols. (Paris, 1751–1780), I:103–106; Tübingen Colloque, Eliza- beth Schwartz, Tübingen, op. cit. 7, 16; Branca-Rosoff, op. cit. 9, 13; Hültenschmidt, 7, 14; DHombres, D. Julia, and M. de Certeau. 14. See Alyssa Sepinwall, The Abbé Grégoire and the French Revolution: The Making of Modern Universalism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005). Christian Cuxac, Le langage des sourds (Paris: Payot, 1983). The pasigraphy project was antedated by a long-term interest in typography and its relevance to deaf reading. See Adrien Pront, Eléments d’une typographie, introd. De Maimieux (Paris: an V [1796–1797]). Also see Actes du colloque de Bielefeld (1985) and the very favorable notice of Theodore- Pierre-Bertin’s work on stenography (“applicable to all languages, including sign-language”) in JdD, 15 Brumaire Year XII [November 7, 1803]. 15. The student was “Citizen Crouzet,” and the quatrain is given in full in Dupuy, 166–67. Cf. Palmer, School of the French Revolution (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 195; Sicard, Eléments de grammaire générale appliqués à la langue française, second ed.(Paris, 1808), II:597, Séances, II:32, 46, 77, 256, 363; I:115–17, 121, 127. 16. See above p. 48. 17. All four volumes of this review will be designated Annales religieuses, not to be confused with abbé Grégoire’s Annales de la religion. Sicard’s can be found at Yale University Library, the Archives Nationales, and the Bib- liothèque Nationale de France. On the abbé Boulogne’s involvement, see I:204; IV:209. For a study of related points of view, see Darrin M. Notes 169

McMahon, Enemies of Enlightenment: The French Counter-Enlightenment and the Making of Modernity (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), ch. 3. Dominique Julia observes that the two groups, the constitution- nels and réfractaires, were progressively opposed and even hostile to one another after the Terror, and that the former were losing ground to the “la reconquête des missionnaires réfractaires.” Both had become irreconcilable, as the police report in 1797 (e-mail, September 8, 2012). 18. F/7/3450; Michaud, Biographie universelle, s.v. Boulogne, Sicard. 19. Annales religieuses, I:13–34, 38,145–65, 449–53, 481–503, 558–619, II:542–64; III:329–40, 7–13. See, on this subject, a long letter to the editor condemning the “atheism” of Charles Dupuis, 3:328–40; on Vol- taire, 404–05, IV:7–13, 628ff.; on Lalande’s favorable opinion of the Jesuits, see review of Mémoires de l’Institut, Annales religieuses, IV:13, 385–402, 412–19, 289–305, 354–369, 529, 227–246. See also Sicard’s friendly exchange with Madame de Lalande, in which he asks for her husband, his “illustre collègue,” 22 Floréal Year IX (May 12, 1801), Bibiliothèque municipal d’Avignon, autographes de la Collection Paul Marieton, MS 4724. 20. Ibid., I:12, 38, 77, 206–25, 289–306, 449–53; IV:54, 77, 354–69; 401– 405, 408; 375–84; 30; 30 ; III:389–408, 437–65. 21. Jeanne-Marie Tufféry-Andrieu, Le Concile National en 1797 et en 1801 à Paris. L’Abbé Grégoire et l’utopie d’une Église républicaine (Bern: Peter Lang, 2007), 290. The following few paragraphs on these councils were published first in my review of this book online in H-France, September 2008. 22. Suzanne Desan, Reclaiming the Sacred: Lay Religion and Popular Politics in Revolutionary France (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1990). Desan argues that a lay religion evolved during dechristianization. 23. Tufféry-Andrieu, 56–59, 174–79; Annales de la religion, January 21, 1797: 337, no. 117, Floréal an V (7 May 1797), 4, 35–36; IX (1799), 247; VII (1798), no. 1, 312–316, 290; Cf. Sepinwall. The editors of the Annales de la religion were the former constitutional bishops Desbois de Rochefort and J. B. Royer et al. The publication ran from May 2, 1795, to November 1803 in magazine rather than journal format, and in unequal lengths, covering unequal time intervals. See Gérard Walter, Bibliographie de l’histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution, IX, 247. I. 24. Annales catholiques, II:41, 381, 174–79. 25. Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution, 2 vols. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1962, 1964), II, 198; D. M. G. Sutherland, The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order (Malden, MA: Black- well, 2003), 286. 26. Moniteur, nos. 117, 119: 27, 29 nivôse an 6 [January 16, 18, 1798], pp. 472, 478; Debidour, IV, 242n 5: “Analyse de dénonciations por- tées contre les prêtres réfractaires dans les départements de la Répub- lique que de ceux unis de la ci-devant Belgique,” AN: AF III, 414, 170 N o t e s

ds. 2292, 11 Brumaire an V (November 11, 1796); ibid., n.243. See the plethora of similar denunciations in the indices of Debidour (e.g., prêtres déportés . . . réfractaires etc. On the expression “dry guillotine,” see below n.112. AD Laffon de Ladebat. 27. I am indebted to Dominique Julia on the “refractory reconquest” in this period. 28. AN F/3450. 29. See Sicard’s important letter in Poultier’s Ami des lois (which had a very large circulation), no. 818, 21 brumaire an 6 (November 11, 1797), 2–3. St. Paul’s epistle to Romans 13:1; Augustine, Works, 15 vols., Mar- cus Dods, ed., J. G. Cunningham, trans. (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1872–1934), V, xvii. Michaud, the editor of the Biographie universelle, in the article on Sicard, quotes the abbé thus: “For me all authority which exercises de facto power is by that [reason] alone legitimate. Thus with the same faith, I was royalist in 89, 90, 91 and 92, I am a zealous repub- lican since the declaration of the Republic. The monarchy is in my eyes as if it never existed.” 30. [Delisle] De Sales, “Mémoire sur la destitution des cinq membres de l’Institut, Carnot, Bartélemy, Pastoret, Sicard, et Fontanes, demandée par le gouvernement à la suite de ses évènemens révolutionnaires du 18 fructidor,” Bibliothèque de la Ville d’Angers, MS 1234 (1009): 114 and passim. Delisle, a former Oratorian and correspondent of Voltaire and Rousseau (who, like Bernardin de Saint Pierre, was a prisoner during the Terror), hoped for the “end of the Revolution” and political stability at Brumaire. An admirer of Buffon’s reconciliation of God and nature, he is the author of a reputedly inchoate De la philosophie de la nature (1777), which went through seven editions, although not as many as his Etude de la Nature (1784). It is a good example of Rousseauian Deism, which did not enjoy a high reputation in the institute. He sympathized with the Fructorized abbé among other victims of the 1797 coup (A. Franck cited in a Wikipedia français article on Delisle de Sales). The Magasin ency- lopédique of 1796 had mentioned Sicard in connection with an earlier, abortive 1796 deportation decree. Bibliothèque Municipale de Lille, MS 855, fol. 534; Sicard to Michau 2 Vendémiaire [an V], Magasin encyclo- pédique: 1796, p. 121. According to the Archives of the Académie Fran- çaise, Sicard was a coeditor of this important, long-lasting review edited by the antiquarian A. L. Millin. 31. Report of Sicard’s deportation, Moniteur [8 Fructidor] Year V(23 September 1797), 357; Philippe Ladebat, Seuls les morts ne reviennent jamais; Les pionniers de la guillotine sèche . . . en Guyane française sous le Directoire (Paris: Editions Amlathée, 2007); André-Daniel Laffon de Ladebat, Journal de déportation en Guyane et discours politiques (Paris: Editions du livre, 2009). Marc Regaldo, Un milieu intellectuel: La Décade philosophique (1794–1807), 5 vols. (Lille: Atelier Reproduction des thèses, 1976), I, 228; Martin Staum, Minerva’s Message: Stabiliz- ing the French Revolution (Montreal: McGill Queen’s University Press, Notes 171

1996), 84–85. La Quotidienne, 2, 4 Vendémiaire Year VI (September 23 and 25, 1797). 32. Sicard (in hiding) to a Protestant, M. Rey Lacroix, father of a deaf son concerning his marriage to a Catholic deaf-mute, both students of the Institution (Year VI ([1797–1798]). See Berthier’s reproduction of Sicard’s letter, p. 205: “As for myself, I am not imprisoned [renfermé], thank God! I am in hiding out of prudence, and out of respect for the superior authority, until it has examined my affair, which will cease to be an issue when they take it up. I continue to occupy myself with my institution. Your son writes to me, I answer him. I see Bonnefoux and Damin [administrators of the school] every day.” Rey Lacroix wrote a book about the education of his daughter in La Sourde-Muette de la Clapière, leçons donnée à ma fille ([Paris], Year IX [1800–01), dedicated to “his friends the deaf-mutes,” in Berthier, 202–206. The police reported on 11 Vendémiaire, Year VII (October 2, 1798) that the editor of Le Fanal took the defense of Sicard who was supposed to be deported. See Aulard, Paris pendant la Réaction thermidorienne et sous le Directoire, 5 vols. (Paris, rpt. 1974). 33. See Lane, When the Mind Hears, 266–67. 34. Cours d’instruction d’un sourd-muet de naissance, pour servir à l’éducation des sourds-muets et qui peut être utile à celle de ceux qui entendent et qui parlent (Paris: Le Clere, an VII [1798–99], second ed., Le Clere, an XI (1802–[1803]) (hereafter CISMN), xii–xiii, xx–xxiv; “Premier Mémoire sur la nécessité d’instruire les sourds-muets de naissance,” (an VI [1797– 98) CISMN, chs. 2–5. See above p. 65. 35. CISMN, ch. 2; Midi industrieux, sçavant, moral et littéraire (Floréal an VIII (1799–1800) 8, 9, 21, 48. 36. See the journalist, academician, and future Brumairian Pierre Louis Roederer’s allusion to Sicard and Epée’s “langage d’action” in discuss- ing the advantages of Chinese. Décade philosophique, no. 31, Year VI (1797–98), 197. 37. La Duchesse d’Abrantès, Histoire des salons de Paris, 8 vols. (Paris: L’Advocat, 1838), III, 337. Berthier, 93,102. 38. De Sales, Lettre de cachet républicain, 25 ventôse, prairial an VII (March 15, 1799), 50–55; Berthier, 93,102. 39. Journal des Hommes libres, 23 messidor an VIII (July 13, 1800); Aulard, Paris sous le Consulat, I, 88, 522–23. 40. J. N. Bouilly, L’Abbé de l’Epée, Comédie historique en cinq actes, Théâtre de la République, le 23 frimaire an VIII (December 14, 1799) (Paris, an IX [1801]). The historical source of the play can be found in a passage of Pierre Barthes’s: “Continuation des heures perdues du Pierre Barthes . . . répé- titeur à Toulouse, ou suite des évènements dignes de mémoire . . . dans le mois de [janvier 1780],” B. M. Toulouse, MS706. Sicard later denied in 1807 that the story of Solar was true; Berthier, 44–45. 41. Bouilly wrote that “the proscription of the good has just ended!” (p. iv). See also “Réponse de M. l’abbé Sicard, présidant l’Académie, au discours 172 N o t e s

de M. le Cardinal Maury, 6 mars 1807” in Recueil des Discours, des Rap- ports et Pièces divers de l’Académie Française, 1803–1818 (Paris: Firmin Didot, 1847); Moniteur, 14 nivôse an VIII (January 4, 1800), 412, on Sicard’s removal from the deportation list. Sicard to Bouilly, 1 nivôse an VIII (December 22, 1799), Bibliothèque historique de la Ville de Paris, MS 314, fol. 64. That Josephine had some contact with Sicard is evident from her letter to him on 6 vendémiaire an XI, possibly the only relevant document in that archive, to which Berthier must have had full access in the 1860s. For a copy of Josephine’s letter (on behalf of a deaf girl, Poreau of Plombières), see Archives of INJS, 5, 13. A letter from Sicard to Bouilly followed. Although Berthier is usually accurate, Sicard says nothing about the First Consul attending the play, nor apparently did the Paris press. The “incident” was recounted later in the century by JdD. A related story of bienfaisance on the part of Massieu toward his sister as she arrived in Paris is recounted in JdD, 4 frimaire XI p. 3. Here is Berthier’s account of Sicard’s encounter with Bonaparte: “Dans le courant de décembre de cette année [1799], Mme Bonaparte assistait, avec son époux, à la seconde représentation du drame, par Bouilly. Au cinquième acte, lorsque Monvel, chargé du rôle du vénérable fondateur, dit à l’avocat Franval: qu’il y a longtemps qu’il est séparé de ses nombreux élèves, et que, sans doute, ils souf- frent beaucoup de son absence . . . , Collin d ’Harleville se lève avec plusieurs hommes de lettres, placés dans une galerie faisant face à la loge de Bonaparte, et tous s’écrient: “Que le vertueux Sicard, qui gémit dans les fers, nous soit rendu!” Ce cri de nobles âmes est incontinent répété par la salle entière, et, dès le lendemain, le premier Consul, désireux de faire droit à une requête aussi unanime, et cédant aux instances de Joséphine, se fait rendre compte des motifs de l’incarcération du successeur de l’abbé de l’Épée. Que le bonheur de Sicard serait le complé- ment de son triomphe! Présenté par Joséphine au chef du pouvoir exécutif, il en reçut des éloges sur son double succès. “Je vous remercie,” lui dit-il avec le (termes de notre aimable conteur), de votre pièce sur l’abbé de l’Épée: vous m’avez procuré le plaisir de rendre Sicard à ses élèves. “—Et moi, général, dit Bouilly, je dois vous remercier bien plus encore de m’avoir procuré, par cet acte de justice, la plus honorable jouissance que puisse éprouver un littérateur.” On remarque, dans une lettre d’une jeune sourde-muette, Mlle Rey Lacroix, à Mme Bonaparte. Les sourds-muets, lui écrit-elle avec une naïveté charmante, n’ont pas Sicard depuis beaucoup de mois. Je l’aime bien, il est dans mon cœur. Il a enseigné à mon papa qui m’enseigne tous les jours. Dites à votre époux de rendre Sicard aux sourds-muets! Vous deux serez leurs amis comme est papa: ils prieront Dieu pour vous.” Notes 173

Après le 3 nivôse, les jeunes sourds-muets étant allés complimenter le premier Consul, leur respectable maître fut chargé par lui de leur transmettre sa réponse: “Je suis bien aise de voir les sourds-muets de naissance, et c’est avec plaisir que je reçois l’expression de leurs sentiments. Dites à vos élèves, citoyen Sicard, que je ferai tout ce qui sera nécessaire pour aug- menter leur bien-être et pour les rendre heureux. . .” Rapportons, en passant, le jugement que Napoléon porta plus tard sur la langue des sourds-muets: “Monsieur l’abbé, dit le futur empéreur à Sicard, qu’à la demande de ses élèves il venait de faire élargir, en payant les dettes qu’il avait contractées pour eux, il me semble que ces infortunés n’ont que deux mots dans leur grammaire.” 42. Moniteur, 14 nivôse an VIII (January 4, 1800), 412 ; Berthier, 69; Archives de la Police de Paris, AA, s.v. Sicard; Jean-Nicolas Bouilly, L’Abbé de l’Epée, iv, x; Berthier, 44–45. The cast included Monvel, Dazincourt, and other leading actors; J. N. Bouilly, Rentrée du Cn Sicard à l’Institution des Sourds-Muets (Paris: Dupont de Nemours, an VIII [1799–1800]), 5–16. Review in La Clef du Cabinet des Souverains, no. 1059, p. 8875. This paper was edited by Garat and other moderate republicans. On the Brumairians, see Isser Woloch, Napoleon and His Collaborators: The Mak- ing of a Dictatorship (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001). 43. Joseph Despaze, Cinquième satire littéraire, morale et politique, adressée à l’abbé Sicard (Paris: Hamelin, an IX [1801]), 25. 44. Abbé David [Pierre Drapeyron de (1749–1832)], “Epitre à l’Abbé Sicard sur quelques mots de la Révolution” (Paris: Chez les Marchands de Nou- veautés, an IX [1803]); Bulletin du Ministère de la Police générale de l’Empire, 4 février, an 1809, AN F/7/ 8480–8482.; DBF, sv. David. 45. Berthier, 40; Jean Tulard, L’Administration de Paris (1800–1830) (Paris: Commission des Travaux Historiques, 1976), 193. 46. For Brumairian survivalism, see Citizens Barré, Radet, et al., La Girouette de Saint-Cloud, impromptu, en 1 acte, en prose, mélée de vaudevilles (Paris Théâtre de Vaudeville, 23 brumaire an VIII [November 14, 1799]; Paris: Librairie de Vaudeville). 47. Marie-Madeleine Compère, “Les Professeurs de la République, Rupture et continuité dans le personnel enseignant des écoles centrales,” Annales historiques de la Révolution française 243 (1981): 39–60. 48. Lentz, Correspondance générale, I, no. 2280, 6 nivôse an VI (December 16, 1797).

Chapter 4

1. Alhoy, De l’éducation des sourds-muets de naissance; see Berthier, 201, on Alhoy announcing to parents his appointment as “chef” of the Institution. 2. Reports of the prefect Luçay, Description du département du Cher (Paris: an X [1801–02]), 24–27; and Laumond, Statistique du Bas-Rhin (Paris 174 N o t e s

an X [1801–01]), 90 criticize the state of France on the eve of Bonapar- te’s ascension to emphasize how different this new regime is becoming. Sicard’s endorsement of the return of an émigré, addressed to one of the new provincial prefects to intervene on behalf of a political exile from the deportation list Perregaux, a founder of the Bank of France, is also involved. Sicard’s letter (one of many recommendations he penned), and the lobbying are couched in a heading of residual or ambivalent republi- canism. It places Sicard on the side of reconcilation, the hallmark of the new administration. Citoyen préfet, Le citoyen Brulot que vous citez est le gouverneur d’un de mes élèves, sourd-muet, de Lisbonne, qui eût été victime des massacres du 2 septembre, s’il ne s’y fût soustrait en obéissant à la loi de déporta- tion, car celui qui le remplaçait dans mon institution a été égorgé à mes côtés, dans la prison de l’Abbaye. L’exilé n’est rentré en France que pour venir reprendre sa place auprès de mes élèves, et c’est le sénateur Perrégaux qui a obtenu du ministre de la police générale cet acte de justice que j’avais sollicité. Il devait se représenter deux mois après avoir fait preuve de soumission à la Constitution de l’an VIII. Il l’a négligé sur l’assurance du citoyen Perrégaux qu’il pouvait être tranquille, et qu’il déposerait ses papiers entre les mains du ministre lui-même, pour terminer une affaire qui n’aurait pas dû en être une. Ces papiers ont été réellement remis dans les bureaux de ce haut fonctionnaire; et c’est au moment où le citoyen Brulot attendait cet acte de justice qu’on ne lui refusera pas quand on aura le temps de le lui rendre, qu’il est appelé auprès de vous. Il y va avec la confiance que doit inspirer à tous les innocents la réputation d’impartialité et de droiture dont vous jouissez. Le sénateur Perrégaux ne le laissera pas longtemps, sans doute, sans défense. C’est lui qui lui a inspiré une confiance qui lui a fait négliger une formalité essentielle, c’est lui sans doute qui ira se placer entre sa tête et le glaive de la loi, dont tous les bons citoyens se félicitent de vous voir armé. Je vous recommande mon ami qui va devant vous, accompagné de l’élève qui ne peut être séparé de son maître. Salut et respect. SICARD. 3. Moniteur, no. 277, 7 Messidor an IX (June 25, 1801), p. 1151. 4. Thomas Adams, Bureaucrats and Beggars: French Social Policy in the Age of Enlightenment (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), passim. 5. Bigot de Préameneu (see below V, n.000) Berthier, 90. Notice sur les travaux de la Classe de Littérature et Beaux-Arts pendant le premier trimestre de l’an 11. Moniteur, 28, 30 nivôse an XI (January 18 and 20, 1803), pp. 473–74, 482–83. Notes 175

6. JdD, 18 Brumaire, Year X (November 9, 1801). Subscriptions were required: Moniteur, 13 Vendémiaire, Year XI (October 5, 1802); Ibid., 18 Fructidor, Year XI (September 5, 1803), 1335; JdD, 19 Germinal, Year XII (April 9, 1804); Alphonse Aulard, Paris sous le Consulat, 4 vols. (Paris, 1903), IV, 419. See Susan Plann, The Spanish National Deaf School: Portraits from the Nineteenth Century (Washington, DC: Gallau- det University Press, 2007), see ch. 3 on Francisco Fernandez Villabrille, Sicard’s follower. Sicard had been elected an honorary member of the patriotic Sociedad Vascongada just prior to the Revolution. See his cer- tificate in Archives of the INJS. JdD, 9 Vendémiaire, Year X1 (October 1, 1802); Berthier, 90. JdD, 21 Nivôse, Year XI (January 11, 1803). 7. JdD, 19 Thermidor Year IX (August 7, 1801). 8. “Souvenirs de dix ans” 1801, Papiers de Cadolle, AN 370, Mi 1, 203–4, 258–60, 268–69; Sicard to Paulin de Cadolle, 29 Ventôse, Year IX., ibid. 9. JdD, 23 Frimaire, Year X (December 14, 1802). 10. Berthier, 222; JdD, 5, 23 Frimaire, Year IX (December 14, 1801). 11. Moniteur, 24 Pluviôse, Year XI (February 13, 1803). 12. 28 Ventôse, Year XI; Jean-Luc Chappey, La Société des Observateurs de l’Homme, 98. Aulard, Consulat, I, 329; Sicard to M. Méjean, perpetual secretary of Préfecture of Paris, recommending Dr. Jean Itard, 4 Fri- maire, Year XI, Revue historique de Toulouse 14 (1927): 198. 13. Thierry Gineste, Victor de l’Aveyron, dernier enfant sauvage, premier enfant fou, ed. rev. et augmenté (Paris: Hachette, 1993), 212, 232, 386, 143, 151–53, 214, 331–32. Moniteur, 1 Nivôse X (December 22, 1801). 14. Gineste, 142–44. 15. Jean Copans and Jean Jamin, Aux origines de l’anthropologie française: Les Mémoires de la Société des Observateurs de l’Homme en l’an VIII (Paris: le Sycomore, n.d., [1978]), 127–69. Chappey, 105–60, passim; F. Picavet, Les Idéologues (Paris: 1891); Emmet Kennedy, A Philosophe in the Age of Revolution: Destutt de Tracy and the Origins of “Ideology” (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1978), 112–66, passim. M. Regaldo lists the following as “spiritualists”: Maine de Biran, De Gérando, Laromiguière (like Sicard, an ex-Doctrinaire from Tou- louse), Sicard, Peneau, J. F. (Collège de France), Mongin, Mermet, L. J. Daube, and Barthe. Un milieu intellectuel: La Décade philosophique (1794–1807), 5 vols. (Lille: Atelier Reproduction des thèses, 1976), IV, 219. 16. “Rapport fait à la Société des Observateurs de l’homme sur l’enfant connu sous le nom de sauvage de l’Aveyron,” in “Extrait des Procès-Verbaux des Séances de la Société des Observateurs de l’homme,” 6 Pluviôse, Year XIII (January 26, 1805), in Copans and Jamin, 87–113; Gineste, 385–86, 389. See the significant article in JdD, 16 Messidor, Year XI (July 5, 1803). 17. L’Enfant sauvage, dir. Francois Truffaut. 18. JdD, 5 Brumaire, Year XI, (October 27, 1802), but especially 27 Ven- démiaire, Year XIII (October 19, 1802). For a more complete list, see Henk Betten, Deaf Education in Europe: The Early Years (San Bernardino, 176 N o t e s

CA: Maya de Wir, 2013); Degérando, De l’éducation des sourds-muets de naissance, II, 1–327, the second but historical list. 19. Aulard, Consulat 4 (10 Ventôse an X [March 1, 1802]): 762–63. 20. The author is M. Durozoir, quoted in the Revue historique de Toulouse 14 (1927): 103. 21. La Mort de Robespierre, drame en 3 actes et en vers, publié le 9 thermidor an IX, avec des notes ou se trouvent une relation de M. l’abbé Sicard sur les journées de septembre, édition renouvelée et précédée d’une lettre de Robert Lindet [a priest (1743–1823), brother of a member of the Committee of Public Safety] (Paris: Monory, 1802). Two bibliographers attribute the work to another author, Antoine Sérieys, censor of the lycée of Cahors, who was known to publish frequently under Sicard’s name. See J. Quérard. 22. Mort de Robespierre, 79, 237. Garat, Conseil des 500, [1797]; Berthier, 225–26. 23. Berthier, 87–88; see J. G. A. Pocock’s bicentennial lecture at the Folger Library in Washington, DC, spring 1976. 24. Berthier, ch. 4 (Gutenberg e-book). 25. Sicard to Champion de Cicé, July 18, 1801, in Aulard, Consulat 4:128– 29; JdD 17 Ventôse, Year IX (March 8, 1801). See Sicard to Citoyen Perignan, “pour le citoyen Berthier,” 5 Frimaire [Year X], Bibliothèque Municipale de Toulouse, MS 1Z407. Champion de Cicé’s nonjuring émigré status merited him the bishopric of Aix, where he practiced the moderantism he had been known for in the Old Regime. His manner may have influenced Sicard. 26. For the reception of the Pope in France, see JdD, March 10, 1805; A. Latreille, L’Eglise catholique en France pendant la Révolution, 2 vols. (Paris: Le Cerf, 1970), II, 101. Frédéric Masson, Le sâcre et le couronnement de Napoléon (Paris: J. Taillandier, 1878), 200–201. Pius VII evoked enthusiasm in his visits through Paris in the weeks after the coro- nation as well: see Henri Welschinger, Le Pape et l’Empéreur, 1804–1815 (Paris: Plon, 1905), 42–45. Sicard had requested that one Meunier on 6 Brumaire, Year X (October 28, 1801) send him a copy of the “Bulle du citoyen Pape” (the Concordat), so he could make a copy himself. Revue historique de Toulouse 14 (1927). 27. JdD, 6, 8, Ventôse 26, 28 Year XIII (February 26 and 28, 1805); Notice historique de ce qui s’est passé à l’Institution des Sourds-Muets, et à celle des Aveugles-Nés, les jours ou S.S. le Pape Pie VII a bien voulu visiter ces deux institutions (Paris: Le Clere, 1805). See also Sérieys and Sicard’s Epitomé de l’histoire des papes depuis saint Pierre jusqu’à nos jours (Paris: Demo- raine, an XIII [1805]). 28. Notice historique, 3, 4. 29. Ibid. 30. JdD, 8–9 Pluviôse, Year XIII (January 28–29, 1805). 31. Sicard’s praise of Marlet’s artistry appeared in Messidor, Year XIII (June 29, 1805). The engraving sold at 15 francs. An earlier engraved portrait of Sicard by C. E. Gaucher, following a drawing of “Jauffret the young” Notes 177

(of the Institution) was announced in JdD, on 19 Germinal, Year IX (April 9, 1805). 32. Archives of INJS. 33. Cambacérès to Napoleon, January 25, 1807 in Cambacérès, Lettres inédites à Napoléon, 1802–1814, 2 vols., J. Tulard, ed. (Paris: Editions Klincksieck, 1973); Berthier, 91–92. 34. “Réponse de M. l’Abbé Sicard, président de l’Académie, au discours de M. le Cardinal Maury, mai 1807,” in Discours prononcés dans la séance publique tenue dans la classe de la langue et de la littérature françaises de l’Institut de France le . . . 6 mai 1807, pour la réception de S. E. le cardinal Maury, third ed., (Avignon, 1807); Berthier, 91–92. 35. Berthier, 91–92. Compare Sicard’s response to Maury’s (above) to Segur’s below, n. 37. 36. Berthier, 68–69; Archives of INJS, MS 3.14, copies of four letters from Sicard (listed in Catalogue des manuscrits dans les bibliothèques publiques de France, [Paris], I, 486) to A. Barbier about his works; Berthier, 68–69; Moniteur, September 21, 1808, 1045. There is no record of any physical contact between Napoleon and Sicard in Napoleon’s daily log recon- structed by J. Tulard, Itinéraire de Napoléon au jour le jour (Paris: le Grand livre du mois, 2002); Kennedy, 193. Berthier’s account. 37. Moniteur, no. 353, 23 Fructidor Year XI (September 10, 1803), 555–56; cf. Destutt de Tracy, Eléments d’Idéologie. Séconde Partie. Grammaire (Paris Year XI). Sicard’s objections to idéologie are not unlike those of Philippe de Ségur’s Discours prononcés dans la séance publique tenue par la Classe de la Langue et de la littérature française de l’Institut de France pour la réception de M. de Tracy . . . le 21 décembre 1808, 430. Ségur observed, “In casting aside the ‘fictions’ of metaphysics you would certainly not create an absolute system, just as much a fiction perhaps as any other, except sadder and less consoling, the least advantage of which would be to reduce all glory to organic combinations, every noble passion to vulgar sensations, with the result being finally to cheapen our existence, to empty the heavens and disenchant the earth.” This criticism follows closely upon Napoleon’s denunciation of the Idéologues at Erfurt, after the Paris 1808 Malet conspiracy tried to overthrow the Emperor in his absence. Tracy was implicated but not arrested (like Sicard in the Armand de Chateaubriand conspiracy the next year). See Talleyrand, Mémoires, 5 vols., duc de Broglie, ed. (Paris, 1891), I, 452. Cf. Napoleon’s remark- able statement in the Conseil d’Etat of 1806: “In religion I do not see the mystery of the incarnation but the mystery of the social order,” in Christopher, The Mind of Napoleon: A Selection from His Written and Spoken Words (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961, 1955), 105. (As Charles de Rémusat observed decades later, metaphysics was being defended without a metaphysical basis, Essais de philosophie, 2 vols. [Paris, 1842], I, 2.) 38. Théorie des signes, I, xxxxvi, li. Eléments de Grammaire. Moniteur, no. 50, 20 Brumaire, Year X (November 11, 1801), 198. Sicard also published 178 N o t e s

an edition of Dumarsais’s Des Tropes (Paris Year XI [1803]). The INJS archives conserve a MS by Sicard entitled “Des Tropes.” 39. Ibid., no. 1213, 23 Pluviôse, Year X (February 11, 1802), 573–74. Sicard mentions a Père Boucheseiche who supported his grammatical report to the institute, Eléments de Grammaire, I, 174. The Doctrinaires continued to play a role in Sicard’s life. 40. Théorie des signes, I, xxvii; I, 8, 15; II, 261–71. 41. Ibid., I, 8. 42. Ibid., II, 568–69, 147. 43. Ibid., I, lii–liii, 8, 15; II, 282, 566. 44. Ibid., I, 77, 295; II, 429, 398, 448. 45. Clayton Valli et al., Linguistics of American Sign Language: An Intro- duction, fourth ed. (Washington, DC: Clerc Books, 2005), 192, 177– 81. R. A. Bébian, Essai sur les sourds-muets et sur le langage naturel, ou introduction à une classification naturelle des idées avec leurs signes propres (Paris: Dentu, 1817), 4, 29, 42, 45, 48, 58*, 81–82n; Joseph- Marie De Gérando, De l’éducation des sourds-muets de naissance, 2 vols. (Paris: Méquignon l’ainé père 1827), i, 544–59, where Degérando gives multiple examples of reduction of Sicard’s mime by Degérando. Cf. i, 580–592. Sicard did not broach the phenomenon of one sign language borrowing from another. See Einya Cohen et al., A New Dictionary of Sign Language, Employing the Eshkol-Wachmann Movement Notation Sys- tem (Paris: Mouton, 1977). 46. Berthier, 68–69. 47. Br. Lib. Coll. Paul Marieton, MS 4724, no. 143; Dict. Nat. Biog, XVII; Archives de la Préfecture de la Police (Paris), AA 296, fol. 470. 48. Police reports mentioning Sicard and his associates:14 Nivôse, Year XIII (January 4, 1805) Hauterive, I, no. 737; May 30, 1806, II, 1174; Decem- ber 10, 1806, III, 203; March 25, 1808, IV, no. 242; IV, no. 1136. See the Cour de Justice Criminelle, seventh séance of 14 Prairial XII (June 3) on the 1804 Moreau-Pichegru conspiracy 16 Prairial, Year XII: June 5, 1804 (May 27, 1804). Sicard was said to have had “knowledge of the project of reconciling Pichegru and Moreau.” According to the court, “He applauded this project to his friend. He maintains there was no question in this correspondence, communicated to him by David . . . only assurances of friendship.” The imperial procureur général opined that the object of the “horrible attack” was the Restoration. Georges Pichegru, Charles Rivière, and the two Polignacs were judged “accomplices of the first order”; David, Lajolais, Moreau, and Couchery were all “named in the second class.” Sicard was not accused. The JdD published Sicard’s testimony in the Pichegru trial before the Court of Criminal Justice. The testimony of Pierre Antoine Spin, mentioned only Sicard’s “honesty and probity.” AA 296/470R: Trial of Rivière, David, and Spin, 14 Prairial [an XII]; AA 296 470 R: Affaire Général Cadoudal, an XII. Another aspect was a remote connection with the exiled Sulpiciens in the New World. Notes 179

The police of Savary were watching the movements and communications between Baltimore and France. One De Leyritz, called the “agent of the Sulpiciens of the New World,” was linked to Sicard because he had entrusted his two deaf sons to study with the abbé for a year. JdD on 16 Prairial, Year XII (June 5, 1804). 49. Hauterive, IV, passim; AN F/7/6480–82: Affaire Armand Chateaubriand. 50. Ibid. Archives de la Préfecture de la Police, AA 311/475; 318/131; on Sicard and the Congrégation: Hauterive, June 3, 1805, I, 1431. 51. E. Kennedy on Tracy and Malet, pp.183–91. Mémoires de Fauche-Borel, 4 vols. (Paris: Moutardier, 1829), letter of Sicard, III, 156–57. 52. Sicard to the Minister of the Interior, October 12, 1814: Abbé Guil- lon, a counterrevolutionary author and canon of Notre Dame, had been imprisoned several times. Archives de l’Académie Française. On Berthier and the Congrégation, see G. Bertier de Sauvigny, La Restauration, new ed. (Paris, 1955), 16–20. 53. Sicard had recommended four former teachers of his Congrégation de la Doctrine Chrétienne for posts in the reorganized educational estab- lishment, the “Imperial University.” One had taught Latin authors. Another, the prominent Joseph Lacuna, had helped rescue education from vandalism in the Revolution. Another had taught ancient history; still another, “a victim of his excellent principles,” had taught at La Flèche, and yet another was a member of several academies. BN: NAF 1683, 1308. BN: NAF 1683, 1308, fols. 78–84 (Years VIII–XI). But Bonaparte generally hindered the entry of members of religious orders into the lycées. 54. Sicard’s recommendations were not all academic. He wrote to the under inspector of receipts, chief of the Division of the Ministry of War, M. Jul- lien, to recommend “a M. DeDieu” to his “protection”: “He is going to abandon himself to you, hoping that in consideration of me, you will be able to enable him to advance as far as possible . . . to attain all that honor can command . . . especially in the military field.” A postscript informs M. Jullien that the Empress of Russia has recently contacted him (Sicard) and that he had appointed his teacher Je[a]ffroy to head the School for the Deaf in Saint Petersburg, Arch. De la Ville de Besançon, MS 1442, fol. 370–71. Sicard also wrote a comte Molion (secretary to the Empress dowager) that his students would like to offer her their homage on the occasion of her birthday, September 2, 1812, MS 1 Z407, Bibliothèque municipale de Toulouse. 55. Sicard to the editor of the Moniteur, July 16, 1806. 56. Journal de l’Empire, 19 Thermidor, Year X (August 7, 1802), 1305; Feb- ruary 12 and 20, 1807, 199–20; Sicard to Mme Victorine de Chastenay, November 4, 1807, Arch. Mun. de Toulouse. 57. Ibid. 58. Ibid., 26 Brumaire, Year XII (November 18, 1803). Décade, 10, 30 Fructidor, Year IV (September 1796), 532. During the Restoration, 180 N o t e s

the experiment of an “oranographie” administered successfully to Mas- sieu by a M. Rouy, rue Saint Honoré, Moniteur, August 13, 1816, 914. La Clef du Cabinet des Souvérains (29 Frimaire, Year VII, no. 1063 [December 19, 1799]) reported the memoir of a pianist, Citizen Vidron, before the institute, claiming to have discovered a means “to enable these unfortunates to hear his instrument.” See also the letter to the editor in the Journal de l’Empire, December 2, 1806, reporting Sicard’s successful experiment in getting a deaf-mute student to talk “instantaneously.” Likewise a “cure” for deafness by J. Itard, the doctor at the Institution, was announced in the Journal de l’Empire, October 31, 1811. 59. Asked years later by a Madame Robert about a dubious magical cure of a deaf student by M. Fabre d’Olivet, Sicard answered that he knew of no cure by “animal magnetism,” the authenticity of which he “neither believed nor disbelieved.” Sicard to Madame Robert, June 25, 1816, Berthier, 226. 60. Marie-Joseph Chénier, Tableau historique de l’état et des progrès de la lit- térature française depuis 1789, 8 vols. (Paris, 1816). 61. C. Latreille, “Chateaubriand et les prix décennaux d’après des documents inédits,” Revue d’histoire littéraire de la France 18 (1911): 768–70; see also Roger Fayolle, “Le XVIIIe siècle jugé par le XIX; à propos d’un concours académique sous le prémier Empire,” Approches des lumières: Mélanges offertes à Jean Fabre (Paris: Klincksieck, 1974), 181–96; Roland Mortier, Le “Tableau littéraire de la France” au XVIIIe siècle. Un épi- sode de la “guerre philosophique” à l’Académie française sous l’Empire, 1804–1810 (Bruxelles: Palais des Académies, 1972); Berthier, 139n appen. M. 62. Maurice Regard, ed., Chateaubriand, Essai sur les révolutions; Le Génie du Christianisme (Paris: La Pleiade, 1978), 1657–60. Chateaubriand, Oeu- vres complètes, 28 vols. (Paris: Ladvocat, 1827), XV, 433. The remaining extracts of these reports of the committee are on pp. 432–46. Complete individual reports are printed only in this volume. Cf. also Chateaubri- and, sa vie et ses écrits avec lettres inédites à l’auteur, F. S. Collombet, ed. (Paris: Perisse Frères, 1851). 63. Archives de l’Académie Française, “Procès verbal de la classe de littéra- ture,” January 2, 1811, 371–72. Sicard’s integral report is in Chateau- briand, Oeuvres complètes, XV, 65–425, as well as in the Bibliographie de la France, April 2, 1811. Comments by Ginguené, Bonald, Fontanes, and Charles Nodier may also be found in this volume and in JdD, Feb- ruary 22, 1818. C. Latreille, 777; cf. Mélanges d’histoire de morale et de littérature (the successor of the Annales religieuses), X, 1092; IX, 287. See also Sicard to Ginguené January 11, 1811, cited in F. S. Collombet, 201. Ginguené, the former director of education in the Ministry of the Interior during the Directory and an official in Bonaparte’s Cisalpine Republic (Lombardy), gave a surprisingly favorable lecture on Dante at the Athénée, JdD,12 Pluviôse, Year XII (February 2, 1804). Notes 181

64. The JdD reports on 1 Prairial, Year XI (May 22, 1803). Sicard’s trip to Bordeaux in 1803 with a deaf student who was dismayed to find the statue of Epée overturned by revolutionary vandals. 65. This departmental newspaper of July 27 and 30, 1807, is the sole source for Sicard’s visit to Toulouse. Sicard was in Toulouse in 1786 (see above n. I, 15) and in 1787 as noted by the Affiches of Toulouse. Almost a gen- eration later he was honored by a couplet in the play Fanchon à Toulouse by[Radet and Barré](unpublished), which was enthusiastically applauded, but frowned upon as inappropriate for a clergyman, by the Journal de l’Empire of August 7, 1809. In 1811 the deaf-mutes of Paris dedicated a long poem to Josephine on her birthday expressing tender sympathy and religious consolation: Journal de l’Empire, August 25, 1811. That day, of course, was the traditional birthday of “Saint Napoléon,” who had divorced Josephine in January 1810 but insisted that she keep her title and residence in Malmaison. After Napoleon’s fall, Sicard wrote a letter to Hortense de Beauharnais, Josephine’s daughter, expressing sympathy for the misfortunes and sufferings the family had experienced since 1814. See n. 197 below. Chapter 5

1. Clerc met the deputy Joseph Lainé in Bordeaux, when Sicard visited the birthplace of French deaf-mute education in 1809. Lainé was appreciated for his audacious opposition to Napoleon’s last military draft in 1813. 2. Clerc MSS, Yale Beinecke Library, microfilm no. 133, Gallaudet Archives. Cf. the Moniteur, August 5, 856. 3. JdD, October 25, 1815. 4. Ibid. 5. Prince Louis of Bavaria had visited the Institution in May 1806: Sicard to Minister of the Interior, 5, 1806, AN F/17/1145, ds. 10 JdD, Novem- ber 11, 1814. 6. Moniteur,January 19, 1815, 75. J. B. Constant, Journaux intimes [1815], in Oeuvres (Paris: la Pleiade, 1957), 766; Chateaubriand, Mémoires d’Outre-Tombe, M. Levaillant, ed. (Paris: Flammarion, 1949) II, ch. 21; William Edmund Frye, After Waterloo: Reminiscences of European Travel, 1815–1819 (London: William Heinemann, 1908), 149–50. 7. Text in Justin Landes, ed., Une lettre de l’Impératrice Marie Théodor- owna de Russie à l’Abbé Sicard (Sarlat: Imprimerie Michelet, 1876), 5–7. Clerc’s copy of Sicard’s letter explains his situation upon Napoleon’s exile to the isle of Elba, mentioning that he awaited a meeting with Alexander I. Clerc papers, Gallaudet microfilm, no. 135 appended to no. 40. 8. N. Lagovskii, “Opytnoe uchilishche glukhonemykh v Pavlovske (1808– 1809)” (Sankt-Peterburg, 1910), ch. 2. 9. Landes, 5–7, 14n. The first contact was marked by a letter of the emper- or’s secretary Lugell in the JdD 19 Germinal, Year XII (April 9, 1804). The above account is based on an abstract by Dr. Judith Robey from the 182 N o t e s

following sources: Lagovskii, S.-Peterburgskoe uchilishche glukhonemykh,

1810–1910 (S. Petersburg: Tip. 191); E. M.( Kolosova, I. A. Sviridova,

and N. M. Fedorova, Vedomstvo imperatritsy( Marii Fedorovny: vklad v pedagogicheskoe obrazovanie: monografiia. (Sankt Petersburg, Asterion, 2006). 10. Clerc MSS, Yale University, Gallaudet microfilm, no. 135. We don’t know exactly what these losses were (May 16, 1815, Carnot to Sicard, Berthier, 188–89). As an example of how peremptory he could be to his students see his undated letter summoning Massieu and Clerc to a dinner at Mme de la Barbeu’s, rue du Grand Chantier, Archives of the American School for the Deaf, Hartford, Connecticut, Berthier 103, 394ff. 11. “Correspondance de Napoléon Ier: Hortense Beauharnais,” AN, 400 AP 32 (1). For Clerc’s account of his trip to England, Gallaudet microfilm, no. 135, Clerc Yale papers. Sicard wrote to Madame la Maréchale Moreau, then in London (February 20 1816, Bibliothèque Municipale de Toulouse, MS 1Z407). 12. Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle, vol. 85, pt. II, July 1815. 13. “Ueber Taubstummeninstitute und ihre Reformen in Frankreich,” Neue Deutsche Monatsschrift, February 1795; Petschke, “Taubstumme und Taubstummeninstitute,”Allgemeine deutsche Real-Encyklopädie IX (1820), 839–84. 14. Neue Deutsche Monatsschrift, 1795, 125 ff. 15. Jean-Nicolas Bouilly, Rentrée du Cen Sicard, iii; Carr, The Stranger in France: or, A Tour from Devonshire to Paris (Baltimore: G. H. V., 1805), 210. 16. Kotzebue, loc. cit. 17. Johanna von Schopenhauer, My Youthful Life and Pictures of Travel: The Autobiography of Madame Schopenhauer, 2 vols. (London: Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1847), I, 246 ff. passim. 18. R. C. Botticher, Neue Deutsche Monatsschrift (Berlin)I: February 1795, 125, 131, 132n; ; Allgemeine deutsche Real-Encyklopädie, IX, 839–41; Johann Friedrich Reichardt, Vertraute Briefe aus Paris 1802/1803 (Ber- lin: Verlag der Nation, 1981), 252–58; John Carr, 208; . Petschke, “Ein- leitung zu einem Werke über die Kunst, Taubstumme zu unterrichen von Sicard, Lehrer der Taubstummen zu Paris,” [trans. from Le Magasin encylcopédique], III (July 1796). 350–375. 19. Kotzebue, Augustus von. Travels from Berlin through Switzerland to Paris in the Year 1804. London: Richard Philipps, 1806, 88. 20. Theodore Lyman, A Few Weeks in Paris during the Residences of the Allied Sovereigns in that Metropolis (Boston: Cummings and Hilliard: 1814), 90–93. 90.93. 21. Sicard’s support of the novel method of mutual education (opposed by the Brothers of the Christian Doctrine) is clear in Sicard’s letter of July 11, 1817 (Archives de la Biliothèque de Versailles) to “le grand maitre” of mutual education concerning a “respectable” missionary en route to Notes 183

Senegal, where he hoped she could adopt it. The movement was quite controversial in Paris at the time but had the support of several members of the board of the Institution des Sourds-Muets including the baron Delessert (see ch. 1 n.), Mathieu de Montemorency, Degérando, and so forth. See the online article by Octave Gréard “Mutuel Enseigne- ment,” published by the Institut Français d’Education. On Pestalozzi, see J. Schopenhauer, II, 249 ff. Sicard also appealed to the minister of the Interior in 1814 in favor of M. Guillié’s “clinique oculaire” for the poor. Archives de l’Académie Française, October 12, 1814, no. 7360. Reichardt’s critique is flawed by inconsistencies: the poor, he observes, are sickly yet must produce certificates of health; metaphysics is a dubious subject, yet the poor are deprived by not being able to study it; the rich receive pensions, yet they pay tuition! 22. Copy of a hastily dictated letter by Sicard to the guardians of Renard (a student), Gallaudet archives, microfilm 135; Yale Clerc papers, no. 9, [1812–1815]. The letter was written “in haste.” Concerns about the “escape” of students to Paris and strict regulations can be found above (chap. 3) in the discussion of the Institution’s regulations as well as below in Stilwell’s Story of My Sufferings. 23. Morning Chronicle, July 31, 1815. 24. Sicard to Watson, June 1, 1815, in The Times, July 17, 1815. 25. The Times, July 17, 1815. Sicard also wrote to Madame la Maréchale Moreau and then in London (February 20, 1816, Bibliothèque Munici- pale de Toulouse, MS 1Z407). The general, one of Napoleon’s greatest enemies, had escaped conviction in the Pichegru affair, as had Sicard, and had spent most of the Empire in the United States until he joined Alex- ander I and the Allies in 1813. 26. Ibid. 27. The Morning Post, July 3, 1815. Cf. advertisements in The Times, 1, 5 July. 28. Gallaudet to Unknown, 25 January 1826; Dugald Stewart, “Some Account of a Boy Born Blind and Deaf with a Few Remarks and Com- ments,” Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburg, VII (1815): 33. Gallaudet recounts his meeting Sicard in “A Journal of Some Occur- rences Which Have a Relation to the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb,” in LC, Gallaudet Papers; T. H. Gallaudet to Mason Cogswell, February 21, 1816, Gallaudet Papers, LC, microfilm, reel 1. In a letter of 25 January 25, 1818, he reviewed the situation of deaf education in the United States and Europe, notably the inadequacy of the Braidwoods’ method, and Dugald Stewart’s endorsement of Sicard. This letter cor- roborates some of the information in the JdD article of 1805 discussed in chapter 4. Gallaudet concluded, “Sicard, as you know, was the pupil of De l’Epée, and I believe most of the institutions in Europe pursue his system.” He cited several articles in the Christian Observer, August 1816, The Monthly Magazine 23 emphasized that students at Hartford knew 184 N o t e s

nothing of God or the Bible before learning signs. See Gallaudet papers, box 2, Library of Congress. Gallaudet’s acknowledgment of Sicard’s religious instruction to the deaf can be found in the North American Review 7 (1815): 134,135, as can his recognition of Sicard’s initiation of oral methods and his replacement of Epée’s system of “labor of ten years,” 7, 134.T. E. Gallaudet to Mason F. Cogswell, February 21, 1816, Library of Congress, Gallaudet papers, reel 1. 29. See bill posted in Brighton in Archives of the American School of the Deaf (Hartford, Connecticut). 30. Sicard to unidentified friend [at the Paris Institution], July 25, 1815, in Berthier, 244–45. 31. Moniteur, November 5, 1815, 1218. 32. Library of Congress, MS Division, Gallaudet papers, box 1, Fragments [1816]. 33. Clerc complained in a note about his salary ( not raised in nine years) and in another letter of May 10, 1816, about the “soup” and “insipid veg- etables” of the Institution, in an undated, unsigned letter to “Messieurs” in Clerc Yale papers, MS 140. See Sicard’s 1816 correspondence with Bishop Jean-Louis Cheverus of Boston regarding Clerc’s future with the Catholic church in New England. Cheverus referred Clerc to Bishop Matthew of Washington. Sicard was concerned with Clerc’s reception of the sacraments and adherence to fasting. On February 3, 1816, 11 deaf students had expressed their gratitude to Clerc [sic] for having arranged their first Holy Communion, as Clerc had done in 1807 (Yale Clerc papers). Sicard had published a note about Pope Pius VII giving First Communion to a female deaf student in 1805. 34. Sicard to Clerc, n.d. [June 1816], Archives of the American School for the Deaf, Hartford, Connecticut. See Michaud, 288: Sicard “required of me that I should remain faithful to my religion, to my country, and to my king.” Simultaneously Gallaudet wrote Clerc’s mother a long letter in French, dated May 26, 1816, explaining the advantages of her son’s departure for America, which, he claimed, had received “the approval of Abbé Sicard to whom I owe the greatest treasure I could bring to my country. He has generously made this great sacrifice for the interests of humanity.” The Restoration decades witnessed frequent international exchanges and migrations of “technicians” in all fields (Archives of the American School for the Deaf, Hartford, Connecticut). 35. Harlan Lane, When the Mind Hears, 215, 222, 224, 234; the papers of Secretary of State Henry Clay contain two documents, one from Lewis Weld, principal of the Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, dated April 30, 1826, and one undated from [E. H.] Gallaudet [July 14, 1826] of the Hartford Asylum, both acknowledging the influence of the Paris Institution and the abbé Sicard, in particular, on their institutions: NARA, M179, roll 64, record group 59. An 1869 obituary of Clerc (Clerc papers microfilm 135, at Gallaudet Library) mentions the Notes 185

instruction he gave gratis to the various principals of deaf schools founded since 1817, including M. M. Stansbury and his successors at New York and Philadelphia; H. N. Hubell of the Ohio institution in Columbus; Roland McDonald of Quebec; J. D. Tyler of the Virginia institution (in Staunton); J. A. Jacobs, principal of the Kentucky institution; J. Brown of the Indiana institution, “and many others.” 36. Several documents in the Yale Clerc papers reveal an unmistakable endorsement of Sicard’s teaching methods over those of the abbé de l’Epée. The latter was “mechanical,” whereas the former emphasized syn- tax and grammar, leading up to metaphysics and religion, the end goal of instruction. Sicard allowed his pupils to become thinking persons rather than parrots. Clerc disseminated these views in America and was partly responsible for the credit Sicard enjoyed among the early American deaf institutions. See the papers of Henry Clay cited above. It is all the more striking how this reputation of Sicard could be effaced in the twentieth century, notably at the INJS, which Sicard, not Epée, founded. See “Laurent Clerc for the Instructors,” “Laurent Clerc to the Administrators,” and “Report of Clerc to Minister of the Interior [Montalivet] on teaching of deaf-mutes” [1813], Yale University Library, MS 140, box 1, folder 3, 14. 37. Alice Cogswell, Gallaudet University Archives. 38. Gallaudet University Archives, Weld papers, MS 86, “School Room Jour- nal,” no. 1. Gallaudet later admonished Clerc in Hartford to teach only what was in the Bible, nothing else (unlike what Catholics do). Clerc, as Sicard had feared, soon abandoned Catholicism and became an Episco- palian like Gallaudet. 39. Harlan Lane When the Mind Hears, chap. 8. 40. On Clerc and signing at Hartford, see David F. Armstrong and Sherman Wilcox, “Origins of Sign Languages,” in Handbook of Deaf Studies, Lan- guage, and Education, Marc Marschark and Patricia Elizabeth Spencer, eds. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 313–14; Lane, 212–13, 226–27. 41. See the prodigious oeuvre of Gilbert Chinard on French travelers in early America; also see Guillaume Bertier de Sauvigny, La France et les Français vus par les voyageurs amércains, 1814–1848, 2 vols. (Paris: Flammarion, 1985). 42. See Clerc’s unhesitating refutation of Stilwell’s description of the Paris Institution inThe New England Galaxy of the United States Literary Advertiser, October 5, 1822, 4. 43. The Randolph Monroe papers are to be found in Monroe’s collected correspondence, in the James Monroe papers at the New York Public Library, MS coll. 2035, I. See the papers of John Randolph, Alderman Library (small-rare book coll.), which make frequent mention of John St. George Randolph. See also Library of Virginia (Richmond) on John Randolph papers (Journal of John Randolph) in the Library of Congress MS 186 N o t e s

Division and John St. George’s estate and inheritance in Prince Edward County Will Book 9, p. 413. There is mention of Monroe in the min- utes of the executive Directory, Debidour, I, 571. ca. 1795–1796, when he was envoy in Paris. See also the record of the legal proceedings by Henry L. Brooke, administrator of the estate of Judith Randolph, left to her “insane” son, John St. George Randolph, nephew of John Randolph [Richmond, 1852] Library of Virginia, Richmond: K93.8. (The trial concerned John St. George’s inheritance of his mother’s legacy, which was denied him at her death in 1813 on the grounds of his insanity.) Lane, 156–57. 44. Gallaudet papers. 45. John Randolph’s “Journal.” MS Divison of Library of Congress. 46. Alan Spitzer,Old Hatreds, New Hopes: The French Carbonari against the Bourbon Restoration (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971). 47. Louis Auger in the Journal Général de France, April 17, 1817. 48. Moniteur, passim, esp. 1815: 1218; 1816: 353; 1817: 1155; 1819: 861, 1636; 1820: 1076. Four public séances are listed for 1819: Moniteur, 1507, 1573, 1627, 1636. 49. Sicard to Conseiller de Préfecture délégué [of Lyon], December 28, 1819, Archives de la Bibliothèque municipale de Lyons, MS Coste, 1057. 50. Sicard to Pissin-Sicard, December 13, 1821, source; Berthier, 119, 127– 29. (Another brilliant student, Auguste Bébian, had also adopted one of the abbé’s names, 51. Massieu; also see Berthier, 113, 119–20. 52. Anne Quartararo, Deaf Identity and Social Images in Nineteenth-Century France, 78ff. 53. Moniteur, March 18, 1821, 361. 54. Moniteur, May 13, 1822. 55. Sicard to Gondelin, printed in the Moniteur, May 13, 1822; also JdD, May 30, 1822. The succession to Sicard’s post was not smooth. Sicard’s last choice was the abbé Gondelin of the Bordeaux school. But his cher- ished student Paulmier objected and demanded an examination (resembling the succession of Epée in 1790. Sicard had set the stage for a repeat performance when he indicated earlier that Pissin was to be the successor. Pissin produced an 1821 letter as proof. Gondelin retired upon entering the halls of the Institution. The leadership passed to the abbé Perier of Rodez, then to the abbé Borel and to a succession of other abbés, until lay leadership began under Désiré Ordinaire at the end of the decade. Meanwhile, the oralist method grew under Degérando and Bébian. Sicard’s influence diminished over the decade (Berthier, 228 ff.). A contemporary teacher of the deaf in the West of France, who had contact with Sicard but lacked his science, was Père Gabriel Deshayes (1762–1841). 56. Moniteur, May 13, 1822, 712, Website “Père Lachaise.” 57. Moniteur, May 23, 1822, 752. Notes 187

58. Revue encyclopédique, XIV, 1822, 454; Journal de la religion et du roi 811, 1822. 59. “Discours de M. l’Evêque d’Hermopolis, prononcé dans la séance publique du 28 novembre 1822, en venant prendre séance à la place de M. l’abbé Sicard,” Recueil des discours, rapports et pièces divers lus dans les séances publiques et particulières de l’Académie française, 1820–29 (Paris: Didot, 1843), 70–76. 60. Bigot de Préameneu, ibid., 84–85. Paulmier, Une fête de l’abbé Sicard, Institut Royal des Sourds-Muets de Naissance, n.p., n.d. [ca.1822] B.Nf, Ln 27/1895. 61. Paulmier, Une fête de l’abbé Sicard; Paulmier was the author of Coup d’oeil sur l’instruction des sourds-muets de naissance (Paris: chez Ange), which he presented to the king on January 1, 1820, and to the Duchess of Berry (JdD, July 15, 1821), and which lucidly described Sicard’s teaching style. Since earlier Paulmier had identified himself as a “collaborator of Sicard,” the abbé irritatedly disowned this “collaboration,” insisting that Paul- mier’s new techniques had all been published earlier by himself. Con- flicting claims of originality and rights of authorship had prevailed since the time of Epée. Another student, Bébian, when appointed instituteur adjoint in 1818, was praised by Sicard for his “passion for the progress of his students and his indefatigable zeal and eminent talents” (letter of December 13, 1818, Berthier, 247). Sicard pushed for his promotion the bestowal of the “appropriate title of répétiteur.” A year later, to please Bébian’s father and to forestall the latter’s desire for a more prestigious (medical) career for his son, Sicard intervened with the Minister of the Interior to impress upon him Bébian’s value to the school (Sicard to Unknown, Paris, 1819, Berthier, 250–51.) Bébian published an Essai sur les sourds-muets et sur le langage naturel, ou introduction à une classification naturelle des idées avec leurs signes propres (reviewed by Sicard or cited in JdD, October 20, 1817), which treated in depth the whole question of the relation of natural to taught artificial signings—a major preoccupa- tion of Sicard’s students. Thus the sufficiency of the Epée-Sicard legacy of “methodical signs” was challenged and revised by Sicard’s students. After Bébian, see Abbé Jamet, “Mémoire sur l’instruction des sourds- muets,” Académie de Caen, April 27, 1820, cited in JdD, February 4, 1820, and later Degérando, De l’éducation des sourds-muets (Paris: Mar- qignon, 1827). Jamet also stressed the need and practice of réduction of Sicard’s elaborate pantomimes to simpler gestures. The son of the artist Léopold Boilly caricatured these mimes, as did Sicard’s student and biographer, Ferdinand Berthier, criticizing the same practices in 1873. Sicard’s career began by translating Massieu’s natural signs and ended when his followers translated his artificial ones into something more natural. The students gained grammar from Sicard, and Sicard’s signs gained simplicity from their reduction by his students. Bibliography

Archives

American School for the Deaf, Hartford, CT Letter of Sicard to Laurent Clerc, 1816 Poster advertising Sicard Lecture, Brighton, England, 1815 Archives de l’Académie Française “Procès verbal de la classe de littérature,” 1811 Archives Départementales de la Haute Garonne (ADHG) ______5Mi185, Sicard’s baptismal cetificate ______1m 1699, Cadastre of 1743, Ville de Foussset ______C1925, Cadastre of 1767, subdelegation de Rieux ______13D, 73, fol. 14 joining Doctrinaires Archives Départementales de la Gironde: Sicard in Bordeaux: 1770–1789 ______G778.1 B 1497; G33.3602; G.3762; G33:1 “Exposition de la méthode talygraphique ou l’art d’écrire aussi vite que la parole” ______G33:1 “Exposition de la méthode talygraphique ou l’art d’écrire aussi vite que la parole” Archives Nationales, Paris 400 A.P.32 (1), Letter to Hortense Beauharnais ET/XLIX/1038, Sicard’s inventory after death F/17/1145, ds, 10 F/7/3366, Massieu’s petition for release F/74775/18 F/7*/2595, p. 139, Sicard’s arrest, 1793 F/7/4775, ds 3, re. Sicard’s arrest, 1793 F/7/64806 [complete], Sicard’s interrogation by Imperial police BB 3/81A, fol. 339–343, Sicard’s arrest 370, Mi 1 (Cadolle Papers), 203–269. Archives Municipales de Toulouse 1Z 407, multiple letters of Sicard (complete) Bibliothèque historique de la Ville de Paris MS 478, Letter of Mayor Jean Bailly to Sicard MS 811.30, Catalogue Caravan 8 Prairial Year III, 27 mai 1795 MS 1213, fol. 457, Sicard at Section de l’Arsenal 190 Bibliography

Archives de l’Institut de Jeunes Sourds de Paris Copy of letter of é on Joséphine Bonaparte to Sicard [1801?] MS “Grammaire,” petitions for admission of dependents to Institution Nationale des Sourds-Muets MS of Sicard, “Des Tropes” MS “Nomenclature” Archives de la ville d’Angers MS 1234 (1009), Delisle De Sales, “Mémoire sur la destitution des cinq membres de l’Institut, Carnot, Barthélemy, Pastoret, Sicard, et Fontanes, demandée par le gouvernement à la suite de ses événements révolutionnaires du 18 fructidor,” De Sales. Lettre de cachet républicain. March 1799. National Archives (NARA). Washington, DC The Papers of Secretary of State Henry Clay, M179, roll 64 Library of Congress: MS Division Gallaudet Papers John Randolph Papers Library of Virginia (Richmond, VA) John St. George Randolph’s Will University of Virginia (Charlottesville, VA) [Small-Rare Book Coll.] Randolph Papers (on microfilm) Yale University Library Beinecke Rare Book Library Cogswell Family Papers Laurent Clerc Papers Sterling Memorial Library Cogswell Family Papers

Articles

Anon. “Ueber Taubstummeninstitute und ihre Reformen in Frankreich.” Neue Deutsche Monatsschrift (February 1795). Berman, D. “Deism, Immortality and the Art of Theological Lying.” in Deism, Masonry, and the Enlightenment: Essays Honoring Alfred Owen Aldrich. Edited by J. A. Leo Lemay (Newark, NJ: University of Delaware Press, 1987). Compère, Marie-Madeleine. “Les Professeurs de la République, Rupture et continuité dans le personnel enseignant des écoles centrales.” Annales historiques de la Révolution française, no. 243 (1981). David [Abbé Pierre]. “Epitre à l’Abbé Sicard sur quelques mots de la Révolu- tion.” Paris: chez les Marchands de Nouveautés, an IX [1801–02]. Dejob, Charles. “De l’établissement connu sous le nom de lycée et d’Athénée et de quelques établissements analogues.” Revue internationale de l’enseignement 18 (1889). Bibliography 191

Destutt de Tracy. “Réflexions sur les projets de pasigraphie.” Mémoires de l’Institut, Classe des Sciences Morales et Politiques 3 (1801). ———. “Mémoire sur la faculté de penser.” In Mémoires de Morale et Poli- tique. Paris: Fayard, 1992. Duprat, Annie. “Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution.” Annales historiques de la Révolution française 342 (Oct.–Dec., 2005): 265–67. Dupuy, P. “L’Ecole Normale de l’an III.” In Le centenaire de l’Ecole Normale 1795–1895, Paris: Hachette, 1895, 1994. Fayolle, Roger. “Le XVIIIe siècle jugé par le XIX; à propos d’un concours académique sous le prémier Empire.” In Approches des lumières: Mélanges offertes à Jean Fabre. Paris: Klincksieck, 1974. Fischer, Renate. “Abbé de l’Epée and the Living Dictionary.” In Deaf History Unveiled: Interpretations from the New Scholarship. Edited by J. V. van Cleve. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 1993. Frayssinous, M. “Discours de M. l’Evêque d’Hermopolis, prononcé dans la séance publique du 28 novembre 1822, en venant prendre séance à la place de M. l’abbé Sicard.” Recueil des discours, rapports et pièces divers lus dans les séances publiques et particulières de l’Académie française, 1820–29. Paris: Didot, 1843. Higonnet, Patrice. “The Politics of Linguistic Terrorism and Grammati- cal Hegemony during the French Revolution.” Social History 5 (1980): 41–69. Hültenschmidt, Erika. “L’art de la parole à l’Ecole normale de l’an III et la place topographique de la grammaire [générale] dans les institutions d’enseignement de l’Ancien Régime et de la Révolution.” Actes du Collo- que. Tubingen, 2001. http://www.geisteswisseschaften.fu-Berlin.de/v/ grammaire_générale Internationales Kolloquium Idéologie-Grammaire Générale, Ecoles Centrales. Tübingen, 2001. Julia, Dominique. “L’Ecole normale de l’an III: Bilan d’une expérience révo- lutionnaire.” Revue du Nord 78 (1996). Knowlson, James R. “The Idea of Gesture as a Universal Language in the XVIIth and XVIIIth Centuries.” The Journal of the History of Ideas 26 (1965). Koselleck, R. and R. Reichardt. Actes du colloque de Bielefeld. 1985. Latreille, C. “Chateaubriand et les prix décennaux d’après des documents inédits.” Revue d’histoire littéraire de la France 18 (1911). Paulmier, Louis Pierre. “Elève et adjoint de M. l’abbé Sicard.” In Une fête de l’abbé Sicard, Institut Royal des Sourds-Muets de Naissance, n.p. n.d. [ca. 1822]: B.Nf, Ln 27/1895. Petschke. “Taubstumme und Taubstummeninstitute.” Allgemeine deutsche Real-Encyklopädie 9 (1820). Rosenfeld, Sophia. “The Political Uses of Sign Language: The Case of the French Revolution.” Sign Language Studies 6 (Fall 2005): 17–37. Sicard, R. A. Fragmens d’exhortations prononcées le 8 mai 1801 dans l’Eglise Saint-Roch, aux différentes stations de la Croix, n.p. n.d. 192 Bibliography

———. “Examen de l’Hermès d’Harris, traduction de Thurot.” Lu le 23 frimaire an V (13 December 1796), et déposé . . . [à] l’Institut . . . [An VI]. Mémoires de la classe de littérature et beaux-arts de l’Institut I (Paris: Baudouin, an VI 1798]. ———. Sur la nécessité d’instruire les sourds-muets de naissance, et sur les premiers moyens de communication avec ces infortunés,” lu le 13 messidor an IV (July 1, 1796), et déposé à l’Institut le 3 germinal an V April 2, 1798). Mémoires de la classe de littérature et beaux-arts de l’Institut I (Paris: Baudouin, Thermidor an VI [1798]). ———. “Une lettre de l’abbé Sicard à Laffon de Ladebat.” Revue historique de Toulouse 12 (1925). Stewart, Dugald. “Some Account of a Boy Born Blind and Deaf with a Few Remarks and Comments.” In Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburg, VII (1815): 33.

Books before 1900

Abrantès, Laure Junot (duchesse d’). Histoire des salons de Paris. 8 vols, Paris: L’Advocat, 1838. Vol. 3. Alhoy, Louis-François-Joseph. De l’éducation des sourds-muets de naissance, considérée dans ses rapports avec l’idéologie et la grammaire, sujet du discours prononcé à la rentrée de l’Ecole nationale des sourds-muets, le 15 Bru- maire Year VIII. Paris: Imprimerie des Associés, Year VIII [1800]. Archives parlementaires de 1787 à 1860. 1ère série (1787–1860). Barré, Radet et al. La Girouette de Saint-Cloud: impromptu, en 1 acte, en prose, mélée de vaudevilles. Théâtre de Vaudeville, 23 brumaire an VIII (Novem- ber 14, 1799). Paris: Librairie de Vaudeville. Bazot. Eloge historique de l’abbé de l’Epée, fondateur de Sourds-Muets. Paris: Barba, 1849. Bébian, R. A. Essai sur les sourds-muets et sur le langage naturel, ou introduction à une classification naturelle des idées avec leurs signes propres. Paris: Dentu, 1817. Berthier, F. L’abbé Sicard, Célèbre instituteur des sourds-muets. Paris: Charles Douniol, 1873, Gutenberg eBook. Bonaparte, Napoléon. Correspondance générale de Napoléon Ier. ed. T. Lentz, 12 vols. Paris: Fayard, 2004. Bouilly, J. N. L’Abbé de l’Epée, Comédie historique en cinq actes. Théâtre de la République. Paris, le 23 frimaire an VIII (December 14, 1799; Paris, an IX [1801]). ———. Rentrée du Cn Sicard à l’Institution des Sourds-Muets. Paris: Dupont de Nemours, an VIII [1799–1800]. Cambacérès, Jean Jacques Régis de. Lettres inédites à Napoléon, 1802–1814. Edited by J. Tulard. 2 vols. Paris: Editions Klincksieck, 1973. Carr, John. The Stranger in France: or, A Tour from Devonshire to Paris. Bal- timore: G.H.V., 1805. Bibliography 193

Chateaubriand, François-René de. Mémoires d’Outre-Tombe. Ed. M. Levaillant. Paris: Flammarion, 1949. ———. Oeuvres complètes. 28 vols. Paris: Ladvocat, 1827. Vol. XV. Chénier, Marie-Joseph. Tableau historique de l’état et des progrès de la littéra- ture française depuis 1789. 3rd ed. Paris: Maradan, 1816. Clerc, L. “Autobiography of Laurent Clerc.” http Paris://www.saveourdeaf schools.org/tribute_to_gallaudet.pdf. Collombet, F. S., ed. Chateaubriand, sa vie et ses écrits avec lettres inédites à l’auteur. Paris: Perisse Frères, 1851. Constant, J. B. Journaux intimes [1815]. In Oeuvres. Paris: la Pleiade, 1957. Coste d’Arnobat, Charles-Pierre. Essai sur de prétendues découvertes nouvelles dont la plupart sont agées de plusieurs siècles. Paris: C.-F. Patris, an XI [1803]. Degérando, J. De l’éducation des sourds-muets de naissance. Paris: chez Méqui- gnon, 1827. Deschamps, C. F. Cours élémentaire des sourds et muets. Paris: Debure, 1779. Desloges, Pierre. Observations d’un sourd et muet, sur un cours élémentaire d’éducation des sourds et muets. Amsterdam, Paris: Morin, 1779. Despaze, Joseph. Cinquième satire littéraire, morale et politique, adressée à l’abbé Sicard. Paris, Hamelin, an IX [1801]. Diderot, Denis et al., eds. Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers. 35 vols. Paris, 1751–1780. Epée, C.M. (abbé de l’). L’Ecole Normale: Séances des Ecoles Normales. 13 vols. Paris: Imprimerie du Cercle Social. 1801-02. ———. Institution des sourds et muets, ou Recueil des exercices soutenues par les sourds et muets pendant les années 1771, 1772, 1773 et 1774. Paris 1774. Fauche-Borel. Mémoires de Fauche-Borel. 4 vols. Paris: Moutardier, 1829: letter of Sicard. Fauchet, C. Oraison funèbre de Charles-Michel De l’Epée. Paris: 1790. Hartley, D. De l’Homme, Ouvrage traduit de l’anglais avec des notes explicatives de R. A. Sicard. Paris: Ducauroy, an X [1801–02]. Institution Impérial des Sourds-Muets de Paris. Notice historique de ce qui s’est passé à l’Institution des Sourds-Muets, et à celle des Aveugles-Nés, les jours ou S.S. le Pape Pie VII a bien voulu visiter ces deux institutions. Paris: Le Clere, 1805. Kotzebue, Augustus von. Travels from Berlin through Switzerland to Paris in the Year 1804. London: Richard Philipps, 1806. Lacroix, R. La Sourde-Muette de la Clapière, leçons donnée à ma fille ([Paris], Year IX [1800–01]. Lacroix, S. Actes de la Commune de Paris. 7 vols. Paris: Cerf, 1894–98. Ladebat, A. Recueil des définitions et réponses les plus remarquables de Massieu et Clerc, sourds-muets aux questions diverses qui leur ont été faites dans les séances publiques de M. l’abbé Sicard à Londres . . .et une lettre explicative de sa méthode par M. Laffon de Ladebat; avec des notes et une traduction angloise, par J. H. Sievrac. London: Cox et Baylis, 1815. Landes, Justin, ed. Une lettre de l’Impératrice Marie Théodorowna de Russie à l’Abbé Sicard. Sarlat: Imprimerie Michelet, 1876. 194 Bibliography

Laumond, J. C. J. Statistique du Bas-Rhin. Paris an X [1801-01]. Masson, F. Le sâcre et le couronnement de Napoléon. Paris: J. Taillandier, 1878. Monroe, James. The Writings of James Monroe. Edited by Stanislaus Hamil- ton. 7 vols., 1898–1903. Paulmier, Louis. Coup d’oeil sur l’instruction des sourds-muets de naissance. Paris: chez Ange, 1820. ———.Une fête de l’abbé Sicard, Institut Royal des Sourds-Muets de Naissance. [ca. 1822] B.Nf, Ln 27/1895. Peltier, J. G. Dernier tableau de Paris, ou récit historique de la Révolution du 10 août 1792. 3rd ed., 2 vols. London: chez l’auteur, 1794. Picavet, F. Les Idéologues. Paris: F. Alcan, 1891. Pront, Adrien. Eléments d’une typographie. Introduction de Maimieux. Paris: an V (1796–97). Rémusat, Charles de. Essais de philosophie. 2 vols. Paris, 1842. Schopenhauer, Johanna von. My Youthful Life and Pictures of Travel: The Autobiography of Madame Schopenhauer. 2 vols. Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1847. Ségur, Philippe de. Discours prononcés dans la séance publique tenue par la Classe de la Langue et de la littérature française de l’Institut de France pour la réception de M. de Tracy . . . le 21 décembre 1808. Sérieys, A., and Sicard, R.A.C. Epitome de l’histoire des papes depuis S. Pierre jusqu’à nos jours avec un précis historique de la vie de Pie VII. Paris: Demo- raine, an XIII [1805]. Sicard, Roch-Ambroise-Cucurron. Catéchisme des sourds-muets. Paris: Institu- tion Nationale des Sourds-Muets, 1792. ———. Cours d’instruction d’un sourd-muet de naissance, pour servir à l’éducation des sourds-muets et qui peut être utile à celle de ceux qui entendent et qui parlent. Paris: Le Clere, an VI [1798–99]. ———. Cours d’instruction d’un sourd-muet de naissance. 2nd ed. Paris: Le Clere, an XI [1803]. ———. Eléments de la Grammaire. 2 vols. 3rd ed. Paris: Déterville, 1808. ———. Exercices que soutiendront les sourds et muets de naissance le 12 et 15 septembre 1789, dans la salle du Musée de Bordeaux, dirigé par M. l’abbé Sicard, instituteur royal, sous les auspices de M. Champion de Cicé, Archevêque de Bordeaux, et garde des sceaux de France. Bordeaux: Racle, 1789. ———. La Mort de Robespierre, drame en 3 actes et en vers, publié le 9 thermidor an IX, avec des notes où se trouvent une relation de M. l’abbé Sicard, instituteur des sourds et muets, sur les journées de septembre . . . Edition renouvelée, corrigée et précédée d’une lettre de Robert Lindet. Paris: Monory, 1802. ———. Manuel de l’enfance contenant des éléments de lecture et des dialogues instructifs et moraux. Paris: le Clere an V [1797]. ———. Notice des travaux de la Classe de Littérature et Beaux-Arts, pendant le premier trimestre de l’an 11, 1803. ———. Mémoire sur l’art d’instruire les sourds-muets de naissance. Bordeaux: Racle, 1789. Bibliography 195

———. “Réponse de M. l’abbé Sicard, président de l’Académie, au discours de M. le Cardinal Maury, mai 1807.” In Discours prononcés dans la séance publique tenue dans la classe de la langue et de la littérature françaises de l’Institut de France le . . . 6 mai 1807, pour la réception de S.E. le cardinal Maury. 3rd ed., Avignon, 1807. ———. Second Mémoire sur l’art d’instruire les sourds-muets de naissance. Paris: P. Knapen, 1790. ———. Théorie des signes, ou introduction à l’étude des langues, ou le sens des mots, au lieu d’être défini, est mis en action. 2 vols. Paris: Institution des Sourds-Muets, 1808.Talleyrand. Mémoires. Edited by Duc de Broglie. 5 vols. Paris, 1891. Thibaudeau, Antoine-Claire. Mémoires sur la Convention et le Directoire. Ed. J. F. Pascal.Paris: SPM, 2007. Tracy, Destutt de. Eléments d’Idéologie. Séconde Partie. Grammaire. Paris, Year XI (1803). Valade-Gabel, J. J. Péreire et de l’Epée, Discours prononcé à la distribution des prix de L’Institut National des Sourds-Muets de Bordeaux, 25 avril 1848. Bordeaux: Imprimerie de Durand, 1848.

Books and Monographs after 1900

1792, Les Massacres de Septembre (Les Carmes, L’Abbaye, Saint-Lazare), Mai- rie de VIe arrondissement, 11 septembre–4 octobre 1992. n.d., n.p. Paris, 1992. Adams, Thomas M. Bureaucrats and Beggars: French Social Policy in the Age of Enlightenment. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. Aulard, Alphonse. Paris sous le Consulat. 4 vols. Paris, 1903. Baker, Keith Michael. Condorcet: From Natural Science to Social Mathematics. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1975. Bernard, Yves. “Approche de la gestualité à l’Institution des sourds-muets de Paris, au XVIIIe et au XIXe siecle.” 3 vols. Thèse de doctorat en linguistique, université de Paris V. Paris, 1999. Betten, Henk. Deaf Education in Europe: the Early Years. San Bernardino, CA: Maya de Wir, 2013. Bézagu-Deluy, Maryse. L’Abbé de l’Epée, instituteur gratuit des sourds et muets, 1712–1789. Paris: 1990. Bloch, Camille. L’Assistance et l’état en France à la veille de la Révolution. Paris, 1908. Branca, S. “Grammaire générale et éducation des sourds-muets au dix- huitième siècle; l’oeuvre de l’Abbé Sicard.” Thesis, Université Paris III. Branca-Rosoff, Sonia and Natalie Schneidern. L’écriture des citoyens. Une analyse linguistique de l’écriture des peu-lettrés pendant la Révolution fran- çaise. Paris: Klincksieck, 1994. Buton, François. L’Administration des faveurs; l’État, les sourds et les aveugles (1789–1885). Rennes: Presses Uni- versitaires de Rennes, 2009. 196 Bibliography

———. Les Corps saisis par l’État; L’Éducation des sourds-muets et des aveugles au XIXe siècle. Contribution à la socio-histoire de l’État (1789–1885). Doc- toral thesis, Ecole des Hautes Études, Paris.1999. Cadilhon, François. L’Honneur perdu de Monseigneur Champion de Cicé; Dieu, gloire, pouvoir et la société à la fin du XVIIIe siècle. Bordeaux: Fédération Historique du Sud Ouest, 1986. Calvet, H. Un Instrument de la Terreur à Paris; le Comité de Salut public ou de surveillance du département de Paris (8 juin 1793–21messidor an II) [thèse pour le doctorat] Paris: Nizet et Bastard, 1941. Luçay. Description du département du Cher. Paris: an X [1801–02]. Caron, J.-C. A l’Ecole de la violence, Châtiments et sévices dans l’instruction scolaire au XIXe siècle. Paris: Auber, 1999. Caron, P. Les Massacres de Septembre. Paris: Maison du livre français, 1935. Caspard, P. et al. Lycées, Lycéens Lycéennes; Deux siècles d’histoire. Paris: INRP, 2005. Certeau, Michel de, Dominique Julia, and Jacques Revel. Une politique de la langue: La Révolution française et les patois, L’Enquête de Grégoire. Paris: Gallimard, 1975. Chappey, J.-Luc. La Société des Observateurs de l’Homme (1799–1804); Des Anthropologues au temps de Bonaparte. Paris, Société des Etudes Robespi- erristes, 2002. Chéory. Père Gabriel Deshayes (1762–1841). Paris: Harmattan, 2010. Copans, J. and Jean Jamin. Aux origines de l’anthropologie française: Les Mémoires de la Société des Observateurs de l’Homme en l’an VIII. Paris: le Sycomore, n.d. [1978]. Cornié, A. Étude sur l’Institution nationale des sourdes-muettes de Bordeaux, 1786–1903. Bordeaux: Peels, 1903. Cuxac, C. Le langage des sourds. Paris: Payot, 1983. Daniels, M. The Benedictine Roots in the Development of Deaf Education. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey, 1997. Dawson, J. C. Lakanal, the Regicide. College Station, Alabama: University of Alabama Press, 1948. Debidour, A. Recueil des Actes du Directoire Exécutif. 4 vols. (1910–1917). Desan, S. Reclaiming the Sacred: Lay Religion and Popular Politics in Revolu- tionary France. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990. DHombres, Jean, and Beatrice Didier, eds. L’Ecole Normale de l’an III; Leçons d’analyse de l’entendement, art de la parole, litérature, morale—Garat— Sicard—La Harpe—Bernardin de Saint Pierre. Paris: Editions rue d’Ulm, 2008. Duprat, Catherine. Le Temps des Philanthropes: La philanthropie parisienne des lumières à la monarchie de Juillet. Paris: Editions du CTHS, 1993. Febvre, L. Pour une histoire à part entière. Paris: EHESS, 1982, 1962. Forster, R. The Nobility of Toulouse in the Eighteenth Century. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1960. Foucault, M. Birth of the Clinic. New York: Vintage, 1975. Bibliography 197

———. Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison. New York: Vintage, 1977. Frèche, G. Toulouse et la Région Midi-Pyrenées au siècle des lumières (vers 1670–1789). Toulouse: Cujas, 1974. Frye, William Edmund. After Waterloo; Reminiscences of European Travel, 1815–1819. London: William Heinemann, 1908. Furet, F. Penser à la Révolution française. Paris: Gallimard, 1978. Garnett, Jr., C. The Exchange of Letters between Samuel Heinicke and Abbé Charles Michel de l’Epée. New York: Vantage, 1968. Gillispie, Charles G. Science and Polity in France at the End of the Old Regime. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004. Gineste, Thierry. Victor de l’Aveyron, dernier enfant sauvage, premier enfant fou, ed. rev. et augmenté. Paris: Hachette, 1993. Godechot, Jacques. The Counter-Revolution, Doctrine and Action, 1789– 1804. New York: Howard Fertig, 1972. Herold. The Mind of Napoleon: A Selection from His Written and Spoken Words. New York: Columbia University Press, 1961, 1955. Karacostas, Alexis. 1981. L’Institution Nationale des Sourds-Muets de Paris de 1790 à 1800. Paris: Doctoral diss., Université de Paris V [Faculté de Médecine], 1975. Annexes. Karacostas, Alexis et al., Du Pouvoir des signes; Sourds et citoyens. Paris: Institut de Jeunes Sourds, 1990. Kennedy, Emmet. A Philosophe in the Age of Revolution: Destutt de Tracy and the Origins of “Ideology.” Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1978. Ladebat, Philippe. Seuls les morts ne reviennent jamais; Les pionniers de la guillotine sèche en Guyane française sous le Directoire. Paris: Editions Amlathée, 2007. Laffon de Ladebat, André-Daniel. Journal de déportation en Guyane et discours politiques. Paris: Editions du livre, 2009. Lane, H. The Mask of Benevolence: Disabling the Deaf Community. San Diego: Dawn Sign Press, 1992. ———. When the Mind Hears: A History of the Deaf. New York: Random House, 1984. ———. The Wild Boy of Aveyron. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1976. Latreille, A. L’Eglise catholique en France pendant la Révolution. 2 vols. Paris: Le Cerf, 1970. Lefebvre, G. The French Revolution. 2 vols. New York: Columbia University Press, 1962, 1964. Lefebvre, Georges et al., eds. Procès-verbaux des séances de la Convention nationale, table analytique, préparée par l’Institut d’histoire de la Révolu- tion française de la Faculté des lettres de Paris. 3 vols. Paris, 1959–63. Loupès, Philippe. Chapitres et chanoines en Guyenne aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles. Paris: Ecole des Hautes Etudes, 1985. 198 Bibliography

McMahon, Darrin M. Enemies of Enlightenment: The French Counter- Enlightenment and the Making of Modernity. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002. Meyer, Jean-Claude. La vie religieuse de la Haute Garonne sous la Révolution: 1789–1801. Toulouse: Université de Toulouse le Mirail, 1982. Mirzoeff, Nicholas. Silent Poetry: Deafness, Sign, and Visual Culture in Mod- ern France. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995. Monnier, Raymonde and Albert Soboul. Répertoire du personnel sectionnaire Parisien de l'an II. Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1985. Mortier, Roland. Le “Tableau littéraire de la France” au XVIIIe siècle. Un épisode de la “guerre philosophique” à l’Académie française sous l’Empire, 1804–1810. Bruxelles: Palais des Académies, 1972. “Mouvement Sans Dieu chez les aveugles et les Sourds-Muets,” Réunion faite au Mans, Salle Saint-Jean, le 21 Novembre 1935. Paris: Ligue Franc- Catholique, 1935. Oxford Handbook of Deaf Studies, Language, and Education. Edited by Marc Marschark and P. Spence. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Palmer, R. R. The Improvement of Humanity: Education and the French Revo- lution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985. Palmer, R. R., ed. and trans. School of the French Revolution. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976. Pisani, P. L’Eglise de Paris et la Révolution. 4 vols. Paris, 1908–11. Plann, Susan. The Spanish National Deaf School: Portraits from the Nineteenth Century. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2007. Plongeron, B. et al. Les Prêtres abdicataires pendant la Révolution française. Paris: Imprimerie Nationale, 1965. Quartararo, Anne. Deaf Identity and Social Images in Nineteenth-Century France. Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press, 2008. Regaldo, M. Un milieu intellectuel: La Décade philosophique (1794–1807). 5 vols. Lille: Atelier Reproduction des thèses, 1976. Regard, M., ed. Chateaubriand, Essai sur les révolutions; Le Génie du Chris- tianisme. Paris: La Pleiade, 1978. Reichardt, J. F. Vertraute Briefe aus Paris 1802/1803. Berlin: Verlag der Nation, 1981. Roche, D. Le Siècle des lumières en province. Académies et académiciens provin- ciaux. 2 vols. Paris: Mouton: 1978. Rosenfeld, S.A. A Revolution in Language: The Problem of Signs in Late Eighteenth Century France. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2001. Saurel, E. L’Instituteur des sourds-muets, sa vie et son oeuvre. Toulouse: Imprimerie Fournié, 1958. Sauvigny, Guillaume Bertier de. La France et les Français vus par les voyageurs amércains, 1814–1848. 2 vols. Paris: Flammarion, 1985. Schlieben-Lange, B. S. Idéologie, Révolution et uniformité de la langue. Spri- mont: Mardaga, 1996. Bibliography 199

Sepinwall, A. The Abbé Grégoire and the French Revolution: The Making of Modern Universalism. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. Serna, Pierre. La République des girouettes: 1789–1815 et au-delà une anomalie politique: la France de l’extrême centre. Seyssel: Champ Vallon, 2002. Spitzer, A. Old Hatreds, New Hopes: The French Carbonari against the Bour- bon Restoration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971. Staum, M. Minerva’s Message: Stabilizing the French Revolution. Montreal: McGill Queen’s University Press, 1996. Sutherland, D.M.G. The French Revolution and Empire: The Quest for a Civic Order. Malden, MA: Blackwell, 2003. Tackett, Timothy. Religion, Revolution and Regional Culture in Eighteenth- Century France: The Ecclesiastical Oath of 1791. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1986. ———. Priest and Parish in Eighteenth Century France. Princeton, NJ: Princ- eton University Press, 2014. Taieb, Patrick. Le Musée de Bordeaux de la musique, 1783-1793. Rouen: Presses Universitaires de Rouen, 2009. Trahard, Pierre. La Sensibilité révolutionnaire, 1789–94. Paris: Bowing, 1936; 1967. Truffaut, François. “L’Enfant sauvage.” Film, dir. François Truffaut. Paris, 1970. Tuetey, A. Répertoire général des sources manuscrites de l’histoire de Paris pendant la Révolution française. 11 vols. Paris Imprimerie nouvelle, 1890–1914. Tufféry-Andrieu, Jeanne-Marie. Le Concile National en 1797 et en 1801 à Paris. L’Abbé Grégoire et l’utopie d’une Église républicaine. Bern: Peter Lang, 2007. Tulard, J. L’Administration de Paris (1800–1830). Paris: Commission des Travaux Historiques, 1976. Tulard, J. et al. Histoire et dictionnaire de la Révolution française. Paris: Rob- ert Laffont, 1987. Tulard, J. Itinéraire de Napoléon au jour le jour. Paris: le Grand livre du mois, 2002. Valli, Clayton et al. Linguistics of American Sign Language: an Introduction, 4th ed. Washington, DC: Clerc books, 2005. Viguerie, J. de la. Un oeuvre d’éducation sous l’Ancien Régime: les Pères de la Doctrine Chrétienne en France et en Italie, 1597–1790. Paris: Edition de la Nouvelle Aune, 1976. Vila, A. Enlightenment and Pathology; Sensibility in the Literature and Medi- cine of Eighteenth-Century France. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1998. Weiner, Dora B. The Citizen-Patient in Revolutionary and Imperial Paris. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Welschinger, Henri. Le Pape et l’Empéreur, 1804–1815. Paris: Plon, 1905, 42–45. Woloch, I. Napoleon and His Collaborator: The Making of a Dictatorship. New York: W. W. Norton, 2001. 200 Bibliography

Journal and Newspaper Titles

Affiches de Toulouse, 1787 Ami des lois, 1797–98 Annales catholiques/ Annales religieuses, 1796–1800 American Annals of the Deaf and Dumb, 1850 Annales historiques de la Révolution française, 1968– Annales catholiques,1797–1800 Annales religieuses, 1796 Annales de la religion, 1796–97 Bulletin de la Société Centrale de l’éducation et d’assistance pour les sourds- muets en France, 1876 La Clef du Cabinet des Souverains, 1799 Décade philosophique, 1794–1807 Gentleman’s Magazine and Historical Chronicle, 1815. Journal de l’Empire, 1804–14 Journal Encyclopédique, 1791 Journal Général de France, 1817 Journal de la Haute Garonne, 1807 Journal des hommes libres, 1799 Journal de la langue française, 1791 Journal de la religion et du roi, 1815–1822 Le Magasin encyclopédique Le Midi industrieux, scavant, moral et littéraire, 1797–99 Moniteur (Moniteur Universel, ou Gazette Nationale), 1789–1822 Morning Chronicle, 1815 The Morning Post, 1815 The New England Galaxy of the United States Literary Advertiser, 1822 North American Review, 1815 Revue encyclopédique Revue historique de Toulouse, 1927 The Times (London), 1815 Index

A Beecher, John 120 Académie Française xv, 1, 3, 48, 74, Bell, Alexander Graham 132, 134–5 84, 96–8, 127 Benedictines 9, 75 Dictionnaire de l’Académie Bentham, Jeremy xvi française 66, 74 Berlin school for the deaf 78, 111 Academy of Sciences xvii, 17, 30, 71 Bernard, Yves 12 Alexander I, Emperor 67, 78, Berry, duc de 101 102–3, 106, 129 Berry, Duchess of 122–3 Alhoy, Louis 10, 73 Berthier, Anne Pierre 93 Ami des lois 63 Berthier, Benigne Louis 93 Angoulême, Duchess of 102 Berthier, Ferdinand (student, Annales de la religion 59, 61 author) 2, 27, 79, 81, 88–9, Annales religieuses/Annales 92, 122, 125, 131, 133–4 catholiques xv, 1, 42, 58–63, Berthollet, Claude-Louis 46, 57, 71 65, 70, 77, 80, 133–4 Biot, J. B. 74 Aquinas, Thomas 7 Biran, Maine de 51, 86, 95 Aristotle 60, 65 Birmingham school for the deaf 115 Arnauld, Antoine 65 Blouin, Charlotte, 11 Assarotti, Ottavio 78 (teacher) Boindre, Le (student) 37 Athénée (school) 74 Boisé-Lucas 92 Auger, Louis (journalist) 122 Bonald, Louis 86, 95 Bonaparte, Hortense 134 B Bonaparte, Joseph 68, 134 Bacon, Francis 59, 95 Bonaparte, Josephine 134 Bailly, Jean-Sylvain 14, 16 Bonaparte, Lucien 41, 80 Baltimore [Maryland] asylum for Bonaparte, Napoleon xviii, 37, 58, the deaf 121 68, 70–1, 73–5, 81, 84–5, Barbier, Alexandre 85 89, 91–3, 95, 98, 101, 107, Barère, Bertrand 57 113, 126, 132, 134, 136 Barthélemy, abbé 14 Bonaparte, Louis Napoleon 81 Barthélémy, Balthazard 61 Bonet, Juan Pablo xvi, 111, 156n15 Beauharnais, Hortense de 107 Bonnaterre, Prof. Pierre 75 Beaumont, M. 83 Bonnefoux (Doctrinaire superior) 82 Beauzée, Nicolas 49 Bordeaux Institution for Deaf- Bébian, Roch-Ambroise Auguste 88, Mutes xv, 5, 17, 19, 33, 35, 123, 131, 133, 188n61 39, 78, 98, 126 202 Index

Bordeaux, Musée de 4–5, 19 Chabot, François 26–7, 70, 127, Bouilly, Jean-Nicolas 11, 67–70, 133 108 Chappe (telegraphe) 56, 94 L’abbé de l’Epée 11, 67–70 Chappey, Jean-Luc 86 La Rentrée du C[itoyen] Sicard Chaptal, Jean Antoine 71, 73–4, 76, à l’Institution Nationale des 111, 125 Sourds-Muets 68 Chasseboeuf, Constantin François Boulogne, abbé 59–60, 63 de 46 Bouquier, Gabriel 46, 71 Chateaubriand, Armand de 90, Bourbon Restoration xviii, 101, 134 97–8, 102 Bourdon, Léonard 42 Chateaubriand conspiracy 84 Recueil des actions héröiques et Chateaubriand, René, vicomte de civiques des républicains 87–8, 90, 95 français 42 Génie du Christianisme 96–8 Braidwood family (Edinburgh) Chénier, Marie Joseph 69, 95, 97–8 114–16, 120 Tableau historique de . . . la Braidwood, Thomas 111 littérature française depuis Braille, Louis 30, 74 1789 95, 97 Bretonne, Rétif de la 42 Cheverus, Bishop Jean Louis 117 Brienne, Archbishop Loménie de 4 Cholet (deputy, Council of 500) 62 Broadman, Eliza 64 Church of Saint-Roch 133 Brousse-Desfaucherets, Lieutenant Civil Constitution of the Clergy Mayor 16, 82 (oath of) 17, 19, 24, 62 Brunswick Manifesto (1792) 23 Clay, Henry 118 Bruslart, Chevalier de 89 Clerc, Laurent 39, 64, 79, 83–4, Buffon, Georges, Comte de 49, 59 98–9, 102, 107, 113–21, Bureau de Pasigraphie 66 123–5, 131, 134–5, 137 Buton, François 2 illustration 109 The Bodies Seized by the State 2 Clere, M. Le (printer) 83 Cocquebert, Eugène (student) 37 C Cogswell, Alice (student, Hartford) Cabanis, Dr. P. J. G. 48, 52, 54, 118 86, 95 Cogswell, Mason 114, 118 Cadolle, Paulin de 75 Collège de l’Esquile (Toulouse) 3 Caille (lawyer) 90–1 Collège de Navarre 67 Cambacérès, Jean-Jacque-Régis 84 Compère, Marie-Madeleine 71 Carnot, Lazare 29, 61, 67, Condé, Prince de 89, 93 107, 114 Condillac, abbé Étienne Bonnot de Caron, abbé 91 xvii, 7, 9, 11, 15, 21, 40, 49, Carr, John 110 51–2, 54, 85, 95 Catberg, M. 78 Condorcet, marquis de (Nicolas de Célestins (Convent of) 9, 18, 20, Caritat) xvii, 14–16, 31, 24, 39 45, 88 Champion de Cicé, Archbishop Confessions of a Jewish Convert, Jérôme-Marie 4–5, 13, 16, The 60 70, 81, 133, 154n8 Connecticut Asylum for the Deaf Cerna, Mademoiselle (student) 83 and Dumb (American School Index 203

for the Deaf, Hartford) 116, d’Holbach, Baron (Paul-Henri 118, 136 Thiry) 52 Congrégation (semisecret Diderot, Denis xvii, 7, 9, 11, 52 organization) 92–3 Dream of d’Alembert 7 Constant, Benjamin xvi, 80, Letter on Deaf-Mutes from Birth 102, 114 for Those Who Hear and Courier des enfants 42 Speak xvii Couthon, Georges 32, 133 Dillingham, Abigail (student, Crouzet (student), 51 Hartford)118 Cucurron, Jean 2 Doctrinaires (Congrégation de la Cuvier, Georges 71, 74, 77 D`octrine Chrétienne) 4, 10, 24, 47, 67, 69, 75, 82, 93 D Domergue, Urban 15, 141 D’Alembert, Jean 59, 96 Dumarsais, César Chesneau 49 Encyclopedia 96 Dumourier (teacher) 10 d’Angoulême, duchesse 116 Dunant, Jacques 37 d’Angoulême, Duke 122 Dupuis, Charles 59, 96 Danguilo (teacher, Spain) 11 Origine de tous les cultes 59 d’Artois, comte 101 Dupuy, Paul 47 Daru, Count 96 Duval, François 43 Daube, J. L. 85 Duval, Maginka 83 Essai d’idéologie, servant d’introduction à la E Grammaire générale 85–6 Ecole de Mars 40 Daubenton, Louis 46 Ecole Normale 1, 40–1, 45–9, Daunou, Pierre 75 51–2, 57–8, 63, 65, 67, David, abbé 69–70, 92 69–71, 74, 77, 79, 111, 134 David, Jacques-Louis 81 Séances 48, 53 Décade philosophique 60, 63, 97, 133 Ecole Polytechnique 40 Degérando, Baron Joseph Marie de Edinburgh school for the deaf 114 74, 77, 88, 95, 102, 133 Egerton, Francis Henry 89 Considérations ethnologiques 77 Elgin, Lord (bishop) 113–14 Descartes, René 54 Enghien, Duke of 89 Deschamps, abbé Claude François 9 Entremeuse, Mme d’ 36 Deshaun, Baron 37 Eschke, Ernst Adolf 78 Deshaun, Louis 37 Esquiros, Alphonse 136 Desloges, Pierre 9 Desmousseaux, M. 99 F Despaze, Joseph 69–70, 92 Fabre, M. 94–5 Cinquième satire littéraire, morale Fanny Robert (student, INSM) 83 et politique, adressée à l’abbé Fauche-Borel, Louis 93 Sicard 69 Fauchet, abbé Claude 12 Destutt de Tracy. See Tracy, comte Desloges Etienne de 40 de (Antoine Louis Claude Febvre, Lucien 136 Destutt) Feodorovna, Empress Maria 78, d’Harleville, Collin 68 103–5, 114 d’Herbois, Collot 29, 133 Ferrand, abbé J. 156n15 204 Index

Ferry, Jules 136 denunciations of refractory Feuille de la République 47 priests 62 Fiévée, Joseph 67 Directory 38, 46–7, 49–50, 60, Fleury, abbé Claude 28 62–3, 86, 93, 134 Catéchisme historique 28–9 Girondins 31, 45, 62 Fontanes, Louis 62, 67, 74, 80, 86 guillotine 37 Foucault, Michel 2 Idéologues 66, 85–6, 91, 95, Fouché, Joseph xviii, 85, 89–93, 114 133, 142 Fourcroy, comte de (Antoine Institut National des Sciences François) 47, 71, 74 et Arts 47–8, 52, 59, 61, Fournerot (citizen, French 63, 71 Revolution) 30 Classe de la littérature et beaux Foy, Victor (alias Victor Travanait) arts 47 93–4 Classe des Sciences Morales et Francazal, Roch 3 Politiques 74 Francazal, Sieur 3 Jacobins 53, 80, 89 Francis II, Emperor 102, 103, 129 Legislative Assembly 23–4, 35, Frayssinous, Bishop 127–8 52, 92 Freemasons 4–5, 141 Ministry/minister of the Interior French Revolution passim 38, 40–1, 45, 73, 76, 107, anticlericalism 67 125, 133 Brissotin faction 23 National Committee on Clichy Constitutional Club 67 Mendicity xvii comités de mendicité 74 Reign of Terror xv–xvii, 1, 24, 27, Committee of General Security 31–2, 34, 45, 57, 62, 67, 70, 31, 36 80, 91, 125, 133, 141 Committee of Public Instruction September Massacres 25–8, 30, 32–3, 40 30–1, 35–6, 59, 80, 127 Committee of Public Safety 18, Revolutionary Committee of the 30–2, 34, 69, 80, 139 Arsenal 30, 92 Concordat 60, 81, 95 Revolutionary Tribunal 91 Constituent Assembly 17, 20, 84–5 Surveillance Committee of the Convention, National 24, 32, 38, Arsenal 31, 36–7 47, 60, 70, 134 Thermidorean Reaction 31 Council of 500 (Directory) 38, Frye, William Edmund 102 43, 62, 81 Furet, François 12 Council of Ancients (Directory) 64 G Coup d’état, 18 Fructidor Year V Gaillard, Henri 136 61–3, 90 Gallaudet College 137 Coup d’état, 18 Brumaire Year Gallaudet, Edward Miner 137 VIII xviii, 67–8, 70, 73, 81 Gallaudet, Rev. Thomas Hopkins Daunou law (1795) 40 103, 114–20, 134–6 “Dechristianization” xvi, 30, 33, “Essay on the Use of the 36, 41, 62–3, 70 Language of Signs” 135 Index 205

Galvanism (electric therapy) 78 Hospices de Bienfaisance 70 Garat, Joseph Dominique 45–6, 48, Hubi (teacher, Rouen) 11 50–1, 54, 74, 81 Humboldt, Wilhelm von 57 Gard, François 118 Gauran (deputy, Council of 500) 62 I Gazette Universelle 63 Ignace, Fr Claude 13 Gébelin, Antoine Court de 9, 49 Imperial Academy 99 Genoa school for the deaf 78 Imperial University 75, 93 Ginguené, Pierre-Louis 40, 43, 97 Institute of the Born Blind 39, 84 Gire, Mademoiselle (student) 83 Institut Philanthropique 93 Gloucester, Duke of (Prince Institution Nationale [royale/ Frederick William) 122 impériale] des Sourds-Muets Gobel, Archbishop (apostate) 31 xv–xviii, 1, 5, 13, 16, 18–19, Gondolin, abbé 126 Gouges, 33–4, 37–42, 70–1, 73, 76, Olympe de xvii 81–4, 93–5, 102, 107–8, Grégoire, abbé Henri 61, 90 110, 118–23, 134 Greuze, Jean-Baptiste 9, 11 curriculum 40 Guillon, abbé 93 illustration 116 Guyot, Henri Daniël 11 séances 41, 71, 78, 84, 102–3, 108–9, 132 H Institut National des Jeunes Sourds Habermas (student), 78 de Paris 136 Hackney school for the deaf 115 Institut National des Sciences et Harowby, Countess of 113 Arts 49, 51, 74, 96 Harpe, Jean-François de La 14, 46, International Congress on 48, 60, 64, 69, 74, 95 Education of the Deaf, Du fanatisme du langage Second 132 révolutionnaire 60, 69 Into Great Silence (dir. Philip Réfutation [of Helvétius’s] De Gröning) 135 l’esprit 60 Ionesco, Eugène 135 Harris, James 49, 56, 65 Itard, Dr. Jean 41, 54, 76, 94–5 Hartford asylum for the deaf. See Connecticut Asylum J Hartley, David 52 Jansenists/Jansenism 8–9, De l’Homme 52, 55 97, 117 Haüy, abbé René-Just 30, 46, 71 Jauffret, abbé Gaspard-Jean-Joseph Haüy, Valentin 17, 27, 29–32, 46, 77 71, 74, 84, 132 Jauffret, Jean-Baptiste 104–7 Heinicke, Mrs (wife of Samuel Jauffret, Louis-François 59, 77 Heinicke) 78 Jeaffroy, M. 83 Heinicke, Samuel 11 Jenner, Edward 74, 134 Helvétius, Claude Adrien 7, 52, 59, Jesuits (Society of Jesus) 3–5 95 Jeux Floraux (literary society, Hobbes, Thomas 55, 95 Toulouse) 99 Hopital de Quinze-Vingts 70 Jordan, Camille 90 206 Index

Joseph II, Emperor 9 Lapprete, Louise 40 Jouenne, Thomas 33 Larivière, Henry 90–2 Journal d’Agriculture 18 Précis de l’Etat politique de la Journal de France 59 France 91 Journal de la Haute Garonne 98 Laromiguière, Pierre 51, 77 Journal de Paris 75, 103 Laurent (teacher, Paris) 27 Journal des débats 65, 75, Lavoisier, Antoine-Laurent xvii, 78, 101 46, 57 Journal des Hommes Libres 67 Laya (lawyer) 90 Journal des Savants 18 L’Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Journal encyclopédique 20–1, 29 Chaussées 39 Journal Général de France 122 Leipzig school for the deaf 78 Journal typographique 59 Léon, Pedro Ponce de xvi, 156n15 Jussieu, Antoine-Laurent 77 Léotard, Pierre de 7–8, 27, 131 Justus, Jean Baptiste 92 l’Epée, abbé Charles-Michel de xvii–xviii, 1–2, 5–16, 32–4, K 52, 94, 104, 107–8, 126–7, Kant, Immanuel 95 133–4, passim Karacostas, Alexis 42 Dictionnaire xviii, 10, 13, 15, Kent, Duke of 114 86, 89 Kéralio, Comte Louis de 14 illustration 109 Kiel school for the deaf 78 Institutions des sourds et muets 11 Kiesewetter, 78 pedagogy/methodology 5, 7, Kotzebue, August 108–9, 111 9–15, 35, 51–2, 105–6, 111, 118, 127, 131 L mechanical methods 5, 7 Lacretelle, Pierre-Louis 96 Le Puy school for the deaf 126 Lacroix, Rey 64 Lesueur, J. B. 25, 27, 32 Lacroix, Sylvain 71 Lincoln, Abraham 137 Ladebat, André Daniel Laffon de Linierere, Pierre-Louis Desportes 19–20, 23, 26–7, 36, 64, 70, de 11 85, 114, 117, 127 Linnaeus, Carolus xvii Journal de déportation 64 Locke, John 7, 49, 52, 54–5, 85–6 portrait 128 Essay Concerning Human Ladebat, Laffon de 134 Understanding 50 Lafayette, Madame de 34 London Asylum of the Deaf and Lafayette, Marquis de 16 Dumb 112–13 Louis XIV, Lagrange, Joseph-Louis 46 King 12 Lalande, Joseph Jerome le Francois Louis XV, King xvi, 94 de 32, 59, 133 Louis XVI, King 1, 5, 9, 23, 70, 89 Lamarck, J. B. 71 Louis XVIII, King 90, 101, 115, Lancaster, Joseph 115 122–3 Lancastrian mutual education Louis Philippe, King 114 movement 111 Lycée Bonaparte 93 Laplace, Pierre-Simon 46, 56, 71 Lycée des Arts 94 Index 207

Lycée Républicain 60, 74 Millin, A. L. 63, 77, 84 Lyon school for the deaf 123, 126 Moniteur, Le 26, 38, 73, 94, 115, 126 M Monnot (sansculotte) 25–6, 32, 70 Magasin Encylopédique 63, 77 Monroe, Pres. James 118, 120–1 Maimieux, Joseph de 53, 56, 66 Montmorency, Mathieu de 82, 93 Pasigraphie 53, 56, 66 Moreau, General Jean 69, 89 Maistre, Joseph de 95 Morellet, abbé 96 Malebranche, Nicolas 75 Morning Post 114 Maréchal, Sylvain 59 Müller (teacher, Mainz) 11 Dictionnaire des athées 59 Musée d’Histoire Naturelle 38, Marivaux, Pierre de 11 45–6 Marmontel, Jean-François 14, 16 Marne, Pierre Louis Prieur de la N 17–18, 27, 29, 35, 39, 70, Nancy school for the deaf 126 74, 133 Nazis, genocide and deaf 132 Marseille school for the deaf 126 Necker, Jacques 4, 9, 29 Maryland Asylum for the Insane 121 Neue Deutsche Monatsschrift 107–8, Masse, abbé 9, 13, 16, 30 110–11 Massieu, Jean 16, 20, 32, 36–7, Neuville, Hyde de 89, 92 39–40, 43, 47, 50, 65, 68, Nicole, Pierre 65 70, 79, 83, 88, 102, 108, Noailles, Alexis de 93 114, 116, 122, 124, 129, 131, 134, 136, 145–51 O appeals for Sicard’s release 26–7, Optilogue 94 30, 35–6, 146 Oratorians (Congregation of the attends Sicard’s séances 84, 109, Oratory of Saint Philip Neri) 113–14, 131 47, 93 early life 34–5 Orléans, Duchess of 102 illustration 109 lends Sicard money 12 P Maury, abbé, cardinal 9, 20, Parallèle entre César, Cromwel, 84–5, 133 Monck et Bonaparte, May (teacher of the deaf, Vienna) fragment traduit de l’Anglais 78 (anon.) 80 Meerveld, Countess of 113 Pariset (journalist)102 Meller, Alexander (teacher Russia), pasigraphy 53, 56, 66 104–5 Pastoret, marquis de 62 Mercier, Louis Joseph 25, 48 Paulmier, Louis 121–2, 127, Mercier, Sébastien 48 188n61 Metternich, Klemens von 102 “Fête” 121, 133, 188n61 Michaud, Joseph François 63 Péreire, Jacob xvi, 11, 94 Michel (teacher, Tarentaise) 11 Pesch, M. (teacher) 78 Midi industrieux, sçavant, moral et Pestalozzi, J. H. 111 littéraire 66 Pétion (mayor, Paris) 25 208 Index

Peyre (student, INSM) 37 Robespierre, Maximilien de 31, 80, Pennnsylvania Asylum for the Insane 91, 134 121 Rochefoucauld, duc de La xvii, 16 Philadelphia School for the deaf 136 Rohan, Archbishop de 4 Pichegru, General Jean 69, 89, 92–3 Roi, abbé Le 14 Pinel, Philippe xvi, 42, 77 Roland, J. M. 26 Pissin-Sicard, abbé 123–6 Rome school for the deaf 78 Pius VII, Pope 81–4, 132 Romme, Gilbert 47 Plato 60 Rosenfeld, Sophia 10 Poirier, Dom Germain 75 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 8, 11, 15, Polignac, Armand de 93 64, 95 Polignac, Jules de 93 Royal Academy of Economy Port-Royal Grammar 53–4, 65, 95 (Madrid) 74, 78 Prague School for the deaf 78 Royal General Council of France Préameneu, Bigot de 127–8 122 Prytanée Military Academy 51 Royal Institute of the Blind 126 Royal Society of Edinburgh 115 Q Rumford, Benjamin Thompson 74 Quintilian (Marcus Fabius Rush, Benjamin xvi Quintilianus) 65 Quinze-Vingt, Hospital of 126 S Quotidienne 63 Saint-Angély, Regnaud de 96 Saint-Cérans, Hélène de 83 R Saint-Just, Louis Antoine de 29 Raffron, Nicolas 33 Saint-Lambert, Jean-François 95, 97 Randolph, John St. George 120–1 Principes des moeurs chez toutes The Life and Sufferings of James les nations. Ou Catéchisme Stilwell (poss. author) 121 universel 97 Randolph, Judith 120–1 Saint Petersburg School for Deaf- Randolph Sr., Senator John 120–1 Mutes 104–7 Récamier, Jeanne 76 Saint Petersburg school for the Reichardt, Johann Friedrich 110–11 blind 74 Rénard (student, Institution Saint-Pierre, Bernardin de 46, Nationale des Sourds-Muets) 48, 71 111 Saint-Priest, comte de 5 Revolutionary Théâtre de la Saint-Sernin, Jean de 5, 16–17 République 67–8 Sales, J. B. Delisle de 63–4, 67, 69 Revue encyclopédique 127 Salvan, Antoine 10, 13, 27 Rewbell, Jean François 38 Saunderson, Nicholas 50 Richelieu, duc de 126 Schools for deaf 1, 5, 17, 123, 75, Rivarol, Antoine 66, 95 78, 111, 114–15, 123, 126, Discours sur l’universalité de la 136, 194–7 langue française 66 Schopenhauer, Johanna Charlotte Rivière (student, Ecole Normale) 49 108–9, 143 Robert, Mademoiselle (student, My Youthful Life and Pictures of INSM) 83 Travel 109, 143–51 Index 209

Séchelles, Hérault de 139 Légion d’Honneur 85, 107, semaphore 56. See also telegraph 126 Seon (teacher of the deaf) 78 pres. Société des Observateurs Serieys, Antoine 80, 97 de l’Homme 75–7, 131, Sicard, abbé Roch-Ambroise- 135 Cucurron prof. in Collège de Navarre, accused of membership in University of Paris 67 Congrégation (semisecret prof. in Ecole Normale 1, 41, organization) 92 46–52, 57–8, 65, 67, 69, ambitions 48, 115 71, 79 appearance 79, 82, 109, 132, 145 Royal Academy of Economy appointments/honors (Madrid) 74 Académie française xv, 48, 84 sec. Musée de Bordeaux 4, administrator Hospices de 154n8 Bienfaisance 70 teacher at Athénée 74 asst sec. Académie des Sciences teacher at Lycée Républicain 74 of Bordeaux 4, 17 teacher house of the candidate for the Senate 75 Doctrinaires, rue Saint- canon of Cadillac 4 Rome, Toulouse 10 chevalier of Saint-Michel 122 appraisals (personal, conferred with Order of Saint professional)/reviews of Anne 103 works 2, 4, 15–16, 21, 25, correspondant associé at 47, 66, 68–70, 74, 78, 86–8, Academy of Sciences and 96, 98–9, 102–4, 108–11, Letters of Caen 84 113–15, 121–2, 127–9, Cours d’instruction d’un sourd- 132–3, 137, 145–51, 154n8, muet de naissance nominated 168n11, 186n36, 188n61 for decennial prize 96–8 arrested xviii, 24–6, 30 dir. of School for Deaf-Mutes, author/editor/publisher 1, 5, 7 Bordeaux xv, 1, 5, 17, 78 Catéchisme ou Instruction elector arrondissement of the chrétienne à l’usage des sourds- Seine 70 muets 1, 29, 52, 59, 64, 67, hon. canon of Notre Dame 87, 133 (Paris) 84 contributor to Séances 48, 53 hon. member Sociedad Cours d’instruction d’un sourd- Vascongada 175n6 muet de naissance 51, 59, honorific appointment to 65–7, 85–6, 97, 115, 141 hospital Quinze-Vingts 70 denunciation of wayward instituteur Institution Nationale Freemasons 155n8 [royal/imperial] des Sourds- ed. Annales religieuses/Annales Muets (Paris) xv, xviii, 5, 17, catholiques xv, 1, 42, 58–63, 36–41, 49, 68, 70–1, 76, 65, 70, 80, 133–4 81–5, 93, 122,133 Eléments de Grammaire 49, Institut National des Sciences 85–8 et Arts 47, 52, 59, 61, 63, Essay on the Art of Instructing 71, 74 Deaf-Mutes of Birth 7 210 Index

Sicard, abbé Roch-Ambroise- critiques Chateaubriand’s Génie Cucurron (Continued) du Christianisme 97–8 Examination of the Hermes of death/funeral 126–7 Harris, translation by Thurot defender of prosecuted individuals 65 43 Grammaire Générale 38, 74 departs Doctrinaires (Prêtres de la History of the Popes 83 doctrine chrétienne) 4, 17 Journée Chrétienne 43, dramatic portrayal of (L’abbé de 83–4 l’Epée) 68 L’Art de la parole 53, 69 education 3–4 Manuel de l’éducation de la eludes deportation 64, 73, 92, première enfance 42–3, 86 171n32 Matières des exercices 5 family 2–3 “Mémoires” (1789, 1790) 8, favored by King Louis XVI 70 14, 36, 48, 108 favored/protected by Napoleon “MS, Nomenclatures” 74 Bonaparte 68, 70, 92–3, on talygraphie (stenography) 5, 177n36 7, 134 “guardian” of Victor (“wild child On the Necessity of Instructing of Aveyron”) 76, 131, 150 Deaf-Mutes from Birth, interrogated 89, 91–2 and of the First Means of London visit and demonstrations Communicating with the 107, 112, 117 Unfortunate [Creatures] 65 member of the Doctrinaires papers, Institut (Paris) 66 (Prêtres de la doctrine preface to Joseph de chrétienne) 4, 10, 17, 24, Maimieux’s Pasigraphie 53 37, 67 Relation des dangers 28, 59, 80 member of the Freemasons 4–5, Théorie des Signes 2, 55, 66, 155n8 85–9 mentored by abbé Charles-Michel trans. De l’Homme (author de l’Epée xviii, 1, 5, 12–13, David Hartley) 52, 55 28, 86 unperformed play “Mort de “patriot” of the French Robespierre” (co-authored Revolution 17, 19–20, 29, with Antoine Serieys) 80, 85 53, 63, 134 birth 2 pedagogy/methodology xviii, Brighton visit 115 5, 7–8, 14–16, 20, 28, 35, changes name 4 39–42, 48–57, 65–7, 71, 74, counterrevolutionary tendencies/ 77, 86–8, 94, 97, 99, 102, accusations xv, xviii, 29, 63, 105–6, 108–13, 115, 70, 93, 134 118, 127, 131–4, 147–50, opponent of Napoleon 166n42, 186n36, 188n61 Bonaparte 75, 78–9, 85, personal libary 139–41 89–92, 101, 103, 134 personal traits/attitudes xvii, 2, criticizes abbé Charles-Michel 4, 8, 14, 17, 20, 27, 32, 34, de l’Epée 7, 14–15, 27, 32, 53, 71, 83–4, 111–12, 117, 52, 86 124–5, 131–2 Index 211

egalitarianism 49 signing/sign language xv, xvii, 9–11, humanitarianism 43 14, 51, 118, 132, 134–6 inegalitarianism 53, 78–9, 87, American Sign Language (ASL) 111 xviii, 119, 135 philanthropy xvi bilingualism 89 philosophy 52, 54–5, 59–60, 66, Combined Sign Language 119 86, 166n42, 178n37 épellage continuel (alphabetical “Professor of General Grammar spelling) 10 of the Academic Institute of French Sign Language (LSF) xviii, European Nations” 122 XXX 50, 119, 135 protected by Jean Massieu gestures (as signs) xvii–xviii, 9–10, 26–7, 30, 37, 70 15, 55–7, 87–8, 102, 135, protected by Monnot 145, 147–9 (Sansculotte) 25–6, 32, 70 illustration 110 receives Pope Pius VII 81–3 “language of action” 11 refractory/nonjuror re. oath of “methodical signs” 10 Civil Constitution of the natural signs 9–10 Clergy 17, 19, 24, 36, 71, notation (language) 56 161n19 oralist method xv, 9, 11, 114, released from arrest/ 132, 134–5 imprisonment 26, 31, 92, pantomime/mime xviii, 10, 40, 125, 146 44, 55–7, 66, 86, 111, religiosity xv, 41, 43–4, 52, 60, 131, 148 64, 66, 70, 81, 97, 111, Silvestri (teacher, Rome) 11 116–17 Skipwith, Fulwar 120 critical of constitutional Church Smith, Sir Sidney 102 61, 166n42, 178n37 Société des Observateurs de seeks Napoleon Bonaparte’s l’Homme 75–7, attention/support 85, 91 131, 135 sponsored by Archbishop Société Philanthropique 34, 37 Jérôme-Marie Champion Société Philotechnique 68 de Cicé 4–5, 13, 16, 70, Society of Jesus (Jesuits) 3–5 81, 133 Soeh, Dominique 78 succeeds abbé Charles-Michel de Sophia, Charlotte (Duchess of l’Epée 12–14, 16 Beaufort) 113 suffers accident 81 Sophists 65 supports Restoration 101, Sorèze lycée 131 115–16, 122 Spock, Benjamin 8 suspected of charlatanism 34, Staël, Madame de 67, 98 111, 132, 155n13 Stendhal (Marie-Henri Beyle) 102 takes oath of “liberty and stenography (talygraphie) 5, 7, 56, equality” 24, 61 134 tutors Pierre de Léotard 7–8, 27 Stewart, Dugald 115 Sicard, Françoise 3 Stilwell, James 119–21 Sieyès, abbé Emmanuel Joseph 1, Stokoe, William C. 56, 135 31, 81 Storck, abbé 11 212 Index

Storck, Johann F. 105 U students 2ff, 11, 14, 37, 49, 51, Ulrich (teacher, Switzerland) 64, 78, 81–4, 105, 118, 11, 78 132, 135. See also Bébian, University of Paris 67 Berthier, Clerc, Masieu Collège de Navarre 67 Suard, J. B. 67 Collège Louis-le-Grand (school, Sueur, Marie Geneviève Le 37 Paris) 38 Switzerland school for the deaf 78 Sylvestri, Tomasseo (teacher, Rome) V 11, 78 Veillard (patient) 94–5 Ventura (teacher) M. 78 T Verona school for the deaf 78 Talleyrand, Charles de 1, 48, 67, Versanne, Henry de (alias Lesbros) 114 89, 92 talygraphie (stenography) 5, 7, 56, Victor (“wild child of Aveyron”) 134 75–6, 131, 136, 150 teachers of deaf 10–11, 27, 37, 43, Vienna, Congress of 102 51, 74, 78, 83, 88, 104–15, Vienna school for the deaf 78, 111 111, 113–14 Villers 95 telegraph 56, 94, 134 Virgil 96 télélogue domestique 94. See also Vizille school for the deaf 126 telegraph Volney, comte de (Constantin The Artist (dir. Michel François de Chassebœuf) Hazanavicius) 135 45–6, 48, 50, 59, 95 Thibaudeau, Antoine 33–4, 47 Voltaire 60, 64, 84, 96 Thouron (student, Institution Nationale des Sourds-Muets) W 37 Wailly, Noël 49, 74 Times, The 113–14 Waitzin (Hungary) school for the Tourlet (journalist) 4 deaf 78 Tracy, comte de (Antoine Louis Watson, Joseph 112 Claude Destutt) xvii, 7, 48–9, Webster, Noah 58 51–6, 75, 86, 90, 95, 97 Weld, Lewis 136 Grammaire 51 Wellesley, Richard 102 Truffaut, François 77 Wellington, Duchess of 102, 113 typography 38 Wellington, Duke of 102, 113–14