DOCUMENT RESUME

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AUTHOR Stevens, Mary Elizabeth TITLE Research and Development in the Computer and Information Sciences. Volume 2, Processing, Storage, and Output Requirements in Information Processing Systems: A Selective Literature Review. INSTITUTION National Bureau of Standards (DOC), Washington, D.C. Center for Computer Sciences and Technology. REPORT NO NBS-Monogr-113-Vo1 -2 PUB DATE May 70 NOTE 129p. AVAILABLE FROM Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 (C13.44:113/Vol.2, $1.25)

EDRS PRICE EDRS Price MF-$0.75 HC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Automation, *Computers, *Information Processing, *Information Science, *Information Storage, Literature Reviews, Microforms, Research IDtNTIFIERS *On Line Systems

ABSTRACT Areas of concern with respect to processing, storage, and output requirements of a generalized information processing system are considered. Special emphasis is placed on multiple-access systems. Problems of system management and control are discussed, including hierarchies of storage levels. Facsimile, digital, and mass random access storage media and techniques are considered. A variety of output mode requirements are also considered, including direct recording to microforms; on-line display systems; printing, photocomposition, and automatic character generation; and three-dimensional, color, and other special-purpose display systems. Problems of system use and evaluation are also briefly noted. A bibliography of approximately 480 cited references is included, together with supplemental notes and quotations from the literature.(Author) UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Maurice H. Stans, Secretary NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS Lewis :Zvi. Branscomb, Dirtaor Research and Development in the Computer

C1 and Information Sciences or co 2. Processing, Storage, and Output Requirements ciN reN in Information Processing Systems: CD -- CD A Selective Literature Review UJ Mary Elizabeth Stevens

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National Bureau of Standards Monograph 113, Vol. 2

Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Monogr. 113 Vol. 2, 125 pages (May 1970)

CODEN: NBS1ViA

Issued May 1970

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 (Order by SD Catalog No. C13.44:113/Vol. 2), Price $1.25. Foreword The Center for Computer Sciences and Technology of the National Bureau of Standards has responsibility under the authority of Public Law 89-306 (the Brooks Bill) for automatic data processing standards development, for consultation and technical assistance to Federal agencies, and for supporting research in matters relating to the use of computers in the Federal Government. This selective literature review is the second in a series intended to improve interchange of information among those engaged in research and development in the fields of the computer and information sciences. Considered in this volume are the specific areas of information processing, storage, and output. Names and descriptions of specific proprietary devices and equipment have been included for the convenience of the reader, but completencsb in this respect is recognized to be impossible. Certain important developments have remained proprietary or have not been reported in the open literature; thus major contributors to key developments in the field may have been omitted. The omission of any method or device does not necessarily imply that it is considered unsuitable or unsatisfactory, nor does inclusion of descriptive material on commercially available instruments, products, programs, or processes constitute endorsement.

LEWIS M. BRANSCOMB, Director k

Contents

Page Foreword Hi 1. Introduction 1 2. Processor system considerations 3 2.1. General considerations 3 2.2. Management of multiple-access systems 4 2.2.1. General considerations and examples 4 2.2.2. Scheduling, queuing, and priorities in multiple-access systems 5 2.2.3. "Swapping," dynamic memory allocation, and pagination 7 2.2.4. Client and system protection 8 2.3. System control and performance evaluation 9 3. Storage, file organization, and associative memory requirements 10 3.1. Hierarchies of storage, data compression, and data consolidation 11 3.1.1. Hierarchical memory structure.. 11 3.1.2. Data compression and consolidation 11 3.2. Problems of file organization and structure 12 3.3. Associative memory considerations 14 4. Mass Storage Considerations 16 4.1. Digital vs. facsimile storage 16 4.1.1. Facsimile storage 16 4.1.2. Document store compacting by digital storage techniques 18 4.1.3. Combined facsimile-digital storage 19 4.2. Examples of relatively direct access file storage and retrieval systems 19 4.2.1. Retrieval and reproduction of microforms 19 4.2.2. Digital data storage techniques 20 5. Output and post-processing requirements 20 5.1. Direct output and display applications 21 5.1.1. Graphic outputs and displays. 22 5.1.2. Machine-aided design 23 5.1.3. Computer-assisted instruction and problem - solving... 26 5.2. Multiple output modes 26 5.2.1. Audio outputs, speech synthesis and speech compression... 27 5.2.2. Three-dimensional, color, and motion picture outputs 28 5.2.3. Multi-media and special purpose outputs 29 6. System output to microform and hard copy 30 6.1. Microform recording and direct output transmission 30 6.2. Printing, photocomposition and computer-controlled character and symbol generation 31 6.2.1. Line printers 33 6.2.2. Photocomposition and electronic character generation technique. 33 6.2.3. Computer-controlled typographic composition 34 6.3. Hard copy reproduction 35 6.4. Post-processing operations and special forms of output.. 35 7. System use and evaluation 36 8. Conclusion 37 Appendix A. Background notes on research and development requirements in information processing, storage, and output.. 39 Appendix B. Bibliography 114 Additional references 114 Figures

Page Figure 1.Functional diagram of a generalized information processing system 2 Figure 2.Information processing system management functions 3 Figure 3.Aging blemishes on microfilm 17 Figure 4.Iicrocite equipment 17 Figure 5.Output and post-processing functions 21 Figure 6.The "co-planner" outputs 24 Figure 7.Proposed microform reader... 32 Figure 8.Schematic diagram of Bush rapid selector 72

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Research and Development inthe Computer andInformation Sciences 2. Processing, Storage, andOutput Requirements inInformation Processing Systems: A Selective LiteratureReview Mary Elizabeth Stevens

Areas of concern with respect to processing, storage,and output requirements of a generalized information processing system are considered.Special emphasis is placed on multiple-access systems. Problems of system management and control arediscussed, including hierarchies of storagelevels. Facsimile, digital, and mass random access storagemedia and techniques are considered. A variety of output mode requirements are alsoconsidered, including direct recording tomicroforms; on-line display- systems; printing, photocomposition,and automatic character generation;and three- dimensional, color, and other special-purposedisplay systems. Problems of system use andevaluation references is included, together with are also briefly noted.A bibliography of approximately 480 cited supplemental notes and quotations from theliterature. machine- Key words: Computer-assisted-instruction;information display; information recording; aided design; memory allocation;microforms; multiple-access systems;on-line systems; output modes;photocomposition and typesetting; storagehierarchies; time sharing.

1. Introduction This is the second in a series of reports concerned operationsthemselves(especiallyintermsof with research and development requirements and multiple-access systems), with efficient and eco- areas of continuing concernin the computer and nomical storage, with output considerations, and information sciences and technologies. In thefirst with post-processing operations on output. report of thisseries, "Information Acquisition, Many hardware, design, and theoretical consider- Sensing, and Input: A Selective Literature Review," ations necessarily arise with respect tothe develop- background considerations and general purposes ment of processing specifications,matching and intended to be served by the series are discussed. processing operations, search and selection,and In addition, the general plan of attack and certain retrieval. We shall defer most of the aspects of caveats are outlined.*1.1 information storage, selection and retrieval systems In general, we shall attempt to consider first the for discussion in later reports in this series.In this areas of research anddevelopment concern in the report, we will concentrate first oncertain aspects computer sciences and technologies withreference of processor system planning and management to a schematic diagram of ageneralized information requirements, with particular reference tomultiple- processing system, as shown in Figure 1.1.2 In the access systems. It isnoted, however, that priority first report of the series, we considered various scheduling requirements, precedence interrupts, implications of Boxes 1, 2, and 3 in Figure 1. In this and the like, are as apt to apply to abatch-job report, we are concerned primarilywith some of system as to one that isoperated in an on-line the R & D implications involved in the receipt of conversational-mode. (See, for example, Nicholson processing service requests from clients of the and Pullen, 1968).** system and in the managementof the processing

Appendix A of this report contains notes and quotations pertinent to the running **See Appendix B for bibliography of references cited in this report. text. For the convenience of the reader, Notes "1.1" and "1.2" inAppendix A reca- pitulate some of the considerations discussed in the first report.

1 ,

1. Information Acquisition r- -1 I I 1 1 t I 2. Information /7. Processing/ I Sensing an Client Service I Input/ Requests I Lill i ,

I --i3. Preprocessing Preprocessing 4. I F I I

10. It /- I 4. Processing Matching 9. Processing Operations Specifications + ..K.1 I

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I 12. Retrieval 13. Postprocessing 1

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14. Outputs 1 I

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15. Use and I Evaluation 1

I 1 I 11 0.11.1. ilMIND =1. 411=IIIN 11=6". .1MR 4IMMIP mow limm a L MIND ORSINI WI.*J

Legend: process flow

&WAD MII, feedback flow

FIGURE 1.Functional diagram of a generalized information processing system. 2. Processor System Considerations Referring to Figure 1, we see that in some cases 2.1. General Considerations the processing operations of Box 4 result in direct outputs (Box 5) and/or archival storage (Box 6) Processor system planning and management as in the case of preservation of input records for activities must effectively interlace the requirements subsequent reconstructionif required. In most of multiple inputs of service requests (Box 7), cases, however, processing service requests are the handling of queuing and job scheduling priorities received from clients of the system, from the system (Box 8), the provision of suitable means for both itself, or by implications in the incoming data client and system protection (Box 9), the require- received in Box 2. In parallel with the input data ments of matching the processing service requests transformations shown in Box 3, we may find tothe main processing system capabilities by reductions or translations of processing service appropriatesupervisory andexecutivecontrol requests to forms or formats that can be processed routines (Boxes 10 and 4), and the orderly flow of bj the system in Box 8, which may also involve both programs and data to and from various levels preprocessing operationsthat are required by of storage (Box 6). priority and scheduling considerations in multiple In Figure 2 we show those functions of Figure 1 access systems. Processing specifications developed that are most directly involved in the requirements in Box 9 may be exemplified by controls imposed for efficient planning and management of informa- by measures taken to provide both client and system tion processing systems as such, together with protection. These specifications, and others, will indications of areas of current and continuing then be matched (Box 10) to the performance capa- R & D concern. We may consider more particularly bilities of the processing system itself and used to here the system design requirements for computer- control the actual processing operations. based multiple access or "time-sharing" systems.

I 1 1

7.Input of Processing Service Requests i

8.Preprocessing of Service Queuing Requests job scheduling priorities, client and Processing system . Development protection system 4.Processing 10.Matching of Processing planning Operations Specifications and management

Dynamic 6. memory Storage Supervisory and allocation, Executive Control pagination, and Performance Monitoring swapping and Evaluation

Retrieval

Search and Selection

FIGURE 2.Information processing system management functions.

3 "Time-sharing" is the most prevalent and popular and protection facilities. From the system design terminology for the concept of informationprocess- and management point of view, the challengesare ing systems used by many different clients, with to take an overall planning approach, to look toward effectively simultaneous response to their diversified the integration of many processes thatare now processing service requests, with atleast the distinct, to seek maximum gains from all multi- apparent effect that the processing facilities are purpose processing opportunities that are available, "on-line" to them when they desire touse them and and to undertake a drastic rethinking of possible with certain sharing of both data andprograms trade-offs between benefits and costs.248 among different users.21 Sutherland (1965) considers six varieties of on-line In fact, some of this terminology is misleading, informationprocessing systems:(1)processing and the processing system capabilities are not so control systems, where in manufacturing applica- much shared as divided among many t'sers, with tions the potentialities range from feedback control considerable swapping of system resources between to the optimization of profit expectancies; (2) inquiry them, and with only intermittent access between systems, such as those currently used for airline anyindividualuser and theprocessor-storage reservation purposes; (3) specialized on-linesystems system and itsprocedures. Thus, we generally for specific military applications but also for engi- prefertousethe more comprehensive term neering and design; (4) on-line programming systems; "multiple-access system" to mean "a system in (5) on-line problem-solving systems; and (6) on-line which multiple independent users are provided instrumentation designed to bringa better under- service by the computer via remote consoles which standing of the interplay of the programs and data asynchronously communicate with the computer within the computer. on a demand basis." (Morenoff and McLean, 1967, As examples of experimental developments and p. 19). In general, the systems so-called do not applicationsof multiple-accesssystems whose provide time-sharing capabilities, but they do offer facilities are shared by differentusers, we may cite system-sharing capabilities. first the case of mechanized documentationopera- tions and secondly that of on-line problem-solving. 2.2. Management of Multiple-Access Systems The "reactive typewriter plan", proposed by Mooers at least as early as 1959,2.5 foresaw not only inter- Considerable current progress can certainly be library cooperation and interchange of records, shown in the development and experimentaluse but tie-ins to a remotely located libraryor informa- ofcomputer-basedmultiple-accessor"time- tion center for the individualuser as well. Inputs shared" systems.2-la Nevertheless,many difficult from remotely located typewritersor consoles via problems remain, including questions of responsive teletype, telephone, and other communication links, scheduling, effective monitoring, fail-safe private with or without secondary mode transmission via file or data protection, languages ofaccess, and voice channels, are the heart of remote-access time- efficient supervisory contro1.2.2 A complex inter- sharing systems already in experimental operation. mixture of hardware, software, and human be- Among these experimental systemswe note in havioral factors is typically involved. particular those that provide responsive and selec- It is particularly to be noted that major R & D tive access to files of bibliographic data involving efforts may be required to implement the diversified scientific and technical literature. A first example is functions of man-machine reactive procedures with that of the use of the M.I.T. Compatible Time- appropriate degrees of client convenience, system Sharing System (CTSS) in Project MAC.26 This has efficiency,andeconomy.2.3Licklidersuggests been used both by Kessler and in the experimental further that "industry has not devotedas much SMART system developed by Salton and associates effort to development of devices and techniques for atHarvard.27Kessler'sapplicationinvolves on-line man-computer interactionasithas to machine access, in a variety of selection-retrieval development of other classes of computer hardware modes, toa corpus consisting of bibliographic and software." (Licklider, 1965,p.66.) Those references to periodical literature in the field of responsible for R & D program planning in the physics. Recent developments include the imple- computer and information sciences should therefore mentation of a "more-like-this" request feature and be urgently concerned with the problems raised by a provisionfor delayed service.2.8 Brown 1966 the potentials for increasing use of multiple-access describes the use of this system for updatinga book systems, generally. on the basic data of plasma physics. For the future, Wooster in a 1968 reportproposes the Bibliographic 2.2.1. General Considerations and Examples On-Line Organized Knowledge System,or BOOK. At the System Development Corporation, the Phenomenal growth is promised in theuse of Q-32 time-sharing system is used both for experi- such multiple-access systems over the next few mental application of question-answering procedures years.24Continuingdifficultiesarepredicted, to reasonably terse, relatively well-structured data however, with respect to such areas as adequate (robbery reports of the Los Angeles Police Depart- programming languages, the appropriate design ment) and for more generalized natural language of small inexpensive but versatile consoles for text processing with respect to the Golden Book personal use, and the provision of effective privacy children's encyclopedia.29 4 = ,- 117,1, -4. r _ - 243 4 -

The BOLD(BibliographicOrganizationfor systems that provide for "mutual training" of the Library Display) Project initiatedat SDC by Borko, man and the machine.''-" Sutherland suggests that involves a number ofuser stations equipped with on-lineproblem-solvingsystems"willrequire CRT display console, lightpen, and teletypewriter. techniques for pattern recognition,process control, The light pen is usedto designate document cate- and heuristic programming, and will unite them gories (all members o.:* whichare displayed), to meaningfully." (1965, p. 9.) specify data to be furnishedin hard copy form, and to In the generalcase, however, these potentials reject data displayed duringdocument are closely related tofar - ranging prospects for search. The keyboard is used to enter desired author graphical manipulation and display,especially for or index tag selection criteria. (Borko. 1965; Carter applications to machine-aided design et al., 1965, pp. 62-63).2-w operations. These prospects, however, willbe considered ina Lockheed Missiles and SpaceCompany's on-line later section of thisreport (5.1.2). Let us next document reference retrievalsystem was designed consider here, then, the for the in-house report collection preprocessing of client of some 100,000 service requests in terms of jobscheduling, queuing, items as covered in the MATICO(Machine-Aided and priorities. Technical Information CenterOperations) system. Search and retrieval procedures,on-line, are based 2.2.2. Scheduling, Queuing, andPriorities in Multiple- upon such access points as personal andcorporate Access Systems author names, keywords in title, subject headings In general, it is noted that"computer time-sharing as assigned, report and contract numbers, anddate attempts to phase the simultaneous of publication.2." Search execution of restrictors such asan- two or more programsso that the execution of any nouncement media may be employed andassocia- one of the programs occurs during the natural tional displays of indexterms used in the system dormancy period of the others"(Brown, 1965, p. 82) may also be provided.'-''' and that, "typically, Further details a particular user's program are provided by Summit (1967), will be allowedto use a processor for a period of who describes the development ofCONVERSE into time, will be stepped DIALOG, a system developed so that another user's program to investigate experi- can run, and then atsome later time will be mentallytheeffectivenessofauser-directed language designed to provide flexible continued from the point whereit was stopped." means for (Scherr, 1965,p. 1).2.19a It has been appropriately reference retrieval.2-'3 Aresource-allocation scheme observed that effective time-sharing for this Lockheed multiple-accesslibrary reference thus involves retrieval system is discussed by time slicing." -20 Reiter (1967). This is a problemarea in which both theoretical Other relatively recent examplesinclude appli- assumptions and pragmatic cations at the Moore School of theUniversity of considerations based Pennsylvania, such upon relatively limited experienceto date require as Project CIDS (Chemical furtherdetailedinvestigationand InformationData System),whichdealswith evaluation, formulas, names and properties experimental exploration ofalternatives, and study of chemicalcom- of the design requirementsfor judicious balancing pounds that matcha client's query, and Project of hardware and software Vector which provides libraryinformation retrieval contributions to an effec- services; 214 an experimental tive system solution?-21 system which has The responsive scheduling been developed by Bunker Ramo for of both clientaccess NASA; 2.15 the and job-processingrequirements will necessarily augmentedcatalogofprojectIntrex2-'5°and involve SAFARI, an on-line effectivequeuingprocedures,routing text processing system at the service and priority allocations, and on-line MITRE Corporation.2-16 It hasalready been claimed monitor- that "there is ing of system operations(whether or not cost a general feeling that on-line retrieval accounting andbilling isthe next major developmentin information requirementsarealso retrieval, and involved.) Coffman and Kleinrockprovide a 1968 represents the retrieval system of the survey of priority policies and scheduling methods future." (Drew et al., 1966,p. 341). It will be noted that in use and, in addition, theydiscuss some of the many of the proposed appli- means by which various usersmay try to beat the cations of such systems implyon-line problem- solving capabilities system. Lampson (1968) notes further problemsof on the part of the client in the management-control enforcement.2-2'a special case of retrospectiveliterature search.2-'6° More generally, on-line Some number of differentuser-control modes problem-solving possibilities should be typically available.For example, in terms are claimed to provide one of themost challenging of commerical service-center areas for the further improvement and increased operations, Adams (1965, p. 487) suggests that: "Thescheduling method use of multiple-access systems.2-'6° used in the KEYDATA Such general systems will need system...allows con- to meet system versational ustis toreserve a level of service for design requirements especially suitedto the creative minutes or hours ata time and guarantees that user. They require consideration of the convenience they will receive at least the to such clients in learning touse, in using, and in agreed level of servicos on a minute-by-minute basis." In othersituations, modifying theiruse of the capabilities offered.2-'7 clients may wish In particular, suchsystems may be designed to to control whether their jobsare to be processed by remote batchoperations or in some extent as 'teaching' machines2-18 andas a conversational mode.2-22 5 In the EDUNET planning conferences (sponsored its characteristics (e.g., program size), usersseem by the Inter-University Communications Council), to try to eliminate these 'objectionable' features it was pointed out that both priority allocations from their programs and interaction usage." (including pre-emptive priorities) and reservation On-line access scheduling may be arrangedon mechanisms would be needed in order to;assure either an a priori or a dynamic basis.2-25 Typical different classes of users their desired levels of system design and operation questions also arise service.223Inparticular,Caffreystressedthe as to scheduling and queuing with respect to multiple following: "Priority is not a simple matter; there are system components and as to the number of multiple several kinds and issues: components necessary to maintain effective service entry into the system (being able to plug in); for the clientele-2-26 Areas of specific needs for further R & D investi- preferential treatment in the stack or queue; gation include the following types of questions: quality of response; (1) Whether the specific time interval (or "quan- efficiency of operation; tum") allowed to the active client in the user-priority vs. job-type priority; waiting lineallows, for most clients, an levels of hardware, including storage capac- acceptable delay-tolerance and, at the same ity." (Brown et al., 1967, p. 214). time, good system utilization?2'27 Early evidence of R & D concern in many of these (2) Whethermean-response-timeisagood areas was presented at the 1963 Fall Joint Com- criterion of either probable client-acceptance puter Conference (Aoki et al., and Critchlow, for or of system utilization?2'28 example). Of the early JOSS (Johnniac Open-Shop (3) Whether overhead time-and-cost requirements System) developments, beginning in 1963-1964, have been effectively assessed?2.2" Bryan reports that considerable effort was devoted (4) Whether comparison of programsequences to instrumentation measures to record not only the and data units is sufficiently systematic to use of the system as a whole but also the charac- decide which priority choices will best con- teristics of usage by different users.223a Kleinrock tribute to effective utilization?2'30 (1966) discusses the theory of queues in relation to In general, it has been claimed that "the major experience of usage in time-shared computer sys- issues involved in time management are those of tems. Some SDC developments include those of selecting a queue discipline, determining optimum Coffman and Kirshnamoorthi (1964), Fine et al. quantum size, and dealing with system overhead." (1966),Krishnamoorthiand Wood (1965)and (Schwartz and Weissman, 1967, p. 264.) On-line Totschek (1965). monitoring, it should be noted, will often be required Where there are many system clients for whom in order to adjust for different input and service effectively simultaneous access should be provided, requirements "mixes" and to guard against such appropriatescheduling and queuing provisions phenomena as a number of different clients "getting must be made. To date, such provisions typically into phase with each other."2'31 range from first-come-first-served and round-robin 'Then there is the difficult question of scheduling arrangements (after a given processing interval, in multiprocessor, multiprogrammed2.31anetworks if the first client's problem has not been completed, and, more generally, in systems incorporating the his programs, data, results to that point, and status concept of the "information proc/.9sing utility".2-32 and re-start information are transferred out of the Stanga (1967) discusses the performance advantages active part of the system. Then the processing- developed for the Univac 1108 multiprocessorsys- service requests and data of the next client in line tem in terms of multiple processing units and are swapped in, the system returning to the first multiple access paths to a variety of input-output client only after all waiting clients have had an equal and peripheral storage devices. Manacher (1967) opportunity for processing service) to procedures considers the special problems of multiprocessor based upon considerations of length of running control in the case of a 'hard' real-time environ- time required (e.g., short jobs first), with or without mentthat is, one where there are rigid timing priority-interrupt considerations.2-24 bounds(bothstart-timesand deadlines)upon In the latter case, overall system efficiency may system performance. have a built-in self-improvement facility through Dennis and Van Horn (1965, pp. 3-4) discuss the training or disciplining of the typical client. various major characteristics of multiprogrammed, Scherr (1965, p. 105) suggests that: "it seems that multiprocessor systems in terms of the following scheduling, if properly executed, could be used to factors: (1) computational processesare run con- `mold' the users to some extent by assigning priority currently for more than one user, (2)many processes on the basis of job type, program size, program must share resources in a flexible way, (3) individual running time, user think time, etc., etc. Then the processes post widely varying demands for comput- user, in trying to 'beat the system', will tend to ing resources in the same time period, (4) separate conform to the image of what the writers of the processes make frequent references to common scheduling program considered to be the ideal information, and (5) the system itself must be user." Further, "if the scheduling procedure gives capable of flexible adjustments to changing require- low priority to a user's program because of one of ments. 6 Multiprocessor networks may be required with blocksin terms of processing efficiency. While respect to a large, time-shared, computer-utility paging typically relieves the programmer of the system. In particular, such networks may often need to know and manage the actual physical involve relatively small or relatively inexpensive storage of his programs and data,2.38a the size of the processors to intercede for and to modify processing available page may be critical.2.381' Other problems requestsaddressedtothecontrolsystem.2-33 involvequestionsof periodic "garbagecollec- Multi-level processors may also be involved in ti011" 2-38candofprojectedtime-inactivecon- routing, screening, analyzing, and consolidating siderations.2-3sd query and response traffic to and from the various A pioneering approach to these problems in areas and levels of storage.2-34 terms of both pagination and of dynamic interchange The assurance of such access, effectively on an with respect to both program and data-set accessi- on-line or "realtime" basis, however, implies a bility was provided in the system design of Atlas.'"" sophisticated supervisory control and monitoring It is noted, in addition, that "pioneering work on system plan, a flexile system language, and a the concepts of segmentation and the use of predic- versatile system execution procedure.234 a Tech- tive information to control storage allocation was niques of dynamic swapping,memory allocation done in connection with project ACSIMATIC." and relocation and of pagination are directed, often (Randell and Kuehner, 1968, p. 299). Such problems, with a high degree of interdependence, toward in general, continue to occupy the attention of solutions of this type of problem. system designers.2-40 "Since the effectiveness of a system increases as the service facilities areshared, 2.2.3. "Swapping," Dynamic Memory Allocation, and a major goal of future research is a system with Pagination multiple access to a vast common structure of data and program procedures;the achievementof With respect to Box 4 of Figure 2, there are shown multiple access to the computer processors is but questions of dynamic memory allocation, pagination, a necessary subgoal of this broader objective." and "swapping". These questions obviously involve (Corbato, "System Requirements...", n.d., p. 3). highly interdependent relationships with the sys- In addition, hierarchies of storage as physical tem design problems that are involved in input- facts, but of virtually infinite file-memory access output for multiple user systems, in the servicing from theuser'spoint-of-view,areimplied-2.4' of client-submitted processing requests, and in the Problems of dynamic memory allocation and relo- effective management of hierarchies of storage.2-35 cation, of "placement" and "fetching";'.41aare thus We haveseen in the case of queuing and involved at a number of levels of storage.2.42 How- scheduling of client interchanges with a multiple- ever, many current difficulties are to be noted. For access system that, in accordance with various example, Wagner and Granholm state that as of processing specifications, one client's program is 1965 no executive or software system has satis- typically run for a certain interval and then replaced factorily solved the problems of treating the storage by that of the next client to be served. When this hierarchy as though there were only a single store-2.43 occurs, it is necessary to preserve the status of the In general, dynamic storage allocation techniques first client's program, to make way for the require- are intended to provide flexible means for antici- ments of the next client, and, at a later time, pating demand on the part of either the client or torestorethedisplacedclient'sprogramto the executive control mechanisms of the system active operation. This is the process known as itseff,2.44 to optimize the utilization of primary access ,,swapping." 2.36 memory,2.47' and to provide for the calling up of It is noted that the size of the programs and data programs, subroutines, and the data to be processed sets being interchanged between active and inactive only when, and to the extent, that these are opera- statuswillhave considerableeffectupon the tionally required.2.46 efficiency of the swapping process.237 Improved An obvious problem arises in terms of variable efficiency may result if both programs and data data structures with respect to the flow of programs sets are effectively modularized so that only those and data to and from the various levels of access.47 parts actually needed for the new operation are Such exchanges need also to be accomplished with loaded into main memory.2.38 For another example, minimum delay not only for overall system efficiency at Wayne State University, Abramowich (1967) but also in terms of client patience with respect to considers special problems of central core storage the time-scale of response to his requirements.2.48 allocation in the case of iterative processes where Specific system design suggestions include the input data items once chosen are never again development of specialprocessors operablein needed. At Project MAC, an "onion skin algorithm': parallel with the main system 2.49 and the use of a is used so that only those parts of memory are unified approach to the interlocking problems of dumped as are actually necessary to make room allocation, relocation, address indexing, and pro- for the incoming program. (Scherr, 1965, p. 36). tection devices 2.50 Ramamoorthy (1966) discusses The problems of pagination relate in particular "look ahead" considerations with specific reference to the size of the blocks (or pages) of information tomultiprogrammingsituations.Walterand that may be swapped between various levels of Wallace (1967) discuss problems of program lengths, storage and to the management of transfers of such executiontimerequirements, average timeto 7 process, and loading times in terms of operations programming and processing penalties), but, in at academic computer centers. other cases, nine of such pages would be required, There vill be, in addition, need for the most with even more severe penalties. Beyond this, there careful analyses of typical requirements for pagina- is the question of the programming effort and com- tion or segmentation both of data blocks and files puter processing time necessary to achieve, over and of programs, including the use of grouped or pagination boundaries, bit manipulation tests and clustered pages.2-51 Again, we must consider and improvements for the total input image area. evaluate the most effective lead-times and critical Another area of current difficulty is discussed by path schedules for foresighted transfers of data Head as follows: "Often such mad-in and relocation andprograms between thevariouslevelsof schemes divide core memory into fixed blocks which storage.2-513 form a repository for programs of a standard size. For such reasons, Op ler concludes: "the achieve- This, of course, forces the programmer to make ment of dynamic flow throughhierarchical storage a rigid segmentation of his programinto one or will not be easy. Interdevice channels and control more chunks which willfitinto the arbitrarily- mechanisms must be developed. Requirements for defined core blocks at read-in time. In a higher -level development of control programs will be heavy. language, each statement written by a programmer The devising of new system analysis and description will produce a fairly large yet unknown number of tools is also required." (Op ler, 1965, p. 276). actual machine instructions. This is almost certain Evans and Leclerc (1967) claim that interactive to (1) aggravate the read-in problem byproducing a response systems aretypically mere adaptations of greater total number of instructions than would one- conventional systems and techniques and are thus for-one machine coding, and (2) prevent the pre- "far from ideal in many respects". They are there- planned division of programs into relocatable seg- fore concerned with developing improved mech- ments of standard length." (Head, 1963, p. 40). anisms for protection, address mapping and sub- Finally we note that continuing R & D concern routine linkages. should be directed to the problems of providing Problems of efficient storage allocations in terms adequateprotectivedevicesinmultiple-access of hierarchies of access and of dynamic flow systems, to be considered next. between levels of storage are interrelated in many ways.'-52 Nevertheless,while techniques of dynamic 2.2.4. Client and System Protection storageallocationand paginationascurrently availablesolvecertainproblemsof processor The ft & D problems involved in the general area system management and control,they also raise of development of processing specifications (Box 9 continuing problemsofmore- effectiveoverall of Figure 2) will be considered in more detail in a system design.2-53 For example,studies at System later report in this series with respect to the com- Development Corporation have shown that a variety plicated requirements of truly flexible information of programs may require "considerable reorganiza- search, selection and retrieval procedures. Similarly, tion to operate efficiently in a demand-paging en- background considerations for system design in- vironment." (Fine et al., 1966, p. 11).2'53a It may be volving problems of privacy,confidentiality,or noted further that "an examination of the 'space- security will be covered in a separate report. time' product for a program illustrates the dangers However, we may consider here as specialized of demand paging in unsuitable environments." processing specification requirements the provision (Randell and Kuehner, 1968, p. 303). of means to protect the system from the client, So, too, there are problems of "pagination con- the client from the system, the system from its straints". With many of the systems so far designed own malfunctioning, one client fromanother, and the for dynamic memory relocation applications, the client from himself. "pages" of either program-control or data constitut- Scheduling and priority-interrupt features come ing fixed-length blocks used for rapid automatic first to mind, but at a more advanced stage of system transfer between different levels of storage and planning and design we need to look at very real processing-accessarearbitrarilyfixed, perhaps requirementsofprotectionfromunauthorized generously. Thus, for many applications, a "page" access, as well as those of systemefficiency.2-531) of say 2,000 machine words is generally adequate for In particular, multiple-user systems require the subroutine callup orfile subsection processing. provision of adequate protective devices for in- However, requirements for certain types of experi- dividually owned files and data banks and programs mentalinvestigationsandformany practical and "custom" subroutines for shared data, programs, graphicaldataprocessingoperationstypically and program segments, and for the executive, involve the processing of two-dimensional arrays of supervisory control, and accounting programs of the data for immediate and simultaneous access of system itself. First is the need to shield the system areas exceeding fixedpagination limitations. frominadvertenterrors,clumsiness,andun- For example, in the case of a 30,000 + quantized authorized access on the part of a particular client. bit scan of a 2 x 2" photograph, the input maywell Thus, regardless of the degrees of privacy required exceed the limitations of say, a 2,000-computer-word for different clients, the system itself needs pro- "page". Perhaps the input may be judiciously tection. This type of situation is especially acute juggled to fit within a 4-page reserved area (with both in situations involving user debugging of new pro- 8 grains or, even more critically, the insertion of new absent or confined to one level of object processes routines into existing programs.* that run under the es of a master control pro- Then there are the questions not only of system gram." (Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 9). protection from the user, but also of client pro- tection from the system. We note that in the de- bugging situation, in particular-53e programs still 2.3. System Control and Performance under development by some users should note by Evaluation error, interfere with procedures being run, simul- Closely related to the problems of scheduling, taneously, for other clients of the system.2-54 dynamic memory management, andprotection For the protection of the user from himself, on-line mechanisms are the questions of effectivesuper- debugging programs require efficient supervisory visory control and performance evaluation ofsys- and monitoring control programs (see, for example, tems under variousconditionsofuse.2-80aIn Evans and Dar ley, 1965). In other cases, a combina- particular, "the total system should be designed tion of hardware and software techniques may be to do its own bookkeeping and accounting func- used. Thus, in a project at the University of Pennsyl- tions keeping trackof usage, hours, volumes, vania, "a small computer [PDP-5] has been used times, etc. both for evaluation of the system and between the questioner and the central processor management of costs." (Brown et al., 1967, p. 219). to act as a filter, so that before a question gets Concurrently, however, the client "needs control through to the big computers, it is stated correctly." over the generation, revision, naming and execution (Electronics 38, No. 18, 36 (1965).) of his job-oriented processing routines, as well as Next, the various clients need reasonable assur- the storage and retrieval of such processing routines ance that the material they have stored in the as parta his data base. He needsto be able to system, both programs and data, will be retained manipulatelogicalandarithmeticaloperators, without loss, or that it can be recaptured or restored. planning factors and parameters, models and pro- However, with respect to this aspect of the pro- jectionsofrelevantjob-orientedoperations." tection of the client from the system, it is noted (Bennett et al., 1965, p. 437.) that, for example at Project MAC, while system Special problems of system design and control, malfunctions have caused some losses of client including processor and program developments, programs (and even of data), this experience has on-line debugging and instrumentation, and system not apparently discouraged continued use.2-55 In simulation will be reviewed in another report in Kessler's applications of the M.I.T. system, monitor- this series (on overall system design considerations). ing programs have been developed to check the- We note here, however, that "the burden of estab- continuing integrity of the data on file.2-58 Typically, lishing proper control proceduresfallson the the client of a multiple-access system will also system designer who must in so doing use tech- require protection from various types of on-line niquesofinformationtheory,qualitycontrol, instrumentation techniques.2-57 information redundancy control, error detection Where several users' programs and/or data are and correction, numerical analysis, queuing theory; simultaneously held in main memory, adequate sampling theory, statistical reliability, data reduc- measures of mutual memory protection must be tion,crosscorrelation, display theory, decision employed.2-58 It is necessary that such measures processes, etc." (Davis, 1964, p. 468). Further; should be extremely flexible because of the rapidity "suitable provisions for performance monitoring, with which swappings and relocations can occur,2-5" trouble detection, and quality control should be andmulti-levelspheresofprotection may be included as part of the system design." (Israel, required.2-8° 1967, p. 203). Beyond these questions are the problems of Examples of -various diagnostic and monitoring access to shared processor-systems and to multiple- systems include QUIK TRAN as used in the inter- use, consolidated program facilities, common-use pretive mode,2.8°1) the General- Electric GECOS II and centralized data banks. "The most delicate [General Comprehensive Operating System] pro- aspect of the operation of a multiple-access system grams,2.80c the PILOT system at M.I.T.,2-60c' and a of the MAC type is the responsibility assumed by computer "Time Monitor" available from Applied the system managers with respect to the users' Logic Corporation of Princeton, New Jersey.2.8°e programs and data that are permanently stored in Hornbuckle (1967) describes a combined hardware/ the disc files. Elaborate precautions must be taken software monitoring system for graphic display to protect the contents of the disc files against applicationsinthe Project Genie time-sharing malfunctioning of the system, as well as against system of the University of California. actions of the individual users." (Fano, 1964, p. 18). Notwithstanding the urgency of these requirements, Among the types of system performance factors however, much remains to be done. For example, of interest to system managers or users (or both) "in present-day on-line systems, protection among are measures of memory, paging, and subrouting processesperformingdifferenttasksiseither activity,2.8' loop factors and trap activity,2.62 queue length and work profiles.2.83 Coggan (1967) suggests other measures as wel1.2-84 Randell and Kuehner *In this case. obviously. the "client" may well be a programmer on the staff of the processing system facility. (1968) stress the significance of the "space-time

9 product".2-64b It is noted that "users very often want as well as his 1966 and 1967 theoretical studies of to know whether and how many channels or storage systems. areas are available, how many other users there are, For his Ph. D. dissertation at UCLA, Coffman whether they can schedule use of the system at (1966) has investigated various stochastic models predetermined times, how much of their allotted of multiple and time-shared computing operations. time has been expended, etc." (Caffrey, in Brown Elsewhere, Coffman and Wood (1966) have reported et al., 1967, p. 219). further on inter-arrivalstatisticsforthe SDC An M.I.T. example is the TTPEEK command system and Coffman and Varian (1968) consider "which allows a user to inspect both the allotments problems of page relocation algorithms.2-66" Wilkes and usage of his central processor time, as well (1967) reviews a variety of page turning and related as his disc, drum, and tape records." (Corbato, 1967, problems.2-661Chang (1966) provides a queuing p. 95). A monitor program described by Fiala (1966) modelfornon-prioritytime-sharing suchthat displays for all users the size of programs, priority queue length and response time and their distribu- information, and information as to memory space tions can be readily estimated. Another theoretical activity, among other factors.2-65 However, "it is investigationof bothround-robin andpriority generally agreed that, constrained by cost, the aver- scheduling systems is provided by Shemer (1967). age response time is the single most objective per- Then there are studies by Martin and Estrin formance measure to the user at present." (Estrin (1%7) showing that a priori estimates of computa- and Kleinrock, 1967, p. 86). tion times for given problems on given systemscan A simulation program developed by Blunt (1965) be generated by modelling these computations with dealt primarily with first-come, first-served queue transitive directed graphs. Other theoretical models unloading strategy,but consideration was also are exemplified by Kleinrock's (1967) treatment given to selecting data units with the shortest of time-shared computing facilitiesas stochastic servicing time, and other factors.' -66 Other examples queuing system under priority service discipline, inthe literature include the studies of Krish- and with the performancemeasure based upon the namoorthi and Wood (1965) with respect to a limiting average time spent in the system. Nevertheless, distribution of user congestion and of Kleinrock many questions of comparative efficiency remain to (1966) involving the use of a queuing theory model be explored.2-66e for the analysis of sequential processing machines, 3. Storage, File Organization, and Associative Memory Requirements Returning to Figure 2, it is to be noted that the As of 1968, magneticcore techniques are still the development of efficient and economical storage principal media for main-computer, rapid-access, techniques is the area of continuing R & D concern informationstores.Becauseofmultiple-user with respect to Box 6. Many of the specific problems demands, as we have seen in the previous section of organization and input of material for storage, of this report, such "memories" (even although they questions of file management, digital versus facsimile may have typical capabilities of a million bits storage, and availability of improved storage media storage and cycle times of a microsecond or less), (including microfeETms) will be covered in other require considerable "swapping" and "pagination" reports in this series (e.g., with respect to the requirements for time-shared, time-slicing usage. domainof informationstorage,selection,and However, it is noted that "memory paging,or pro- retrieval research, or, in the case of advanced devel- gram segmentation, reduces the size of the main opments in storage media, to overall system design memory but increases that of the bulk storage", considerations). Here, we shall emphasize some of (Riley, 1965, p. 74) and that therefore increasing those aspects of information storage functions and concern should also be directed to the management techniques that are most closely related to the prob- of such secondary storage. It is further to be noted lems of management and use of multiple-access that the effective management of secondaryor information processing systems. More particularly, auxiliary storage has beena recurrent problem for we are concerned here with hierarchies of storage both system designers and programmersover the systems, with some of the factors in efficient file years 3' organization, and with questionsof associative Efficient and economical storage will involve the (or "content-addressable") memory requirements. interdependence of a number of different factors. In general, the processing of large volumes of Among them are the following: data to provide varied forms of efficient and eco- (1) The development and utilization of storage nomical storage is becoming more and more feasible media at many levels of access, density of technically, operationally, and economically. As a of information packing, and storage capacity.3-2 consequence, more attention needs to be paid to (2) Theeffectiveorganizationofmulti-level multilevel representations of the information con- storageintermsofhierarchicalaccess tents of stored items as well as to suitable hierarchies provisions.3-" of access, search, matching, selection, and retrieval (3) Theeffectiveorganizationofmulti-level procedures. storage in terms of parallel processing. 10 (4) The integrated systems design of programming 3.1.1. Hierarchical Memory Structure control, processor capabilities, and storage accessing for dynamic internal memory allo- Hoagland " notesthathierarchical memory cation and relocation: structures, with various levels set by access-time (5) The organization of the file or files at any given characteristicsareneededtobalancecosts, level of storage, with due consideration to the capacities,and accessrequirements,thatthe most harmonious balancing of maintenance "main" memory size is tied to processor rate in and up-dating,".4" indexing and cross-referenc- such way that the faster the latter, the larger and ing, multiple copy deposits, statistical data on faster the memory must be to keep pace, and that usage, usage-expectancy factors requirements, economical mass-memory systems represent the and the extent to which typical users require key to many new applications. responses at such-and-such thresholds (im- We envisage, first, hierarchies of storage with mediacyofresponse,comprehensiveness appropriate balancing of capacities, access time versus pertinency, volume of response). considerations, and usage-demand probabilities. (7) The provisionof usefulguides, indexes, The totalstoragefacilitieswould be compart- delimitors(orrestrictors)andidentifiers, mentalized as appropriate by the various types of content-indicating clues, and access-priority data to be stored, by usage considerations, and by scheduling,to other criteria conductive to effective maintenance varioussections, compart- and manipulation. They would be organized in ments, or stratifications of the file or files." such way as to enable adaptive change to new or (7)The provision of adequate memory protection devices, including write-protect, read-protect, modified processing requirements. An important consideration hereis and overwrite protection.*3'5a that of the provision of "streaming", or equivalent techniques." 3.1. Hierarchies of Storage, Data Hierarchies of storage, especially those involving Compression, and Data Consolidation large bulk memory devices, also suggest the use of redundantrecordingtechniquesforimproved Just as dynamic memory allocation is increasingly random access. For example, iffully adequate demanded in processor systems involving multiple- techniques for machine translation were available, access usage, so dynamic space allocations between it is not necessarily the case that significant improve- levels of storage require a new concentration of ments in either mass storage capacity or speed of system design efforts.As of today, conflicting access would be required before production use demands of fast access and retrievability on the one could become practical. First, advantage might be hand and of compact and economical storage of taken of Zipf's law respecting the distribution of very large masses of data and recorded information, word frequency possiblities, to organize a hierarchy on the other hand, dictate compromises based upon of dictionary storage and access. Bowers (1966) multiple levels of storage.3.7 discusses as one example a dictionary stored for The trend toward more versatile and convenient machine translation applications where perhaps 35 means for man-machine interaction in time-sharing percent of the accesses might be to less than 20 of and remotely accessed systems where more than 100,000 entries. He suggests that "in most cases, mere text-message processing is desired can be some combination of different redundancy fractions expected to continue its current momentum. New for several subsets of the store will achieve the emphases in multiple-access systems planning are minimum access time." (p. 44) therefore being directed toward the problems of Again, hierarchies of storage may be used to providing large capacity data storage banks or files improve the efficiency of list-processing operations organized in hierarchies of accessibility, especially as described, for example, by Cohen of the Uni- where different users have differing need-to-know versity of Grenoble (1967). This investigator con- privileges. cludes that the best strategy for selecting the least It is likely in many potential applications that file active pages is that of time of inactivity. (See also organization strategies should be geared to either Bobrow and Murphy (1967) for discussion of adapta- on-line and multiple-access or to batch operations tions of the LISP programming system to -1 two-level and/or to suitable admixtures of client-controlled store.) and job-shop-controlledprioritiesof access and Then there are questions of efficient and eco- processing. In such circumstances, Benner (1967) nomical storage with respect to the items them- considers certain minimal file design considerations selves, including compression, truncation, use of involvingsecurity,recovery,optimallocation/ the information contained in a record to determine addressing, flexibility for meeting changing require- automatically its proper storage address, anuse ments, and compatibility with the programming of storage addresses as the surrogates for search system and language(s).3.7a and retrieval of the stored item itself. 3.1.2. Data Compression and Consolidation System organization of central processors and of *See also the separate report in this series on some of the background considerations affecting problems of privacy, confidentiality, or security in information processing storage systems can be expected to become increas- systems and networks ingly modular, and with maximum prov.;sions for 11 366-108 0 - 70 - 2 compatibility (or at least convertibility) as between ments, including those of an archival nature), may large and small system configurations available at well dictate microform storage, yet the effectiveness different locations. However, we may also consider, and efficiency of the system may be lowered because with respect to system requirements for efficient of client low-usage or dissatisfaction with microform and economical storage, not only the problems of outputs generally .3.1°a The economics of storage for hierarchies of access but also those of compression subsequent selection and retrieval of specified of the data actually to be filed. items relate then, first, to the costs and problems A typical instance is that of pictorial data repre- of storage as such and, secondly but not least as sentation. Beyond the photographic (or equivalent) critically, to the problems of selective recall and means for full, conservative, input data storage effective utilization. The obvious requirements here (a copy, microfilm or otherwise, for the facsimile are therefore those of effective file organization representation of the input item) lie possibilities of both for purposes of economical storage and for reductive transformations.* Here, the continuing those of efficient search, selection, and retrieval. R & D requirements with respect to information Beyond these are possibilities for adaptive reor- processing system design involve fact-finding and ganizations of the file based upon various types of technical analyses. system feedbacks. In particular, we need to learn whether such Prywes comments that "file organization, which reductive storage can be so developed as to provide in the past has been given a secondary position in the appropriate type of reproducibility. A given overall system performance, should instead be the system may require either reduced facsimile of the kernel of future systems", and, further, that "the original, giving only pre-defined significant features, sharing of the information in the common store is or an enhanced facsimile eliminating noise or re- technically one of the most demanding, and intel- dundancy andemphasizingfeaturessuchas lectually the most intricate, functions of the system. boundaries and edges, or a complete replica of the Continuous enhancement of this capability must be initial input image. In other situations, processes provided through reindexing and reclassifying the of re-computation and re-creation to produce a changing organization of the total information." reasonable reconstruction of the original input (Prywes, 1966, p. 460). may suffice. We would also look forward to increased use of redundancy eliminating fact-correlations, duplicate 3.2. Problems of File Organization and checking, and validation techniques applied to Structure items available as input for potential retrieval in order to- keep storage requirements within manage- Problems of file organization again involve the able bounds. In addition, as Mooers (1959) has need for dynamic memory allocation facilities for pointed out,31° the achievement of a minimal the hierarchy of storage systems so that files may redundancy store is of considerable significance be set up in layers of segmentation and be rapidly re-organized according to frequencies of usage. from the client's standpoint and from that of overall Thus, "the system must have dynamic memory systemeffectiveness.Inparticular:"The... [more compelling] reason to avoid redundancy and allocation, alternate forms of data structure, and filler matter is that putting such matter into the a data management and transfer mechanism so store is not the end of it, if the retrieval system is that the same data can be used in all aspects of the any good. The text, with all its filler and redundancies problem solution." (Roos, 1965, p. 423). will keep coming out of the system, time after time, For whatever purpose machine-searchable files with a consequent vast waste of human effort that are used (record-keeping, inventory control, docu- will be continued indefinitely into the future." mentary-item-surrogate storage, or data-, record-, (pp. 27-28) item-, and fact-retrieval), there is a commonality of The basic procedures for storage in the overall three principal kinds of operations upon the files. system should obviously be simultaneously effective, These three types of file processing are those of efficient, and economical. Effectiveness and econ- file input and organization, file search and selection, omy combined may relate, for example, to storage and file maintenance and up-dating.b An example of textual messages in facsimile-reproducible form of multilevel file organization for a dynamic system but with brief, independently searchable, content- is provided by ver Hoef (1966) with respect to the indiciaand with appropriateselection-retrieval INTIPS (Integrated Information Processing System) addresses as typical query-output. Yet many con- of the Rome Air Development Center.3.we siderations of user-acceptance, user-convenience, The design of effectivefileorganizations will availability of suitable microform readers, queuing involvefirst the consideration of the levels of considerations, and other factors may well affect storage required in terms of items of different size the economics of the situation. and of different type. Similarly, consideration should For example, cost considerations (specifically be given to frequencies of estimated usage. This including considerations of total storage require- may take the form of either activity analysis 3" or of estimates based upon the age, currency or likely usefulness of items stored in the file.312 Possible 'See also Section 3.4 of the first report in this series, Information Acquisition, Sensing, and Input. self-adaptive features should also be considered. 12 In particular, file organization must be capable and utilization. Then there are problems of whether of changing in response to changes in needs for new material may be substituted for or used to re- information and also in response to both qualitative place other material in whole or in part, updating and quantitative changes in the contents of the file. problems generally, and questions of whether incom- There exists therefore a requirement to explore ing items require transcriptions, re-recordings, en- concepts and techniques that will make feasible codings, reductive transformations of various types, self adaptive features in both file organization and or reproduction as microforms, and the like. in search strategy.(.1. Blum and J. Guy, private A special problem with respect to efficient and communication). economical storage of items to be searched and There isa wide variety of alternativeswith retrieved is that of the encoding of pictorial and respect to different methods of file organization, graphic information for compact storage, but with whether these are planned with reference to most full-scale facsimile reproduction capabilities avail- efficient storage-retrieval operations or whether they able upon demand. In this area of pictorial data are designed with reference topresumed search- coding, a special case is that of two- or three-dimen- selective effectiveness. We may find relatively ran- sional representations of chemical structure informa- dom file organizations or arbitrary orderings of the tion. As has been noted in the first report in this records to be stored in the file; for example, in series, (on information acquisition, sensing, and libraries or document collections, by physical di- input) a number of coding, ciphering, and notation mensions of the stored items, by date of accession, schemes have been under development for linear by age class, by journal volume identification, and representations of such structural data in machine- the like. useful form. Partially arbitrary orderings of the files may be Holm (1965) notes that: "Much work is under way imposed in the form of alphabetical sequences of to store pictorial representation, such as the chemi- stored items by their source or author, or by whether cal structure, in packed coded or binary form, with or not they fall within certainprescribed chrono- the reproduction of the original pictorial form upon logical time periods, as in many typical correspond- request either as a display on film, or printed." ence files. Then, in the case of unevenfile distribu- However, other pictorial data, such as photographs, tions as determined by continuing activity analysis, may probably be stored most efficiently in their there are possible random orderings based upon original form, in reduced facsimile such as micro- such assumptions as the following: "The generally form, or as TV recordings.3-'4 accepted solutionisto pick a storage location Other design requirements relate to problems of capacity (bucket), which tends to make overflows access to physical storage and to withdrawals and likely and empty buckets rare. The storage method replacements of items to and from the store. There then goes on to dispose of the overflows by a second are maintenance problems including questions of rule, e.g., chaining, storing overflow addresses in whether or not the integrity of the files must be the bucket, or by assignment to another area." maintained (i.e., a master copy of each original item (Dumey, 1965, pp. 258-259). accessible atall times), and whether provisions Hierarchicallyorderedfilestypicallyinvolve should be made for the periodic purging of obsolete classification schemes and structures of various items and revisions of the file organization in ac- types and, where it is not possible to determine an cordance with changing patterns. of usage or re- exclusive classification for a stored item, the use sponse requirements.3-14a Other design questions of cross-reference techniques including the place- relate to requirements for display of all or part of an ment of multiple copies of a particular item under item and/or indications of its characteristics prior severaldifferentclassificationcategories,thus to physical retrieval. providing multiple parallel access to different sec- With respect to storage media and equipment tions of the file. This is the practice, for example, considerations, the information processing system not only in the hard copy files of theU.S. Patent designer must not only be concerned with the char- Office, but in microform storage and retrieval sys- acteristics of materials suitable for storing informa- temssuchasthe Eastman Kodak Minicard tion (to be discussed in another report in this series, developments.3.12a on overall system design requirements), but also In the case of a partially ordered file organization, with those characteristics affecting the selected there are frequently to be found broad groupings of methodology of file organization and the total sys- stored items with perhaps random or arbitrary tem design. For example, he must carefully consider orderings within each group (e.g., a "bin" approach) the interaction between such variables as the size or orderings by frequencyof usage and the like. of the file, its organization, the search strategy or The latter type of organization is designed to be strategies to be used, and equipment speed. (See particularly responsive to a specific clientele or Blunt, 1965, p. 14). usage environment.3.13 We shall return to these and other R & D con- Next to be considered in generalized information siderations in other reports in this series when we processing system design and use are problems of discuss the more specialized problems of informa- input-output with respect to the files involving con- tion storage, selection, and retrieval systems as siderations of volume and processing time require- such, but we note here that many levels of file ments and questions of efficient space allocation organization and file compartmentalization may be 13 used to speed searchprocesses, to conduct multiple tion of the item in the memory should beper- searches in parallel, and the like. In particular, fectly flexible (except for the totalmemory data bank management design requirementscreate size). file organization problems of increasing severity. 3.14b 2. It should be possible to add, delete, insert and In general, where thereare increasing opportunities rearrange items of information in a list at any for the establishment and multiple-accessuse of time and in any way... large-scale data banks, thereare increasingly diffi- 3. The nature of the items ina list should not be cult R & D problems in file organization, file mainte- restricted. An item may be a symbol,a number, nance, and file protection. a combination of both in any length or an As Orchard-Hays has emphasized: "Probably arbitrary list. the knottiest problem facing system designers today 4. It should be possible for thesame item to is how to set up, maintain, control andprotect huge appear on any number of lists simultaneously." libraries of heterogeneous data, 411 changingat (Hormann, 1960, p. 4). different rates and in different ways...It is clear that the systems designs of the pastare entirely The area of "associative"or "content-addressable" inadequate. ."(Orchard-Hays, 1965,p.240). memories will thus require considerable further Moreover, it is claimed that "unfortunately little R & D effort in both hardware and software, includ- research has been done on methods of organizing ing new approaches to file organization. and structuring large files. Asa result, the available Starting on the software side,we note the emerg- concepts are primitive. One principle is clear: our ence of list processing languages intended to facili- needs for information are changing; therefore,our tate symbol manipulation directly and thereby file organization must be capable of changing." problem-solving activitiesmore generally.3-22 Limita- (Berko, 1965, p. 24). tions with respect to multiply-associated data have led to variations involving threaded-lists, inverted 3.3. Associative Memory Considerations lists,andmultilist program structures323 and special systems such as Rover.3-24 A deliberateat- The concept of associativeor content-addressable tempt to compromise between fixed file organization memories 3.15 has been hailed for wellover a dec- ade 3.16 as the potential.panacea for many inter- and list-processing techniques, providing for the locking, building of associative sublists if and only if needed, multiple-aspectprocessingproblems, was indicated in the relatively early NBS model of specifically including those of informationstorage, "selective recall". (Stevens, 1960). selection and retrieval systems 3.17 As of 1967-1968, however,littlepracticalrealizationhasbeen For multiply-related, multiply-associated data in achieved except on a very small scale 3.18 and some a large file, the problems of efficient storage, selec- observers predict that this condition will continue tion, and access may involve considerable emphasis for some time to come 3.18a upon formal modellings of the possible system parameters and configurations. Here, considerations Large-scale associative memories have,on the of efficient machine manipulations of graph-the- other hand, been simulated on computers, notably oretic techniques, ntput-output economics in the in Fuller's 1963 dissertation investigations,3'9at most general sense, control system theory, and the Moore School by Prywes and associates,32° by studies of the problems of aggregation and partial Landauer 3.20a and by FeldMan.3.2' In particular, aggregation may have considerable pertinence. Prywes and Gray (1963) claim that theuse of an addressable memory tocarry out an associative New technologically-feasible approaches to truly massive direct access file media and to filestruc- memory scheme provides a flexibility that would be turings of the associativememory type point to difficult to achieve with built-in associative hardware. significant alleviation ofsome of these problems In a 1967 state-of-the-art review, Minker and in the not too distant future. On the other hand, it Sable comment: "Itwas refreshing to see the is not yet clear that enough is Government support studies leadingto quantitative now known about results in the study of hardwarevs. software imple- multiply-related and associated datato establish mentation of associative memories. We organizational schemas that would take best ad- note that vantage of these promised technological advantages. these studies did not show the hardware associative Other questions as yet largely unresolved include memories to be significantly advantageous. Addi- those of the development of performance tional quantitative studiesare needed to define the measures types of problems for which hardware associative adequt: 3 to depict the appropriate trade-offs be- memories of various sizes could be useful." (Minker tween storage economy and selection and retrieval and Sable, 1967, p. 151). effectiveness for a particular application. A familiar question in the literature of the information storage, The following desiderata, however,are indicative selection and retrieval field relates to the relative of continuing R & D concern with respect tomemory system design: "Features of the memory structure efficiency of "linear" or "unit record"or "term- on-term" as versus "inverted"or "item-on-term" desirable for a complex processingsystem are files, and combinations of these iwo approaches,3.24a listed belc,w: Some investigators who areconcerned with 1. The number of different lists ofitems of in- problems ofefficientfileorganization andfile formation, length of lists, and length ofinforma- structuring from the points of view of effective 14 compartmentalization and efficient search strategies advantages lessened by the use of a relatively small have never-the-less tended to neglect the problems associative memory coupled to a large capacity and prospects of screening or sieving devices as random access store. an important contribution tosearch tactics..42b There may be other, as yet inadequately explored, An example of compartmentalization and screen- alternatives, however. At Sylvania, for example, ing techniques has been suggested in the case of areference-pattern-planeorganizationforthe fingerprint identification as follows: "If each finger- processing of unknown pattern inputs against many print in a set is simply classified according to wheth- stored reference pattern property-criteria, has been er it conforms to aparticular type of fingerprint experimentally realized in a combination of auto- pattern, e.g., 'whorl', the file can immediatelybe matically processed plastic sheets affecting the divided into 1,024 separate file sections rept csenting behavior of a solenoid-transformer array for char- the different possible combinations of the 10 fingers. acter recognition purposes. There are possibilities More detailed analysis permits further refinement of that the same addressed, transformer-sheet arrays, the groups. With over a thousand file sections and addressedinparallel searching mode, can be the potential for easy subdivision within each sec- utilized as a practical associative memory of some- tion, the searching of even a multimillion-printfile what larger capacity, but slower speed, than those is not too forbidding." (Cuadra, 1966, p. 7). techniquesavailable for internal 3'28scratchpad On the hardware side, we are faced with severe auxiliaries. problems of economic and practical feasibility in In the light of present limitations of associative achieving large-scale, relationally associated data memory developments, Giuliano (1965) suggests files to date. Small, very fast (e.g., tens of nano- this alternative: seconds performance), memories of the associative "In my opinion. ..it would pay to look further or content-addressable type arebeginning to appear into the area of large capacity, inexpensive per- in operational systems, primarily as "scratchpad" manent memory devices which would handle asso- memories, which are defined as "small uniform ciative processing in a special-purpose manner". and cycle times (p. 260) Wilkes (1965) suggests still another possi- access memories with access bility: "So far the slave principle has been applied matched to the clock of the logic" of the main to very small super-speed memories associated processor. (Gluck, 1965, p. 662). with the control of a computer. There would, how- These scratchpad memories are typically used ever, appear to be possibilities in the use of anormal for such purposes as reducing time of access to sized core memory as a slave to a large core instructions,microprogramming, bufferingof memory ..." (p. 270) instructions or of data that is transferable in small Climenson comments: "A basic organization con- blocks (as in the "four-fetch" design of the Bur- cept receiving little attention recently is King's roughs B 8500 system),3.25 storage of intermediate photostore, where a large read-only disc memory is processing results, table lookup operations, use as considered a logical extension of the stored program index registers,5" and, to a limited extent, content concept. The store is content-addressed, using a addressing.3-28 Gunderson et al., of Honeywell (1966), longest-match principle; the function found can be discuss associative memory techniques as used for data or instructions, or both. The photostore is men- control functions in a multiprocessor systemmore tioned here because of the ultimate influence such specifically, to provide dynamic control over proc- devices could have on file organization. There may essor assignments, to mechanize automatic page be renewed interest with the announcement of turning schemes, and to provide other functions ITEK's version of the photostore: the Memory Cen- relatingtoI/Oexecutionsandtoparallel tered Processor (MCP). ITEK's view is that the MCP processing."" is eminently suitable for sorting, compiling, file con- Other than such scratchpad memory usage, version, typesetting, and a host of other applica- several special-purpose and experimental associa- tions beyond the usual table lookup and file search." tive memory developments may be of interest. One (Climenson, 1966, p. 112). is Librascope's APP (Associative Parallel Proces- Present use of large-capacity associative memory sor), as described by Fuller and Biy:d (1965), intended techniques, however, has been limited not only by for use in such tasks as pattern-property-extraction technological constraints but also by the even more and pattern classification."'" Another example is difficult problems of deciding, in advance, what as- the Pattern Articulation Unit and Jated parallel sociations in a given body of data are most likely to processingcapabilitiesoftheILLIACIII be valuable for future processing service requests. computer."Th Similarly, there are questions of how to represent In a 1966 survey, Hanlon reports that "memory efficiently the multiple cross-associations and inter- cycle times have been reported as low as 50 nano- dependencies that may be identifiable. For example, seconds" and that "although the majority of re- in a 1966 study, Dugan et al. conclude that consid- search to date has been with small memories (up erations involving the interrelationships between to 1000 cells),projections are indicated inthe associative memories and general-purpose com- 107-108 bit range. (p. 519)" Hobbs in one of a series puters in various system configurations are the of state-of-the-art reviews (1966) concurs in the most important from the standpoint of system opinion that advantages can be attained and dis- effectiveness. 15 Licklider has remarked that: "Associative, or relevant." (1965, p. 64). He adds a caveat, however, content-addressable, memories are beginning to as follows: "Only when therelative merits of var- make their appearance in the computer technology. ious associative-memory organizations areunder- The first generation is, of course, too small and too stood in relation to various information-handling expensive for applications of the kind we are in- problems, we believe, should actual hardware mem- terested in here, but the basic schema seems highly ories be constructed." (p. 65). 4. Mass Storage Considerations

Turning next to very-large-capacity storage re- With respect to problems of document miniatur- quirements, especially for permanent or archival izationfor more compact facsimile-reproducible information storage (such as record files, document storage, the solutions of preference, to date, arethose collections, and libraries), we note the questions of involving the use of microforms.'-' The actual digital as against facsimile storage media and tech- microform used may be roll microform; 4.3 cassettes, niques, the problems of document miniaturization cartridges, or strips; 4'4 microfilm aperture cards,4.5 or compacting of thedocument store, and the avail- or microfiche.'" ability of so-called random access devices and sys- Beyond the conventional microform having typical tems. (The development of general purposefile reduction ratios of 35-50 :1 or less, a few systems management procedures and programswill be con- involve 100: 1 or greater reduction ratios, but typi- sidered in a later report in this series). cally only for very large, and very expensive, experi- mental systems.4-7 Other factors are technological 4.1. Digital vs. Facsimile Storage and involve, for example, the effects of size, contrast, media, resolution and other factors on the usefulness In the general area of efficient and economical of microcopy, especially at high reduction ratios." storage, there is considerable continuing controversy Another approach to document miniaturization with respect to digital as against facsimile storage, with facsimile image reproduction capabilities in- especially for documentary items to be maintained volves the use of video tape, but areas of continuing in files, with various levels of possible compromise R & D concern are generally similar to those of the also to be considered. There are, indeed, many con- photographic-media microform techniques. In addi- siderations indicating that paper records, docu- tion, it appears that video tape has the disadvantage ments, and books will be always with us(the most of allowing only a limited number of replays (on the obvious form of facsimile storage being that of stor- order of 100 or less). ing the physical item itself), notwithstanding the Continuing system design problems in the han- possibilities for future development of new forms dling and use of conventional microforms include and media of information recording, publication, and questions of quality control of copy reproduction dissemination.'" through several generations from a master 4.9 and of Furthermore, "the storage of the massive amounts aging and preservation, (Fig. 3) especially of rare or of lexical material in libraries in digital (machine irreplaceable items.'° In general, system and cli- readable) form such as on the card catalogs, not to entele requirements continue to, point to needs for mention citations, abstracts, tables of contents or higher quality and higher resolution, with greater full text, requires memories of a size and organiza- accessibility and convenience of use, but at lower tion not being met elsewhere in the data-processing overall costs both to the system management re- industry." (King, 1965, p. 91). On the other hand, quirements and to the individual user. however, it has also been suggested that "it will not It may be noted in passing that an earlier claim for be long before it will be cheaper to store english text microformstorageandretrievaladvantages in the mass memory of a computer system than on namely, the convenience of using integral index paper in cabinet files." (Fano,1967, p. 32). In gen- techniques where content-indicating and other selec- eral, there are both advantages and disadvantages tion criteria codes are recorded physically adjacent in the choice of either digitalized or facsimile- to the item image(s) and where matching of query reproducible storage for documentary items. and item codes automatically triggers selection and reproduction of the indicated images 4."is cur- 4.1.1. Facsimile Storage rently somewhat out of favor. A major reason for this is the developing sophistication of search strategy Let us consider first the more conventional case and multiple index manipulation techniques which of facsimile storage which may consist of the storage may nevertheless be coupled with directand auto- of one or more copies of the original record or docu- matic retrieval from microform files, but there are ment itself (e.g., carbon copies in correspondence other reasons as wel1.4.12 files or bound volumes of printed pages and books An unusual example combining microform storage on library shelves). Even inthe most conventional of document identifications, citations, and abstracts library case, however, critical system considera- w;th coordinate indexing and Peek-a-boo type search tions may arise in terms of the questions of whether, and retrieval iechniques is provided in the Microcite and when, to bind or to film.'" developments at the National Bureau of Standards. 16 m.--f

FIGURE 3.Aging blemishes on microfilm.

:TT r-

?! ,.,j A 1 _

11.1.

FIGURE 4.Microcite equipment.

Peek-a-boo systems use term entry, aspect, or index dences of punched-out holes. When such a coinci- term cards to index literature for later search. That dence exists, the document corresponding to the is, coordinate locutions on the card corresponding to hole position meets the parameters of the search. document acquisitien or identifier numbers are Thr output of such systems is usually a list of the punched out as holes in just those index cards that document identification numbers, with a separate represent the index terms applicable to that partic- retrieval operation being required to select the cor- ular document. In searching, the cards correspond- responding documents from file, but the Microcite ing to the terms used in a query or search prescription equipment (shown in Fig. 4) provides means for are superimposed and visually inspected for coinci- display and output copy of abstracts of documents 17 or of other data. These abstracts or data are stored developments, two models of portable cameras as microimages on a film matrix. The location of introduced by Data Reproduction Systems in 1965 each indicated hitis used as the reference point allow for placement directly over the pages of an from which to position and project the image of each opened bound volume,4-26 and competitive capa- abstract for visual inspection by the searcher.4-12a bilities are claimed for a Houston Fearless micro- One major advantage of microform facsimile fiche camera-processor.4-27 Page turners remain a storage is the relative ease with which copies of problem. Questions remain as to the relative merits information items of interest can be made available of positive vs. negative images from the point of view to the individual at his desk." Another advantage of the user.4-28 For archival storage, however, studies beginning to be claimed for certain of the microform at NBS have led torecommendations forstoring media is that of erasability and therefore of at least positive copies together with careful periodic in- limitedpotentialsforupdating,correction,or spectionsofthefilmedrecords (NBS Tech. re-use.4-'4 Among the media with this potential Note 261). capability are some of the photosensitive dyes and thermoplastics.4-15 An important feature of photo- 4.1.2. Document Store Compacting by Digital Storage chromic techniques is the capability provided for Techniques on-line inspection and opportunity for limitedcor- As opposed to facsimile storage of documentary rection of errors.416 (These and other advanced items and other extensive record collections, docu- techniques for high density storage will be discussed ment compacting may also be achieved by digitaliza- in more detail in the third report in this series). tion of the information contained in the original Questions of standardization and avoidance of item or record. The advantages of digital data duplication of effort are of concern to designers and storage are several fold. First is the advantage of users of new or improved microform storage sys- direct accessibility. Accessibility to digitally stored tems. A significant advance toward systematic data by an on-line combination of search, retrieval, efforts in greater cooperation and compatibilitywas and display techniques is an impOrtant new area of noted in the adoption, first by the U.S. Govern- man-machine interaction, as noted in Section 2.2.1 ment,4.17 and second by the United States American of this report. Standards Institute, of microfiche standards.4-18 Significantly,directaccessibilitytodigitally It is to be noted that technological quality control stored data can be provided both for machines and standards are also of importance (e.g., the NBS for communication links without the need for manual Microcopy Resolution Test Chart, or line density or manual-mechanical handling. This capability standards),4.19 that the National Microfilm Associa- leads to a second major advantage: that of manip- tion continues to be interested in a variety of ulatability. Directmachinemanipulationof standards and standard specifications;-2° and that digitally stored data can provide for reformatting of "two of the three most important objectives of the information stored, for re-orderings of the store standardizationare already being realized,i.e., itself,forautomatictransliterations,andfor (1) recipients of microfiche from the four principal interconvertibility with respect to multiple modes of report-producing agencies areabletointerfile input-outputanddatatransmission.Machine microfiche, and (2) users are able to use thesame analyses of a wide variety of types and automatic equipment for viewing or otherwise processing such report generation techniques are directly avail- microfiche." (Schwelling, 1966, p. 36.4.21). able 4.29 Avoidance of duplication of effort in the prepara- A third advantage might be termed "re-computa- tion and use of items stored in microform media bility", which could provide for encoding and involves current awareness of both existing stand- decoding of records and messages received (Schatz, ards and of availability of microcopies of various 1967, p. 3), stored, retrieved, and re-transmitted. items in various forms 4.21a The National Register This capability is also available for direct application of Microform Masters, issued by the Library of of error detection and error correction techniques, Congress beginning in September 1965, providesa for machine reconstruction and display of digitized bibliographic record listing titles for which master graphic images, and for image enhancement and microcopies exist, thus serving to minimize duplica- information enhancement operations such as the tions of microcopying operations.4.22 National and cleaning-up of noise in a pattern recognition system. international guides to the availability of microform the automatic correlation of synonyms occurring in equipment provide additional sources of informa- text, or the resolution of homographic ambiguity by tion.4.23 machine examination of contextual clues. (These In terms of the conversion of hard copy to fac- topics are discussed in other reports in this series). simile storage media, one particular problem area Automatic machine control of the redundancy of is that of the range of quality of source items for digitally stored informationisalso in prospect, input to the microform store.4.24 Another is the especiallywithrespecttoduplicate checking, question of satisfactory reproduction of multilevel validation, and data correlation and consolidation. gray scale and of color.4.24a Handling problems are Such operations may be directed first toward the particularly severe in the case of microcopying from reduction of duplication as between items stored and bound books.4.25 However, as examples of recent with respect to the information contents of various

18 items. Secondly, such consolidationor correlation Jan. 1968) will be discussed in the nextreport in may be designed to provide for the validation and thisseries, concerned with overall information verificationof information contained in several processing system design requirements. messages or items. A third purpose of datacon- solidation isto provide, through aggregation or 4.2. Examples of Relatively Direct Access partial aggregation, protection of the identityof File Storage and Retrieval Systems individualreportingunitsfromunauthorized disclosure:'-'' ="a The terminology "random access"as applied to mass data and file storage and retrieval techniques 4.1.3. Combined Facsimile-Digital Storage is generally misleading. What is usually meant is that the access time to items or records wherever Since there are both advantages and disadvan- located in the storage medium or device is approxi- tages to either facsimile or digital storage,some mately the same for all items and "very much information processingsystem design considerations shorterthantheinitialaccess time of serial involve various possible combinations ofstorage memories". (Licklider, 1965, p.16). Further, as media and retrieval techniques. The classicprece- Poland emphasizes, "only with direct-access,mass- dent is the Bush Rapid Selector, where thefacsimile storage equipment can randomly related references image on microfilm is directly associated witha to data files be made in an economical and expedi- digitally recorded selection-criteria encodingand tious manner." (Poland, 1965, p. 249). where machine matches of selection-criteriacodes in a query with those recorded for storeditems 4.2.1. Retrieval and Reproduction of Microforms automaticallytriggerthereproductionofthe facsimile images of the selected items.4.3° A wide range of equipment is available for the In relatively small-scale and inexpensivesystems, manual, semiautomatic,or automatic (e.g., com- a wide variety of digital codes (in edge-notching,4-3' puter-manipulated 4'32)retrieval,re-enlargement, color coding,4.3ia andso forth) are used for "homing" display, and copy reproduction of conventional on subsets of items recorded for storage andre- microforms such as roll microfilm, microfilmstrips trieval in facsimile formor for direct selection of and microfilm aperture cards. In addition,systems the individual item itself. Similartechniques are such as LODESTAR 4'33 and othercurrent develop- employed in some of themore recent large-scale ments involve the use of cartridges,cassettes, and microform retrievalsystems, such as Magnavue magazines to improveaccess. Relatively recent (to be discussed below). examples include the VSMF (Visual SearchMicro- Then it is to be noted that ..the photographic film Files) System of Information Handling inc.,434 Services, emulsion can also be usedto store digital infor- 3M'sFilmac400,4.35andRecordak's mation. If this is done,a reel of film acquires all Miracode Microstrip Systems.4.36Other relatively of the functional virtues of digitaltape while avoid- small-scalesystemsincludeRemstar,4.37the ingitsinformationstorage limitations.Optical Randomatic Data System'sequipment for key- means, such as flying spot scanner techniques,can boarded indexing and retrieval ofedge-notched be used to read the digital informationat rates paper,plasticorfilmcards,theRandtriever which compare favorably with the electronicreading System, 4'38 and Mosier Safe Company's of digital tape." (Condon, 1963,p. 137). An advanced Selectriever.4.39 techniqueinvolveslaser recording of digitally Examples of commercially availableretrieval encoded identification, content-indication,and other devices for microfiche in particular includethe selection informationon high resolution micro- Houston Fearless Film CARD (Compact Automatic forms.4.3' b Retrieval-Display) desktop reader, which provides Another approach to multi-bitstorage is that of 4-second (or less) randomaccess to approximately Lamberts and Higgins of Eastman Kodakwho use 70,000 pages inany one of a number of inter- the recording of diffraction gratingpatterns on high- changeable magazines; 4.40 the Itek 18.24 Reader- resolution film involving compositesof the grating Printer which handlesaperture cards, roll film, patterns of seven..sRatial-frequencycomponents of microfilm jackets. and microfichesup to 5' x 8" a character. These investigators point out that this with selective masking, variable size print and high- approach is closely' similarto that of holography: contrast opaque or translucent copies (Systems 6, "In fact, it turns out thata composite grating is No. 6, 39 (1965).), DuKane's desktop viewer formicro- essentially a Fraunhofer-type hologram ofa series fiche in various sizes also up to 5" x 8" at 15 X of bright points." (Lamberts and Higgins,1966, magnification; Recordak FILMCARD readers;a p. 730).4.3'c desktop reader from Data Reproduction Systems; In general, however, advancedtechniques for the Microcard EL-4 Automatic Enlarger-Printer, truly high densitystorage, promising such possi-.,and others. bilities as 13 million bits ina photochromic film Advanced or large-scalesystems are also begin- memory plane two inches square (Reich and Dorion, ning to come into operation, at leaston an experi- 1965),orHoneywelldevelopmentsindicating mental basis. Among theseare the DARE (Docu- potential storage of "two million bits... on a mentation Automated Retrieval Equipment), the surface the size of a dime" (Commun. ACM11, 66, Ampex Videofile system, the high-resolution Micro- 19 Vue, and SDC's Satire system. Thus, at the U.S. materials and techniques. For high density digital Army Missile Command, the DARE system utilizes data storage, magnetic technique developments Magnavox Magnavue equipment, under computer include larger and higher-speed bulk core storage, control, for a large fife of engineering drawings especially with new types of tiny cores;4.49 discs and recorded on film chips.4-41 Also under U.S. Army disc pack units with capacities ranging to billions of sponsorship, at Huntsville, developments include bits of data and access times of 100 or less milli- combined usage of Alden/Miracode techniques 4.42 seconds;45° drums,151 and magnetic cards and with the semi-automatic generation of Miracode data cells 1.52 film. Pyke summarizes the current situation with The Videofilm techniques involve the storage, respect to magnetic media as follows: "A large retrieval, and reproduction of microforms in the effort is now being expended on the development of special sense of recordings on video tape. The initial mass storage devices. Larger and faster bulk cores videofile approaches to these techniques at Radio are being designed. Drums operating with parallel Corporation of America have apparently been at transfer and with logic for queuing access requests, least iethporarily abandoned, because of probable thus optimizing drum operation, are forthcoming. high costs, in favor of RACE, techniques involving Disk units with an individual head per track are the use of relatively large-sized magnetic cards with becoming available and devices such as data cells apertures for optical images.'-43 However, Ampex promise many billions of bits of storage at a reason- has embarked on a program of development and able cost." (Pyke, 1967, p. 162). marketing of a somewhat more modest Videofile From an applications standpoint, Bonn emphasizes system, including remote query capabilities. 44 that "the currently used devices are drums, disk The Micro-Vue system developed by the Republic files, magnetic card devices, and tape loop units. Aviation Division of Fairchild Hiller Corp., involves These machines all store large amounts of data, reduction ratios up to 260:1, so that as many as from 6.5 million to 4.8 billion bits, on-line in one 10,000 page images can be recorded on a single device at any one time. Any of the stored informa- 4" x 5" microfiche. These "ultrafiches" can be tion can be retrieved without reading the interven- loaded into 20-chip holders with random access to ing data between two desired records. Any record any one of the 200,000 stored images in, at most, can he written or modified without operation on any 30 seconds. (Systems 8, No. 1, 6 (Jan. 1967).)1.45 other record. Records in mass storage devices can Photochromic materials (as discussed elsewhere be updated in place." (Bonn, 1966, p. 1861). in this series of reports) also promise high reduc- In the area of advanced developments for digital tion ratios. For example, developments at NCR data storage involving electron or laser beam record- include the recording of up to 3,000 microimages ing onto photographic media, semiconductor films, on a single microform convenient for multiple distri- or thin metallic foils, examples include the Dove bution, i.e., as a microform publication medium.445a Data Storageand RetrievalSystem,4.53 IBM's Other experimental developments in microform "trillion-bit" memory recently delivered tothe storage include work at Aeroflex Laboratories,446 Atomic Energy Commission,454 and the UNICON and further improvements in both photoplastic technique developed by the Precision Instrument recording and the Photocharge recording process Company.4.55 In addition, Kump and Chang (1966) at G.E.447 Then there are the successive Walnut, provide a discussion of a thermostrictive recording Cypress, and 1350 systems developed by IBM, technique for Permalloy films, achieved by the although there is some doubt that any of these will application of local stresses induced by laser or continue to be available for graphic storage 1.45 electron beam, which is claimed to promise future The IBM 1360, a film chip system discontinued after mass memories with storage efficiencies of a million the delivery of two models to the Atomic Energy bits per square inch. Commission, was described by Kuehler and Kerby, Then we note, on the one hand, that portable 1966.4.48a However, the high density photographic digital data storage modules are under development storage technique has considerable promise for that will enable interchangability on standard input/ very large capacity digital data storage, to be output equipment, much as magnetic tapes reels considered next. are now handled,4.56 and that, on the other hand, "breakthroughs we seek in mass memory may come 4.2.2. Digital Data Storage Techniques from the molecular engineers, who can develop The media and methods available for digital data improved materials with whichwe can fully exploit storage include high-resolution photographic the inertialess properties of light and electron beams materials, magnetic media, advanced developments to write and read data bits closely approaching using Laser recording techniques, and other special molecular size." (Hoagland, 1965, p. 57). 5. Output and Post-Processing Requirements Referring back to Figure 1, we see that system In Figure 5, we show some of the areas of continuing outputs may occur directly (Box 5) or, in Box14, R & D concern with respect to the output and post- as the result of file searches or assubjected to a processing functions. It has been claimed that, variety of post-processing operations (Box13). in general, too little attention has been given to 20 11111. Reactive outputs and display Machine-aided design techniques

13.Post Processing Operations Formatting Transliteration Translation Consolidation Advanced Printing developments Photocomposition and Character generation Hard copy and facsimile reproduction Multiple output modes

FIGURE 5.Output and post-processing functions.

output requirementsininformationprocessing For each of these purposes, if thecomputer out- system design 5 -'a Further, it is noted that "the puts are direct, they should in the first place be completeness, accuracy, and accessibility ofsystem responsive to the processing service requests, they outputsare each individually dependent upon should be presentable in terms of legibility and system design and can be improved through convenience, and they should be produced with improvement in system design." (Davis, 1967,p. 8). capabilities for on-line modification withina reason- First, advanced developments of directoutput able time scale. Bauer presentsa concise statement modes with interactive man-machineresponse may of a minimum of four capabilities thata responsive be considered, especially withrespect to graphic display system should have in orderto provide displays, to applications suchas computer-assisted assistance to the human partner inmany man- instructionand machine-aideddesign, andto machine interactive situations. Theyare: prospects of color, three-dimensional and motion picture outputs. "1.Correct an input 2. Accept a query or the specification ofan 5.1. Direct Output and DisplayApplications operation,then perform therequired or desired operation which should provide the Direct output and display requirementsfor the proper information to the user necessary to foreseeable futureencompass a wide variety of accomplish the next step. user-oriented capabilities,some of which are com- 3. Accept and appropriately handle information mercially availableon at least a limited basis today to enable the computer to interpret correctly and some of which will require furtherresearch, future information which it may receive from development, and production engineering. Appli- the user, or cation areas of current R & Dconcern include those 4. Direct, on a step by step basis,a procedure ofcomputer-aidedinstruction,machine-aided for information input and output." (Bauer, design, and machine-aided problem-solvingsystems. 1965, pp. 17-18). 21 In addition, console capabilities for "soft" (or graphical communication system itself,5-8 and an transient) displays should provide flexible and con- extensiontothree-dimensional drawing applica- venientediting and controlfacilitiesincluding tions, Sketchpad III, was outlined by Johnson. The insertions, deletions, corrections, rearrangements, latterinvestigatorremarked:"Generalthree- scale-changing, size and rotational transformations, dimensional graphical communication, which deals automatic multiple copying, and the like.Still with arbitrary surfaces and space curve intersec- other uses of on-line reactive displays are for pur- tions, presents many difficult problems; the begin- poses of text editing, sorting, and printing asfor ning has been modest and much work remains example in programs under development at Bell beforethecompletegraphicalcommunication Laboratories (Mathews and Miller, 1965) and at problem is solved." (1963, p. 347). the University of Pittsburgh. (Roudabush ei al., Organizations neighboring M.I.T. have also been 1965).5-lb When such techniques are applied to a engaged inthe development and utilization of complete publication cycle, by feeding the corrected graphic input-output equipment for man-machine tape products either off -line to automatic composing reactive display inproblem-solving applications, machines or on-line to a computer typesetting pro- notably, Bolt, Beranek and Newman 5-7 and the gram, the loop is closed from original data tofinished MITRE Corporation.5-8 More recently, it is to be output product.-1c noted that: "Computer-made maps presenting phy- sical, economic and social data in easily understood 5.1.1. Graphic Output and Display graphic form will be produced, along with similar diagrams, charts and graphs, in a new Laboratory At least as early as 1953, a CRT display system for Computer Graphicsat Harvard's Graduate was available on the Illiac.5-2 Similarly, "Whirlwind School of Design." (Commun. ACM 9, 310 (1966).) (at MIT) had a cathode ray tube and light pen in Chasen and Seitz (1967) consider not only the early the early 1950's. A prototype of the APT system butalsothoseof (computer controlled machine tool) was programmed sketchpaddevelopments, on Whirlwind in 1955." (Wigington, 1966, p. 86). Lockheed-Georgia, IBM, Control Data Corporation, Reactive display for purposes of air traffic control and General Motors.5-8a applications was investigated in the early 1950's Other experimental on-line data analysis and at the National Bureau of Standards. A combination display systems include APEX at M.I.T.'s Lincoln of the DYSEAC computer, special display equip- Laboratory (Forgie, 1965), and the similar capa- ment, control devices including a joystick serving a bilitiesofthe SDC Variable Display system light pen funtion, and a radar link to the Washington (Schwartz etal.,1965) and its Graphic Tablet National Airport provided the basis for on-line, Display.5-8b A West German example involves a real-time experimentation. With actual radar data Telefunken combination of a display console and being displayed on one scope, the operator was able its TR-4 computer for air traffic control applica- to indicate targets of special interest which should be tions. (Stevens, 1968, p. 9) In this system, a manually marked or brightened for him, and a second scope controlled moving ball permits the translation of displayed the results of computer predictions of displayed images and the multidirectional scanning expected positions of target aircraft within specified of different areas shown on the display scope. At time intervals. The same equipment could also be the National Bureau of Standards, developments in used for problem-solving simulations, such as war graphic input-output, such as ACCESS and MAGIC, gaming 5.3 are designed for differing types of requirements in By 1962, an advertisement asked, with appropriate U.S. Government organizations.5-9 illustrations, "Would you believe a Calcomp plotter Then there is the time-sharing facility for experi- and any computer can draw pictures like these in ments in man-machine interaction at the Computer seconds?...A perspective sketch of your new Center of the University of California, Berkeley, plant....Statistical trend charts...molecular which is described by Lichtenberger and Pirtle structure diagrams ...apparel patterns, graded (1965). In effect, the user has available to him a for sizes...and even the Mona Lisa". (Commun. Scientific Data Systems (SDS) 930 computer with ACM 10, A9 (1962).) 16,000 words of fast memory, modified to exclude The development of full-scale graphical input- his direct access to input-output instructions (which, output communication and processing systems, with instead, are carried out for him by the system execu- particular emphasis on man-machine problem- tive) and by additional software-interpretedin- solving is of course represented first by M.I.T.'s structions. Remote access facilities include tele- Sketchpad. This was publicly introduced at the 1963 types, CRT display keyboards and a small DPP-5 Spring Joint Computer Conference where Coons processor equipped both with a CRT display unit outlined the requirements for a computer-aided and a RAND Tablet. design system; 5.4 Ross and Rodriguez discussed In addition to the Digital Equipment Corporation's the theoretical foundations of such systems, with graphic input/output equipment used in many of emphasis upon appropriate languages and data the pioneering and continuing responsive-output structures;Stotzdescribedtheman-machine applications,5-'0 a relatively wide variety of graphic console facilities, specifically including the display output and display devices is also offered by various requirements; 5'5 Sutherland outlined the Sketchpad other suppliers. Examples include, but are obviously 22 notlimitedto Bell Laboratories' "Glance";5." computer graphic output device despite its hardware Benson-Lehnerdevelopments;5'12 Bunker-Ramo limitations? This developmental research problem 5.13 equipment; DatatronicsEngineers,Inc.;5.14 involves discriminatory analysis, differential Gerber Scientific Instrument Co.;5.15Information equations, and simulation." (p. 107). Displays, Inc.; 5.'6Informatics' DOCUS (Display Then we note that:"Davis has stated that Oriented Compiler Usage System) for the Rome Air because of the universality of pictures the 'improve- DevelopmentCenter; 5.'7ITT FederalLabora- ment of display techniques has gone hand-in-hand tories;5.18Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing with man's progress in every field of human en- 5.19 Co.; Philco;5.20Sanders Associates;5.21Strom- deavor.' Unfortunately, the road to good displays has berg-Carlson(especiallytheSC-1100Display not been smooth. In her paper, which surveys the Inquiry Station and the SC-1200 Digital to Video history of displays, she points out how disorganized, Display for computer applications involving multiple spasmodic and even serendipitous has been the access to data at remote locations), and the Tasker improvement in displays." (Davis, 1966, p. 236). Instruments Corp.5-22 In general, as of 1967, the Mills reports that "a very thorough treatment of majorityof computer manufacturers alsooffer computer-driven displays and their use in man- graphic input-outputcapabilitiesviaperipheral machine interaction is given by Van Dam. This equipment that can be connected on-line to the paper-really a mongraph -includes a brief history, central processing facilities.Obvious examples a thorough treatment of display technology at a very include UNIVAC, IBM, Honeywell, Control Data, satisfying level of technical thoroughness and depth, and others.5-23 and a survey of some of the applications of man- Some of the new applications of user-controlled machineinteractivesystemsinvolvingdisplay graphic input and output devices include the on-line terminal devices. Sixty bibliographic citations are alteration of a PERT (Program Evaluation and included. This is one of the few papers to recognize Review Technique) network display to determine that imaging techniques other than thost based on the effects of setting different target dates;5.24 cathode ray tubes may have an application in graphic ControlDataCorporation'scomputer-directed terminaldevices;somehalf-dozennon-CRT construction drawing system involving long distance techniquesarementioned. The communication telephone lines for transfer of problem and solution problems raised by moving the display terminal data (Business Automation 12, No. 7, 55, July, to a remote location are not considered. Sutherland 1965), and the Comex (Command Executor) system treats the state of the art in computer graphics and which allows "several simulated commanders to indicates some further requirements. The paper is use a subset of English to control the flight of simu- not really limited to the issues of computer graphics lated objects on the system's display console. Head- but considers them within the context of man- ing, course, range, altitude, velocity, and destination machine coupling." (Mills, 1967, p. 231). can each be controlled by English statements typed into Comex on-line." (Schwartz et al., 1965, p. 29). 5.1.2. Machine-Aided Design Walter (1967) claims that "immediate application of graphic data processing to solve a variety of One of the most challenging areas of information problemsisboth physically possible and eco- processing system output is unquestionably that nomically desirable. Graphic data processing can be of reactive display and response between man, effectively applied in mathematics, engineering, machine, and data banks in machine-aided design banking,education,communications,medicine, applications.5.25 Graphic input-output capabilities, management information systems, programming, togetherwithman-machine-interactiveon-line and many other fields." (Walter, 1967, p. 107). modifications, are essential to the machine-aided Similarly, Prince reports that "a number of indus- design procedures. A pioneering type of application trial, government, and university laboratories are to problems of hospital and architectural design, exploring various applications of graphical com- discussed by Licklider and Clark (1962) several puter-aided design. Applications receiving primary years before the General Motor's DAC (Design attention include the preparation of digital tapes for Augmented by Computers) system's claim fora numericallycontrolledcuttingtools,trajectory "first", (as of Fall, 19(4, see Hargraves et al.) has studies, structural analysis, aircraft and automotive Lad continuing development and expansion by Bolt, shape design, shipbuilding, flight test data reduc- Beranek and Newman personnel. (Fig. 6) The DAC tion,circuit analysis, and printed circuit board system, on the other hand, includes rapid-response layout. Most of these must be considered as experi- microfilming and microfilmre-display,alsoev- mental programs; only a very few are in a produc- idenced in such developments as an IBM graphic tion status." (Prince, 1966, p. 1701). data processing system5.26and the D-200 equip- Yet, there are many areas of continuing R & D ment offered by Strand Division of Datatronics concern with respect to character sets and remote Engineers, Inc 5.27 terminal deign (to be considered in the next report There are a number of isolated, but intriguing, in this series), hardware limitations, and human examples of machine-aided designapplications engineering considerations.5.24a For example, Walter ranging from the design of ships5.28to the CADET of Honeywell, Inc. (1967) asks: "Can mathematical (Computer-Aided Design Experiment Translator) techniques be used to improve the accuracy of a system described by Lang et al. (1965), which has 23 Ar-

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I been designed for such processing tasks as three- (CIRCuit AnaLysis) programs availableon the dimensional shape description and the development Project MAC facilities (Dertouzos, 1967). Ninke of non-linear electronic circuit designs 5'29 Other (1965, p. 846) describes an IBM 7094 application in areas of applicability include aerospace research,5-3° which "a system block diagram composedat the design of aircraft and automobiles 5.31 other archi- console can be used as input to a special compiler, tectural developments 5'31a and civil engineering the compiled program can be run and the results and highway design, including the design of a viewed at the console." 5.37 However, "weare only super-highway interchange in a brief ten minutes by just beginning to explore systems where thecom- an engineer using a remote communication link to puter asks questions of the programmer to resolve MIT's MULTICS (Multiplexed Information and ambiguities in what it is told." (Sutherland, 1965, Computing Service)system5.31b Machine-aided p. 11). design has also been extended to the fields of the Hardware, software, andsystems planning con- arts and crafts,notably in the area of textile siderations involving human engineerii)g considera- design 5.3'2 tions and human behavioral factors,come especially In addition, at the University of California at to the fore in experimental applications, such as the Santa Barbara there is the Culler-Fried system for following: "computer displaying and of transforming mathe- matical functionsintheir pathologic intervals" (1) "A few users have experienced the delight of (Cheydleur, 1965, p. 175) and Engelman states that sketching and printing to the computer and "W. A. Martin...[is] working on input from scopes having it 'clean up the input' and then generate achieved by signifying with a light pen an interesting labeled graphs and drawings inresponse ..." subexpression of a previously 'printed' expression, (Licklider, 1965, p. 182). as well as anticipating using the scopes for hand- (2) "In the study of computer-aided design... written input" .5-32a Ruyle et al., provide a 1967 graphical communication should bea two-way status report on systems developed for on-line math- process, for the designer wishes to enter ematical problem-solving including AMTRAN,532b drawings of objects into the computer for Culler-Fried,5-32e the Lincoln Reckoner,532d analysis and likewise he wishes tosee com- MAP,5-32e and MATHLAB.5-32f The work at Hudson puter-generated ormodified drawings." Laboratories, Columbia University, is also to be (Lang et a1.,1965, p. 1). noted 5.326 A general survey of computer applications to (3)"The engineer must do more thanuse the design of computers is provided by Breuer (1966), computer. He must actively participate in the who cites some 287 references. Also in the area of computer solution. To do this he needs a "shoes for the shoemaker's children", reactive language to communicate with the computer, display and input devices are already being applied physical accessibility to the computer, anda to machine-aided programming, flowcharting and mechanism for obtaining engineering-oriented system design operations 5.33 It is noted also that results from the computer." (Roos, 1965, Anderson has used an IBM 1620 together witha D. 423). Calcomp digital incremental plotter to produce "L' "We are therefore witnessing the first inroad annotated flow charts on line 5.34 and commercial of assistance into the human decision packages for this purpose, such as AUTOFLOW;-35 areas a priming lesign. It is ironical that or Autodigrammer5-35a are now available. Then it is only a few years after ,.-inters and designers claimed that Bell Lab's FLOWTRACEcan produce threw up their hands ID hot: -9- at the idea of "flowcharts written in 'almost any' programming machines robbing them of theii traditional language." (Sherman, 1966, p. 845). Other examples role in printing practice, we shouldsec thei-n include the IBM System/360 Flowchart,5.35b and being actively taken back into a partnersitip theUsercodeDocumentor andFlowlister,5.35e with the machine in which their special1sed while Abrams (1968) discussesa number of sys- talents are being very much enhanced by tems.535d machine assistance."(Duncan,1961,pp. Developments have been reported in machine- xxi). aided circuit analysis, schematic circuit design, and (5)"An engineer may, for example, substitute systemblockdiagramconstruction.5-36LeVier different values of components ina circuit and (1965) describes a program for the circuit design of observe the effect in the form ofa picture of a transistorized flipflop, Wall and Falk (1966) the output wave that would be produced by describe an IBM program for electronic circuit the circuit in question underany combination analysis, and Shalla (1966) reports a mapping from of conditions. He may also record the various block diagrams of electronic digital circuits into list changes on microfilm and observe them later structures and the use of a list processing program via a projection device at thesame console. for the Control Data 3600 to carry out circuit He may magnify sections ofa diagram for analysis. In particular, some examples of actual detailed study and manipulation, retaining the hardware for an Argonne National Laboratory ability to return the original pictureto the computer were tested. Then there are the CIRCAL screen at any time." (Silveira, 1965, p. 37).

25 Next, therefore, we may ask how conveniently the ing)5.43" and the Socratic System as described by potential system client may thus interact with the Muerzeig in 1965. IBM has developed the 1500 machine. Instructional System 5.44 and Engvold and Hughes What processing operations are automatically of IBM describe (1967) adaptation of the 7044 available to the user as he watches and wishes to Graphic System to a teaching system which can be modify the data pertinent to his problem displayed interleaved with programming problems to be han- for him? In systems such as Sketchpad he may apply dled in a variety of languages at the display console. scaling and rotational transformations of the image Still other examples include the simulation by displayed 5.38 in CALCULAID5.38a or MAP* he may students of experiments in chemical analysis 5.45 call directly for regression or Fourier transform and a Bolt, Beranek and Newman development operations,5.39 and, in general, he needs to be able where the computer deliberately introduces am- to request as directly as possible the performance of biguities into an interactive system designed to a specified operation, a display of the consequences teach medical diagnosis. (Science, Oct. 29, 1965, of his proposed modifications, and the re-input of pp. 572-576). Byproduct advantages of CAI tech- specifications of the next processing operations to niques include automatic performance measure- be performed which he has determined on the basis ments of student progress.5.46 Then it is pointed of the previous results.54° out that "remote terminals used for CAI can also Finally we note that utilization of direct outputs, be used to provide instructions for leading the whether by man or machine or by both, involves studenttoappropriatesupplementary material also the possibility of reactive control and of in- stored on microform." (Burchinal, 1967, p. 4). terruptibilityandre-directionofsourcedata Crowell and Traedge, 1967, provide a review and automation, intermediate processing, intrapolation bibliography of developments in computer-assisted and extrapolation of results. Feedback of various instruction. In addition, they suggest areas for types is an important concern .5.4°a The problems of continuing R & D efforts. They conclude, in par- man-machine interactive situations at the levels of ticular, that "before assigning system functions to terminal design, user-oriented languages, human either man or computer...much research is engineering, and behavioral or attitudinal factors needed in analyzing the decision-making process. will thus require continuing R & D attention."b When such information is added to our present store of knowledge concerning man-machine factors, 5.1.3.Computer-AssistedInstruction and Problem- greater efficiency in CAI systems will be realized." Solving (p. 423). Other commentators similarly suggest that a The problems of computer-aidedinstruction great deal of work remains to be done (Adams, 1966), present, at least in the general literature surveyed, that, "without discredit to the good work now under somewhat less in the way of continuing R & D way, ...the total level of the effort is unacceptably implications than is the case for machine-aided small" (Mills, 1967, p. 237), and that "although design or machine-aided inference. Nevertheless, man-machine interaction may eventually revolu- the field of CAI represents an important area of tionize problem-solving, even the leaders in the development and application.5.41 In its computer field are just taking their first hesitant:steps into the directory issue of June 1968, Computers and Auto- deep unknown of joint human-computer problem- mation provides a roster of 40 CAI centers and solving techniques." (Davis, 1966, p. 243). laboratories. Silvern and Silvern emphasize that: "CAI, computer-assistedinstruction,developed from dissatisfaction with simple text formats and 5.2. Multiple Output Modes teaching machines which didlittle more than automatically turn pages for the student. Early For information processing systems generally, investigators saw, in the digital computer's ca- output, like input, should be available in a variety of pability, the seeds of two-way, learner-machine modalitiesvisual, as in printing and in graphic dialogues which would lead a student along a path displays;voice and other audio signal outputs; which more primitive methods failed to travel." controlsignals,mechanicaldisplacementsof (Silvern and Silvern, 1966, p.57).5.41a pointers and plotting devices, and the like. Output Examples of CAI systems include the PLATO results may be presented immediately to theoper- (ProgrammedLogicforAutomaticTeaching ator or user, recorded photographically, or fed to Operations) system developed by the Coordinated various types of communication links, including Science Laboratory of the University of Illinois,5.42 telephone, coaxial cable, and facsimile transmission the CLASS (Computer-Based Laboratory for Auto- lines. Before discussing the more conventional forms mated School Systems) facilitiesdevelopedat of output, such as the use of printers and plotters, SystemDevelopmentCorporation 5.43PLANIT and hard copy requirements generally, let uscon- (Programming Language for Interaction and Teach- sider in this section audio outputs; three-dimen- sional, color, and motion picture outputs, andsome examples of systems using various combinations of *See note 5.32a. output techniques. 26 5.2.1. Audio Outputs, Speech Synthesis and Speech literation of connected speechas related to reading Compression machines for the blind.5.5' Unlike the problem of voice inputs, audio output Problems of formant amplitudes in synthesis of devices dre already available, at least for somewhat natural-sounding speech have been studied by Fant limited sets of response messages.5-46" Examples and his associates;9"2 while Woodward has been are the IBM 7770 device with a fixed, pre-recorded concernedwithformant persistenceand with vocabulary of up to 128 response words and the intonation.5-59"" Allen (1968) points to a number of R & D problems remaining in thearea of the syn- IBM 7772 audio unit 5.47 which by vocoder tech- thesis and output of connected speech. These niques5.48can generate several thousand distinct words (in one or more languages) 5.48`` as auditory include problems of stress, punctuation and phrase outputs,theCognitronic's Speechmaker 5-49an boundaries,intonation,and thelike.5.5"This RCA unit designed for use with Spectra systems,5.5° investigator is exploring a syntactic bracketing ap- developments by Burroughs,5.50" equipment de- proach to the solution ofsome of these problems.5.59e veloped by Westinghouse Electric for computer- Becker and Poza (1968) are investigating natural student communication at Stanford University;' rather than synthetic speech for computer-controlled and an early model developed at the Rome Air output and are concerned with the significant reduc- Development Center.55'a tion of storage requirements for natural speech waveforms. More particularly, they are concerned Application areas of interest range from direct with dyads (that is, the last half ofone sound and assistance not only to students5'52but also to prac- the first half of a following sound). These dyads ticing physicians,5.53 to the systems developed for may be manually inspected and marked out from the New York Stock Exchange (Proctor, 1966), for displays of typical speech segments and subse- banking operations,5.54 and for engineering design quently recombined to provide at leastsome of the information recall at North American Aviation.5-55 natural transitions of speech for large vocabularies, Gentle suggests that "voice answerback systems but requiring only a relatively few number of dyads will increase in number as more computer manu- to be stored (e.g., 800 for monotonic and 8,500 for facturers build the capability into their equipment. intonated speech) 5.594 The increasing availability of tone dialing telephones In terms of audio output and speech synthesis, will also hasten the use of these systems because the Bhimani etal.(1966) stress the importance of use of the regular telephone for inquiry and voice developing efficient means for automatic conversion answerback permits almost anyone in any location from the character sequences necessary for or- to use the service." (Gentle, 1965, p. 87)5.55a thographic representation of a word to the phonetic The closely related areas of speech synthesis and equivalent of that word.5.59e Other examples in this vocoding techniques are also important with respect area include the work of Rabiner 5.591. and that of to improved communication and processing systems Lee.559g The converse of this problem, that of of the future because of the potentialities offered "spelled speech",5.6° is also being investigated. , for significant compression of speech signals to be In the area of speech compression, in addition transmittedviavariouscommunicationlinks. to examples cited in an earlier report on information R & D objectives at the Bell Telephone Laboratories acquisition, sensing, and input, the following is to and elsewhere are to reduce the typical bandwidth be noted: "Although audio communications is a of 78,000-56,000 bits per second for direct digital slow form of information exchange, advances have encoding of analog speech signals to 2,400, 1,200 been made in the production of audio tapes that or even fewer bps, more closely approximating the permit more information to be recorded per unit of probable informationcontent of digital speech time. The President's Committee on the Employ- signals (i.e., about 50 bits per second).5.55b ment of the Handicapped, through the Division Examples of current and continuing R & D efforts of the Blind of the Library of Congress, is encourag- in the areas of speech synthesis and speech com- ing compressed speech research because it promises pression are to be found at the Royal Institute of to provide a method for recording two to three times Technology in Sweden,5.56 at the University of as much information per linear inch of tape without Manchester, England,5.56a at M.I.T.,5.57 and at the distortion or loss of comprehension. Direct access Haskins Laboratories.5.58 In all of these cases, and to stores of audio information in libraries offers in other organizations as well, there is considerable inexpensive and practical method for updating R & D interest in the design of improved aids to information frequently and distributing it to both the handicapped. For example, at R.I.T., Risberg the sighted and the blind over established telephone has demonstrated speech analysis hardware with networks." (Becker, 1967, p. 8). rapid response displays of both spectrum and Two final special cases of audio output should also frequencies so that the deaf child can see the results be mentioned. They are those of the use of the of his attempts at speech, and can therefore make computer to produce musical tones 5.6" and of instantaneous adjustments. At M.I.T., a recent computer-assisted music research and composition. example involves developments in reading aids In a recent review, Forte (1967) indicates the fol- for the blind.5.5" Similarly, Lee reports of a computer lowing principal areas of interest: experiments in speech generation technique designed for trans- auditory perception, the study of musical "gram-

366-108 0 - 70 - 3 27 mars" in order to produce "new" music ina systematic rotation about an indicated axis.5-83 In specified styple, music analysisas applied, for the latter case, theremay be interesting require- example, to pattern recognition procedures for the ments for handling problems of 'hidden lines'.5-84 determination of the stylecharacteristics of a The hidden line problem has been further attacked particular composer or period, and thecomputer by Loutrel (1967) and Appel (1966),Among others. development of original musical compositions 5.6°b A In addition, Appel (1968) has reportedon techniques somewhat less exotic example is provided inex- for machine-generated shadingor toning of draw- periments designed to use computer audiooutput ings.584a Perspective manipulations, shading, and to teach correct pitch to singers. 5.8°e display also provide representations of the variable A specific example of multiple input-output modes depths of objects in space.5.65 as applied to music research is provided by Teitel- Investigations into three-dimensional data dis- man as follows: "The standard teletype of the DEC playsinclude questionsof applicability toair PDP-6 has been augmented byan 88 key piano traffic control operations,5.68 to the possibility of keyboard which is connected directly to thecom- creating half-tone, 3-D photographs of conceptual- puter. Thus the user can play a melody, hear what it ized shapes and objects,5.88atovisual simula- sounds like as performed by the PDP-6 and tions,5.88b and to the plotting of three-dimensional also see the score displayed visuallyon the screen. contour maps of the moon's surface.587 Denil He can then edit thescore, using the light pen, the (1966) reports on the development ofa design teletype, or the piano keyboard, and hear it played language (DLI), which involvesa prototype com- again. Programs are being written to allow theuser puter system to handle the design of three-dimen- to request the computer to fill in harmony toa par- sional objects."7a Beyond this, thereare possi- ticular melody, or to construct variationson a bilities for n-dimensional display of hyperobjects. theme and to play them back to the user." (Teitel- In the latter case, the investigator concludes: "The man, 1966, pp. 16-17). Still other intriguing possi- importance of the techniques presented...is the bilities lie in the development of three-dimensional use of a digital computer to generate visual displays data processing and display techniques, color, and of the three-dimensional projections of the hyper- motion picture outputs, to be considered next. objects. Such displays of rotating hyperobjects could be produced most efficiently bya computer 5.2.2. Three-Dimensional, Color, and Motion Picture since the projections and drawing would betoo Outputs tedious and impractical to produce byany other It is noted first that "motion pictures, 3D, and method. Althoughno actual mental visualization of multicolor displays via color separation represent the fourth dimension resulted from thecomputer- practical capabilities in addition to themore com- generated displays, it was at least possibleto mon forms of plotting and printing." (Peterson, visually display the projections and be puzzled in 1966, p. 131). Three-dimensional data processing, attempting to imagine the rigid four-dimensional manipulation and display is of considerable current hyperobjects." (Noll, 1967,p. 473). interest not only for machine-aided design pur- As of several years ago, Rosa reported thatques- poses,"°d but also for direct scientific and engi- tions of color, three-dimensional data display, and neering findings. For example, a paper by Serlin size of display were matters of continuingcon- (1966) considers the use of three-dimensional com- troversy and concern.8 For effective radar and puting and plotting techniques in terms of the partial sonar screen displays, many different colors may be differentail equations involved in the cooling ofa required."' On the other hand,as Hobbs points thick glass slab. out, difficult design compromises may be required Levinthal (1966) has developed techniques for to achieve good performance,"'a and Baker and sequential display of two-dimensional output images Rugari indicate that desired capabilities haveyet in such way as to simulate the on-line presentation to be achieved.5.89b of the three-dimensional model of a protein mole- A color display device, developed by theDigital cule."' Again, a computer-display systemmay be Equipment Corporation for the Air Force Cambridge used in studies of human perception, suchas Research Laboratories,uses a 3-gun tube to plot perceptualmasking phenomenainsequential designated points on a 512x 512 raster. Mazzarese perception. (Mayzner and Tresselt, 1966). Tate (1965) reports that: "Color hasproven particularly comments: "Understanding of three-dimensional useful at AFCRL in filter design studies,which structure is an essential part of the growth of require overlaying graphic information correspond- science. Greatly increased attention must be focused ing to different ways of manipulatingraw data. on developing the needed systems for storing the Different colorscan code different parameters, or data available in the literature and manipulating varying intensities ofone color can show the changes the stereochemical details for study." (Tate, 1967, with time of one value." p. 296). Further, "the National Aeronautics and Space Output representations of three-dimensional data Administration has awarded the Philco Corp.,two may be either mechanical, as in a spatial data contracts to develop an experimental color tele- plotter,5.62 or they may be two-dimensional graphic vision display system for possibleuse in the mission displays involving variable perspective views ar.d control center of the Manned Spacecraft Centerin 28 Houston." (Electronics 38, No. 18, 40 (1965).) and Crane at the Bell Telephone Laboratories in Mahan (1968) reports on developments at ITT, 1928. Following the development of vocoder tech- Phi lco-Ford, General Electric, and Sylvania 5.69° niques (Dudley, 1936) a tactile output vocoder was while Hartsuch (1963) mentions RCA and Crosfield built by Levine and others at M.I.T., in the period Electronics.5.69d 1949-1951. Then there are possibilities for hybrid displays, A tactile vocoder at the Royal Institute of Tech- such as the following: "One intriguing prospect is a nology is designed along lines that are similar to hybrid displaya wall type panel made of solid these earlier lines. First, it uses an amplifier to state materials that emit light when activated by enhance the speech signal as it is received and then a light beam that is deflected electrically. Such a passes it through a differentiator to provide high- system would combine the advantages of the two frequency emphasis. The signal is next divided by principal approaches to optoelectronic display: the means of overlapping filters into ten channels of higher resolution and mo:e modest switching require- different center frequencies. The output signals ments of light-beam 'writing', plus the multicolor from each channel are rectified and smoothed to capability,higherreliability,brighter light and provide a control voltage. Next, in turn, each of the lower power consump;:lnofpaneldisplays." ten control voltages modulates the amplitude of a (Soref and McMahon, 1965, pp. 56-57). 300-cycle per second sinusoidal signal. When these Knowlton (1964) describes an ingenious technique signalshave been amplified and adjustedfor for computer generation of animated movies, such channel sensititivity, they are fed to ten bone- as those that might be desired for psychological transducers serving as vibrators to stimulate the experiments or for expository educational films or tips of the user's fingers from left to right across for visual display of computer processing results both hands in the order of the lowest to the highest including the dynamic drawing of flow charts or channel. (See Pickett, 1963). wiring diagrams.5.7° Then we note that: "Researchers at Stanford Another example of motion picture output is cited Research Institute under Dr. James C. Bliss have by Gomolak in connection with "electronic drafts- devised a 12 x 8 array of air jets which, under man" applications.57' More recently, at Bell Labo- control of a CDC 160A, is capable of transmitting ratories, animated movies have been machine- a perceptible message." (Datamation 9, No. 11, generated with respect to the effects of different 61 (1963).) gyroscope constraints on satellites.(Noll, 1966, The potentialmultiplicityof different input- p. 143).5.72 Then there is the VISTA system (Visual output modalities may be illustrated by two ex- Information for Satellite Telemetry Analysis).5-72" amples. First, the future potentialities of man- It is to be noted with respect to three-dimensional machine interchanges between verbal and graphic and dynamic displays that: "General three-dimen- representations of chemical structure and other sional graphical communication, which deals with diagrammatic information are just beginning to be arbitrary surfaces and space curve intersections, explored. Such possibilities are of considerable presents many difficult problems; the beginning has interest in such areas of application interest as been modest and much work remains before the studies of interactions of chemical structures with completegraphicalcommunication problemis biological effects. Some of the possibilities may be solved" (Johnson, 1963, p. 347), and that: "The exemplified by the following case: Without having matter of three-dimensional displays is closely allied undertaken a prior literature search, the researcher to the problem of dynamic display and is still a has synthesized a new steroid compound in the matter of concern." (Rosa, 1965, p. 413). laboratory. He prepares a chemical code notation and/or structure-connection-table listing as input. 5.2.3. Multi-media and Special Purpose Direct Outputs As a result, he receives: In a 1967 lecture, Mayeda discusses as a new a. An indication as to whether or not his presum- objective of system design the development of multi- ably "new" compound has been previously media networks, pointing out that, with the excep- reported in the literature and, if not, whether tion of certain military and intelligence applications, it is possibly patentable. most information processing systems have been b. A two- and preferably three-dimensional dis- "single path", but that new network requirements play of the structure he has described. This will necessitate the use of information processing may or may not be over-written in terms of technologies in combination as well as the "mixing coincidences with previously recorded infor- of normally incompatible media into one information mation. By pointing at specific subsets of the transfer system." (p. 4).5.73 diagram, he will direct the system to retrieve In addition to the varied combinations of textual, and report all available data with respect to visual, and audio output presentations stressed by observed physicalcharacteristics and bio- Mayeda (1967), a special purpose output mode may logical effects of known compounds containing berequired,involvingencodedtactile-pattern this specified subset structure. messages. For example, equipment providing tactile c. He may then add to or delete from listings of means for the reception and perception of speech multiple-substituentpossibilitiesat variable dates back to the "Teletactor" developed by Gault locations of attachment to the given nucleus, 29 and request display/report of the consequences nition. Between the simplest and most sophisticated in terms of previously known results. modes, there lies a spectrum of intermediate modes." (QuarterlyProgress Report No.80, Research As a second example, a reading-machine system Laboratory for Electronics, M.I.T., 217-218 (1966).) under development at M.I.T., "will include an Then there are developments in what has been opaque scanner for the sensing of printed matter, termed an "...Interaction Screen". This may be real-time data-processing facilities for real-time scan achieved by an electronic system "consisting of control, for operating upon the data, for controlling five major components: two consoles, one for each tactile and auditory displays, and for monitoring subject, through which, by operating dials and and analyzing the performance of human subjects. switches, they interact with one another;an experi- In its most sophisticated mode of operation, the menter's console for monitoring subjects' inter- system will recognize printed characters and gen- action; a control unit for altering theresponse erate artificial speech. A less sophisticated output possibilit. es open to the subjects; anda card punch mode will utilize Braille for tactile sensing and that records all interaction by both subjects." spelled speech for auditory reception. In its simplest (Sawyer and Friedell, 1965, p. 447). Beyond such mode of operation, the system will simply reproduce, interaction capabilities, large scale and highreso- as tactile patterns, the black-white shapes sensed lution dynamic displays may be desired forgroup by the scanner, without automatic characterrecog- interaction with processor systems.5.74

6. System Output to Microform and Hard Copy

In the preceding section, we have considered some of the remaining output mode possibilities. direct output and display primarilyas associated Thus, in this section,we shall be concerned with with Box 5 of Figure 5. In fact, this arbitrary computer-based microform recording and direct association is indicative ofsome of the difficulties output transmission, with printing, photocomposi- of presentation in this and other reports of this tion, and character and symbol generation, and with series, since in many cases the distinction between requirements for hard copy output. these direct outputs and those outputs that follow post-processing operations (Box 13)isentirely 6.1. MicroformRecordingandDirect artikial. (Certainly the question ofa multiplicity Output Transmission of output modalities and of multi-mediaoutput presentations is at least as pertinent to Box 14 as it As we have seen in consideration of file media and is to Box 5.) data storage techniques (Section 4), thereare both However, the intention in the preceding section advantages and disadvantages of either digitaliza- was intended to emphasize the possibilities of tion or of document miniaturization in facsimile direct, on-line interaction between theuser and the form for many differentpurposes. In many situa- system. In particular, as previously noted, new tions a judicious mixture of thetwo approaches may problem-solving capabilities are offered by advanced be the best solution.6.1 To theextent that document information processing techniques, especially in ordata miniaturizationprocesses are adopted, the form of a two-way process of graphical input and however, there are specific questions of direct output and of effectually on-line communication output, post-processing operations, and delayedor between the problem-solver and the machineso off-lineoutput. These questions include output that, at the man's own pace, he is able to study the recording of processed materialto microforms, effects of modifications and changes by having the clientele requirments for hardcopy, quality of results displayed to him almost instantaneously.574a display and reproduction,output via transmission By way of contrast, in discussing theareas of lines in various communicationsystems, and on-line R & D concern with respect to Box 14 of Figure 5, alteration of microform images. we will consider those output techniques, media, and An inportant recent trend in microform recording products that may be produced either on-lineor has been an increased coupling ofcomputer process- off-line and that may often involve theuse of various ing to either off-line or on-line outputs intoone or intermediate media of storage and/or transfer. It is more types of microforms.6.2 In a 1965 survey, of course also arbitrary to consider thesystem out- Kornblum predicted that microfilm, microfiche, and put products of Box 14 prior to discussion of the microfilm aperature card techniques we'ild have special post- processing operations (Box 13) that increasingly more challenging applications, specifi- typically precede them (this is also true withmany cally including on-line tie-ins to computersystems if not all of the techniques and products considered and to multiple-access data banks. He cited, in in association with Box 5). However, since post- particular,theevaluationsoftheMicro-Data processing operations such as transliterations and Division of Bell and Howell and of NCR s.3 re-formatting are often closely dependentupon By 1967, it could be specifically suggested that: choices of specific output modes,we have delib- "The genuine advantages of microformcomputer erately deferred discussion until we have covered output indicate that all output, except possibly that 30 used for debugging purposes, should be converted With respect to direct output transmission via directly to some sort of microform, eliminating the various types of communication links, it is noted intermediate stage of hardcopy. Indeed, IBM's that Long Distance Xerography techniques de- listingsof systems programs produced forits veloped by Xerox can be used for transmission of customer- and systems-engineers are stored on graphic materials from computer-based stores,67" as microfiche. The ease and cost of getting hardcopy can other types of scanning converters transanitting when essential will naturally depend on progress in to remote facsimile recorders.6 71) the microform reader/printer technology; the high A more recent Xerox development is the Graphic stakes involved in being able to handle computer Terminal Hardcopy Printer, usedatthe Bell output should encourage such progress." (Van TelephoneLaboratoriesinconjunction with a Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 192). computer-driven data display system.6-7c A special- EquipmentsuchastheStromberg-Carlson purpose device, the Microteleviser, providing for SC 4020 microfilm plotter6.4and later "Microma- the remo viewing and continuous focus magnifica- tion" equipment (Kalagher, 1968, p. 37),64aan IBM tion of microfilm images, was introduced by General _ systero,_6-4!) and the 3M Electron Beam Recorder6.5 Precision, Inc., at the 1965 WESCON exhibition. are commercially availablefor such purposes, Output via closed-circuit TV systems is also offering in the latter case speeds ofup to 60,000 presently limited primarily because of high costs lines per minute. At Bell Laboratories, suchan for use of coaxial cable transmission. However, output mode has been available since 196], and it various trials of such systems have been and are now includescomputer-generated moviecapa- being madefor example, the Council on Library bilities.6-5a In addition, a package of FORTRAN Resources has supported studies of the "Tele- programs has been developed that provides for reference" system involving closed-circuit TV and a 1 drawings of orthographic views of combinations of remotely controlled card manipulator for multiple 1 plane and quadric surfaces that are output toa external references to a library card catalog at a microfilm recorder. (Weiss, 1966). central location," a closed-circuit system has been On-line modification of displayed microform- installed for the Lake County libraries so that the recorded graphic images is specifically included in common collection can be appropriately shared,6-'o many machine-aided design and machine-assisted and a laboratory use of such a link for graphic-al problem-solving applications, including the pre- presentations of computer output has been reported viously mentioned DAC (Design Augmented by by Neilsen." In addition, Brookhaven National Computer) system," and others (seep. 23). Laboratory operates a network for video storage and A first factor involving the quality of display and display at the local stations. "a subsequent copy reproduction of materialsproc- Examples of commercial developments include essed and stored as microforms involves the quality Rernstar, which couples closed circuit TV trans- of the input material 6.6a A second factor involving mission with automatic records retreival equip- quality of display and reproduction is that ofproper ment.6-"b Then, in Great Britain, a patent (No. maintenance of equipment661)as well as of the 997,946) has been granted to Pye, Ltd., for a system microforms themselves. that converts normal high-speed TV signals into From a systems design point of view, however, the low speed signals generated with a slow scanning most critical factors are those reflecting client speed and occupying a narrow bandwidth (see willingness to accept and use the products and Electronics Weekly, No. 258, for Aug. 11, 1965). processes of microform techniques. For example, it Dixon Industries, Inc., has developed a video sys- has been quite widely assumed for some years that tem, VIDEOIR, allowing remote transmission via the use of microforms for documentary and library slow-scan methods over ordinary telephone lines, reference purposes is generally unacceptable to and offering a unitized tape record the size of a scientific and technical users. With improvements punched card to hold up to 150 pages, as well as in the availability of microforms and in the tech- tape reels. (Sci. Inf. Notes 7, No. 1, 2 (1965).) nology of use however, there is now evidence of growing acceptance and in some cases of certain advantages to the user.6-7 6.2. Printing,Photocomposition and Nevertheless, the systems planner and designer Computer-ControlledCharacterand must still address himself to the questions of how Symbol Generation convenient, how compact, and how portable avail- able viewers having good quality legibility are? Can The earliest and still most common form of output hard copy, enlarged printouts be obtained either of information processing system results is that of directly or indirectly on a selective basis from such typing or printing. In the past few years, increasingly devices or must there be resort to separate processes automated techniques have emerged for use in involving other equipment? Further, it has been publication and printing processes. These range noted that "the general problem of a satisfactory from use of direct computer printouts, using high hand-reader for microformstillremains tobe speed, but low quality printers, through computer- solved." (Council on Library Resources, 1966, p. generated tapes that drive automatic typesetting 52). Wooster, (1968) however, suggests a "cuddly" operations tobatteries of low speed composer- microform reader, as shown in Fig. 7. printer devices, to computer control of high-speed 31 , 7 \ /NEWraw 6 MIA .MI10.MI011111MMIN 7" Jo' Ml composition systems that do provide output of good example is the development of Miniaturized Tech- typographic quality. There are obviously continuing niques for Printing, or Miniprint, by NCR.6-1"" On problems of advanced system design, in terms of the other hand, higher speeds may result in the loss appropriate comprises between speed and quality.612 of visibility for the user of .n on-line terroinal.6-m1 Nisenoff reports that, as of 1966. "several de- 6.2.1. Line Printers velopments were undertaken to produce ultra-high- speed printing mechanisms of a non-mechanical In general, direct, on-line printouts from informa- nature.Radiation,Inc.,for example,built an tion processing systems are made at high speed, electrostatic printer which required special electro- butwithmonocase limitations 6.13fixedinter- sensitive paper. With the paper moving at nearly character and interword spacing, and poor utiliza- 100 inches per second, a maximum printing rate of tion of paper.614 In the case of some chain printers, 60,000 characters per second (500 lines per second such as the IBM 1403 6.15 and the Potter Chain or 30,000 lines per minute) was attained. The cost, Printer,6-16 somewhat larger character sets than the however, was high for general use of this type of single case set can be accommodated. Then it is subsystem." (Nisenoff, 1966, p. 1824).6-18c to be noted that "use of 2-ease print mechanisms on high-speed computer printers for the display 6.2.2. Photocomposition and Electronic Character Gen- of extended chemical' character sets has been under eration Techniques joint development by IBM and Chemical Abstracts." (Burger, 1964, p. 2). A major type of non-impact printing technique In addition, it should be noted that "printing is represented by the various types of photocomposi- speed for these [chain] printers depends both on the tion equipment. By contrast with impact printers, information to be printed and the character arrange- with other types of non-impact printing, and with ment. Since most printing applications use some hot-leadtypecastingmachines,thephotocom- characters more often than others it may be possible position techniques involve the transfer of optical to increase the printing speed by repeating high images of characters from a negative master to a usage characters on the chain more frequently photographic emulsion, with suitable provisions for than low usage ones." (Eichelberger et al., 1968, illumination, image magnification or reduction, and p. 130). Further, "given character usage statistics positioning. Many techniques and configurations of we can (1) reliably estimate printing speed for a mechanical, optical and electronic devices and de- given character chain arrangement and (2) improve velopments have been employed for such purposes. the arrangement so as to increase the average print- Typographic quality output is achieved in photo- ing speed." (Ibid, p. 136). composition techniques by the automatic selection There are continuing trends for higher and higher of the right one of several sets ofharacters, by speed of printer output, especially in the area of point size adjustments for the individual character non-impact printing devices, since, as Becker points includingthosenecessaryforsubscriptsand out, 1200 lines per minute is "about the maximum superscripts,6-1" by controlled positioning of the speed of a line printer because there is a limit to character as projected, and by insertion of special the firing time available for mechanically operating symbols and characters.6-1° a print hammer." (Becker, 1967, p. 2).6.17 Advanced The generation, accurate placeMent, and perman- hardware techniques foi output printing include a ent storage of hundreds or thousands of high-quality thermal imprinting development by NCR for the symbols per second presently require that optical- U.S. Army Electronics .Command.6-'?a photographic techniques be employed, since the In a brief 1965 survey of non-impact printers, speeds are too great to permit mechanical symbol Webster notes first a facsimile process technique selection. Photography on film or paper is the cur- which forms a latent character image on electro- rently preferred recording method, although other conductive paper by pulsing selected wires in a graphic storage techniques. such as electrostatic, matrix of styli. The visible image is formed by liquid thermographic,thermoplastic,ph otoch romicor or power toner that adheres only to the image area video signals on magnetic tape offer alternative and is bonded by heat and /or pressure. Representing. recording possibilities.6-2° this approach today are small serial devices such as More than two decades of development in photo- Motorola's TP-4000, and "high-volume printeib composition techniques (from the Higgonet and such as the Radiation 'Super-Speed' printer over Moyroud "Luinitype" and "Photon" patent appli- 31,000 lines per minute". cations of 1945) have culminated as of today in a Planned variations in the TP-4000 teleprinter wide variety of available devices in a broad range equipment alsoillustrate new developments of of costs and performance characteristics. At one interest in the multiple access and man-machine extreme, we find 6-10 character per second devices. interactive systems. "This new teleprinter will... At the other end of the speed spectrum is the Benson provide a single facility for the human operator to Lehner Transdata system with a theoretical text make inquiry of a computer at his maximum but composing speed of 62,500 characters per second, plodding rate of 10 to 15 characters per second, and but with a character set (or "vocabulary") limited receive his answer back at a rate of 300 characters to less than 100 characters or symbols. The inter- per second." (De Paris, 1965, p. 49).6-18 Another mediate speed range is bracketed by the Photon 33 900 series (300-500 cps) and the specified Linotron ards (Lee and Worral [eds.}, 1968), as well as by the rates of 1,000-10,000 cps. Hartsuch reports 1967 Stevens and Little review (1967). developments by Photon. Fairchild Graphic Equip It is to be noted in particular that "the Govern- merit, American Type Founders. Alphanumeric Inc., ment Printing Office was instrumental in the de- Harris-Intertype, and K. S. Paul and Associates, velopment of computer programs and production among others.6-2°" techniques which have made it possible to utilize Among the electronic character generation tech- the most recent developments in printing technology niques noted in Webster's 1965 survey were the and to apply automation to the publication of... A. B. Dick Videogaph,62' the Stromberg-Carlson [the] latest edition of the Library of Congress sub- Charactron shaped-beam tube,622 and "the... ject heading list. This is the largest single publica- little-known Xeronic High Speed Computer Output tion which has been produced by the Government Printed developed by Rank Data Systems Division Printing Office using computers and photo composi- ...Character formation is by a pair of cathode ray tion." (L.C. Info. Bull. 25, 612, 1966). Further, tubes which form the latent image on the charged there are even computer typesetting procedures paper, which is developed by a continuous xero- designed for publication of computer language graphic system. The 'form' repertoire is held on a specifications, such as that developed for Autocode strip of film which is superimposed over the frame AB, in Sweden. (von Sydow, 1967). of variable information." (Webster, 1965, p. 45). The field of typographic-quality composition and Character generation techniques for high quality printing actually comprises several quite different as well as high speed composition are employed in technologies. However, a number of these tech- the Linotron systern,623 in RCA developments,6-24 niques may be made to converge in the design ofa and in the Digiset equipment developed by Dr. single large-scale system. At one extreme,a skilled, Rudolf He11.6-25 An entry of Bell Laboratories is highly trained operator must perform all of thecom- described by Mathews and Miller (1965) as having positor functions (spacing, leading, horizontal and the following graphic arts display characteristics: vertical justification, hyphenation, page makeup) "The unit can produce on a single scope face high required to operate typesetting equipment; at the quality printing with as much as 200 lines of 350 other extreme, text copy with or without font, style, letters each... atspeeds of 500 to 5,000 characters/ size, or format specification can be processed with a second....Since the image is described in com- high degree of automation through all the operations plete generality digitally, line drawings, mathe- that are necessary to produce type or plates set for matical equations, musical scores, and an unlimited printing. number of type fonts can be produced by the same. Among the pertinent technologiesare: special- completely standard, means." (p. 397) More recent purpose devices or computers to provide justifica- developments in high speed character generation for tion,re-spacingandhyphenationinformation phototypesetting also include the IBM 2680 CRT automatically; 6.26 photocomposition developments; printer.6-25a electronic character generation devices for both on-line and off-line applications, and the program- 6.2.3. Computer-Controlled Typographic Composition ming of general-purpose computers to accomplish the type compositor functions. Thus, in the past several years, three major, and Improvements in size of character repertoire and often closely interrelated, developments in hard provisions for rapid switching between character copyproductiontechnology have gainedcon- sets under automatic control are under active de- siderable momentum. These are: the development velopment. Some systems incorporate possiblities of techniques for computer-based typesetting, in- forprogram-controlled,light-peninserted,or cluding automatic justification and hyphenation; reproduced-from-storage interpolations of graphic the further improvement and widespread use of material with text, ranging from formatting grids photocomposition techniques, and the development and lines (in order to separate or to emphasize of both off-line and on-line devices for high speed tabular or columnar matter) to the incorporation of character and symbol generation, including the reproduced photographs with half-tone fidelity. 6.26a recent breakthrough in "computer calligraphy", Other combinations may permit the intermixtureor notably, at the U.S. Naval Weapons Laboratory, superpositioning of pre-recorded graphic informa- Dahlgren.6.25b tion (including pictorial data) with that of textor The automation of the traditional compositor graphicsgeneratedeffectivelyon-line. 6.26bFor functions is well on its way toward revolutionizing example, the new Photon 901 allows variable char- the printing industry. Overviews of this field have acter density, together with other improvements of been provided by Barnett (1966), by publication of the 900 (or Zip), and in addition provides for the the Proceedings of the two Computer Typesetting insertion of graphics from projected slides 6.26c Conferences (the Institute of Printing, 1965, 1967), Going beyond the direct compositiononto the and of a 1965 Symposium sponsored by the Center page of two-dimensional symbols, many applications for Technology and Administration of The American of the future will demand the automatic insertion University (Hattery and Bush {eds.], 1965), and by a of previouslystored graphic material suchas Symposium held at the National Bureau of Stand- drawings,illustrations and photographs and of

34 similar material received via communicationmeans should be a way to captureany frame of the display such as facsimile. Actually, this type of sophisticated in the form of 'hard copy', and the hardcopy should output has been investigated in several quite early be coded automatically for machine filing, retrieval, projects,6.27 and it has been claimed that "there and redisplay." (1965,p. 94). It is, however, im- appears to be no real technical barrier to the simul- portant to determine the extent to which hard copy taneous or practically simultaneous composition- options are actually needed, rather than merely imposition of both text and graphics." (Duncan, desirable.6-'" 1964, p. 135). In terms of technological developments relatedto The Linotrons and related equipment built for hard-copy output optionswe note various types of the Air Force will provide for the generation of electrostatic, magnetic, and smoke photographic graphical material, suchas line art illustrations, methods (i.3° We note further that RADC has continuous tone illustrations, and screened halftone awarded Xerox Corp..,a contract to build a selective illustrations in a separate video displaysystem, with photocopier that will separate printedtext from optical mixing of the lexical and graphicalma- illustrativeandpictorialmaterial 6.31Another teria1.6.28 Beyond such questionsare those of "Com- exampleistheBolt,Beranek and Newman puterCalligraphy"(Hershey,1967),including "Symbiont", a computerprogram system designed problems of computer-controlled composition of to facilitate the use of technical documents by chemical structure diagrams and mathematical students that includes an automatic note-taking and formulas, to be considered ina more general dis- copy feature for student-selected portions of text cussion of character sets and display terminal (Bobrow et al., 1966). Thus, photocopying techniques design requirements in a later report in this series. continue to be an importantmeans of system As of 1967, then, the computer has demonstrated response. However, such techniques are encounter- capabilities for eliminating the need for complex ing steadily increasino. difficulties interms of coping compositor skills on the part of keyboard operators, with the steady growth in volume of demand. There for providing significant increases in the speed with have been complaints,moreover, that continuing which type composition functionsmay be carried development efforts are required in the conversion out, and for keeping pace with those developments of microfilm to hard copy, particularly in theareas in electronic photocomposers that promise graphic of speeding up theprocesses and reducing the arts quality typesetting at speeds of several thou- cost of copies 6.31a sand characters per second and the superimposition of line art, screened halftones, and continuous 6.4. Post-Processing Operations and Special tone illustrations. Forms of Output 6.3. Hard Copy Reproduction In the case of computer typesetting, photocompo- sition, and character generation techniques, the It is obvious that direct printout, delayed printout, post-processing operations of Box 13, Figure 3,are photocomposition, and symbol and charactergener- represented first by formattingprocesses to provide ation techniques can provide the typicalsystem horizontal and vertical justification, hyphenation, client with hard-copy versions of the information and the like. processed by a system or contained inor retrieved On-line formatting in terms of output through from its files. In other cases, however, the primary eithercomputer-printerorcomputer-controlled system output (whether in Box 5 or Box 14 of typesetting devices is typically limited to intra-line Figure 3) is some type of visual display of complete and interlinear spacing control. Aswe have seen, items or their surrogate representations which the controlled variation of printing weightmay also be user scans. Such displays may also be accompanied available through repetitive overprinting of the by address-locators such that the item in its entirety same character in the same spatial position on the may be retrieved or reproduced in facsimile from output media (e.g., special chain-printerarrange- its location in physical storage. In addition, the ments). In certain ingenious applicationseven so option of hard-copy or facsimile reproductionmay limited a device as the high-speed line printerhas often be desired from the systemresponse and been used to simulate gray-scale variation intwo- display as such 6.28a dimensional graphic representations by choice of In particular, the provision of hard-copy retrieval heavily "inked" character symbolsto fill in darker options is important in most information selection areas and those characters involving relatively less and retrieval systems involving storage of docu- weight for the lighter areas. With the introduction ments and data in microforms. While some con- of electronic generation and display techniques, troversy exists with respect to the extent and however, on-line formatting potentialities takeon urgency of client requirements, user satisfaction much more versatility. considerations would appear to dictate continuing Other than for formatted printout, outputresponse agreement with such commentators as Mikhailov of may be required at several different levels. Post- VINITI in 1962, "the production of a large number processing operations will thus involvere-arrange- of copies directly from microfilm must be made ment, re-formatting and transliteration or translation possible..." (1962, p. 51) and of Licklider with of the direct results of processing, matching, selec- respect to an on-line system of the future: "There tion, and/or retrieval operations into forms and into 35 languages required for subsequent presentation, intended to be used in connection with the develop- transmission, and use to the system clientele 6.31b ment of reading aids for the blind.6-35 For example, Press and Rogers describe TRACE, Postprocessing operations will also include, as which "is a program with extensive capability to appropriate, various summarizations and condensa- edit, reconfigure, and display multivariate data." tions of the information that has been processed or (Press and Rogers, 1967, p. 37).6-31c retrieved. For example: "Large-scale data-process- In such post-processing operations, for another ing systems have been planned in which the input example, we note a speech recognition requirement: is in the form of on-the-spot observations in special "The speech-recognition device, after having iden- formats. Retrieval is then required, not just of the tifiedphonetic stretches on the basis of their observations themselves, but of [inferences] from perceptual characterisitics, must transform them them, through conditional search, summing, averag- into strings of linguistic signs..." (Garvin, 1963, ing, correlating, finding maxima, reporting sudden p.113). As we have seen in an earlier report, changes of state, etc." (Bohnert, 1963, p. 155). speechcompression requirementsaredirectly Yet, as of today "too many systems are designed related to problems of achieving more efficient and to display all the data, and not to display only the more economical use of communication and data data needed for the decisions the system is called transmission links. upon to make." (Fubini, 1964, p. 2). Postprocessing operations may also be applied Finally we note that system outputs based upon in order to provide special forms of output that are post-processing operations will potentially involve dictatedforparticularpotentialapplications; feedback information, such as activity analysis, or transliteration into Braille,6-32 into synthetic orpre- the following: "A programming capability is to be recorded spoken messages, and translation from provided which, when initiated, will tally the number orthographic word records into phonemic form6.33 of requests for specified combinations of data for example. Nelson (1965) suggests a relatively items thereby enabling analysis by operating person- simple device for coupling blind users to on-line nel, leading to refinement of the output formats and text libraries via a Braille display. output request procedures through experience with Another special form of output for the handi- the system." (Geddes et al., 1963, p. 23). In par- capped is to produce from information processing ticular, output becomes input again in many of the equipment applied to speech analysis rapid displays advanced techniques that have been investigated of both spectrum and frequency analyses so that and demonstrated. More expecially, feedback in- a totally deaf child can see the results of his attempts formation, whether generated by man or by machine, to speak and compare them with desired per- may control various "threshold" settings as shown in formance in order to make rapid adjustments 6.34 Figure 1 and other figures in this and other reports "Spelled speech" is another output variant that is in the series.

7. System Use and Evaluation

With respect to Box 15 of Figure 3, that of use and unique combinations of objectives. It is doubtful evaluationofinformationprocessingsystem that the comparative tests that have been madeor products, we will consider many of the current that are planned can decide the relative merits problems and difficulties in more detail in another of systems for general application. They can only report in connection with the severe case of evalua- help to decide on the merits of certain particular tion of information storage, selection, and retrieval systems for certain particular applications. Hence (ISSR) systems. However, we note here a few there is real danger in drawing general conclusions examples of current concern with problems of from experience that is as yet too limited." (Lee and systems evaluation methodology generally. Campbell, 1959, p. 1555). Basic problems of evaluation methodology relate Current techniques for system evaluationpose first to the size, complexity, and open-endedness of many difficult problems and have been severely the systems themselves; the number of inter- criticised as to their present inadequacies. For dependent variables; the difficulties of defining and example, to Bryant's complaints about 'lack of isolating variables, and the amount of data to be well-defined objectives' and 'lack of meaningful collected and processed.7In particular,itis models', (1966, presented in 1964) Davis adds the noted that: "Information collected about a very followingdifficulties: "Uncertaintyconcerning large system may become obsolete faster than it measures of effectiveness", those of determining can be collected." (McCam, 1965, p. 95). system scope, and lack of quantitative evaluation It also still appears obvious, as of 1967, that criteria, as well as those of securityor proprietary "comparison and evaluation of systems are still interests and those where disinterest in evaluation very hazardous, because of the many variables that results because there areno obvious penalties for enter into the design of any particular system and poor system design. (Davis, 1965, p. 81). the fact that the design of any system is decided An obviously difficult problem is that of identifying to some extent on specific objectives and somewhat meaningful evaluation criteria.7-2 Even with obvious 36 objective system performance criteria, such as substitutes one-for-the-other. Test problems, simu- cost, equipment reliability, or response time, many lating the actual system usage, will showup system practical difficultiesare encountered. Both true defects not detectable through the application of costs and true benefits are often difficult or even measures of effectiveness." (Davis, 1965, p. 82). impossible to measure. True costs, for example, Nevertheless, it is to be emphasized that "unfor- certainly include those of the personal time and tunately, no real guidelinesare available which effort required of the potential user, while true could be used in the design of evaluation procedures, benefits may be intangible, for example, in the sense and most of the methods actually proposedare of the negative benefits of not missing pertinent based on ad hoc rules which stress theoretically information. desirable features, and do not concern themselves The questions of client-utilization of system prod- with practical questions. Asa result, much of the ucts, with special attention to the interrelated prob- proposed methodology cannot, in fact, be imple- lems of system evaluation, are of particular concern. mented reasonably in a test situation." (Salton, We are faced, first of all, with the lack of quantita- 1965, p. 201). tive measures of effectiveness, with subjectively Even more discouraging, perhaps, is the opinion rather than objectively determined performance of some investigators that the development of factors, and with a variety of uncontrolled variables evaluation methodology itself iseven less advanced involving human factors.7.3 than that of system analysis and testing. Thus, Research and development requirements in the "one can raise reasonable doubts, however, that the area of system evaluation involve the establishment development of evaluation methodology has kept of research corpora, "core" problems, and "test- pace with the development of the systems." (Morey bed" data banks against which comparative experi- and Yntema, 1965, p. 349). Further, "progress in ments may be run. Better system models and more designing and applying information handlingsys- precisely selected and defined measures of perform- tems has outraced progress in evaluating their ance effectiveness are obviously required. Morey performance. As system complexity has increased, and Yntema emphasize that: "As the economic and the relative adequacy of existing evaluation tools operational implications of man-computer systems has decreased." (Calingaert, 1967, p. 12). loom larger, the need for more powerful evaluation We may also concur with the opinion of Blunt tools and techniques increases. System testing, as that "the system engineer presently lacks sufficient the prime source of data upon which any evaluation tools to efficiently design, modifyor evaluate com- is based, shares this need for improved method- plex information systems." (Blunt, 1965,p. 69). ology." (Morey and Yntema, 1965, p. 349). Several of the new tools that are being developed We need both better measures of system effec- include formal modelling and simulation techniques, tiveness and the development of "core" or "bench- but we shall discuss these in terms of overall system mark" problems for purposes of test. As Davis design questions, to be considered in the next report comments: "Measures of effectiveness and use of in this series. test problems are complementary rather than being

8. Conclusion In this second report, a number of developments predictions of hardware developments for the 1970's have been adduced, and a number of areas of con- recapitulates many of the areas of hardware R & D tinuing R & D concern have been indicated, with concern that have been indicated in various sections respect to processing operations, processor system of this report. In particular, he points to the following management, storage, postprocessing operations, major problem areas: and on-line and off-line outputs from generalized information systems. As we have seen, for example, "Low-cost,largecapacity,alterableon-line output products involving graphic two-dimensional storage. or three-dimensional and voice response represen- Low-cost, reliable input/output equipment. tations of stored data are relatively new but are of Proper selection and organization of storage increasing importance in on-line, reactive, selection hierarchies. and retrieval systems and, in particular, for systems Low-costinquiry/displayconsolesfor man- oriented toward machine-aided design applications. machine interaction. Two-dimensional data outputs are already widely Dynamic real-time large-screen displays. available both in the form of facsimile and TV System design and application concepts that recordings and transmissions and in the form of minimize input/output operations at the ex- dynamic, on-line displays, but these are all areas pense of more internal logic and memory. requiring extensive further efforts and developments Improvedconceptsof increasedfunctional aimed, in particular, at lower cost. With respect to modularitytoutilizelarge interconnected hardware requirements alone, Hobbs in his 1966 circuit arrays. 37 Improved automatic fault isolation and main- Other considerations, such as those of program- tainability. ming and other software requirements, are also of Economic associative memories or other hard- obvious concern. In many cases, however, such ware techniques to facilitate file access by considerationsrelatetothe many interrelated content. functions of a generalized system and not merely, Protection for example, to input rather than outputor vice of data baseinmulti-computer, versa. For these reasons, we will consider overall multi-user systems with many remoteusers. system design requirements (including problems Communications between remoteuser consoles ofsystemandnetworkdesign, programming and the processor, between differentproc- languagesandrelatedsoftwaredevelopments, essors. and between remote processors and advanced hardware technologies, and the like), the data base." (Hobbs, 1966,p. 44). in a third report in this series.

38 Appendix A. Background Noteson Research and Development Requirements in Information Processing, Storage,and Output In this Appendix we present further discussion formation processing systems. A number of illustra- and background material intended tohighlight tiveexamples,pertinentquotationsfromthe currently identifiable research and development literature, and references to current R and D efforts requirements in the broad field of the computer have been assembled. These background notes have and information sciences, with emphasisupon been referenced, as appropriate, in the summary processing, storage, and output functions of in- text. 1. Introduction

1.1There are certain obvious difficulties with of this report, its necessary selectivity, and the respect to the organization of material for a series problems of organization and emphasisare to be of reports on research and development require- noted.Obviously, thereviewer'sinterests and ments in the computer and information sciences and limitations will emerge at least indirectly interms technologies. These problems stem from theover- of the selectivity that has been applied. laps between functionalareasinwhich man- machine interactions of both communication and In general, controversial opinions expressedor control are sought; the techniques, tools, and implied in any of the reports in this seriesare the instrumentation available to achieve such inter- sole responsibility of the author(s) of thatreport and actions, and the wide variety of application are not intended in any way to represent the official areas policies of the Center for Computer Sciencesand involved. Technology, the National Bureau of Standards, The material that has been collected andre- viewed to date is so multifaceted and or the Department of Commerce. However,every so extensive effort has been made to buttress potentiallycontro- as to require organization into reasonably tractable versial statements or implications either with direct (but arbitrary) subdivisions. For example, thepres- quotations or with illustrative examples from the ent report is concerned with problems ofmanage- ment of multiple access systems in terms of pertinent literature in the field. processing system service requests,among other The author of thepres( nt report must apologize topics, but questions of programming languages and for a necessary selectivity and formany inadvertent other overall system design considerations will be omissions in coverage. It will be appreciated if discussed in a separate report. specific omissions are calledto our attention. It is to Other topics to be covered in separatereports in be noted that neither inclusionnor citation is in- this series will include specific problems of informa- tended in any way to representan endorsement of tion storage, selection andr trieval systems and any specific commercially available device orsys- the questions of maintaining the integrity of priv- tem, of any particular investigator's results with ileged files (i.e., some of the background considera- respect to those of others, or of named project tionswithrespecttotheissuesofprivacy, objectives. Conversely, omissionsare in no sense confidentialityand/orsecurityinthe case of intended to imply adverse evaluations of products, multiply-accessed, machine-based files, data banks, media, equipment, systems, project goalsand and computer-communication networks). project results, or of bibliographic referencesnot In general, the plan of attack in each individual included. report in the series will be to outline in relatively There will be quite obvious objectionsto this short discursive text the topics ofconcern, sup- necessary selectivity from readers who are also plemented by background notes and quotations and R & D workers in the fields involvedas to the repre- by an appendix giving the bibliographic citations of sentativeness of cited contributions from theirown quoted references. It is planned, however, that there work or that of others. Such criticismsare almost will be a comprehensivesummary, bibliography, and inevitable.Nevertheless, these reportsare not index for the series as a whole. intended to be state-of-the-art reviewsas such, but Since problems of organization, terminology, and rather they are intended to provide provocative coverage have All been difficult in the preparation of suggestions for further R & D efforts. Selectivity thisseriesof reports, certaindisclaimers and must also relate to a necessarily arbitrary cut-off observations with respect to thepurpose and scope date in terms of the literature covered. 39 These re:ports, subject to the foregoing caveats, access from and to many users at many locations. are offered as possible contributions to the under- This implies multiple inputs in parallel, system standing of the general state of the art, especially interruptibility, and interlacings of computer pro- with respect to long-range research possibilities in grams.Itis assumed, further, that the overall a varietydisciplines that are potentially applicable scheme involves hierarchies of systems, devices, to information processing problems. The reports and procedures; that processing involves multi-step are therefore directed to a varied audience among operations,andthatmulti-modeoperationis whom are those who plan, conduct, andsupport possible, depending on job requirements, prior or research in these varied disciplines. They are also tentative results, accessibility, costs, and the like. addreswfl to applications specialists who may hope It should be noted, next, that techniques suggested eventually to profit from the results of current. for a specific system may apply to more than one research efforts. Inevitably, there must besome operational box or function shown in the generalized repetition§ of the obvious or over-simplifications of diagram of Figure 1. Similarly, in a specific system, certain topics for some readers, and there must also the various operations or processesmay occur in be some too brief or inadequately explained discus- differentsequences(includingiterations)and sions of other topics for these and other readers. several different ones may be combined in various What is at best tutorial for one may be difficult for ways. Thus, for example, questions of remote another to follow. It is hoped, however, that the console design may affect original item input, input notesandbibliographiccitationswillprovide of processing service requests, output, and entry of sufficient clues for further follow-up as desired. feedback information froin the-user or the system 1.2Certain features of the information flow and client. The specificsolutions'dopted may be process schema of Figure 1 are to be noted. It is implemented in each of these operational areas,or assumed, first,that the generalized information combined into one, e.g., by requiring all inputs and processing system should provide for automatic outputs to flow through the same hardware.

2. Processor System Considerations 2.1"Besides being useful to individual users "One could say that time-sharing is the use of a who wish to borrow each other's routines, a sharing multiprogrammed processor for the purpose of mechanism is also useful to a group of users who permitting a number of users to operate the proc- wish to reference certain segments in common. essor in such a way that each is unaware of the use Such segments might be a set of library routines, of the processor by the others." (Collila, 1966, p. 51). or a set of procedures making up a programming "We may, therefore, expect to see in the next few language system." (Dennis and Van Horn, 1965, years a meld of time sharing and multiprocessing, p. 31). i.e.,simultaneous employment of two or more "With such a mechanism [common program- time-shared processors in association with a com- segment use], it is fruitful if the scheduling logic mon memory, which in a sense will be both time- clusters 'like' programs in the schedule or queue shared and space-shared." (Licklider, 1965, p. 26.) and thereby amortizes program-code swap time "By the spring of 1967...there were some 37 across many users." (Schwartz et al., 1965, p. 20). systems in operation, 25 research-oriented and 12 "There are various means of achieving a time- commercial systems. These vary from small to shared system, and the distinctions among them are large but all are characterized by a central computer sometimes quite fuzzy. Clouding the picture even and main memory that are time-shared among the more is the tendency evident in the literature to users, and an auxiliary storage that is space-shared couple the goal of 'intimate' man-machine com- by the programs of all the users and the systems munication to one method for achieving time- programs." (Harder, 1968, pp. 235-236). sharing and thenimplicitlytoassociate time- Weil (1966) provides general coverage of the his- sharing solely with this one method. For example, tory and probable impact of time-sharing concepts `time-slicing',ortheassignmentofparticular and systems on the management of data processing segments of time to a given user or problem on a operations. repetitive basis, is a form of time-sharing. 'Dedicated 2.1aSee, for example, the bibliography compiled time' modes of operation, where a user is guaranteed by Bell and Pirtle, 1966. a certain percentage of the computer's time in a 2.2Opler points out that such applications "may given period, could be construed as another form. require considerable queuing of elements and the A number of users have indicated that they feel the development of complex priGrity assignment and strongest 'interaction' with the computer when the recognitionschemes.Thistooprod-aces new system operates in the dedicated time mode." problems for both language and processor design- (Davis, 1966, p. 224.) ers." (1966, p. 197). "Time-sharing typically means expense-sharing 2.3 A provocative comment with respect to among a large number of subscribers, with reduced flexible system design to meet varying client re- computing costs for many kinds of applications." quirements is that of Greenberger: "The average (Sackman, 1968, p. 1). user should not have to carry water to the faucet 40 in his own buckets, one at a time. The system should "Another use of the reactive typewriter will be provide a continuous supply for him, with the hot, for preparing documents, reports and books. Not cold, and lemonade taps all withineasy reach." only will it be of assistance in making editorial (Greenberger, 1965, p. 34.) changes and revision, but, when thetext is com- See also Orchard-Hays, who comments: "The pleted, the reactive typewritercan be used to specify value of an efficient and flexible system is not that it the final page make-up for printing, thetype styles saves a little machine time. Rather, its value is that and sizes, and location of illustrations. From this it allows us to make mistakes cheaply and thus to specification, the reckoning machine willprepare gain more experience in shorter time and with less a tape record to be used to control one of the new expenditure." (Orchard-Hays, 1965, p. 242.) high-speed photo-composing machines for produc- 2.4In particular,it should be recognized as ing a high quality, typographically perfect final predicted by Bauer that if, as of 1965, "on-line product. On the other hand, if onlyan editorial computing probably represents 1 per cent of the proof copy is desired, and quality of printing isnot total computer activity in the country today. It will important, a high speed printer at the site of the probably represent 50 per cent in five years." (p. 14). reckoning machine will be used. Thesecan print 2.4a "We must realize always that a penaltyor a out some ten to twenty pages a minute. Mailor price is extracted for each increment of increased messenger service will ordinarily be fast enough to human efficiency; more computer time,more com- bring the results back to the user." (Mooers, 1965, plex computers, greater input/output equipment, p. 34.) and increased console costs. The tradeoffs undoubt- 2.6"The CTSS environment consists of approxi- edlyfavorever increasingon-linecapability. mately 250 users whose individual loadon the However, no system design shouldoccur without system varies from nearly zero up to the equivalent recognition of the prices demanded." (Bauer, 1965, of several hours of IBM 7094 time per month." p. 18). (Scherr, 1965, p. 5). 2.5"Inacooperativeinputtranscription 2.7"...The possibility of retrieval viaan project, the basic transcription into machinable on-line dialogue. This approach has been under form for each reportor document will include: study by Kessler of the Massachusetts Institute authors' names, title, all identifying numbers and of Technology, implemented in a small experimental dates, name of issuingagency (atall divisional design by Salton of Harvard,. and is realized in the levels), any other identifying text, andan abstract current Lockheed working system." (Drew et al., of the contents of the document. Additional material 1966, p. 3). which may optionally be added is pagination,text With respect to the applicationat Harvard, excerpts, descriptors, classification signs, or other Rocchio reports that in order "to establish the value index terms added at the point of transcription.... of real time interaction in mechanized document "The transcription instead of being doneat retrieval, and to investigate the effects of the various each and every retrieval collection over the country types of feedback which might be provided to the is done once and for all either at thesource of the user, three basic facilities are required: document or at one of a group of cooperating (1) a time-sharing system to effect on-lineman- retrieval systems, with the machinable transcription machine communication at a reasonable cost, in the form of cards, or perforatedor magnetic such as the Compatible Time-Sharing System tapes, being prepared and then circulated to all of (CTSS) available at M.I.T. for the IBM 7094. the cooperators." (Mooers. 1959,pp. 20, 21). (2) a flexible set of document retrievalprograms "This plan offersseveral advantages to the which are capable of incorporating informa- retrieval center and cooperating institutionsin tion received from the user and of providing addition to the speed of manuscript transmission via alternative retrieval operations; paper tape. First, this machine-readable record of (3)a communication-oriented executive routine the bibliography or portions thereof, will be made designed to provide theman-program inter- available to cooperating documentation units, and action and to control the scheduling of the the possibility of reciprocal exchange exists. Also variouspro 3essingoptionsina manner the preparation of edited machine-readable biblio- compatible with the time-sharing system." graphic entries is done once,never having to be (Rocchio, 1964, pp. XII-1, repeated... 2.8"In its present configuration,a user may "The firstlarge scale implementationon an in-sit at an. electric typewriter,scan a stated range ternational basis of the `tape-typewriter plan' for of literature and performa search based on key cooperation between documentation centers, has words, keyword in context, citation index, biblio- been initiated between Italy and the United States. graphic coupling, author, location and variouscom- This particular application of the plan entails the binations of these. Theresponse is printed back transmittal of entries in an international serialcur- on the same typewriter within seconds of the rent bibliography from the...FAO...head- request. The interaction between the user and the quarters, Rome to the Aquatic Sciences Information system is free of intermediaries and is accomplished Retrieval Center (ASIRC) at the University of Rhode by means of a languagevery close to natural Island..." (Scient. Info. Notes 5, 3, 1 (1963).) English." (Kessler, 1964,p. 1). 41 In addition, provision is made for maintenance of (who) can check this list and determine whether personal files for individual users: any new topic tags, equivalence words, or little "Instead of specifying what to find the program words need to be created. The topic tags in the is directed to read a file called SMITH....:which] Document Word File are ordered alphabetically, may contain a list of authors, citations, andkv key duplicate topic tags are deleted, one is added to the words that Mr. Smith is particularly interested document frequency tally in the Word Screen File in...He may change it from time to time... associated with each topic tag...,the request This r.rovides the user with a combined author frequency tally and the document frequency tally index,citationindex, KWIC and share search are copied from the Word Screen File and entered tailored to his individual needs." (Kessler, 1964, along with each topic tag in the Document Word p. 21). File... "Night Letter. In this program a stated literature "The Document Word File now consists of the range is to be searched. When a reference is found equivalence words and the topic tags in the docu- to a prepared list of papers, a letter is printed, ment, along with the request frequency and docu- addressed to the author of the cited paper telling ment frequency tallies...(and, the) assigned him the journal, volume, page, title, author, and document number. This version of the Document location of the paper that cited him." (Kessler, 1964, Word File is used to update the Topic Tag Index p. 19). File and also to create the automatic abstract of the "A set of programs has been developed under the document..." (Geddes et al., 1963, pp. 179-180). general name of SHARE. In this process, we name 2.10Borko gives the following account: "Now an article and ask that other articles be found that you see the listed subcategories, and again you use share some element with it. One may ask for author, the light pen to make your selection. In this manner word, location, or citation share." Further, "it is you narrow your field and reduce the number of possible to create 'standing orders' that will be documents to be searched. You may then ask to fulfilled at some slack time when the computer is see the documents in the subcategory that you have free from immediate demands, usually late at night." selected. On the scope you will see the author and (p. 17) title of the books which have been classified into 2.9 "TEXTIR (TEXT indexing and Retrieval) is that category. You may now browse through the file a set of programs which were developed as part of a and make your selection. On request, you will be joint experimental project undertaken by the Los given the appropriate call number and you may ask Angeles Police Department (LAPD) and System for a microfilm copy. The microfilm image could Development Corporation (SDC) in the computer transmitted to you on the display console or... retrieval of crime data in natural English lan- mailed to you." guage ...The basiccapabilitiesof TEXTIR Some further details of the SDC system are as include automatic indexing of every substaaiLive follows: word in machine-readable reports or documents, and retrieving preselected portions of these indexed "The BOLD data base generator builds tables of reports in response to natural English language structured information from a Hollerith prestored queries." (Farrell, 1965, p. 7). This system based magnetictape.The tablesaredesigned with upon the AN/FSQ-32 computer,conventional extensive linking between entries referenced by Model 33 teletypes, CRT display consoles, and light identical key words or phrases to permit rapid pen input facilities is also discussed by Schwartz retrieval. The data base that is presently being used et al. (1965). It is in operation nine hours a day for was obtained from the Defense Documentation more than 30 users *simultaneously. (Commun. Center and consists of abstracts of approximately ACM 8, 253 (April 1965).) 6000 documents...." "The function of the data base generator sub- "The entire document.. is read into the com- puter ...All the words in the document are system is to process prestored data tapes and to ordered alphabetically and duplications are elimi- establish the linking between the index terms and other descriptive attributes such as authors, titles, nated to produce a Document Word File...The Document Word File is compared against the Word contract numbers, etc. The data tables produced by Screen File; all the little words and obsolete words the data base generator are used by tin retrieval program. ..." are deleted ...all the topic tags are retained and "The display and retrieval subsystem is designed the relative address of each topic tag is entered... all the equivalence wands are retained along with to search the data base that has been structured by the data base generator program and to retrieve and the associated topic tag and its relative address... "At this point in the processing, the Document display the requested information.... Word File consists of topic tags, their associated "The retrieval program has the following char- relative addresses in the Word Screen File, equiv- acterostocs: alence words, and the words of the document which (a) Allows, and therefore monitors, many users are not in the Word Screen File. This latter set of who are interrogating the same data base but unidentified words is set aside and pointed outas who are doing simultaneous, independent, an output to z Le personnel of the central facility... real-time retrieval.

42 (b) Permits the user to interrogate the dictionary offline printer, and a 2260 display/1053 printer and find out whether a word has been used input/output terminal. The reference file consists asan index term and how often and of some 300,000 NASA announced citations." whether there are synonyms or related terms. (Summit, 1967, p. 52.) (c) Allows the user to formulate his requests in 2.14"In another application,called Project natural language with very few computer- CIDSfor chemical information data system the oriented restrictions. computer will list all chemical compounds that fit (d) Displays retrieved information on a teletype or the specifications in a user's inquiry, giving formulas, CRT console. physical and chemical properties, and all known (e) Copies the retrieved information on a magnetic chemical and commercial names. If the inquiry is tape for off-line listing. .." too general, the satellite computer will indicate this "The BOLD inquiry station consists of a tele- before the search is started .. typewriter and cathode ray-tube display unit. The "An information-retrieval system called Project user interacts with the system and requests infor- Vector is being developed, with whichan unin- mation by typing on the teletypewriter. He may also formed person can use an inexpensive terminalto make certain requests by using the light pen and gain access to a vast library of information that the'' display scope... would otherwise not be available to him...... [A] display appears that indicates the 32 "Other applications include researchinthe divisions or main subject categories into which the locating of legal precedents and experiments in data are divided. If the user wishes a further man - machine interaction in game-playing." (Carr breakdown, he may use his light pen to flash a and Prywes, 1965, p. 89). division. By doing so, he is requesting more informa- 2.15"Under a [NASA] contract with the Bunker- tion about that category and receives a display of Ramo Corporation, consoles will be installed in the subdivisions. The display also supplies the users' immediate working areas, hooked-up by number of entries in the category. If he chooses to telephone lines with a central computer-search browse through the items in this category, he may system ...The user 'types' topical terms, authors' do so...The display he would receive is the first names, or similar identifying data which he believes abstract in that category. are pertinent to his query. Within seconds, coires- "Should the user decide to keep a permanent copy ponding citations begin to appearon the viewing of the display for future reference...the informa- screen ...If the user likes what hesees, the tion is transferred from the scope to the teletype." pressing of other buttons will record his interests (Borko and Barnaugh, 1966, pp. 6-7, 8-10, 12, 21). so that the cited documents may be sent to him. If 2.11"The system which is now working at not, he can modify his search until relevant citations LMSC depends upon two other operating Lockheed do appear." (Sci. Info. Notes 8, 12, 13 (1966).) systems.Thefirst,MATICO (Machine-Aided "One of the concerns of Project Intrex is tocon- Technical Information Center Operations) supplies duct a series of experiments to determine how the the machine-readable data base. The second, ADA traditional library catalog can be effectivelyaug- (Automatic Data Acquisition), supplies the on-line mented and combinedwithon-linecomputer computer and its time-sharing monitor... operation to provide users with a more powerful, "The types of information used as descriptors are: comprehensive, and useful guide to libraryre- (a) personal author, (b) all significant title words, sources. Present plans call for augmenting the (c) corporate author, (d) all subject headings (an traditional catalog in scope, depth, and search average of three per report), (e) contract number means. For example, the augmented catalog will con- (f)original report number, (g) secondary report tain entries for reports and individual journal articles number, and (h) date of publication." (Drew et al., as well as the traditional entries for books. Further- 1966, p. 4). more, in P. ddition to the title and author of each item, 2.12"It is possible to further restrict a retrieved such things as the bibliography,an abstract, key setof citations by year of announcement, an- words, and key phrases of each item will be included nouncement media ...or announcement series as part of its catalog entry. A user will be able to number.... conduct searches on nearly any combination of the "By displaying the alphabetically near terms, the data contained in a catalog entry. Present plans also user is able to see not only if and to what extent callfor providing alphanumeric communication the term he entered has been used as an index between user and computer by means of a high- term, but also any spelling or ending variations on speed,flexibledisplay console." (Haring, 1968, the term which have been used." (Summit, 1967, p. 35). pp. 53-54). 2.16"SAFARI is an on-line system fortext 2.13"The current operating environment of the processing de.signed to be used by a group of in- DIALOG system is an IBM 360/30 (32 thousand formation analysts for building their own personal bytes of core) together with two 2311 disk packs files. The system allows an analyst to scan through (7.5 million bytes each) for programs and inter- documents displayed on a CRT and to select mediate storage, a 2321 Data Cell (415 million bytes) relevent facts which then are processed linguis- mass storage device for the reference corpus, a 1443 tically and stored in the computer in the form of

366-108 0 - 70 - 4 43 logical content representations. To locate informa systems. He covers such relatively early develop- tion, the analyst can initiate a search through the ments as Strachey's 1959 paper, the M.I.T.-Lincoln stored representations to identify those with relevant Laboratory -SAGE developments, the Speed Tally content. When an item of interest is found, the system, airlines reservation systems, stock exchange original text from which it was derived can bere- quotation services, the CTSS (Compatible Time covered.On-lineeditingcapabilitiesallow the Sharing System) at M.I.T., the Bolt, Beranek and analyst to take all or any parts of the recovered Newman system, and others. We also note the texts, add commentary and interpretation, and following: generate reports about their content." (Walker, "The most complex system to date is the INTIPS 1967, p. 144). system at the United States Air Force Rome Air 2.16a"It is felt by many that an on-line computer Development Center. It combines multiprogram- system, which allows a user to converse directly ming, multicomputing, remote personal consoles, with the computer in his quest for relevant docu- remote graphical input-output devices, and remote ment citations, can provide a more effective en- conventional I/O devices. It is a lineal descendant vironment for information retrieval than s possible of the original RW 400 Polymorphic Computer with off-line systems. The on-line systems permits developed by the Ramo-Woodridge Corporation." information retrieval to be a highly individualized (Wagner and Granholm, 1965, p. 286). process with respect to time of occurrence, question 2.20"...An algorithm is used to determine at hand, and characteristics of user." (Summit, dynamically how much of the system's resources a 1967, p. 51). task ought to be allowed to consume. If this threshold 2.16b "We believe that this approach to data level is exceeded, the task is forced to stop and wait analyses a computer-mediated interplay between while other tasks have a chance; in other words, the investigator and !Lis data holds promise of a forced multiprogramming of sorts. (This has been more effective inductive analysis than either man or generally termed as time-slicing)." (Comfort, 1965, algorithm could produce alone." (Press and Rogers, p. 620.) 1967, p. 39). "A time-sharing system slices time in such a way "One of the more promising areas of computer use that each user gets a small amount of attention on involves the coupling of a man to a computer system some periodic basis." (Ware, 1967, p. 288.) for real-time problem solving where the Procedure for 2.21"The scheduling algorithm is that set of solution of the problem is either unknown or involves rules, or more strictly its embodiment in a program, complex tasks such as pattern recognition, that can which govern the frequency with which each user best be performed by humans." (Brown, 1965,p. 82) is serviced and the length of time each program is Use of the graphical input-output console allows permitted to run before it is interrupted...The the designer to pause and study his design at all correct form for a scheduling algorithm is one of stages in its process without unnecessarily tying the most hotly discussed aspects of a time- sharing up the computer. Furthermore, he can make modi- system, and a great deal of experimental work will ficationsat any time and be appraised within still have to be done before the question can be seconds of the effects of each change." (Hamilton settled." (Samuel, 1965, pp. 12-13). and Weiss, 1965, p. 3). "Real-time programs may require considerable 2.17"It seems vitally important to press on queuing of elements and the development of com- with the development of multiple-console computer plex priority assignment and recognition schemes. systems, particularly in organizationsin which This too produces new problems for both language creative potential users abound." (Licklider, 1965, and processor designers." (Gpler, 1966, p. 197). pp, 68-69.) One obvious :inplication isthat: "Responsive 2.18"Another area in which responsive data time-sharing.. needs more collaboration between processing offers recognized economy an con- software and hardware designers than has been venience to the scientist or engineer is ease of learn- evinced thus far." (Adams, 1965, p. 488). ing, ease of use, and ease of making corrections... 2.21c"Some attention must be paid...to the A properly designed system can function as a methods by which the policy decision, once arrived teaching machine, indicating mistakes or mis- at, is to be enforced. It is desirable that these understandings as they occur." (Adams, 1965, p. methods should allow as much flexibility as possible 484.) in the choice of quantum and should not add signifi- 2.19"...The cooperation of man and machine cantly to the cost of scheduling." (Lampson, 1968, takes on the character of a dynamic bilateral process p. 355). of mutual training whereby the man, having at first See also the following: adapted himself to the confined language of the "The Manager program provides control for a gen- machine, then step by step raises it to his level, eral-purpose time-sharing system to make its hard- partly by concrete clarifications and explanations ware and software usage more efficient in servicing of general rules, but equally by the confirmation of many users. In substituting computer operator man- generalizations successfully made by the machiLe agement control devices for the built-in algorithms itself." (Yersh6v, 1965. 323.) of other systems, the program bridges the gap be- 2.19aGlauthier (1967) provides a review of the tween on-line user demands and programmed system relatively brief history of computer time-sharing user control, and provides a human element in 44 system management. As time-sharing systems of service....Reservation mechanisms typically expand and improve, new demandson such systems arise where a facility (or right) cannot be shared can be expected. The incorporation of more pro- (pre-emptive rights cannot) and where the facility grammedsolutionsintotime-sharingsystems users wish to plan ahead with a high degree of might seem to be the best approach to allocating the certainty that their plans will materialize." (Brown system resources, but the cost of this approach may et al., 1967, pp. 213-214). be very high in terms of maintenance and flexibility. 2.23a"Although there are many systems today However, on-line computer operator management that provide time-shared access to a computer, little tools cannot be expected to augment software needs is known of precisely how such machines are used. for long, as systems with hundreds of users begin to This was especially apparent at the beginning of pose more severe demands on this human element. the JOSS development. Substantialeffort was Eventually,alllarge time-sharing systems will therefore made to provide a measuring or instru- include elaborate management programs, with a menting capability within the system not only to clerical staff that manages the systems. Because record use of the system as a whole but also to the human element will continue for a long time to record characteristics of use for individual users be a part of time-sharing system management, more of the system." (Bryan, 1967, p. 769). elaborate display devices will eventually be re- "The JOHNNIAC Open-Shop System (JOSS) is v iired, to assist the operator, and to give him as an experimental, on-line, time-shared computing much timely information as possible. On the other system which has been in daily use by staff members hand, the need for users to be aware of certain of The RAND Corporation since January 1964. It system resources should be less of a requirement. was designed to give the individual scientist or When procedural problems do occur, however, engineer an easy, direct way of solving his small they should be able to communicate by voice from numerical problems without a large investment in their teletype stations with personnel who can give learning to use an operating system, a compiler, assistance to them. The Manager program is merely and debugging tools, or in explaining his problems a beginning in the control and management of time- to a professional computer programmer and in sharing system use." (Linde and Chaney, 1966, checking the latter's results. The ease and directness pp. 157-158). of JOSS is attributable to an interpretative routine 2.22"...We may expect future application inthe JOHNNIAC computer which responds programs to be built with a mode control permitting quicklytoinstructions expressed in a simple the user to operate the program in either a batch language and transmitted over telephone lines from or conversational mode." (O'Sullivan, 1967, p. 172). convenientremoteelectric-typewriterconsoles. "The time-sharing system at the University of An evaluation of the system has shown that in spite California at Santa Barbara uses an interesting of severe constraints on speed and size of program, variation of the above methods. A user is required and the use of an aging machine of the vacuum- to state whether his job is interactive (short, fre- tube era, JOSS providesa valuable service for quent requests) or batch (longer, usually single computational needs which cannot be satisfied by requests). Time is divided into fixed length segments conventional, closed-shop practice." (Shaw, 1964, such that during the first half of each segment, the p. 455). interactive jobs are served in a round robin fashion "JOSS* is a special-purpose computing system until their half-segment is exhausted (or until their designed to provide users with a substantial and collective requests are satisfied). The remainder of highly interactive computational capability. The the segment is then used to service (to completion, if first JOSS system, developed for the JOHNNIAC possible) as many of the batch jobs as possible. computer machine by J. C. Shaw, was operational During the first half-segment, some interactive jobs in early 1963. Work on an expanded system utilizing will drop from the queue after one quantum of a modern PDP-6 computer began in 1964, and the service (e.g., those requiring the acceptance of a system became operational in February 1966." single button-push), etc; thus in this system, there (Bryan, 1967, p. 769). is a benefit in declaring the nature of your job in an 2.24Examples in current systems include the honest way, since in the case where there is only following: "Priorities... canbe assigned on a one batch job and many interactive jobs, the batch dynamic basis depending on how long the program job receives better service if that user declares has been in the system, or how much time remains himself as being in the batch mode." (Coffman and before the deadline for results." (Bauer, 1965, p. 23.) Kleinrock, 19158, p. 16). "In defining the scheduling algorithm one must "Time-shared systems a:13 tending to find it con- specify: venient to run short jobs to completion and to inter- leave stacked production jobs into long pauses in (a) the sequence in which active users are to online operations as background jobs." (Sackman, receive service and the variation in this se- 1968, p. 2). quence as load conditions change, 2.23"By whatever mans, it seems clear that priorities and reservation systems will be required *JOSS is the trademark and service mark of the RAND Corporation for its computer to assure certain classes of users appropriate quality program and services using that program.

45 (b) the amount of time (under all circumstances) "Each program on the library is to have one or each user or type of user is to receive." more queuing codes incorporatedwithin it to control (Schwartz et al., 1965, p. 19.) the minimum service level of that program during "Scheduling within SHARER is done on a round- busy running periods. The resulting priority chain robin basis, with the central processor being allo- will thus be a combination of first-come, first-served cated to each program in central memory at least modified by minimum levels of serviceability asso- once every half second." (Harrisonand Schwartz, ciated with each program." (Baruch, 1967, p. 148). 1967, p. 662). "Some experience is now available about the "The management of the queue would be accord behaviour of scheduling algorithms. Itis found ing to the following principles: thatthesimplest algorithma straightforward 1. Processes are entered into the queue by pro- round-robin in which each object program when gram forks and the completion of i/o functions. loaded receives the same quantum of timeis not 2. A process is taken from the queue and placed satisfactory, and that it is necessary to cater separ- inexecutionwhenever a processingunit ately for small brief jobs and for longer jobs. This becomes free. can be done by having a separate queue on to which 3. A processing unit becomes free when it en- jobs are transferred when it appears that they are counters a quit or i/o function procedure taking rather a long time on the regular queue; step, or the process has exceeded its allotted once on the second queue, they receive larger time." (Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 9.) quanta of time when they are activated, but have to wait longer between activations. Corbat6 imple- "If a user remains in the same queue for more mented in CTSS a more elaborate system in which than 60 seconds without being run, he is moved to jobs which do not terminate, or which reach an the end of the next higher priority queue." (Scherr, input or output wait, during a period of activation 1965, pp. 119-120.) receive double the quantum of time during the "A user may be allotted time in any or all shifts. next period, but have to wait twice as long for it. If he consumes his allotment on a given shift, the The quantum of time received when a program is system automatically logs him out, and he must first activated, or when it is reactivated after a wait, wait until the beginning of a shift in which he has is determined according to the amount of core space resources remaining before he is permitted to log in occupied, larger jobs receiving a larger quantum." again." (Mills and Van Vleck, 1966, p. 5.) (Wilkes, 1967, p. 2). "Priorities are assigned user's programs on the "The scheduling algorithm operates roughly as basis of length and previous running time. In order follows: Each user request is assigned an initial to keep efficiency up, longer programs are given priority which depends only on the size of the slightly less priority because they require longer program that must be run. The highest priority is swapping time." (Scherr, 1965, p. 119.) assigned to the smallest programs. The highest "A user is pre-empted, that is, another user will priority programs are allowed to run for a maximum be swapped in, if the current user is no longer the of 4 seconds before being interrupted, whereas lower first user in the queues, and he has run as long as priority programs are allowed to run for longer the new first user will run..." (Scherr, 1965, p. intervals which are multiples of 4 seconds. The 120.) lower the priority, the longer is the allowed interval. "A variation on the first-come, first-served system If a program run is not completed within the allowed is called round-robin priority. When a program's interval, the program istransferred from core time is up, the computer samples all incoming lines memory to drum (the state of the machinebeing in a prescribed order until it finds a request to automatically preserved), and its priority is reduced run ... "A more complex priority system has been pro- by 1 unit." (Fano, 1964, p. 16.) posed whereby a computer could whittle away at "Jobs for the slowest peripherals are given priority large problems in its 'spare time', when it is not busy until a reasonable amount of output for the device with simpler, high-priority services. Several different is waiting in the output buffer, then the scheduler levels of service could be offered, at different speeds moves on to the next slowest peripheral.We have and prices." (Riley, 1965, p. 74.) found that the optimum choice for this 'reasonable "The scheduimg algorithm currently operational amount of output' keeps each peripheral in maxi- in the Q-32 system utilizes three priority queues, mum use if the demand exists."(Morris et al., each circling in simple round-robin fashion, with 1967, p. 69.) queue position dependent upon the amount of CPU "In ATLAS, all jobs are fed into the system as time required for a request." (Schwartz and Weiss- soon as they appear. A scheduling program selects man, 1967, p. 265.) those jobs having input/output characteristics which At Case Institute of Technology, "a revised selec- will tend to put as many of the computer components tion algorithm is under development which will into motion as is possible." (Collila, 1966, p. 49). select jobs according to a complicated nonlinear "A queuing structure more sophisticated than function of both estimated running time and time the simple round robin approach should be imple- spent waiting in the input queue." (Lynch, 1966, mented. Distinction among the factors causing tasks p. 122.) to give up control of the processor provides a reason- 46 able basis for the queue organization. Servicing of 2.28"The response time of the system toa queues to put interactive tasks back in control of line of input from the user isan important parameter the processor as soon as possible distinctly improves of a time-shared system. In fact, it isone of the response times at no cost to processor utilization." few, well-defined, measurable performance param- (Oppenheimer and Weizer, 1968, p. 320). eters available. This response time determines the "The design of the priority and quantum assign- basic rate at which the usercan operate." (Scherr, ment algorithms must take the upleasant possibility 1965, p. 19.) [of a ready process never being run] into account. "The apparent response time isa subjective This might be done by restricting the frequency with evaluation of system performance made bya console which a process may enter the ready list with high operatorina man-machine system.Extensive priority. Another alternative is to restrict the length human-factors tests are required toensure that of time it may run at high priority, although this one an acceptable real response time is, in fact, an may be subverted by the fixed overhead imposed acceptable apparentresponse time." (Aron, 1967, by the need to swap in the memory for the process. p. 53.) Still a third approach is to increase the priority of ...The ratio of response time toprocessor processes which have been waiting for a long time time per interaction will be substituted forresponse at low levels." (Lampson, 1968, p. 355). time. It turns out that this ratio isa more stable "Second priority is given to users who have given measure of CTSS performance. The variation of JOSS output-limited tasks which have been set this ratio as a function of theaverage number of aside until the typewriters have nearly caught up. interacting users is a measure of how well the Third priority is given to users with unfinished tasks, system responds to a change in its load." (Scherr, on which JOSS works for two seconds apiece in 1965, p. E6.) 1; and -robinfashion. A user'spriority changes "The most important performanceaspect of dynamically according tothisdiscipline, which any man machine system is the quantity of results successfully exploits the parallel processing of the obtained (in terms of 'significant' problems solved) communication system. Under atypicalload, per unit time. At this time, such a quantity is JOSS responds to simple requests in a fraction of a unmeasurable." (Scherr, 1965,p. 96.) second and rarely in as long as three seconds. "While it is recognized thatresponse time and Users who are skilled in typing can maintain im- costs are not sufficient conditions for the evalua- pressive rates of interaction with JOSS." (Shaw, tion of an information system, theyare necessary 1964, p. 459). conditions." (Blunt. 1965,p. 10.) 2.25"When service is effected according to an -2.29"Even a very small inter-job overhead may a priori scheduling algorithm, the communication be a tremendous fractionof thetotal system network is used to gather user requests arising at capacity.Evenasubstantial overheadduring unscheduled times and to distribute results after the job, e.g., multiprogrammingcan result in a servicing ordered queues of requests....When gain in total system capacity." (Perry, 1965,p. 246.) service is effected according to a dynamic scheduling "If mean response time is of primary interest, algorithm, processing time quanta, which may be simple mathematical modelscan be constructed variable, are assigned to each request." (Estrin and havinggoodgenerality andyieldingaccurate. Kleinrock, 1967, p. 85.) results." (Scherr, 1965,p. 109.) 2.26"To exploit the increase of capacity gained "Response time is a function of equipment speed; bydistributing,thesystem must providefor efficiency of the man-machine interface, operating queuing. The queue depth permissible should be programs and procedures and the communications at least as great as the number of components over capability within the system." (Blunt, 1965,p. 6.) which the function is distributed." (Amdahl, 1965, 2.30"When two or more data unitsare waiting p. 38.) at the same event for servicing, it is often possible "An unconditional guarantee of access (given the to expedite processing by selecting a data unit facility is operational) can only be provided by a under some other criterion than fist-come -first- priority system if preemptive priorities are issued serve. For example, selection of the data unit with to no more users than can be served simultaneously. the least expected servicing timemay both reduce Otherwise, the guarantee will fail on occurrence of overall response time and equipment/personnel idle a peak load." (Brown et al., 1967, p. 214). time...Another criterion of data unit selection 2.27It is noted that, in typical schedulingsys- is to process the data units in a sequence suchas tems, client-processing use is of the order of, two to minimize computer idle time or to maximize utility to four seconds but that during this interval several of the central processor." (Blunt, 1965,p. 64.) hundred thousandprocessing instructions may "While different queue unloading strategiescan be executed; that the client's own response-time produce different effects in processing, not all of requirements (either to receive a textual message these strategies are likely to be easily applied in and/or display or to type-ina response) generally the real world. Casual comparison of two data units require at least three seconds, and that allowing may not effectively reveal which element will proc- a quantum time of ten seconds is almost equivalent ess faster in a given event, or which processing to allowing any client's problem to run to comple- sequence will better contribute to effective utiliza- tion. (See Scherr, 1965, p. 11, 68.) tion of the central processor." (Blunt, 1965,p. 64.) 47 2.31"The effects of users getting 'into phase' "Another conception of time-sharing is that it with each other...This phenomenon occurs when is akin to a community utility capable of providing many users require service at the same time and is computer power to each customer. This notion was self-perpetuating. That is, as more and more users introduced in a lecture in 1961 by Professor John begin waiting, service for the individual user is McCarthy. Verylittleconcerning this concept reduced, and there is time for more users to reach appeared inthe1965 literature;an exception the point where they require service. Thus, users being Fano's paper, which describes the MAC tend to fall into step wit.. each other; many working system as 'an experimental computer utility which, at the same time, many thinking at the same time." since November 1963, has been serving a small but (Scherr, 1965, p. 25.) varied segment of the MIT community.' Another 2.31a"Multi-programming adds a good deal to exception is the paper of Dennis & Glaser, which the complexity of the design of a scheduling outlines some concepts of computer system organi- algorithm. When the running program is halted, it zation that have arisen from the evolution of an is no longer a simple question of what program is information processing utilityas envisioned by to be loaded to take its place. There is first a deci- Project MAC..." (Davis, 1966, p. 225). sion to be taken as to whether a new program should "The use of a separate processor for all inter- be loaded into core at all, and if so which program active data I/O for TSS has given SDC the ability is to be dumped in order to make room for it. If no to interface a large variety of devices with TSS. new program is to be loaded it must be decided These include teletypes, special keyboards and type- which program already in core shall be activated. writers,lightpensfordisplays,specialpush- The taking of these various decisions is compli- buttons, high-speed data linesfor computer-to- cated by the fact that programs vary very much in computercommunications,automaticdial-up size, and that it is of prime importance to make the units, as well as the graphic tablet display console. utilization of available memory space as nearly To provide quick response time to the user of the optimum as possible." (Wilkes, 1967, p. 2). GTD console, the PDP-1 performsa significant amount of preprocessing on the raw data. A project "Because short response time is vital for an effec- is currently underway to study the trade-offs of tive multi-console system, an effort must be made allaying the slower PDP-1 or the faster Q-32 to to predict for any system design how queueing will perform the required user functions. Although the increase the obtainable response time. One way to user cannot directly modify the PDP-1 executive do this is to assume the 'worst case' situation, in interactively, a system programmer can modify it which a command encounters maximum possible to meet new user requirements." (Gallenson, 1967, queueing delays in being processed, and then de- p. 690). sign for an acceptable worst case response time. 2.33"Computer-directedproceduresarean This approach is satisfactory perhaps while such important aspect of on-line computing and are little systems are largely experimental. But the obvious understoodor appreciated. For example, they drawback in relying solely on 'worst case' predic- allow a complex query to be asked of a machine tions is that the system is over-designed, and the under the control of another machine and with the true capacity of the system is underestimated. This assistance of a third machine:: (Bauer, 1965, p. 18). can be serious economically when people seek more "Remote batch processing involves a computer at widespread access to use of these systems. So a the user terminal, rather than simply a typewriter study of response time which takes into account alone. This low-cost computer is used toprepare a its statistical aspects is desirable both for a pre- local batch of programs for direct transmission to diction of true system capacity, and to point out :he large-scale central computer." (Aron, 1967, which system components limit the capability so p. 63). that remedial action can be taken if needed." (Fife O'Sullivan (1967; describesan interface computer and Rosenberg, 1964, p. H1-1). used in support of terminal network, to provide 2.32"The first large system to be used likea code translations, bit formatting, error checking public utility is the IBM Quiktran System. It shares procedures. its consoles not among individuals within the same 2.34"...Special processors should be de- organization, but on a service bureau basis to anyone signed to allocate and relocate users' areas in in the geographical area." (Wagner and Granholm, memories possibly in parallel with the main com- 1965, p. 286). putation." (Lock, 1965, p. 471). "An information processing utility consists of "The foregoing operations are usually delegated. processing units and directly addressable main That is, provision is usually made for a control memory in which procedure information is inter- unit, not a part of the central processor, which preted as sequences of operations on data, a system has the function of finding the desired item or of terminal devices through which users may com- locationinstorage, and of monitoring reading municate with procedures operating for them, and or writing. Because of this, the program is not mass memory where information is held when not held up by resort to the large storage, at least to required for immediate reference." (Dennis and the extent that the data is not needed forthwith." Glaser, 1965, p. 5). (Dumey, 1965, p. 257).

48 "Future time-sharing supervisors will run on status and disk file status of the outgoing and in- computer systems having many processors, and coming programs. This transmission consists of manyactive memory modules,flexiblyinter- approximately 500 words in each direction." (Scherr, connected...They will provide for the dynamic 1965, p. 36). allocationofspace ..."(Greenberger,1965, "It is now becoming possible to overlap the execu- p. 36). tion of one program with the swapping of two or 2.34aFor example:"Cooperative communi- more programs so that little or no time is lost." cation programs in the control and central com- (Samuel, 1965, p. 9). puters supervise any interchanges between the 2.37"With each computation there is associated console and the central facility." (Ninke, 1965, a set of information to which it requires a high p. 842). density (in time) of effective reference. The member- It is to be noted further that "these [operating] ship of this working set of information varies dy- systems encompass all the language processors namically during the course of the computation." and commonly used utility routines in addition (Dennis and Van Horn, 1965, p. 11). to controlling all components of the equipment, "A variable sized data structure is handled by servicing all traps and interrupts and accounting making it a distinct segment and allocating more or in general r----;g the show...Such a system fewer blocks to it as the structure changes in size." is designed to bring to bear a number of powerful (Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 8). and standard programs on relatively simple com- "Two effects occur: first, each operating burst is puting tasks, and to keep them moving through lengthened by the amount of additional program the queue". (Orchard-Hays, 1965, p. 238). execution time required to select and reactivate the 2.35"Today's fastest machine cannot be loaded program andtopreserveitupon termination. down and will be idle most of the time unless it Secondly, the idling delays are lengthened by the is coupled to a large number of high speed channels amount necessary to complete the execution of one and peripheral units...In order to distribute of the other time-shared programs." (Brown, 1965, input-output requests in a balanced flow, it must p. 82). also be controlled by a complex monitor that chooses 2.38"Reduction in swap time would result if wisely among the jobs in its job queue." (Clip- only those parts of ail object program and its environ- pinger, 1965, p. 207). ment actually involved in the current operation were "Dynamic memory allocationisa necessary loaded into main memory. Thus, many large pro- requirement for an engineering computer system grams could be modularized operationally to im- capable of solving different problems with dif- provetheirperformanceundertime-sharing." ferent data size requirements.... (Schwartz et al, 1965, p. 19). "Dynamicmemoryallocationdoesinvolve 2.38a"The purpose of paging is to relieve the additional machine cycles, but it also eliminates programmer of the need to manage physical store. many bookkeeping requirements and the packing To the programmer a paged store is indistinguish- of information that are necessary without its use." able from an unpaged store of the same size." (Laski, (Roos, 1965, p. 426, 432). 1968, p. 35, underlining supplied). "Memory mapping and dynamic storage reloca- 2.38"The choice c f page size is clearly critical. tion under control of the supervisor will make it Both the decreasing cost of core and the importance possible to call library subroutines by name and of minimizing s--pervisor overheads point to a fairly to effect linkages to subroutines at the time they large page. At the present time, I would regard 4K are called." (Licklider, 1965, p. 182). as the minimum to ' e considered and would, per- "Storageallocationstrategies must be fully haps, choose 8K. I am aware that smaller pages integrated with the overall strategies for allocating have often been advocated. The situation is com- and scheduling the use of computer system re- plicated by the fact that the supervisor requires to sources." (Randell and Kuehner, 1968, p. 303). use small blocks of memory (say 64 words) for input Further, and output buffering, and there is a case for making "The choice of a suitable storage allocation some special hardware provision to enable it to do system is strongly dependent on the characteristics this efficiently." (Wilkes, 1967, p. 5). of the various storage levels, and their intercon- 2.38c"One of the most important problems in nections, provided by the computer system on which the construction of a dynamic storage allocation it is implemented." (Randell and Kuehner, 1968, scheme is that of recovering storage space which is p. 303). no longer being used by the program. The mechanics 2.36"At the point in time when one user's of detecting the existence of such 'garbage' have program is stopped and another's resumed, the been adequately described (Newell et al., 1964; status of the former must be saved and that of McCarthy, 19(0; Collins, 1960; Schorr and Waite, the latter restored. This process is called 'swap- 1965). In the case where the elements of storage ping'." (Scherr, 1965, p. 1). required by the program are of variable size (Com- "In addition to the transmission of the actual fort,1964; Ross, 1961.; Knowlton, 1965) it may programs, each swap is accompanied by the dump- happen that an element of a certain size is needed ing and loading (with the drum) of the processor and, although sufficient free space is available, no

49 free element which is large enough can be found. established. The selection of the page to be trans- For example, suppose that 20,000 words of memory ferred to the drum is made with respect to this were allotted as a storage area to contain one- and pattern of use." (Morris et al., 1967, p. 69). two-word elements. If the first, third,...,19999th "In several recent computer systems, mecha- words were all occupied by one-word elements, it nisms (usually part-hardware, part-software) would not be possible to obtain a two-word element have been provided to give name contiguity with- even though 10,000 words were free. What should be out the necessity for a complete address contiguity. done in this case is to 'compact' the store by moving Thisis done by providing a mapping function all one-word elements to one en& leaving a single in the path between the specification of a name by 10,000 word block of free space." (Haddon and a program and the accession by absolute address Waite, 1967, p. 162.) of the corresponding location. The mapping is "A 'free storage list' of linked cells is the basis of usually based on the use of a group of the most most dynamic storage allocation schemes. Cells significant bits of the name. A set of separate are generally removed from this list as they are blocksof locations, whose absolute addresses needed by the processes of the language... are contiguous, can then be made to correspond Cells may be returned under program control, to a single set of contiguous names... The automatically as they are abandoned, or periodically first example of s ich a system was the Ferranti by 'garbage collection'." (Raphael, 1966, p. 70). ATLAS computer... (Randell and Kuehner, 1968, 2.38d"Even if an accurate ordering of -core pp. 299-300). pages based upon frequency and recency of use "This was also the first use of demand paging could be inexpensively maintained, the value of as a fetch strategy, storage being allocated in units that ordering for determining what core pages to of 512 words. The replacement strategy, which free is questionable. The problem with the ordering is used to ensure that one page frame is kept is that a page chosen to be freed may be assigned vacant, ready for the next page demand, is ;lased to a task which has been between time slices (and on a 'learning program'. The learning program therefore not referencing the page), but is just begin- makes use of information which records the length ning a new time slice in which it will attempt to of time since the page in each page frame has reference the page. One would like to order the core been accessed and the previous duration of in- pages based upon the time at which they will next activity for that page. It attempts to find a page be referenced and release those with the longest which appears to be no longer in use. If all the projected inactive time (PIT) first. Although the pages are in current use it tries to choose the one system does not have such a projection on each core which, if di,: recent pattern of use is maintained, page, there is information in the system concerning will be the last to be required." (Randell and the PIT of each task. Since a non-sharable virtual Kuehner, 1968, p. 303). memory page belonging to a task can be referenced 2.40Thus, for example, in the design of the only when the task is in a time slice, a chain of IBM 360/67, "there are four main characteristics tasks ordered with respect to the PIT of each task of a system that has dynamic address translation. can serve as a partial ordering of the core pages The total program need not be in memory when which are allocated to non-sharable virtual memory any part of it is being executed; those parts that pages. Then when a request is made to release core are in memory may be in noncontiguous, non- pages to the system, core assigned to the task at sequential pages; the parts may be left in memory the top of this core release chain can be freed. after the quantum of time is used up, unless it We now consider the problem of defining a task is necessary to swap pages of another program ordering to serve as a basis for such a core release into their places; and if all this happens, when the procedure." (Fikes et al., 1968, p. 13). original program is restored for another quantum 2.39"...The importance of some of the well- it may go into a different area of memory the known European contributions to the computer second time around." (Iverson and Yee, 1965, arts,for example, the page-turning procedures p. 81). proposed with the original design of the Atlas, or "Division into pages is performed with both themulti-processing algorithm included in the hardware and software. The time-sharing super- Gamma-60..." (Salton, 1967, p. 203). visory program sets up software tables in memory, "In Atlas the instruction format permits the containing entries that define the starting points programmer to address directly 2048 blocks each of the pages for every task that the program must of 512 words. Of these 2048 block addresses the control." (Iverson and Yee, 1965, p. 82). most significant 256 are reserved for the use of the 2.41"This paging procedure introduces another supervisor and are sacred, i.e., any attempt by a importantconcept: virtualmemory ...The user program to access these reserved addresses is programmer islimited only by the addressing prevented." (Morris et al., 1967, p. 69). capabilities of the machine; he has a machine "For each page of core store there is a use digit which has as much memory as it can address. which is set when the page is accessed. All use In the Model 67, this virtual memory is as large digits are scanned and reset at regular intervals as224 more than 16 millionbytes." (Iverson by the central executive and a pattern of use is and Yee, 1965, p. 82).

50 Li ...Users appear to havean insatiable appetite such circumstances there is the problem of whether for store andwe consider large scale 'one level a given item should be fetched to a higher storage store' techniques to be vital." (Morriset al., 1967, level, since this will be worthwhile only if theitem p. 74). is going to be used frequently." (Randell and Kueh- "Dynamic memory allocationisa necessary ner, 1968, p. 302). requirement for an engineeringcomputer system 2.42McGee (1965) provides the following defini- capable of solving different problems withdifferent tion: "Given a number ofprograms (each of one or data requirements...The resultof dynamic more segments that have been partitioned into memory allocation is that the size of a problem that pages and stored in main memory), the function ofa can be solved is virtually unlimited since secondary dynamic relocation techniquemay be stated as storage becomes a logical extension of primary follows: For each reference(s,i) by program r storage." (Roos, 1965,p. 426). to the ith word of segments, determine if the "...Provide the user witha large machine - reference is legitimate and, ifso, translate the independent virtualmemory, thus placing the re- reference to thememory location of the referent. sponsibility for the management of physicalstorage If the reference isnot legitimate, signal a protection with the system software. By thismeans the user exception." (p. 196). is provided withan address' space large enough to 2.43"The attackon the single store concept eliminate the need for complicated bufferingand [as if there were] must be accounteda failure thus overlay lectmiques. Users, therefore,are relieved far. No executiveor software system to the authors' of the burden of.preplanning the transfer ofinforma- knowledge has solved this problemin a generally tion between storage levels, anduser programs acceptablemanner."(Wagner andGranholm, become indeikiident of thenature of the various 1965, p. 288). storage devices in the system." (Daley and Dennis, 2.44"It will benecessary to develop techniques 1968, p. 306). for transferring informationon demand, and in "One important aspect in the efficientuse of anticipationof demand, from theslow, more hierarchical storage that should be emphasizedis voluminous levels of the hierarchyto the faster, the need for development of machineorganization more readily processible levels." (Licklider, 1965, and software techniques that make theentire in- p. 63). ternal and on-line auxiliarystorage appear as a Use of "WILL NEED" transfers andother single uniform storage to the user." (Hobbs,1966, techniques to managestorage hierarchies have been p. 41). developed for Illiac II in order that thisrelatively "A very important problem remainsto be solved, small computer (8,000 words of core)can be run on however, and that is how to provide efficientaccess time-sharingapplications.(Fisher and Shepard, to this mass storage. Various schemes for organizing 1967, pp. 77-81). mass memory elements have been proposed, with 2.45"Dynamic allocation of data achieves the storage arranged into levels by size and speed and following: with hardware for automatic transferamong levels 1. Arrays are allocatedspace at execution time as required. Efforts have begun to make the entire rather than at compilation time. Theyare only memory appear as one logical unit to the system allocated the amount of user rather than as a primary and secondary memory space needed for the problem being solved. The size of thearray withseparate addressing mechanisms." (Pyke, (i.e.,the amount of 1967, p. 162.) space used) may be changed at any time duringprogram execution. 2.41a"The choice of a placement strategy If an array is not used during theexecution of should be influenced by several factors. These in- a particular problem, then no space will be clude the relative importance of minimizing storage allocated. fragmentation, the frequency of storage allocation 2. Arraysareautomatically shifted between requests, the average size of allocation unit, and primary and secondarystorage to optimize the number of different allocation units." (Randell the use of primary memory." and Kuehner, 1968, p. 302). "Dynamic memory allocation would extendto "When it is necessary to make room in working programs as well as data. Programs can then be storage for some new information, a replacement brought into primarymemory only when they are strategy is used to determine which informational needed." . units should be overlayed. The strategy should seek "The allocation of\programs and datamust be to avoid the overlaying of information which may properly balancedso that the use of primary be required again in the near future. Program and memory is optimized." (Roos, 1965, pp. 426-427). information structure, conveyed perhaps by seg- 2.46Thus, "it cannot be stressed too strongly menting, or recent history of usage of information that the strategies of storage allocation must be may guide the allocator toward this ideal." (Ran- fullyintegrated with theoverall dell and Kuehner, 1968, p. 302). strategies for allocating and scheduling the computersystem "An additional complexity in fetch strategies resources." (Randell and Kuehner, 1968,p. 301). arises whcrt there are several levels of working We note also the following: "The strategy of storage, all directly accessible to the processor. In storage accessing by the central processor isone 51 of planning so that all needed data (andprogram significant clusteringpatterns could be established segments) are available in the highestlevel storage at a level at which clusterswere significantly smaller unit at the time of accessingor with minimum than completeprograms. Moreover, clustering pat- delay." (Op ler, 1965,p. 275). terns within programs are likely tovary with time, "The case of variable units ofallocation is in and is likely thata look-behind technique for paging general more complex because of theadditional of individualprocesses would be more effective than possibilities of moving storage within working a 'static' clustering technique.... space in order to compact vacant spaces." (Randell "The information specifying the'cluster' of most and Kuehner, 1968,p. 302). recentl used pages isan important piece of infor- 2.47"The assignment of variable size data mation and could be Psed forpage control if it were structures to a conventional memory isa formidable available. It is felt thatsto rage of the set of virtual problem because thespace of physical locations page addresses on termination ofa process as part for information and thespace for names of infor- of an extended stateword,might be a worthwhile mationcoincide...Iftoo few locationsare hardware extension. For example,if these virtual assigned to a data structure, difficultyarises when page addresses were available, then the loaded additional locations are needed. Not only must process could check for the presence of thesepages physical memory be reassigned, but theaddresses and bring in any missingones in parallel with the used to refer to themmust be reassigned in name initial part of its computation."(Wegner, 1967, space." (Dennis and Glaser, 1965,p. 6). pp. 149-150). 2.48"Multiple memoryaccessingbecomes 2.51a "A basic allocation problem,'core memory a burden when the total system responds toout- management', is that of decidingjust which pages side calls, because then the time scaleor patience are to occupy main memory. The fundamental of the caller is the determinant." (Dumey,1965, strategy advocated here p. 259). a compromise against a lot of expensive mainmemoryis to minimizepage 2.49"...Special processors should be traffic. There are at least threereasons for this: designed toallocate and relocateusers' areas in memories possibly in parallel withthe main "(1) The more data traffic betweenthe two levels computation." (Lock, 1965,p. 471). of memory, themore the computational over- 2.50"The various requirements of relocata- head will be deciding justwhat to move and bility of programmes and data, indexingof ad- where to move it. dresses, allocation of storagespace and protection "(2) Because thetraverse time T is longcom- of vital information,are all met at present by pared to amemory cycle, too much data ad hoc provisions in thesystem design. Clearly movement can result in congestionon the they are all interrelated, anda unified approach channel bridging thetwo memory levels. to the design problem could perh4-4meet them "(3) Too much data trafficcan result in serious more economically." (Gill, 1965, p. 204). interference withprocessor efficiency on "Dynamic storage allocation is achievedthrough account of auxiliarymemory devices 'steal- changing the associations of blocks of physical ing' memory cycles." (Denning,1968, p. 324). main memory with pages ofsegments. Common 2.52"The'page-turning' or`look-behind' reference to a data segment by severalprocesses concepts can be employed at three levels incon- is possible simply through theuse of the same nection with segmentation. First,page turning segment name by both processes. It is natural may be employed within any segment so that only to implement data lockout on a segment basis." pertinent pages are kept in mainmemory. Second, (Dennis and Glaser, 1965,p. 8). the look-behind principlecan be applied to the "If it is desired toprotect the data object from problem of deleting entiresegments from core destructivemanipulationby anuntrustworthy memory so that new information can he brought computation,routines withprotectedentry in. Finally, a look-behind techniquecan be used points... mustbeemployed."(Dennisand to avoid use of the page index except when reference Van Horn, 1965, p. 15). is made to anew block of a segment." (Dennis 2.51"It is likely that multiprogrammingsys- and Glaser, 1965,p. 8). tems of the future will adopt some form of grouped 2.53"The concept of a page-turningmemorya page storage allocation, where the group ofpages scheme by which only pertinent blocks ofinfor- allocated duringa single storage allocationin- mation are kept in mainmemory while nonpertinent terrupt is determined either by the structure of blocks are deleted througha suitable algorithmis processes or by the storage requirements during very useful for certain classes of procedures and the previous activation of the process.. .. datastructures...(but)schemesthathave "The problem of efficiently partitioninga problem been discussed to date donot allow for flexibility into hyperpages may be thought ofas a clustering of applicationas they are not tied to a philosophy problem in which individualpages are represented of program structure; that is,the selection of by vertices into clusters having high densityof information to be deleted is independentof its traffic within clusters and low density of traffic functioninthe system." (Dennis and Glaser, between clusters. However, itis not clear that 1965, p. 6).

52 4. ..Itis sometimes claimed that a further user, and assurance that adequate secrecy will advantage of a paging system is that it entirely be provided to data when required." (Prince, 1966, eliminates the problem of storage fragmentation. p. 1V05). Rather, what is true is that paging just obscures 2.53c"Since the program under test is likely the problem, since the fragmentationoccurs within to be faulty, it is desirable to protect both the user's pages. It is only rarely that an allocation request permanent objects, and any objects created by the will correspond exactly to the capacity ofan integral PLS (programming language system)on his behalf number of page frames, andmany page frames from unintentional useor destruction by the pro- will be only partly used." (Randell and Kuehner, cedure being debugged." (Dennis and Van Horn, 1968, p. 301). 196:5, p. 21). "It is difficult toassess with any certainty the 2.54 "A number ofusers are testing procedures benefits of a demand-pagingstrategy in a time- under development thatare not free from errors. sharingsystem.Computer configuration, work Program malfunctions induced by sucherrors must load environment, and other system characteristics not interfere with correct execution of taskspro- such as scheduling and priority schemes all strongly ceeding concurrently for other users." (Dennisand influence system performance; performance itself Glaser, 1965, p. 9). means different things to different people." (Fine "Programs very likely to contain errors must be et al., 1966, p. 11). run but must not be permitted to interfere with With respect to the studies by Fineet al, Smith the execution of other concurrent computations. remarks: "In a recentpaper by Fine, Jackson, and Mclssac,some relevant Moreover, it is an extremely difficult task to deter- statisticson the mine when a program is completely free oferrors. dynamic behavior of a particularset of programs Thus, in a large operational computer system in were reported... The authors concluded that which evolution of function is required, it is unlikely there was considerable doubt about the worth that the large amount of programming involved is of the page on demand strategy. Certainlyany at any time completely free from errors, and the suggestion Lhat it would be useful to multi-program possibilityof system collapse through software a few pages from many programs in the high speed failure is perpetually present. It is becoming clear memory was negated by these statistics." (Smith, that protection mechanismsarc essential to any 1967, p. 636). multiprogrammed computer system to reduce the Smith himself states that: "The techniques of chance multiprogramming and paging have been proposed of such failure producing catastrophic as means forefficiently adapting a computer shutdown of a system." (Dennis, 1965,p. 590). system to an interactive type of load. The imple- 2.55"While losses of users' programs and data mentation of these techniques requiresa con- have occurred, their frequency and seriousness siderable hardware investment for the handling have not discouraged users from entrusting their of dynamic relocation and the best control policy work to the system." (Fano, 1964,p. 18). remains to be determined." (Smith, 1967,p. 636). 2.56"Daily and weekly monitoringprograms 2.53aThis conclusion rests in particularupon have been devised that test the integrity of the findings that "the initial callrate for pages is data. If any fault is detected itcan be localized extremely high; the first tenpages, on the average, and repaired from any of the backup tapes that were required within about 5.6 ms; in half of the are kept for that purpose." (Kessler, 1964, p. 9). cases where 20 or more pages were required, 2.57"For n equal to the number of terminals the first 20 pageswere needed within about 7.0 ms." currently connected, we can...(make) the time- and that, in terms of the number of instructions sharing operation introspective that is by having executed between consecutive calls fornew pages, it gather statistics about itself. But we cannot use "in nearly 59% of 1737cases, less than 20 instruc- this device in general, unlesswe are willing to tions were executed; in about 80% of thecases, change n repeatedly. Even the most callous adminis- less than 200 instructions. In only 2.3% of the trator would hesitate before subjecting his custo- cases, 10,000 or more instructions were executed mers to that series of disruptions." (Greenberger, between calls; these longersequences occurred 1965, p. 35). usually only after theprogram had accumulated 2.58"The technological trend toward large a majority of the pages it required." (Fine et al., random access memory suggests the retention of 1966, p. 6). several users' programs incore simultaneously, 2.53b"Suitable systemsprograms are just now hence mutual memory protection must be ensured." becomingavailablewhichpermittime-shared (Lock, 1965, p. 457). mutiple console operation. Muchmore work re- "Each user, and each user'sprogram, must be mains to be done, however, in the optimization and restricted so that he and itcan never access (read, refinement of these systemsp-ograms. Much also write, or execute) unauthorized portions of the high- needs to be learned concerinig the optimumuse speed store, or of the auxiliary store. This isneces- of core storage for graphics time-sharing, establish- sary (1) for privacy reasons, (2) to prevent a defective ing suitable priorities for the consoles, protection program from damaging the supervisor or another of one user's programs from disturbance by another user's program, and (3) to make the operation ofa

53 defective program independent of the state of the mode are provided, and several unusual 'book- rest of the store." (Samuel, 1965, p. 10). keeping' features, similarly based on interpretation, 2.59"The [memory protection] capability must are available, such as the AUDIT command, which be dynamic and under flexible control of theexecu- generates information as to which portions of tive program, since the allowed operating areas of the program were never executed, which variables the memory change on a millisecond basis." (Bauer, were never set, or set but never used, during a 1965, p. 23). given execution of the program." (Evans and 2.60"Since a segment may be in several spheres Darley, 1966, p. 43). of protection at once, we have a basic framework 2.60c"For accounting purposes a multipro- for allowing independent tasks to share access to gramming operating system usually has to keep procedures and data as appropriate.... track of how much processor time is applied to "The attachment registers will only containseg- each program and how much I/O channel time, ment names to which valid references may be made by channel and device, is used by each program within the established sphere of protection, with during its execution. Thus, the GECOS [General an indication of the class of reference permitted." ComprehensiveOperatingSystem]IIsystem (Dennis and Glaser, 1965, p. 10). keeps a running total by program of all processor, "The complete memory protection solution de- channel and device time used. These totals are mands that there be the option of read protection... updated for each period of processor use and for Two important cases require it: The firstcase arises each I/O transaction. When a program terminates, in debugging where a program reading beyond its all of its accumulated timesare transmitted to bound has erratic behavior which in practice is an accounting file and the totals are zeroed for indistinguishable from transient hardware failure. the next program." (Cantrell and Ellison, 1968, The second case is simply that ofuser privacy." p. 214). (Corbato, System Requirements...,n.d., p. 6). 2.60d"PILOTis aprogrammingsystem "Protection of a disk system requires thatno constructed in LISP... aninterface between user be able to modify the system, purposely or the user and his program, monitoring both the inadvertently, thus preserving the integrity of the requests of the user and the operation of his software. Also, a user must not be able to gain program. Advising is the basic innovation in the access to, or modify any other user's program or model, and in the PILOT system. Advising con- data. Protection in tape systems is accomplished: sists of inserting new procedures at any or all of (1) by making the tape units holding the system the entry or exit points to a particular procedure records inaccessible to the user, (2) by making the (or class of procedures)." (Teitelman, 1966, abstract input and output streams one-way (e.g., the input p. 1, and p. 26). file cannot be backspaced), and (3) by placinga 2.60e"A time keeping device maintains a mark in the input stream which only the systemcan continuous log of computer operations assuming cross. In order to accomplish this, rather elaborate two essential record-keeping functions that up schemes have been devised both in hardware and to now ordinarily have been handled by human software to prevent the user from accomplishing beings. Known as the Time Monitor, it records, certain input - output manipulations. For example, for each project, the overall time requiredto in some hardware unauthorized attempts at I/O prepare,utilize,and unload a computer, the manipulation will interrupt the computer." (Rosin, actual running time, the actual time for preparation 1966, p. 242). and unloading, those periods during operation when 2.60a"Service disciplines may be classified the computer isinactive, the reasons for the according to the information on which they base stoppage.In additiontoidentifying operators, prioritydecisions. Such a list would be open- itcanidentifyprogramsand programmers." ended; however, the sources of the information (Computer Design 4, No. 11, 25 (Nov. 1965).) may be considered to fall in one of three not neces- 2.61"Memory ActivityThis . . . [shows] sarily disjoint environments: (1) the job environ- memory cell activity as a function of time. It pre- ment whereby the information consistsof the sents a map of memory allocation and regional intrinsic properties of the jobs (e.g., running time, activity." (Coggan, 1967, p. 77.) input/output requirements, storage requirements, "Paging ActivityThis presentsa measure and etc.), (2) the (virtual) computer system environment map of page (memory block) use during specified (e.g., dynamic priorities may be based on the state time quanta. Separate displays for activity during of the system as embodied in the number of jobs compile, execute, etc., times may be desirable." orrequestswaiting,storagespaceavailable, (Coggan. 1967, p. 78.) location of jobs waiting, etc.) and (3) the program- "Subroutine ActivityThis function...aids mers' or users' environment in which management in determining what subroutines should be included may assign priorities according to urgency, impor- aspartof the standardprogram vocabulary." tance of individual programmers, etc." (Coffman (Coggan, 1967, p. 79.) and Kleinrock, 1968, p. 12). 2.62"Loop Factors This display illustrates the 2.60b"[InQUIKTRAN] extensiverun-time total number of times around various loops defined diagnostics made possibleby theinterpretive by the program flowchart." (Coggan, 1967, p. 80.) 54 "Trap ActivityThis is a measure of activity as a 2.66a "The logical units of information transfers function of time for different trap types. It presents carried out by recent supervisory systemsrepresent a map of program control interrupts." (Coggan, a change from variable length program and data 1967, p. 79.) structures to the fixed length pages into which these 2.63"Queue LengthThis presents a measure programs and data are fitted. A number of important of the queue lengths for different classes of hard- advantages accrue from this organization of infor- ware, such as processors and meniories, as a mation and have been described along witha corre- function of time." (Coggan, 1967, p. 32.) sponding control structure by Dennis and Arden, "Work ProfileThis is a display of the time et al. A basic problem in this organizational approach breakdown for equipment usage and can yield infor- has appeared in the form ofpoor object program mation about particular equipment activity as a operating behavior in a multiprogramming environ- function of time, or serve as a comparison of ment. In particular, the frequency of the page turn- equipment use over a fixed interval." (Coggan, ing (transferring pages in and out ofcore memory) 1967, p. 76.) necessary to the execution of a program which, in 2.64"Gibson MixThis is a measure of fre- general, is never wholly incore tends to degrade quency of instruction usage and serves as an aid system performance by introducing as excessive in- determining the types of instructions that should amount of input/output interferences.... by hard-wired." (Coggan, 1967, p. 76.) "The two-page replacement algorithms whose "Memory ProfileThis gives a measure of the performance is discussed hereare as follows: total number of memory cells used as a function of time and offers a direct comparison to the total 1. The Least Recently Used (LRU) Replacement number allocated. (Efficiency of use)." (Coggan, Algorithm. Whenever a page ofa given pro- 1967, p. 77.) gram must be turned out of core, this algorithm "Branch StatisticsThis is a measure of the specifies that the page turned oul. must be the branch probabilities for various branchgroups. one which has been in disuse for the longest The display can help illustrate frequent and time period of time since the beginning ofprogram consuming operationsthat might best be per- operation. This algorithm was selected be- formed by more efficient program code." (Coggan, cause it is very similar to existing or proposed 1967, p. 8L) algorithms and admits ofa fairly simple implementation. "Program OverheadThis is a display ofover- head time for different programs operating in a 2. The Belady Optimum Replacement (BOR) multiuser system." (Coggan, 1967, p. 83). Algorithm. This algorithm is basedon a prior 2.64a"The space-time product will be affected knowledge of the entire sequence in which by the time taken to fetch pages, which will depend pages are used in the execution of a program. on the performance of the storage medium on which With this information and a specified maximum pages that cannot be held in working storage are on the number of pages that can be held in kept. If page fetching is a slow process, a large core at one time, Belady has shown how to part of the space-time product for a program sequence the paging-in.nd paging-out opera- may well be due to space occupied while the pro- tions in an optimum way, i.e., yielding mini- gram is inactive awaiting further pages." Mandell mum page turning. Because of its require- and Kuehner, 1968, p. 302). ments the algorithm does not appear practical; 2.65"Managers of a time-sharing operation will however, it was selected in order to provide find themselves dealing moi-e and more with the a means of comparing the performance of the problems of how and when to interact with the various practical (and less efficient) algorithms system. One of the tools designed and implemented with the best possible case.... is the manager program. One part of this program "The programs considered for analysis in this displays all the users, their station number, size of study represent rather different external charac- program, work order number, priority number, and teristics. The programs selected include a SNOBOL information regarding availability of space on disk, compiler, a program for computing Fourier trans- drums and tape drives....The other feature dis- forms, a WATFOR FORTRAN compiler, and a plays all the programs that are on the disk: thepro- differential equation-solver. The last program is gram name, number of tracks, status (active or relatively small compared with thefirstthree. inactive), and date last used. Utilizing these pro- The statistics for the larger programs have proved grams, the monitor can get the information he needs quite similar in nature and will be summarized to make tactical decisions." (Fiala, 1966, pp., 164 by a detailed look at the behavior of the SNOBOL 165). compiler which consisted of 15 instruction and 2.66"The development of the simulation pro- 22 data pages, with a page size of 1024 words.... gram now provides a first-come-first-serve queue "The principal observations from the data we unloading strategy. Continuing effort, however, will have obtained are: (1) with the possible exception provide for optional strategies, e.g., selecting the of carefully designed programs, the page turning data unit with the shortest servicing time, con- incurred when programs are made to operate while sideration of what flow will minimize idle time at substantially less than totally core-resident appears the central processor, etc." (Blunt, 1965, p. 15.) excessive in light of current or proposed paging 55 systemdesigns;(2)a least-recently-used page may be constructed. Whatever is done, some super- replacement algorithm yields a performance within visor overheads are incurred. Suggestions have about 30 to 40 percent of that of the optimum page been made for additions to the hardware which replacement sequence; and (3) for page residence will reduce these overheads; perhaps the most confined primarily to small areas within the page useful is that there should be a bit in the hardware size, performance is improved substantially more associated with each physical page which records by increasing the number of pages held in core whether that page has been accessed since the than by increasing the page size." (Coffman and last time of resetting. Suggestions have also been Varian, 1968, pp. 471-472, 474). made for some type of analogue timing circuit 2.66b"In either of the schemes described, associated with each physical page which will or in any of their many variants, there is no diffi- enable the page longest resident to be identified culty about arranging that pages should be loaded very rapidly. It is not clear whether such a circuit only when they are required. There is, however, could be designed so that it would record time more difficulty in arriving at a satisfactory algorithm only when the program owning the page was run- for deciding which page should be dumped when ning." (Wilkes, 1967, p. 4). it is necessary to make room for an incoming page. 2.66cForexample:"Some problemshave One policy is to dump the page that has been longest apparently been solved in an empirical or experi- resident in core, and another is to dump the page mental fashion. For instance, we know of no that has been longest resident in core without theoretical studies on methods of allocation of being accessed. More elaboratecriteria, based processor time to various programs or on the opti- on the past history of all pages in core, and taking mization of information storage in memories with account possibly of the fact that some programs varioushierarchylevels."(Pointel and Cohen, are reacting with their consoles while others are not, 1967, p. 46).

3. Storage, File Organization, and Associative MemoryRequirements

3.1"The management of secondary storage decisions as to the allocation of storage space and which has plagued programmers for many years the movement of information between levels of a should be handled automatically by the total soft- storage hierarchy." (Randell and Kuehner,1968, ware system. The designers of the software system p. 298). for the ATLAS computer were pioneers in attacking "The dynamic nature of multiprogram on-line this problem. We find the designers of most large computation should have a strong influence on modern software systems gingerly probing at the memory organization." (Lock, 1965, p. 471). same problem." (Wagner and Granholm, 1965, p. "If the extra memory which can be added 287). can be overlapped and if there exists a hier- 3.2"Data base storage will require medium archy of memories of differing speeds then both capacity, random access, solid-state, on-line auxil- the compilers and the operating system will have iary storage; large capacity, low cost, on-line auxil- to concern themselves with making sure these iary storage; and very large capacity, very low cost, features are used." (Clippinger, 1965,p.211). off -line auxiliary storage." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 41). "Memory management that is, having the right "Technology offers a broad variety of access and material in the right place at the right time storage modes, so that less frequently used, or less plays a central role and calls for a carefully thought- valuable, records could be stored more cheaply at out strategy if the supervisory program is to handle the cost of slower access." (Bohnert and Kochen, thismatterexpeditiouslyandautomatically." 1965, p. 157). (David, 1966, p. 44). "We need to better understand the flow of data 3.4"...The newer time-sharing systems con- and develop design guidelines here, recognizing template a hierarchy of file storage, with 'percola- that the access 'gap' from electronic memoz y through tion'algorithmsreplacingpurgingalgorithms. electromechanical storage deviceswill cover a Fileswill be in constant motion, some moving relative access speed differential of 103 to 105." `down' into higher-volume, slower-speed bulk store, (Hoagland, 1967, p. 258). while others move 'up' into lower-volume, higher- 3.3"In large time-sharing systems the means speed memory all as a function of age and refer- for organizing memory is of prime importance, and ence frequency." (Schwartz and Weissman. 1967, the next several years should bring a variety of p. 267). solutions to this problem." (Pyke, 1967, p. 162). "In a multiple-access multi-programmed system, C. ..The problem of assigning data blocks and the use of paging gives a number of advantages. program segments statically to various types of In the first place, when a fresh program comes to storage units is replaced with the problem of moving be loaded, it can go into any physical pages that can such information dynamically through a hierarchi- be made available, whether or not they are con- cally organized storage." (Opler, 1965, p. 275). secutive. Secondly, paging allows traffic in the "The information conveyed by the fact of seg- channel between the drum and the core memory to mentation can be used by the system in making be reduced, since a page of program need not be 56 loaded unless it is actually needed. The procedure of simple adaptive schemes for handling informa- is to load the first page of a program and send tion transfers between storage levels." (1963, p. 176). control to it. If, in due course, an attempt is made 3.7"Unless an unexpected breakthrough recon- to access a word in another page, a supervisor trap ciles fast random access with very large capacity, occurs and the supervisor loads the required page. there will be a need for memories that effect Since, in multiple-access working, programs are various compromises between those desiderata." often loaded and run for short periods only (until (Licklider, 1965, p. 63). they reach an input or output wait, or have ex- "The concept of storage hierarchies is very impor- hausted their quantum of time), this advantage of tant in considering the use and capabilities of paging is an important one. A further reduction in storage devices. There is no one ideal type of traffic can be obtained if, associated with each storage that fulfillsall requirements while pro- page register, there is a bit which is originally viding the maximum speed and capacity for the zero, and becomes set to one the first time the page minimum cost." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 41). is written into. The supervisor can then avoid writing 3.7a "A MIS usually consists of two operational back on to the disc pages which have not been categories of programs; real-time and batch. The altered during their residence in core. Memory file system to support these processes must at least lockout can be associated with pages if extra bits consider: associated with the page registers are provided 1. Security of information for the purpose." (Wilkes, 1967, p. 3). 2. Recovery of system operation after failure, and 3.4a"The reviewersbelievethatfile-main- restoration of data when mutilated. tenance operations have not received adequate 3. Key and Addressing schemes that will result consideration in the design of file organizations. in densely populated storage. We noted that the use of indirect addressing of 4. Need for additions and changes to the data data could result in important savings for mainte- base to meet changing requirements. nance operations in indexed and multilist appli- 5. Performance requirements of all types of cations. It was also noted that an alternative design activity. approach to accommodate maintenance require- 6. Reduction of wasted mass storage, consistent ments was to reserve space in storage for this with performance requirements. purpose. It would be useful if quantitative per- 7. Coordination of the file system with the pro- formance studies were developed so that designers gramming system." (Benner, 1967, p. 291). might know the circumstances under which one is more advantageous than the other." (Minker 3.8"Hierarchical memory structures (with the and Sable, 1967, pp. 150-151). levels set by the access-time characteristics) are 3.5"The system design includes a hierarchical common in mass storage systems to balance cost, directory structure. Each item in a directory asso- capacity, and access time performance against ciatesan alphanumeric name withapointer applications requirements.... to a file, an input /output function, an entry point "Economical mass-memory systems are the real giving access to some system service, or a directory key to extending the power of computers into many giving further associations of names with pointers." new applications." (Hoagland, 1965, p. 55). (QuarterlyProgress Report No.80, Research "This 'main' memory size is related to the proc- Laboratory for Electronics, M.I.T, 257 (1966).) essing rate; the faster the arithmetic and logic units, 3.5a"Early implementations of memory pro- the faster and larger the memory must be to keep tection were aimed almost exclusively at providing the machine busy, or to enable it to solve problems the write protection function which is essential without waiting for data." (Hoagland, 1965, p. 53). for guaranteeing that one program cannot destroy 3.9"A stream is a combined allocation of several another. The multiusage environment adds further levels (presently core and disk) of storage, used as dimensions to memory protection requirements. asingle-levelcontinuously addressablestore." Privacy considerations of privileged information (Connors, 1966, p. 201). (such as payroll data) require that portions of 3.10"In my opinion, this problem of the minimal memory be protected from unauthorized reading redundancy store must be considered as one of the aswell aswriting." (Mendelson and England, long-rangeproblemsforinformationsystems." 1966, p. 62). (Mooers, 1959, p. 28). 3.6Barton comments: "Since multi-level An obvious practical requirement for consolida- storageisan economic necessity, itsefficient tion or correlation of new input items with items utilization has long been a prime oLjective, though previously stored is that of checking for duplicate the difficulties appear formidable. In this regard, entries in the file. Then, "in another...kind of the machine designers have largely ignored the situation, the flow of input documents will contain problem;extensiveprogrammedcontrol,very many facts or purported facts, and these must be costly in terms of storage, is usually the conse- compared with information in the files for veracity, quence. It now appears that things can be done consistency, novelty, or the like." (Mooers, 1959, to alleviate this problem by providing adequate p. 17). interrupt signals indicating states of tape, disc, In one illustrative experiment, it is reported that and drum storage components and through use "in the case of a duplicate statement, only the set 57 identifier, R, is stored. The number of R's stored points* becomes possible. Thus avery rich structure serves to enforce the validity of the corresponding can be created and manipulated with the file statement." (Arnovick, 1965, p. 183). system.... 3.10aGreenway and Russell point out that: "As mentioned above, any aggregate may be "The final form in which information is presented an element of any other aggregate, indeed it may to the user is a function of economics, required be an element of any number of aggregates. Simi- response time, and human factors. Thus, informa- larly a file may be a member of any number of tion presentation might range froma printed page aggregates. Thus in both cases we have many toa high-speed sophisticated three-dimensional records pointing to the same record. If such pointers display device. The importance of human factors were to be in''the form ofan address or anything in information presentation is pointed out by the else which was somewhat hardware oriented, each fact that display on a microfilm reader oftenappears pointer would have to be changed whenever the very desirable from an economic and engineering record to which it pointed were moved. This would standpoint, but meets with considerable resistance require reverse pointers in the record being pointed from users." (1965, p. 3). to so as to know which records require updating. 3.10b "A viablefileorganizationmust be One soon becomes enmeshed inan overwhelming adequate from several points of view. maintenance job.Therefore, duetothevery dynamic character of the secondary storage in 1. It must permit economical retrieval of items, INTIPS, it is necessary that inter-record references by individual or by class. be symbolic. Aggregates, Files and Data Blocks 2. It must permit economical modification of its can each be assigned a symbolic name by the user items, by individual or by class. but these symbolic names donet readily serve 3. It must be economically representable inone the purpose of inter-record references because or more memory media of a computing system. they are too long and alsoany given File can have 4. It must be adaptable to arange of computing many symbolic names. Therefore, another set environments, present and future."(Holt, of symbolic names was derived to be used for 1966, p. 465). inter-record references. Theyare assigned by the 3.10c"This paper describes the file handling file system solely for itsown use and are called system developed and being implemented as a System Assigned Symbols (SAS's). Since these part of INTIPS, (INTegrated Information Proc- symbols are never exposed outside the filesystem they need not be binary representations ofany essing System) under the aegis of Rome Air Develop- legitimate alpha-numeric characters. Instead they ment Center. This file system addresses itself to are purely binary and therefore more compact." the physical problem of the storage and retrieval (Ver Hoef, 1966, pp. 75-77, 80). of fixed length blocks and their organization into 3.11"The activity method of file organization higher-order structures. It does notconcern itself has an added appeal, because it provides the data with the contents of these blocks.... "The data base must be grossly expandable for systematically purging the file of rarely used without reprogrammingor redesign. Indices must items." (Borko, 1965. p. 24). be small and efficient while the data base is small "We make readily available those items which but grow automatically with minimal decrease in are most likely to be wanted and make relatively efficiency as the data base increases to its projected inaccessible those items whichare least likely to be wanted." (Hayes, 1963, p. 287). maximum of 109 blocks.... "The file structure is basically that ofa tree. "Similarly, within the record different portions Blocks are grouped into files wherea file consists of the record have different activityrates. Fre- of 1, 8, or 256 blocks. As will beseen in subsequent quently a record of 700 alpha-numeric characters sections, by settingdiscretesizes,one gains in length will have a small portion,some 20 to 30 advantages in reduction of overhead when accessing characters, that will geta major share of the activity. related blocks and in simplification of the storage Some system designsuse a "creamed" file of these allocation problem. The choice of these three sizes 20 to 30 charactersper record in a computer to was somewhat arbitrary but it was desired to have answer 80 percent of the questions, with the other 20 percent handled by manualor microfilm files." file sizes vary by approximately an order of magni- (Tauber, 1966, p. 276). tude. Files as well as blocks, may be symbolically 3.12 named. No two blocks in the same file "The system will reduce routine search may have the time and conserve the more costlystorage space same name but any given block name may be used by lessening the rapidity ofaccess to data as in any number of distinct files. Every block isa it decreases in usefulness. Thus dataon a particular member of one and only one file.... individual who is incarcerated "It can be readily seen that by allowing aggregates or has been dead for some time will be placed instorage with lower to consist of other aggregates as well as files, a accessibility structure can be developed which is many levels thandataonactivecriminals." deep. These levels are called terraces. In addition, (Geddes et al., 1963, p. 24). by permitting files and aggregates to be members A conventional tree strurture allintsany git en mole to subsume several nodes but it may only be subsumed by one nude. If.on the other band. suelt a node may of more than one aggregate the creation of lattice by subsumed by Iwo or more moles. it is definedto be a [attire point. 58 "The optimal organization[of the datafile] immediately before itin the file, and relocating a will depend on the primary functions of the system, record only after a specific number of queries using and it may prove advantageous to have different either of the first two methods. Assuming the file parts of the file organized differently so that one must be searched serially for each query, he found part can respond efficiently to one kind of demand that the two basic methods were equally as good in and another part to another kind." (Travis, 1963, improving search efficiency and that using sampled p. 331). queries merely slows the organization process." "The file structure should exhibit the various (Climenson, 1966, p. 112.) levels at which data will be used, yet allow for the 3.14b"The performanceregionof several integration of all related data. Modified list-type hundred million bytes of data with access in milli- structures designed for the needs of the particular seconds is a key to many on-line 'data bank' type system are worthy of much consideration for such information systems and the appeal of such facilities files in order to provide the desired flexibility, growth, spurs the rapid trend to direct access file-oriented and cross-referencing." (Gurk and Minker, 1961, systems." (Hoagland, 1967, p. 258). p. 270). 3.15 The terms"associative memory" and 3.12a"Multiple entries for a file item expand "content-addressable"memoriesaregenerally the size of the file and require more duplicating and used interchangably. Cheydleur, however, makes more infiling. The whole purpose, however, of a thefollowinginterestingdistinction:"Content- multiple-entry approach is to achieve an organiza- addressability... canbe described as the capa- tion of the file so that all duplicates having to do with bility for locating items via their keywords (with a particular code category may be brought together the understanding that at various times any of the in one section of the file, then, when a search must fields of an item suddenly may be subject to treat- be made, only a portion of the total file need be ment as a key word) rather than locating via their presented for the searching operation." (Kuipers actual memory addresses; basically this localization et al., 1957, p. 258). must be effected without benefit of any kind of 3.13"Economic operation is feasible only if the serial sorting of files or subfiles either at the time of predetermined pattern of the file organization cor- record or at the time of recall... responds to the environment." (Hayes, 1963, p. 268). "The desirability of achieving an associativity 3.13a"More difficult problems arise when paral- capability,distinctfromcontent-addressability, lel use of files is being made and one job is termi- can be based on the need for coping with file require- nated abnormally after only some of its tasks have ments such as (1) multiple response, i.e., the corre- been completed. What is the status of the updated spondence of more than one item to the specification file? The same question arises if a file is updated required; (2) inexact but close matching of 'most early in a job. Should the updated version of the of the specifications'; and (3) rejection of items file be made available to other jobs before the full which have certain specified explicit descriptors." job is completed? Conflicts of this type demand a (Cheydleur, 1963, pp. 57-58). great deal upon the necessity of the file being com- Some other definitions are as follows: "An as- pletely up-to-date and upon the various structures sociative memory is a storage device that permits of the files. In general, the rule is that an up-dated retrieval of a record stored within by referring to file is not available until after its job is completed. the contents or description rather than the relative If it should be available earlier, then that job should address within the memory." (Prywes, 1965, p. 3). be broken into two other jobs so that at the end of "We have described here an iterative cell which the first job the file can be released. This makes the can be used as a content addressable memory rules easier for users to understand and simplifies from which an entry may be retrieved by knowing the restarting problem." (Gosden, 1964, p. E2.2-7). part of its contents." (Gaines and Lee, 1965, p. 74). 3.14 "We will find random-access mass memory "This paper describes a fixed memory consisting handling images as well as digital data by storing of one or more stacks of paper or plastic cards, them in video and in digitized form..." (Hoagland, each of which contains an interconnected array of 1965, p. 58). printed or silk-screened film resistors. Each card 3.14a"Mass storage control logic is now begin- is compatible with conventional key punches, and ning to extend to the functional ability to automati- information is inserted by the punching of a pattern callyarrange records withinthehierarchy of of holes, each of which breaks- an appropriate memory /storage according to their activity, signifi- electrical connection. All punched cards in a stack cantly improving access utilization." (Hoagland, are cheaply and reliably interconnected using a 1967, p. 258). new batch interconnection technique which re- "In applications involving the single-item search, sembles an injection molding process, using molten the analysis performed by McCabe can be useful. low-temperature solder. The circuit which results He examines the possibilities of reordering a file is a resistor matrix where the information stored is based on mcv,ing the records for which a query has in the form of a connection pattern. The matrix been made. Three methods of reordering the file may be operated as a content-addressable or asso- are suggested: moving the retrieved record to the ciative memory, so that the entire array can be front of the file, exchanging positions with the record searched in parallel, and any word or words stored

59 366-108 0 - 70 - 5 answering a given description can be retrieved in atleastscratchpad-sizeassociativememories microseconds." (Lewin et al., 1965, p. 428). practical." (Hudson, 1968, p. 42). "The information recordsintheassociative 3.19"The utility of content-addressable mem- memory are organized into lists. Each list can ories (CAM's) within a general purpose computing be visualized as a series of cells, each cell con- system is investigated...A simulation package taining an information record, linked along a linear is developed which allows simulation of CAM com- stringwhichconnects"associated"records. mands within job programs run on the IBM 7090 and Each of the records may be of variable length and derives tallies of execution times corresponding to may have a number of associations, with a link a particular realization of a CAM system. The simu- to another record for each association. Each string lation package is used to evaluate algorithms for represents an associative notion and has a cor- CAM commands and to evaluate the efficiency of responding name which is referred to in the fol- CAM commands in a job program." (Fuller, 1963, lowing key. The branching lists make up what is abstract). known as a tree. The word tree figuratively describes 3.20"Memory organization is the kernel of the the branching out of lists from the main chain of Moore School's problem-solving facility...With informationwhichprovidespathswithinthe the multilist technique information storage and re- associative memory. Thus, the processes of storage trieval are incorporated in the executive program and retrieval are regarded as establishing and and in a man-machine communication language following association links among the information called Multilang." (Carr and Prywes, 1965, p. 88). records." (Prywes, 1966, pp. 1790-1791). "The functions of storage and retrieval of records "An associative memory has two attributes: are accomplished by the use of an associative content-addressabilityand parallel-searchcapa- memory which issimulated on an addressable bility." (Chu, 1965, p. 600). memory by means of the MULTILIST technique. 3.16"The content-addressable memory (CAM) This technique...involves the use of an expand- was initially proposed by Slade as a cryogenic ing tree structure as a dynamic index translating device." (Fuller, 1963, p. 2). See Slade and McMahon keys into addresses, and a multi-association area (1957). where the records themselves are stored." (Prywes, 3.17"An early example of a parallel search 1965, pp. 2-3). memory was the 'multiple instantaneous response "The Mithilist system simulates a storage system file' (MIRF), where the comparison function is that contains an associative memory as a substruc- built directly into the cells storing data items, ture. From such a descriptive memory, a program- permitting a given searchspecificationto be mer can retrieve stored information by specifying reflectedagainstalldata cellssimultaneously. a key that is, by giving a description of the infor- Knowledge of the address of the qualifying data mation desired, rather than its address." (Carr and item is not needed. Address independence has Prywes, 1965, p. 88). also been achieved inlist-processing systems, 3.20a"An associative memory for large scale where search proceeds through a series of chained data processing can be implemented in a conven- lists rather than in parallel. A short study of both tional addressable memory by simulation tech- approaches has been provided by Reich." (Climen- niques." (Landauer, 1963, p. 863). son, 1966, p. 114.) 3.21"One of Feldman's main points is that there "Previous work in automatic data extraction, is some evidence that large associative memories automatic indexing, and formatted file processing may be competitively simulated on conventional suggested that the techniques of content addressing computers. His principal evidence is that the execu- and parallel processing afforded by an associative tion times are reasonably competitive, but he further processor would offer significant advantages both argues that large associative memories can be simu- in performance and in ease of programming for lated on immediately available hardware, and that suchapplications."(BakerandTriest,1966, the general-purpose machine has the ability to p. 1-1). handle the multiple-hit problem and tree-structured 3.18"It is very unlikely that associative proces- data more readily. Another point is that "if much sors will be developed to an adequate state for processing must be done outside the associative widespread utilization in the foreseeable future." memory the saving in the time for the first access (Hobbs, 1966, p. 41). may be a negligible part of the total." (Climenson, 3.18a"It is extremely unlikely chat large fast 1966, p. 116). associative stores will become practicable in the 3.22"List organizations of memory are generally near future." (Scarrott, 1965, p. 137). useful in problems for which: "In the past, associative or content addressable 1. Symbols having other than numeric signifi- memories of any significant size have been im- cance are to be manipulated. practicalfor widespread use.Relatively small 2. Dynamic storage allocation is desired since associative memories have been built with various storage requirements cannot be determined in technologies, such as multiaperture ferrite cores, advance. cryotrons, and various thin-film techniques. The 3. Orderings exist among symbols or among sets logical flexibility of microelectronics now makes of symbols or both. Sets of symbols may have 60 many subsets. Subsets may belong to more be followed closely in future reviews. The reviewers than one set. believe that additional features, suchas indirect 4. Orderings among symbols are restructured in addressing tonames of records (as described pre- the course of program execution. viously with the registry number) and datadescrip- Problems for which list storage has been used in- tions, will be needed in the operational system." clude theorem proving in geometry and logical (Minker and Sable, 1967,p. 141). calculus, chess playing, assembly line balancing, 3.24"To achieve the fullutilization of the translation of natural and artificial languages, and memory space, any abandoned space must be information retrieval." (Fuller, 1963, p. 6). `recaptured' in order that it may be used subse- 3.23"Th' choice of file structure within a ran- quently for other purposes. The association memory dom access device is dependent upon the problem. ... startswith all available space on a single Multi-list structures, chaining, address genera- long list, called the 'available space list'. Whenever tion techniques, and dictionaries have all been space is required for building up a new list, this is found valuable." (Berul, 1964, pp. 10-17). obtained by using the words from the front of the "A record is retained in file for each document. available spacelist, and whenever information The record contains the code for each index term is erased and the words that held it become available attributed to it. Nextto the index term code is for use elsewhere, these words are added to the the address of another record which contains the front of the available space list. Thus, the fact same term code. A search for all records with a cer- that unused space isscattered all through the tain term code may be performed by 'threading' memory creates no difficulty in finding new space, through the file from one random access address for there is a single known word (the name of the to another.... available space list, ASL) that always contains "A further development of the Inverted List the address of the next available word." (Hormann, method has been developed at the AUERBACH 1960, pp. 14-15). Corporation. To reduce.the amount of list manipula- 3.24a"Herner notes the two basic ways of or- tion, a technique is employed which selects the ganizing file material: the 'unit record' concept and lists most liable to be critical in the search. Only the 'inverted file' concept. The advantages and dis- these lists are manipulated, and the number of advantages of each in their pure formwere aptly records ultimately retrieved from random access described by Prentice: The unit record concept has is greatly reduced." (Berul, 1964, pp. 8-24). the advantage of having all information in the record "The work of Lefkovitz et al., in developing an available for search at one time, resulting in high experimental system for a real-time chemical in- search precision. It has the basic disadvantage that formation system is of general interest because of all records in the file must be searched forevery itsfile structure features rather than its special request. On the other hand, the inverted file search interest for chemical retrieval. The work is being need only involve the pertinent part of the file, but performed for the Army Chemical Information it retrieves only record identifications; it must deal Data System (CIDS) effort. Except for some special with unbalanced record posting densities, and the features, such as chemical substructure searches relationship between individual record terms is and relational searches between entities, work difficult to express and search." (Climenson, 1966, in the general field of file structures is applicable p. 109). to the chemical retrieval problem, and the specified "Transience is a strong incentive to conventional chemical problems can be embedded within the term-on-item grouping. If the item has a short life, larger framework. The file structure used in the it is desirable to have terms grouped under items so CIDS project is a modified multilist file structure." that items and their terms can be deleted with ease (Minker and Sable, 1967, p. 140.) from the store in one simple operation." (Wall, "Modificationstothemultilistfilestructure 1958, p. 172). made by Lefkovitz et al., make it more of a com- "Experience with the program has also shown bined inverted file, multilist structure. An auto- that an inverted file of document numbers posted matic classification scheme is being developed to to indexing terms, the original scheme, isless anticipate the types of questions and to place data suited to the total NASA informationprogram incells based upon their attributes and near than a linear file with complete document records "related data. The scheme is basically a data-storage placed on tape and searched in sequential order. allocation strategy for disc, which attempts to save With the linear arrangement, it ismore feasible accessing data on different disc head positionings. to divide the total file both chronologically and by No experience exists on its usage. As the authors subject area Thus, to shorten the total timere- note, the efficiency of the system will depend quired to make any given search of the document highly upon whether the keys are indexed. For store, only selected portions need be searched. substructure searching, without other keys identi- The linear file is also most suited toa decentralized fying the data, they found that a tape file compares system in that the updating of searching files held by favorably with a disc system. The authors believe subcentral facilities might be done simply by dis- that to be effective, the longest lists should encom- tributing the new sections of data whichare then pass only a small part of the file. This work should easily added to the ends of existing files in the field.

61 A further result of experience witha decentkalized potentially excessive use of memory by simply system is that numerical codes for subject terms are providingacross-referencecapabilitywithout troublesome, especially when the vocabulary is replicating the full index record." (Meadow, 1967, changing and evolving as fast as the aerospace p. 240). vocabulary. Conversion of indexing data from codes "Combinations of the inverted file and unit record to straight alphabetics was a natural solution for approach are replacing pure applications of either." the NASA program; together with the linear file (Climenson, 1966, p. 129). arrangement, it is expected to be effective in mid- "When data are stored on tape for a retrieval 1964." (Wente, 1965, p. 58). system, they are commonly organized by record "Variations in search logic can improve the name and other identifiers, followed by record de- efficiency of a fileset with an inverted index. scriptors. To speed retrieval, some designerspro- In the most common mode of usage, when the vide an index that is searched first, followed by search specifies a Boolean combination of terms, retrieval from the main file, which is sequencedon the union and intersection operationscan be tape by citation number. However, Curtice shows carried out on the list of record locations retrieved that, for serial media, searching the main file is from an inverted index. Another method that has generally more efficient than searching the index. been proposed by I. A. Warheit is to locate only Thus, an index store?, on tapemay hinder rather one term of a request set in the inverted file, than enhance retrieval time. Furthermore, the index then search out the index records listed there. must be maintabled, thus making maintenance The full logic is applied only to the index records operations more complex. Curtice further notes that retrieved by this term. This method offers an storing both the index and the main fileon disc will advantage when the expected number of index lead to an advantage of the indexed approachnot records to be detail-searched is low, the number achievedfortape-storeddata. Thus, we note of comparisons to be made during the record again that the file organization, to be effective, must search is also low, and the query terms are all be matched against the physical storage medium.... intersected. The method works best if the least "Experience on an actual system at the NASA probable term can be selected from the request ScientificandTechnicalInformationFacility set and used as the only entry to the inverted file. confirms Curtice's results. Brandhorst & Eckert This technique is called direct access searching.... present a brief historical review and a current up- Only one of the two query terms is looked up in the dating of the NASA effortsas accomplished by inverted index file.All index records containing Documentation Incorporated. They report that the that term are examined for presence of the other straight linear-file search using tape isan improve- query term. This method reduces searches in the ment over the inverted-index search followed by inverted file and eliminates cumbersome 'ogical a linear-file search. However, they intend to use operations on thelistsof document numbers the inverted-file approach for discs when theirnew retrieved from the inverted file. If a third table, computer is obtained." (Minker and Sable, 1967, an index of the inverted file, is used, it would be p. 128). possible to include not only location of term records, "A linear file search approachwas adopted for but the number of index record references in each, use in the system. An inverted file search economic- and this could be used to select the single entry ally demands permanent allocationof random for the inverted file. On the other hand, maintaining access equipment, the expense of which precluded i and retrieving relative frequency of use data may its use in the system. However, the Descriptive use up all the gains otherwise provided." (Meadow, Terms Statistical Master File, the Satellite File 1967, p. 239). which is used to produce the term postingsreport, "It is even less desirable to invert a complete is actually an inverted term file. Therefore, when file in non-document-oriented files. The low search inexpensive random access storage becomes avail- probability of most of the many fields in typical able, the conversionexpense to an inverted file data records makes allocation of extra memory to random access searchwillbe minimal.Also, speed the occasional search uneconomical. Consider unlesshindsightindicatesrevision,thebasic what happens when the index file is sequenced on questionstatement methodwillbe retained." some more meaningful basis than accession number. (Ebersole, 1965, pp. 193-194). Is We must certainly bear in mind that one result is "In an attempt to exploit the benefits of bothan a requirement to sort all incoming index records. inverted file and unit-record concept and circumvent Any sequence other than accession number must the disadvantage of each, Warheit has devised a be sufficiently more efficient than access number so-called direct access search system where both order to overcome the penalty of sort time. Sorting kinds of files are used. The inverted file is usedas on subject would often be desirable, but many in- an initial search filter on the basis of one or two dexing systems permit and encourage several sub- coordinated search terms. The assumption is that, ject terms per index. Sorting of index records by if there is a reasonably small number of document subject would then require each record to be repli- postings associated with the initial search terms, cated as many times as there are subject terms in only a few records in the unit-record file must be the record. The inverted file concept avoids this searched in detail as the second step. The price

62 paid is storage redundancy. It should be noted that Invariousforms,theseapplicationsinclude incomplete use of an inverted file is equivalentto microprogramming, journalkeeping, and arith- exhaustive search of an inverted file where the terms metic and logic manipulations." (Fleisher et al., have a many-to-one relation to the unit-record 1965, p. 25). termsthat is, in systems where the termsare "Lookahead designs, in which block transfers stored with some degree of imprecision (e.g., using of instructions and data minimizememory accesses one term in the inverted file for a range of record and transfers, have used scratchpad memories. ,. values or a code to represent several record terms). "A major utilization [of scratchpads] has been In both cases, a portion of the unit-recori filemust the storage of intermediate arithmeticor logical be examined to complete the selection task." results from a computational unit." (Gluck, 1965, (Climenson, 1966, p. 113). p. 663). 3.24bFor example, "Anderson et al., in work "Many registers, formerly implemented with sponsored by the Army Research Office andcon- flip-flops, are now storedas words in scratchpad ducted at the National Bureau of Standards,are memories. Typically, such registersare utilized experimenting with a linear file consisting of basic for index words, base registers, real-time clocks fixed-field information about the entry, plus linksto and similar relatively infrequent usages." (Gluck, satellite information files fora chemical retrieval 1965, p. 663). system. As part of the same effort, Marron et al., "Theincrementalcompilationachievedby developed programs for chemical structureor sub- indirectly addressing all operands through their structure searching based on the Hayward notation. reference entries suggests a small very-high-speed Since no screening techniques, whichserve to memory, functioning much like the index registers, categorize the structures, are used in the imple- to be used by all identifiers' reference entries." mented system, a linear search of the entire file is (Lock, 1965, p. 471). required. The authors recognize this limitation for 3.27"The key to the system is thepresence an operational system." (Minker and Sable, 1967, of an A.:;.ociative Memory Subsystem. Theasso- p. 140). ciative memories are used to provide dynamic 3.25"The rationale behind the inclusion of local control over processor assignments, to mechanize scratchpad memories inthe B 8500 computer an automatic page turning scheme, and to provide module encompasses...the need for buffering of important functions concerned with the execution four-fetches of instructions and data in advance of I/O commands." (Gundersonetal.,1966, of their use, i.e., lookahead. Also importantare its abstract). uses as storage for intermediate results, as an eco- 3.27a These authors comment: "The parallel nomical implementation for registers andcounters, search function of associative memories requires and for the extension of the push-down stack." that comparison logic be provided at eachmemory (Gluck, 1965, p. 663). word cell. The APP, by moderate additions to this "The storage queue contains words destined for logic, allows :he contents ofmany cells, selected storage and their absolute address. Since the storage on the basis of their initial content, to be modified function has the lowest priority in the communica- simultaneously through a `multiwrite' operation." tions unit, words are retained in this area until (Fuller and Bird, 1965, p. 105). service timeisavailable...[but]data being 3.27b"The ILLINOISPatternRecognition fetched are checked against the contents of the Computer(ILLIACIII)...isdesignedfor storage queue by the use of the associative mem- automatic scanning and analysis of massive amounts ory ...Fetching of data from a main memory of relatively homogeneous visual data. In particular, location about to be updated by a word awaiting the design is an outgrowth of studies at this Labora- service in the storage queue would provide incorrect tory of a computer system capable of scanning, information to the program." (Gluck, 1965, p. 666). measuring, and analyzing in excess of 107 bubble- 3.25a"The power of the machine is achieved by chamber negatives per year.... using a small fast scratch pad memory for manipu- "A Pattern Articulation Unit (PAU), whose duty lating address fields..." (Wigington, 1963, p. 707). is to perform local preprocessing on the digitized raster, such as track thinning, gap filling, line ele- 3.26"Inthebeginning,smallassociative ment recognition, etc. The logical design of the all- memories will be provided as an adjunct tocom- digital processor has been optimized for the idealiza- puters of c6nventional organization to permit fast tion of the input image to a line drawing. Nodes table look-up, facilitate the performance of certain representing end points, bends, points of intersec- classes of information retrieval applications. Later, tionarelabeledinparallelbyappropriate they may be emplryed to facilitatememory assign- programming. The abstract graph describing the ments, bus assignments and processor assignments. interconnection of labeled nodes is then extracted Still later, we may see the whole organization of as a list structure, which comprises the normal thememory changed .."(Clippinger,1965, outputoftheprocessingunit."(McCormick, pp. 208-209). 1963, p. 791). "Many systems applicationsof high-capacity, 3.28"The interrogation, which may consist of high-speed, random-accesf, read-only memories a number of descriptors, each containing many bits appeartostem from table lookup operations. of information, causes an appropriategroup of 63 solenoids to be driven...The solenoids interact plane is connected to its own detector-driver which simultaneously with all enclosed loops on all data tests the output in comparison with all the other planes, resulting ina simultaneous voltage on data plane outputs to find that output containing the output of each data plane that is the cross- the best correlation. Alternatively, the detector- correlation between the driven input solenoids and driver can be set to test for some predetermined each individual data plane. The output of each threshold." (Pick and Brick, 1963, p. 245).

4. Mass Stkyrage Considerations 4.1"Documents will probably be always with it especially in an open-stack library. In such us because the material in them does not easily a library it would be desirable to place a dummy or economically lend itself to machine handling. after the last bound volume with some such state- Also, for some purposes (browsing, frequent refer- ment as 'vol. to date on microfilm.' ence)documentsaremoreeasily and more "For extended reading it is certainly true that efficiently handled." (Brown et al., 1967, p. 64). print is much easier on the eyes than film, and the 4.2"One...factor is the likelihood of mutila- bound volume is more convenient for notetaking. tion or theft of a given title. Until 1984, when In short, from the point of view of the user, the every home will have its own microviewing device, only advantage of film (and it is not an ins:_bstantial no patron is as likely to remove reels as he is to advantage) is that the title is never absent at the remove issues. Every library can provide its own binder or never on a proce3sing shelf awaiting list of titles on which the razor and the scissor receipt of a missing issue so it can go to the binder. have wreaked frequent havoc; for such titles film "Fourth is the element of cost, and here a com- wonld diminish the problem. puter would be necessary to put into a proper "A second element to be considered might be formula all the factors involved. University Micro- called the nature of the materialincluding both films takes many of them into account in stating physical aspect and content. A weekly magazine that to store a current periodical for a 30 year of the size of Business Week or the New Yorker, period by binding would cost $240.00, while to in which the advertising matter cannot be removed acquire and store the same periodical on film would will take up large amounts of shelf space in bound cost $106.65. Ford suggests that even more can form. On the other hand an abstract journal is much be saved by using a microfilm splicer to combine more convenient to use when it is bound; one must in one box on one reel three or four volumes of a turn from index in the back to abstract(s) in the periodical. He states that his library in this manner middle, and it is far easier to do this with a printed succeeded in reducing 72 boxes of film to 40 which volume than to reel and unreel continuously. A saved 'almost 45 per cent of housing space plus the periodicalwith many illustrations,maps, and cost of splicing.' The clerical costs of preparing diagrams, especially if they are in color, will not a volume for binding and checking the bound be as suitable for microreproduction as one with volume on its return no longer exist. The missing text only. A periodical already in hard covers issue problem mentioned above is also a factor (Horizon) or one which can be purchased in hard here. Frequently a missing issue is not noted until cover form (American Academy of Political and itis time to send the periodical to the binder. Social Science Annals) can go directly from current In many libraries this means that the title, sans shelves to stacks without being sent to the binder. missing issue, must be set aside until a replacement "A third element in the decision is the user of arrives, which means more storage space, more the material. Students at Staten Island, for the adjustment of recordsin short, more cost. Further, most part, never have seen a microfilm reader when microreproduction is used, one can, in the before coming to the college and are usually en- case of some titles, sell the superseded issues to thralled to use one. Not so their instructors.... a second hand dealer and thus recoup part of the represents the attitude of the professor; he prefers initial investment." (Peele, 1964, pp. 168-169). to take the periodical to his home or office rather 4.2aInthe Annual Review of Information than to be tied to the machine. The same is true Science for 1966, Van Dam and Michener comment of the serial cataloger. Good cataloging requires as follows: "The improved accessibility of micro- that each back volume be inspected; it is far easier form was a significant development in 1966. There to do so at one's desk where the ALALC rules were three aspects of this development. First, in- are at hand than to have to go to some other area creasingly more microform was being produced and of the library where the film readers are. The distributed, by the government as well as by manu- division of location that microfilm requires may facturers. To do the research for this chapter, for also be a hardship. If one has a long run of a periodi- instance, some hundred microfiche were ordered cal in bound form and then switches to micro- from the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and reproduction, the title is now shelved in two places. Technical Information or through interlibrary loans, Even though the information about the switch is and were scanned on a $100 viewer. Most engineer- in the card catalog, the reader will often overlook ing drawings and other documentation must now 64 be supplied to NASA or to the Department of De- documentation operations using the Kodak Re- fense in aperture card form. Thomas Publishing cordak or 3M Filmac reader printers. VSMF will Company publishes product information in the form make accessible to QDRI its own extensive file of microcatalogues. Aperture cards, particularly of commercial catalogs. Also the VSMF Vendor microfiche, were the most popular medium. Some Selector questionnaire is identical in use and has minor revisions to the National Microfilm Associa- majar similarities in format to the Standard Form tion's microfiche standard specifications were pub- 129 and the DD Form 558-2 employed by the Army lished." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 201). in establishment of R&D source data. The need for "In summary, then, there are three basic dupli- improved language in present Army and DOD forms cating media film, paper and tape. As indicated, is being met by the new R&D Category Index, magnetic tape requires facilities for interpretation, coordinated by the Armed Services Procurement paper creates unmanageable storage problems, and Regulations (ASPR) Committee with all of DOD flooding, a major problem, could destroy the rec- and NASA." (Peirce and Shannon, 1967, p. 265.) ords. Microfilm has a definite edge on both, as 4.5"We (Ford Motor Company Engineering) readers provide rapid interpretation, and flood ...changed over to 35 mm aperture cards... damage can be controlled by a simple washing of About 99.9% of our engineering drawings are the microfilm reels." (Butler, 1962, p. 63). now on aperture cards and are being distributed 4.3"Up-dating or additions and changes to the throughout the world on that basis." (R. H. De Rosa images in rolls of film used to be considered a in "Systems Magazine's Third Annual Microfilm contra-indication to the use of roll film in applica- Seminar", 1965, 35). tions where up-dating is an important requirement. Four new IBM microfilm products were intro- Because of the facilities afforded by magazines we duced in 1965: "Key to the system is the microproc- can and do seriously propose roll microfilm today essing reusable aperture card which may be used for some of these applications. And, moreover, such to project information onto screens or to obtain proposals are not at all necessarily based on film paper copies. One of the products, a copier/ splicing or other non-dark methods of adding images reproducer is a high volume machine that re- to existing film. I refer, of course, to a more limited produces up to 2,100 cards an hour from the master type of market, but my purpose is to illustrate some micro-processing card. It enables the transfer of of the many new implications for the microfilm both punched holes and microfilm images from one industry represented by the magazine concept and punched card to another in a single operation." the methods and functions this concept facilitates." (Systems 6, No. 6, 6 (June 1965).) (Brunelle, 1962, p. 91.) "A Texas architectural firm, Caudill Rowlett 4.4"The Microstrip System, offered by Re- Scott, has developed a computerized microfilm cordak Corp., uses foot-long plastic holders for file system enabling architects to stop 'reinventing storage and retrieval of 12 in. strips of 16 mm micro- the wheel'. By converting drawings and file material film....File categories are distinguished by color to IBM micro records, needed information can coding on the end tab, which contains an index by be retrieved and displayed, or reproduced, in a content. The plastic strips are also indexed length- few minutes. wise to facilitate location of the desired image." (Bus. Automation 12, No. 7, 47 (July 1965).) "In the past, CRS, like other large architectural "The Micro-Thin Film Jacket, marketed by the firms, was constantly redesigning many common Recordak Corp., accepts single microfilm images as construction features such as ships ladders, flash- well a:. strips, and permits the entire contents or ings and curbings. The only alternative was the any part to be copied by direct contact printing even more time consuming task of retrieving a without removing the microfilm." (Systems 6, No. particular drawing from the company'sfileof 8, 6 (Aug. 1965).) completed projects(bins containing all records "It is clearly uneconomical to put all data into pertaining to the completed project)located in a the computer. The data elements established so distant warehouse. Since there is no statute of far in the design are essential. In addition, the limitations on the responsibility of architects in documentalist knows that sometime, somewhere, Texas, the firm retains itsfiles permanently In someone will want and need additionll corroborative addition to the time consumed, the usual results information. Some type of microfilm appears most were frustrating failure. likely to meet the need for hard copy backup "CRS's system employs both aperture cards and documentation, storage, and retrieval for all five microfiche. Aperture cards are standard sized punch QDRI RODATA files. At this point, we are con- cards with a film frame mounted in a window on cerned only with the facility file. Now, QDRI is the card. The CRS microfiche are sheets of micro- not attempting to develop new techniques. Economy film containing up to 90 images. Projected data, requirements have dictated ',Ise of a proven com- reduced to microfilm, will be readily available in mercial system. About a )T ar of search and dir,- an area adjacent to the computer room. If the archi- cussion led tothe conclusion that the VSMF tect wants to study the drawing, he drops the cartridge or cassette system should satisfy QDRI aperture card into a viewer. If he wants a hard RODATA needs. This is the same system that is copy, one can be produced in thirty seconds for in use by Chemical Abstracts and several library him to study at his desk. 65 i I

i z

"Under its developing program, CRS also is in that with increasing reduction ratio the film analyzing all of its design functions, coding them transport mechanisms in cameras, readers, and and entering the data into an IBM 1130 computer. printersbecomeextremelycomplicated.The When completed, the computer will contain refer- greater the number of images stored within a given ences to projects by design elements. An architect area of film, the more difficult is the problem of seeking to learn how a particular problem was solved indexing,locating,andaccuratelyregistering in the past will cite the factor and the 1130 will list any single one of them. Eventually a point is reached the projects containing that particular element." at which the cost and complexity of the image - (Computers and Automation 16, No. 10, 54 (Oct. registrationmechanism discouragethe use of 1967).) higher reduction ratios." (RADC Summary of the 4.6"Currently, the 4 by 6 inch microfiche has State-of-the-Art, 1967. p. 16). been standardized and popularized by both govern- "Special systems based on document reduction ment and industry. Two fundamental system re- ratios of 60 :1 (Kodak Minicard), 140 :1 (AVCO quirements are filled by the microfiche unit record. Corporation), and 200: 1 (National Cash Register First, it fits the human hand well, a mandatory re- Company) have been successfully used for high- quirement since the carrier must operate in manual density document storage, but they require special as well as automatic systems. Second, it fits the (and expensive) equipment exclusively designed information packages well, and therefore it will for these purposes." (Ibid, p. 19). s provide a least-cost file dissemination tool. This is "The Verac, constructed by the AVCO Corpora- achieved because the microfiche is usually relatively tion, 1958-1961, could store a million pages in full. Thus, using microfiche, the user can obtain reduced facsimile in a cubic foot of space and the lowest cost per page of any comparative method could fi:id and display or reenlarge any one of them in publishing application." (Tauber, 1966, p. 280). inseconds.Itdemonstratedtheengineering "Microfiche makes the duplicating library con- feasibility of high-density photostorage; in economic cept possible. In this concept the basic library is a terms, however, it was a failure." (Council on file of microfiche. The user receives a duplicate Library Resources 10th Annual Report, 1966, p. 21). microfiche, either negative or positive, made while "The highly complex hardware necessary to he waits. Other optional outputs will be made avail- handle ultra-microimages and the quality of the able such as selectively producing hardcopy on a input material must be the two principal criteria reader-printer or completely producing hardcopy against which any plans to use such high reduction through the use of a step-and-repeat enlarger." ratios need to be checked. I discussed some of (Tauber, 1966, p. 281). the apparent but not real compressions of document "Indexing acquisitions on tape, however, is only systems in the ultra-micro range before the National a part of processing. In establishing an operating Microfilm Association last year and will not repeat philosophy for handling of materials, NASA was the arguments here. Project WALNUT, the CIA/ bound by the need for timeliness and the need to IBM high activity document store about which you give individual service in providing the documents have read, utilizes a net 35X reduction ratio. The themselves. The best solution seemed to be micro- proportion was reached only after having experi- fiche. A single processing results in a micromaster mented withand found impractical reduction from which any number of production copies can be ratios above 50X." (Howerton, 1962, p. 23). obtained. The production copies are readable as is, However, it is to be noted that "Republic Aviation with readily available equipment, and if the user entered the microform field because of the large wants hatdcopy, a copy can be blown back from number of technical manualsitprovides with the microfiche and handed to him. We also con- itsairplaneweaponssystems.Itsequipment side,:ed the sheer bulk of files, the cost of handling records 9801 frames on a 4" x 5" fiche at 260: 1 and mailing tons of paper annually, and the vast reduction ratios in a two-stage photographic process. storage space our NASA Centers and other service A 10-fiche automatic loader for the keyboard-con- points would need." (Day, 1965, p. 130). trolled XY positioning "Micro-vue" viewer gives 4.7"Reductions greater than 35X have to have access to any of about 100,000 pages in less than highly specialized associated storage and retrieval 30 seconds, at a projected cost per page of .0014." hardware unless these high reductions are being (Van Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 204). used to compress records for archival storage and 4.8"The Council has this year commissioned thus not in high activity files. Perhaps we could a new investigation from the Republic Aviation consider any image reduced more than 35X as an Division of the Fairchild Hiller Corporation. This `ultra-microimage'." (Howerton, 1962, p. 23). study will seek to identify and estimate the effect "The computer-controlled Magnavox `Magnavue' of factors(size, contrast, optics, photosensitive and the IBM 'Cypress' 1350 photoimage retrieval materials, etc,) affecting the usefulness of micro- system are both in the $1,000,000 range and there- copy at high reduction. Film chips will be made fore are for special high-priority operations only," demonstrating optimum use of high reductions (Van Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 202). up to 300, a laboratory model of a viewer will be "Even if the system will be used under conditions constructedforevaluatingsuchmicroimages such that successive regeneration of document :ender various conditions, and an engineering study images is not a limiting factor, there is a problem will investigate the feasibility of procuring hard 66 copy from the microimages." (Council on Library action so that proper measures may be takento Resources10th Annual Report, 1966,p.50). prevent blemish formation... 4.9"The importance of high quality in the hard "Research at NSB, at the Armed Forces Institute or soft copy output, results from the intensive use of Pathology, and at Kodak Research Laboratories which is made of the patent documents. The docu- has led to the conclusion that biological mecha- ments are searched for several hours at a time and nisms are not directly contributory. All findings the selected documentsarecarefullystudied. thus far indicate the spot formation isa chemical A system providing difficult to readcopy under process, and as usual in such cases, the probability theseconditionswouldclearlyandrightfully of reaction depends on many factors. These include meet strong customer resistance. The maintenance the exposure and processing conditionsas well as of high quality throughout the system providesa various aspects of film storage." (Researchon considerable challenge because of themany genera- Archival Microfilm, 1966,pp. 154-155). tions involved in reaching the outputcopy. Figure 2 4.11These techniqueswere developed, for shows the steps that might be involved in thepro- example, intheMicrofilm Rapid Selector as duction of hard copy in the system. Thecamera originally proposed by Bush and in the Eastman negative would probably not be used in thestore Kodak Minicard System. For the historical back- because of format requirements and the need for ground, see Bagg and Stevens, 1961,pp. 9-36. an archival master. The output of the central 4.12"The merged-record approach, wherein file, a third generation microform, would bean the machine-readable, coded representation ofa intermediate whether useil for printing,as the input document is fused together with the fulltext to a Copyflo or Electrofax, or as a master for the document image, results in a clumsy, slow-response production of classified release microforms. The system which inflicts excessive wear on the docu- use of video printer does not eliminate these steps, ment images, and involves great inefficiency and because thereisstill the requirements foran inflexibility in index searches." (Vogel, 1962,p. 27.) archival master and because of the need fora In contrast, "physical independence of the index butter between the central file output and the fromthe relatedphoto images...makesit printer. Finally, in the public search application, convenient to: the remote user should be ableto produce hard copy from his soft copy viewer. This would be a a. Search a great amount of compressed data print-outfroma4thgenerationmicroform." (indexedinformation)efficiently,without (Urbach, 1962, p. 159.) scanning or physically passing over the great 4.10"What are the implications of the Register volume of extraneous information contained for a national preservation program? One of the in full copies of the documents indexed. first effects will be to bring to the attention of li- b. Reclassify, update and purge sections of the brary administrators the need to establish policies index without altering the image file. concerning preservation of the materials in their c. Establish as many cross-indexes as may be collection all of whichare deteriorating at one desired. rate or another. The library community has not yet d. Index and refer to relevant holdings stored in fully faced up to this need.. Some librariesare using other forms or in other locations. their only microform copksas service copies, and, e. Add to and purge documents from the image in some instances, these represent themost com- file without regard to fixed categoriesor file plete files available,or even unique and irreplace- locations. able copies." (Applebaum, 1965,p. 492.) f. Use the mechanized index in combination with "C. S. McCamy...[said that indications based a manned library, or the mechanized image on an extensive survey] point conclusively to exces- file without the computer-based index. sive humidity as an important element in thepro- g.Replace either the indexor image file with duction of blemishes on microfilm. Laboratory work different units without disrupting the system." also indicates that chlorine (as found in urbanwater (Ibid, p. 28.) systems) is a factor to be considered. Furtherre- 4.I2a"Posting document numbers ina peek-a- search must be done, however, before definitive boo system involves locating, ina rectangular array conclusions are reachedor any new recommenda- on an index term card, the coordinates correspond- tions are made regarding the production andstorage ing to the document number and punchinga hole at of archival-quality microfilm." (LC Info. Bull. 25, that point on each card applicableto the document. App., 285 (1966).) A search will then let lightpass through the same "Scientists at the NBS Institute for Basic Stand- hole locations in several stacked cardsindicating, ards are investigating aging blemishes thatsome- with the aid ofa grid, (or, as described below, by times form on microfilm years after the filmsare use of the Microcite search machine) the numbers placed instorage ...The discovery of aging of those documents indexed by all theterms selected blemishes on some microfilm has generatedexten- for the search, hence the documentsto be retrieved. sive research into the causes of blemishes bothat "Thepeek-a-booorsearchcards...used NBS and throughout the photographic industry. The are 5" x 8" x .007.010" polyvinyl stock, of which objective of these studies is to obtaina clear under- there is one each forevery primary index term standing of the physics and chemistry of there- used...Output may be limitedto this display 67 or the user may, by pushbutton, commandreadout activity and cost. Although complex centralized into an IBM punch. The basic elements required storage and retrieval systems have been advocated for provision of hard copy output have been in- for many years, (2) the shortest time cycle from corporated in the machine. but this capability has question to answer is frequently found to be the use not as yet been used in routine operation. of decentralized microfiche files. Therefore, we can "In Microcite, the location of each indicated hit draw the following conclusion: when manual micro- is used as a reference point from which to position fiche files are automated, the ideal of having an and project a microfilm image of the abstract of entire file of information concerning one individual's the document, or of data that can be accommodated area of interest can be on his desk, available on within the limits of a 5 x 8 inch card in the case of simple command, and capable of easy update." (3) data retrieval systems, for visual inspection by the (Hoadley, 1966, p. 30). querist. The searcher may then (1) determine the "Microfiche report dissemination or publishing probable relevance of the projected items to his may reduce the need for remote physical access to question prior to retrieval of the full document central files simply because you literally can store text, (2) selectively sample the results to ascertain a small library in your desk." (Herbert, 1966, pp. whether his search prescription is too broad, or 34-35). narrow, and, with collateral use of an indexing "Obviously convenience of look-up on the prem- term dictionary (coding vocalsiulary), (3) either re- ises of his own building will revolutionize the re- formulate his search prescription in the former case searcher's work and should improve the quality of or add and/or remove index term cards in the latter. his work and prevent unwanted duplication; this, These operations are possible because the searcher after all, is the raison d'être of the special library." becomes part of a closed feedback loop when he (Kozumplik and Lange, 1967,.p. 67). is conducting a machine search; that is he receives 4.14 "GPL Division of General Precision, Inc., prompt indications of the machine output from has developed a system that allows microfilm to be which he may modify the input.In terms of up-dated and corrected without film reprocessing. "directed browsing" (where the user poses a delib- Only a standard pencil and eraser is needed to add erately broad question), a convenient tool is thus or delete up-dated information. The new system, provided. In this way the machine provides browsing PARD (for Precision Annotated Retrieval Display), capability equivalent to access to a very large stores up to 500,000 management information items number of libraries each organized in a different on 5,000 EAM-cards, automatically selects any one basis at the whim of the user. card within six seconds, then 300m magnifies it up "Microcite istherefore a special-case bystcra to 250 times for television viewing, while providing involving search type selection that not only retrieves continuous updating capability." (Data Proc. Mag. address locators, but is coupled with a direct 7, 44 (Feb. 1965).) facsimile output of document abstracts or of data 4.15"Erasibility is beginning to be offered with (projected image and, if desired, hard copy). It certain microforms. For some photosensitive dyes thus uses two basic storage media: vis., film on there is a gradual loss of image density with return which the abstracts or data are copied and peek-a- to reusable state, unless the image is protected or boo cards for indexing. The process for storing developed. Another erasable medium is thermo- the abstracts or data involves a special camera plastic, in which an application of heat smoothes that records each image at the precisely correct out previous modulation and renders the plastic location in an array. At a reduction ratio of 64 to 1, ready for a new recording." (Heilprin, 1961, p. 217). 20,000 photoreductions of 5 x 8 inch cards are "Thermoplastic recordingispermanent within accommodated in a 15" x 15" area on a 20" x 24" reasonable temperature ranges, and erasures (with film sheet... degradation) are possible." (Gross, 1967, p. 6). "In operationof the Microcite machine for Another proposed recording-storage development search, the film matrix appropriate to the peek-a-boo reported with erasure capability isthat of the set being searched is automatically selected and "Photocharge" system invented by Gaynor and mounted on a drum. The operator places selected Sewell of G.E.'s Advanced Technology Laboratories. peek-a-boo cards on an illuminated area of the This technique utilizes a photoelectronic potential machine and manipulates two control wheels to of material in special film so that light and heat position a set of cursors on each illuminated, together produce a picture consisting of minute that is, unobscured hole in turn. Turning the control deformations on the surface of the film, which can wheels cause rotation and translation of the drum be erased by reheating. (Business Automation 12, carrying the film matrix, so that as the cursor is No. 7, 50). set on each hole, a fullsize focused image of the 4.16"One of the major accomplishments of the citation and abstract corresponding to that hole NCR PCMI process is that it not only permits in- is projected on a screen in front of the searcher." spection to occur at any step of the process but it (Adapted from Bagg and Stevens, 1961, pp. 83, also allows the operator to correct errors." (Tauber 85-86;additionalinformationfromJ.Stern, and Myers, 1962, p. 403). Sept. 1969.) 4.17"It is probable that the single most impor- 4.13"Theprincipalfactorsthatdetermine tant impetus to the trend of 'live' micro-image sys- whether or not a file should be automated are file tems was the approval and subsequent publication 68 in 1960 by the Department of Defense of a group of "The development of any new art usually begins specifications covering a DOD engineering data rather awkwardly and, with learning and experience, microreproduction system...In late 1962, these it and the associated instrumentation is refined. specifications were revised and now represent a very While at the present timewe must read the reflec- important standard for the entire microfilm in- tances of several lines and perhaps determine some dustry." (Hanlon et al., 1965, p. 5). optimum exposure based on the range of reflec- "In June 1963, COSATI endorsed a...limited tances, there may come a time when we will be able set of microfiche standards, specifying reduction to scan the entire drawing and have an integrated ratio, image frame size, and separation between exposure which will be optimum for all the lines on frames. The Committee recommended their adop- the drawing. The objective should be to find a tion by all Federal agencies. In August of that year, method of holding line densities through proper Dr. Jerome Weisner, then President Kennedy's exposure, development and drafting techniques to Scientific Advisor. made government-wide adoption a spread of approximately 0.20 density. While we of the standards a matter of Federal policy and are placing the emphasis on the control of line den- urged development of further standard specifica- sities, we have not entirely eliminated the impor- tions for reading and printing the miniaturized prod- tance of background because there must be suffi- uct and for reproducing full -size copy." ("The New cient difference between densities of linework and Microfiche Standards", 1966, p. 36). background to provide adequate contrast both for "A microfiche standard for documents 88 by 11 producing reproductions and for viewing on a reader. inches or smaller has been established by the Na- If we can hold to a maximum line density of 0.25, tional Microfilm Association (NMA). The NMA stand- including the density of the base, the 0.25 would ard identifies four acceptable microfiche sizes: 75 represent the maximum line density on a micro- by 125 mm, 105 by 148 mm, 5 by 8 inches, and 3.25 film. If we then establish that a minimum line to by 7.375 inches. A reduction ratio of 18: 1 to 20: 1 background contrast difference of 0.75 is required is specified with a fixed frame size.It was an- to insure usability, the minimum desirable back- nounced that all Government agencies would stand- ground density level would be the sum of the maxi- ardize with the 105 by 148 mm size (approximately mum line density plus the desirable contrast or 4 by 6 inches) early in 1965." (RADC Summary of 0.25+ 0.75 =1.0 density. It is a procedure similar the State-of the-Art, 1967, p. 53). to this that will be employed to determine the back- "Further refinement of the standards which led ground density level, once the line density standard to the governmentwide adoption of the 4"bc 6" micro- has been established." (Frey etal.,1962, pp. fiche has resulted in the publication of Federal 110-111). Microfiche Standards, issued in September, 1965." 4.20"National Microfilm Association members (Veaner, 1966, pp. 204-205). including all major equipment producers conferred "For the first time the federal government is on a with government representatives on September 4 standard befor(. too many noncompatible systems and 5 and are close to agreement on basic standards: get started. Users will be able to purchase reading a. Microfiche Sizes -75 x 125 mm (library card), equipment with assurance of total system compat- 105 mm x 6 inches, 5 inches x 8 inches, 3.25 ibility and without fear of early obsolescence." inches x 7.37 inches (tab caiT1). . (Yerkes, 1963, p. 129). b. Single frame size: 11.25 mm x 16 mm, double 4.18"Librarians with a responsibility for the 23 mm x 16 mm with one-half mm separation. service or custody of microforms were urged to ac- c. Reduction ratios 18x to 20x variable. quire and maintain a collection of the latest revisions d Reference point on microfiche for automation of applicable photographic standards approved by requirementslower left-hand corner. the American Standards Association..." (LC Info. e. LayoutEye legible title on top of microfiche Bull. 25, App. 483 (1966).) (along longest dimension, micropages running 4.19"The need for a shift to a linework density in sequence below from left to right and down- standard arises from the fact that the lines which ward from row to row." (Yerkes, 1963, p. 129). we wish to photograph vary widely in reflectance and "The NMA Standard specification for microfiche produce lines of very wide density differenceson the is being revised and will include almost all of the film. In fact, measurements have shown that the line agreements reached between the government and densities on negative film of engineering drawings the industry and user representatives." ("The New vary all the way from 0.08 for some ink lines to 0.60 Microfiche Standard Standards", 1966, p. 39). for light pencil lines. This wide range of line density 4.21"The third major objective, i.e., encouraging is the cause for most of the problems in making manufacturers to reduce costs of microfiche equip- satisfactory reproductions and providinga readable ment, will not be achieved until a high-volume image on the reader. It is with the intention of im- market is assured." (Schwelling, 1966, p. 36). proving this condition that a controlover the density 4.21aFor example, "standards for microfilmare of linework is needed. Preliminary studies have provided in a new publicationMicrofilm Norms already indicated that a maximum line density of issued by the American Library Association.Sub- 0.25 with adequate background density would bring titled 'Recommended Standards for Libraries'.. substantial improvement." (Frey et al., 1962, p. 105). [it includes]a list of pertinent standards of the

69 r""

American StandardsAssociation,theNational libraries with periodic reports on practically any- Microfilm Association, and the U.S. Government. It thing they are likely to buy including microform also provides target descriptions, target and page reading machines. All machines are given an im- arrangements, reduction ratios and imageorienta- partial examination so that the subscriber receives tion. quality requirements for first-generationfilms, not only specifications about the machine but also a and a section on duplicate films." (LC Info. Bull. critical evaluation. All tests to date have been 25, 552 (1966).) conducted by William Hawken, formerly head of 4.22"The first attempt to list microfilms was the Photographic Services at the University of California Union List of Microfilms initiated in the spring of Library, Berkeley, and a recognized expert in the 1941 by the Philadelphia Bibliographic Center and field of microreproduction. Mr. Hawken has also Union Library Catalogue. The list was published in written Enlarged Prints from Library Microforms 1942 with Supplements 1-5, 1943-47, and was cum- (Library Technology Project Publication No. 6), a ulated into the Union List of Microfilms, Revised, detailed study of reader-printers. Enlarged and Cumulative Edition, 1951, followed by Another important source of equipment informa- Supplements 1949-52 and 1952-55. There was then tion is the Guide to Reproduction Equipment, edited a final Cumulation, 1949-59,published by Edwards by Hubbard Ballou, Head of the Photoduplication Brothers in 1961, which includes more than 52,000 Laboratory at the Columbia University Libraries. entries representing microfilm accessions reported The Guide is published by the National Microfilm by 215 libraries in the United States and Canada Association under a grant from the Council on from July 1, 1949, through July 31, 1959. It excludes Library Resources and is now in its third edition newspapers, dissertations, and anumber of special- (1965). It is probably the best reference source for ized series such as the Vatican Manuscript Codices. specifications; it does not, however, give any evalua- In 1948, another important reference source ap- tions. The current edition contains 550 pages and peared, Newspapers on Microfilm, a listing which includesdescriptions of 292 machines." (Diaz, has gone through several editions and is now pub- 1967, p. 211). lished by the Library of Congress. "The International Micrographic Congress has "Both the Union List of Microfilms and News- received a grant...[from the Council on Library papers on Microfilm limitedthemselves to materials Resources] to prepare and publish an 'International reproduced on roll microfilm. The first listing of Guide to Microfilm Equipment'." (LC Info. Bull. 25, publications on unitized, opaque microforms (e.g. No. 10, 137 (1966).) Microcard, Microprint) was the Union List of Pub- 4.24"Let us now turn to the problem of good lications in Opaque Microform, compiled by Eva toexcellentmicroimageproduction equipment Maude Tilton and published by Scarecrow Press in for problem document collections in which the 1959. There is a 1961 supplement and a 1965 revised spectrum of best to worst material tobe micro- edition. These are essentially listings, in dictionary proportioned is very great. Just now are cameras order, of entries appearing in publishers' catalogs. becoming available which will accommodate such "In 1961, Microcard Editions, Inc. issued the first varianceof inputqualityin resolution ranges list of microform publications to include all methods commensurate with the newer storagevehicles. of microreproduction. It is called Guide to Micro- Cameras with coupled exposure adjustment devices forms in Print and appears in February of each year. to relieve the operator of the responsibilityfor Basically, it is a comprehensive list, in alphabetic judging exposure characteristics of problem docu- order, of materials which are available on microfilm ments may resolve this problem with amortization and other microforms from United States publishers, of the added cost of the equipment to be written exclusive of theses and dissertations. It is not a off fairly quickly in reduction of film spoilage and union list but rather a list of publications offered for added good will of the clientele of the service." sale on a regular basis." (Diaz, 1967, p. 212). (Howerton, 1962, p. 25). "The National Register of Microform Masters 4.24a"Eastman Kodak Co.has announced should fill an important need as it provides a central Kodachrome color microfilm for use by business, listing for the type of microform that has been most education and industry. In a recent demonstration, difficult to keep track of -that made by a library for Kodak showed examples of 16mm color microfilm its own use. .,-.nce the library may !lave little or no in rolls and unitized in jackets, as well as in micro - interest in selling duplicate copies, no publicity is fiche-4 x 6 in. film-cards with rows of 16 mm ex- given and therefore the existence of the microform posures totalling up to 60 individual images." does not become widely known, leading to the type (Bus. Automation, p. 69, Dec. 1967). of situation wherein one year after Library A has 4.25"The essential feature that is missing from completed filming a lengthy set, Library B begins the currently available machines is the ability to filming the same set because it does not know of scan directly from the pages of a bound book." Library A's activity." (Diaz, 1967, p. 213). (Schatz, 1967, p. 19). 4.23"Perhaps the best source for information 4.26"Data Reproduction Systems, Inglewood, and evaluation of current eqeipment is Library California, brought out two portable cameras, the Technology Reports, a subscription service offered DRS 8514 and DRS 1117, which could be used to by the Library Technology Program of ALA. This photograph bound volumes owing to a unique design service, which costs $100.00 per year, provides feature: an 'open bottom' which permits placement 70 of the camera directly over the pages of an open next conditional upon the results of previously book of any thickness." (Veaner-, 1966, pp. 202-203). performed analyses...A fourth objective was to 4.27"Capable of being operated by untrained incorporate as fully as possible into the logic of personnel, the camera can copy single page docu- each routine s hatever automatic decisions could be ments, periodicals, or books in a face-up rather made strictly on the basis of problem and data thanaface-downposition.An even-pressure descriptions provided by the user (e.g., whether to system holds bound volumes precisely positioned compute a binomial sampling distribution or to for exposure, preventing damage to the binding. approximate it u ith a normal distribution, depending An electronic flash source supplies uniform illumi- upon the sample size)." (Miller, 1967, pp. 1-2). nation without heat." (Houston Fearless brochure, 4.29a"The great interest that has been aroused "Books Microfilmed While You Wait by New by the proposal of a National Data Center holds Camera-Processor", B-102-65A, 1965). great promise and great problems. At the heart of "HoustonFearless...announcedplansto the issue is the juxtaposition of conflicting values buildamicrofiche Camera-Processor expressly the protection of privacy as opposed to the need to designed for library materials...The opened discover new knowledge. We have consideredone book is placed face up on the platens and the book possible means of partially reconciling thesecon- holder moves upwards against the glass wedge. flicting values, namely, the use of partial aggregation This flattens the pages and prevents motion during which obscures individual identification.Partial exposure. Presumably the optical system is designed aggregation has the great advantage of satisfying to 'open' the book page a full 180°. Fully processed all but the most severe of requirements for the microfiches (called Filmcards by Houston Fearless) protection of privacy while still offering great im- are produced at a reduction of 18 to 1. Capacity of provement over the data which are currently avail- the camera is 250 precut film sheets of size 105 mm able to the research community." (Feige and Watts, x 148 mm, about 4" x 6". Work on this unit is being 1967, p. 16). supported by a grant from the Council on Library Many of these issues of privacy and protection Resources." (Veaner, 1966, p. 204). will be discussed in a later report in this series. 4.28"There have been all kinds of medical 4.30"The first Rapid Selector was constructed studies and tests about which is better, negative at M.I.T. during the period 1938-1940 by Bush and or positive film. We can't prove much one way or his assistants. Figure 8 isa schematic diagram of the other." ("Microfilm Experts Scan the Future", the original Bush Rapid Selector. In this original 1967, p. 28). version, the microfilmed file consisted of document 4.29Cf., for example, the following: "During frames accompanied by specific patterns of clear the past four years, a concerted effort has been dots used as a selection code. The code pattern made to compile a library of working computer consisted of 12 fields, each of which contained 27 programs appropriate for analyzing social science discrete indexing areas. Each area represented a researchdata...Theroutinesareproblem- different indexing character. This pattern could be oriented rather than technique-oriented. The organi- used to identify each document by serial number, zation of the library and its documentation reflect name or title, althor, or subject content indicia. an assumption...that users will start with a In this machine, the code appeared on one longi- statement of their overall research objectives and tudinal half of a 35 mm film and a photographic infer from these objectives which routine or set of image of the original document was recorded on the routines would be appropriate to analyze their data. other half, as shown in Figure 8. In fact, several routines ask the user while he is "In searching, the code pattern for each document conversing with them on-line to select the kind of frame was projected onto a bank of photocells. The analysis he would like to perform...It is assumed photocells were masked by a cutout that was the that social scientists will tabulate or cross-tabulate exact physical image of the selection criterion code their data in ways which will facilitate a test of pattern. Recognition would therefore occur when- their research hypotheses. The tablesso created ever match resulted in all photocells being illumi- will then contain direct observations or category nated. Such a match fired a strobotron that projected frequencies arranged by variables, by categories, the selected frame (document-record half) onto a or by sub-samples, whichever isappropriate to section of hitherto unexposed 16 mm microfilm testing the research hypothesis previously formu- advanced to proper position, thereby allowing a lated. The routines, in turn, reference and discuss replica recording to be made. Thus, the result of these data according to the structure previously finding a desired documentary item was to copy it set down by the user...Once the routine has when it was appropriately positioned in the selection- been initiated, detailed instructions are given by mechanism. This preliminary Bush Rapid Selector the routine itself concerning its purpose and scope, was used experimentally by the U.S. Department of its restrictions, the proper way to enter data (with the Navy during the early years of World War II and error diagnostics if errors occur), and the proper subsequently was returned to M.I.T., where it is way to interpret results...Analytical flexibility now stored." (Baggy; and Stevens, 1961, pp. 19-20). is provided by frequent choice points programmed 4.31"Randomatic Data Systems of Trenton, into the routines themselves such that the user N.J., has introduced a completely new line of may decide on-lire what kind of analysis to perform random card file equipment featuring a 2-second 71 HIGH VOLTAGE SPARK COIL

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FIGURE 8.Schematic diagram of Bush rapid selector. automatic retrieval of randomly filed cards. A unique create one bit, the vacuum temperature of the laser concept of coding ordinary cards, by notching them image if 3 x 104 °K produces a vapor pressure of along the bottom edge in such a way as not to inter- 1000 atmospheres within the bit volume, leaving fere with their use in most other card processing an ellipsoidal hole in the Unidensity layer ..." equipment, is used. Both notching and selection are (Becker, 1966, p. 711). performed on a simple 10-button electrical key- 4.31cThey conclude: "While it will take con- board." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 11 (1965).) siderably more work to make systems of this type 4.31a"TheMicrostripSystem,offeredby that are operationally foolproof, experience has Recordak Corp., uses foot-long plastic holders for indicated that the principles of operation are sound storage and retrieval of 12 in. strips of 16 mm and that by using this type of system, much of the microfilm...Filecategoriesare distinguished high-storage potential of fine-grained photographic by color coding on the end tab, which contains an materials can eventually be realized." (Lamberts index by content. The plastic strips are also indexed and Higgins, 1966, p. 733). lengthwisetofacilitatelocation of the desired 4.32"Actuators may become very important image." (Business Automation 12, No. 7, July 1965). items of output equipment for the information re- 4.31"An information bit is represented by a trieval field in the near future. When combined with diffraction-limited 'hole' within the Unidensity film digital to analog converters, actuators can enable layer. It results from the evaporation of the Uni- an automatic computer to control the operations density medium by means of imaging the aperture of machinery and processes. To date, they have of a laser to a three-dimensional ellipsoid of revolu- generally been applied to industrial use. However, tion (Debye ellipsoid). During the time required to they may become quite powerful in the future in 72 linkingdigital information retrievalsystems to IHS classifies, indexes, microfilms and distributes graphic document retrievalsystems.Itisnot the data. The information is indexed by multiple difficult to conceive ofa literature search being terms which describe the parts; materials and sub- done by traditionalcomputer techniques with the systems and manufacturers needs. The film car- results of the search being usedto produce micro- tridges and VSMF index are updated regularly and form copies of documents froma mechanical graphic airmailed to subscribers to the system. Data is retrievalsystem,thenecessarylinkagebeing located on a given product in about half a minute. provided by a computer-driven actuator." (Austin, At the moment, VSMF essentially serves product 1966, p. 243). design, plant engineering, and purchasing groups 4.33"Data within a given magazinemay not in defense, aerospace, commercial and industrial be sequentially ordered by any criteria.Serial manufacturingandsupportorganizations.... numbers may be enteredon each page of the data VSMF...consists of a copyrighted product index by various numbering techniquesincludingauto- which lists products by type; a microfilm cartridge matic numbering coincidental with feed input at the library of technical data; a full-size viewer, which microfilmer. Alternatively,we may place a number- enables a user to locate required data, andan auto- ing counter in the photographic field and sequentially matic print copier." (Christian, 1966, pp. 12, 15). number images thatway. During filming, we may 4.35"For 16 mm film only, 3M offers another enter also what we call an 'image counting mark' reader/printer, the Filmac 400...With a car- for each image. The marks setup the possibility tridgesystemdesignedtocompete withthe for entirely automatic finding of images....This Recordak Lodestar." (Veaner, 1966,p. 202). is the Lodestar Reader withan automatic image 4.36"The most successful of the systems built finding device coupled to it. Thereare a variety around roll microfilm is the Recordak MIRACODE of quite practical ways that the operatormay know which combines the search function with document the image frame numbers desired. Sheenters the numberany number up to 10,000 retrieval. It uses 100-foot cartridges of 16 mm micro- on the key- film. Each cartridge contains 2000 images,any one board...Then she depresses the 'go' button of which can be retrieved by attribute(s) in 10 and the correct imageappears on the screen in an seconds and either viewed or copied." (Berul, average of five to ten secondsdepending on the 1968, p. 30). location of desired image withina particular roll of film... "The Microstrip System...Foot-long strips of "Before leaving the subject of magnetictape and 16 mm microfilm are inserted into grooved plastic computers for the storage, and retrieval of infor- sticks after a small plastic button is first fastenedto one end of the strip. The plastic stick is inserted mation, a few comments may be appropriate. Upto 6 full 2400' reels of magnetictape are required to into the reader and a pointer whichengages the store the data which can be recorded in human plastic button is pushed along the stick. This allows language and stored ina single 100' microfilm the reader to scan the contents of each stripon the magazine. Magazine High Speed Retrieval of desired screen. The system is said to be designed for quick information may be accomplished ina matter of look-ups and 'frequently changing' files." (Veaner, seconds and at a very low relativecost. Compare 1966, p. 202). See also note 4.31a. for a moment thepaper print-out volume repre- 4.37"A new records retrieval system called sented by approximately 2500 8f"x 11" pages with Remstar is now available from Remington Office a magazine of microfilm having the same capacity. Systems. With Remstar, closed circuit television These and other cost and systems advantagesare is combined with automated records retrieval units made possible throiigh theuse of film magazines." to not only locate records, but to transmit them (Brunelle, 1962, p. 87, 91). as well. 4.34"The VSMF System,a copyrighted infor- "With this system, the files are centralized and mation retrieval system owned by Information housed in Remington's electro-mechanical units. Handling Service, Englewood, Colorado,or IHS, After retrieval, the record is transmitted on a hasthree main elementsmicrofilmed data in Remstar Transmitter to a Remstar Monitor which cartridges or cassettes, a printed index for locating can be placed wherever the record is needed. After groups of desired data, and the microfilm reader viewing the record is released, or, if needed, a copy printer. As the microfilm is scanned rapidlya heavy can be made on the Remstar Printer. A variety of black line appearson the reader-printer screen, automated file equipment for the Remstar System is traveling up the face of thescreen, which has a available to meet the needs of any size business." ruled index beside it. As the index line approaches (Systems 7, No. 2,6 (Feb., 1966).) the desired number groupon the ruling, the scan 4.38"As many as six million recordscan be rate is slowed until the operator is able tostop at stored in 100 square feet of floor space with the the desired number. Skilled searchescan go from Randtrieversystem ...Any one... canbe fast scan to the desired number almost instantane- retrieved by pushing a buttonon the input keyboard ously." (Peirce and Shannon, 1967,p. 266). or by inserting a punched card into the request "More than 15,000 suppliersare supplying data reader. Electronic memory banks in the system take for VSMF files, including scientific and technical over to retrieve and deliver the request record." data on almost every product used in industry. (Systems 8, No. 2, 6 (1967). 73 4.39"The Selectriever, introduced by Mosler and associated documentation. The computer con- Safe Company of New York in 1965, provides for trolled DARE system provides automatic collection, 6-second needle-sort retrieval ofany one of up to storage, retrieval, and preparation of punched Diazo 200,000 aperture, microficheor tab cards, which copy card outputs from a rapid-access file with a are stored in100-card cartridges. This wholly capacity of 750,000 microfilm images. On a random automatic unit... canalso be interfaced with a basis, the equipment provides an averageaccess computer, hardcopy printer, remote displays, or time of 50 seconds. In the normal sequential 'batch facsimile transmission system." (Van Dam and processing' mode, a file of 750,000 microfilm images Michener, 1967, p. 202). can be processed in approximately 7 hours. The 4.40"The difficulty of reel film for updating daily sequential processing includes,on the average, might be overcome by theuss of microfiche as in the output of 5,000 Diazo copy cards, the input of the Houston-Fearless CARD (Compact Automatic 2,000 new Magnavue film chips to the system, and Retrieval Display) system. Sucha system could the removal of 1,800 Magnavue film chips from the also be computer manipulated, affording faster system. scanning access and a more dynamic interrogative "Magnavue film chips, held in 2,500-chipmaga- process." (Taylor, 1967, p. 31). zines, are 35 mm wide by 3" long and havea mylar "Houston Fearless Corporation... announced base. The film chip has a high-resolution image for delivery in 1967 a desk-top microform retrieval portion for the storage of a standard 35-mm micro- unit and reader, with any of 73,500 (750 fiche with film image and a coded portion for thestorage of 98 images each) accessible in less than 5 seconds. 80 alphanumeric characters that identify theasso- The unit...will be available with an optional ciated microfilm image. The system alsocan use hardcopy printer or with a teletypeor CRT for on- magnetic chips of the same size to store additional line hookups. Edge-notched identification numbers information associated witha given document." are stored on the metal frame surrounding the micro- (Van Dam and Michener, 1967,pp. 202-203). fiche, and the search request fora random page, 4.42"Alder Electronic & Impulse Recording or a next page, is entered via keyboard, paper tape Equipment Co. is marketing a 'dial-a-document' cr computer, thus maintaining file integrity." (Van system for retrieval by telephone of full size docu- Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 202). ments stored in a centralized microfilm center. "Houston Fearless demonstrateda breadboard "Called the Alden/Miracode System, the equip- model of CARD (Compact Automatic Retrieval ment is a combination of Eastman Kodak Co.'s Device), a desk-top unit capable of displaying within Miracode microfilm retrieval system andan Alden 4 seconds any one of 10,000 pages of filmed data. Alpur-Fax Facsimile Scanner whichscans, onto The recording medium is standard 4"x 6" micro- high-speed magnetic tape,a facsimile picture of the fiches, mounted in metal holders housed inmaga- original document. The tape then is usedto transmit zines holding from 128 to 1,024 microfiches. Each the picture over standard telephone circuitsto metal holder is edge-notched for retrievalpurposes subscribers." (Systems 8, No. 1, 7 (Jan. 1967).) and is magnetically suspendedso that microfiches 4.43T. C. Bagg, private communication, Feb. do not scrape against each otheras they are with- 13, 1968. drawn and replaced." (Veaner, 1966, p. 208). 4.44"Ampex Corp.'s new Videofile document "The Compact AutomaticRetrievalDisplay filing and retrieval system,a completely automated (CARD) system is produced by the Houston Fearless micro-filing system, stores documentsas recordings Corp. Selling at under $5,000, it hasa capacity of on magnetic video tape and provides fast, automatic 73,500 pages and a response time of less than five access and unusual flexibility in file organization." seconds. Document address is entered by keyboard, (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 11, 56 (1965).) however, it could be adapted to accept paper tape, "The Ampex Videofilesystem is now capable of or signals directly from a computer." (Berul, 1968, selectively recording p. 30). a single page at any predeter- mined spot on magnetictape...It is understood 4.41"Magnavox delivered to the Army Missile that at least one major university libraryis consider- Command its DARE, a high speed, unitized system ing the Videofileas the next step beyond the for storing and retrieving engineering drawings. computer-produced printed book catalog." (Veaner, The DARE (Documentation Automated Retrieval 1966, p. 207). Equipment)isequipped withseveral hundred "Ampex's Videofile system, used magazines, each holding 3,000 35 in a NASA mm x 3" chips engineering library, is particularly suitedfor real- containing a drawing plus coded data. A chip is time retrieval of documents witha very short life accessed directly, and copied onto an expendable span. Indexing can be done numericallyor alpha- aperture card within one minute. Besides rapid betically using 18 numericor 12 alphanumeric retrieval, the main advantage of the system is that characters stored contiguouslyto images on (mag- the master copy need never leave the main file." netic) video tape. Accessto a document can be (Veaner, 1966, p. 207). remote, with hard- or soft-copy output, and the "The Magnavue System is utilized by the U.S. average access time ranges from 11 seconds for the Army Missile Command in their DAREprogram for 5-inch diameter, 10,800-page-capacity reel,to 115 the processing of a large file of engineering drawings seconds for the 14-inch, 259,000-page-capacityreel. 74 One page is stored on about a third of a linear inch second announcement describes improvements in of standard 2-inch wide tape." (Van Dam and Photoplastic Recording, a process first brought out Michener, 1967, p. 203). by General Electric in 1963. Both processes are 4.45"At Republic Aviation, we have determined dry and produce high resolution images almost that many users want tl e. ultrahigh density that a instantaneously; both require further development system of our type offers...A test program which before becoming commercially available." (Veaner, will be starting shortly will have an ultimate require- 1966, p. 208). ment for updating 50,000 pages of repair parts 4.48"IBM's 'Cypress' system (`Son of listings every three weeks and distributing the "Walnut" '), announced (and withdrawn) in 1966, ultrafiche to 3,000 centers. For a program like that, has storage facilities for half a million images an ultrahigh density is a must. A portable device that Mylar-based chips. For retrieval, a cell (cartridge) can give the customer parts and pricing information of 35mm x 70mm chips is located under computer within a maximum of 30 seconds from a 50,000 page control andistransported pneumatically toa internally stored library is a real plus...It is a copying station, where the selected chip is copied trulyautomated randomaddressdevicethat onto an aperture card, which is in turn, transported displays the image full scale after it has been for subsequent viewing or reproduction. Total reduced 260 diameters. Its trade name is Micro- retrieval time for this random access system is Vue...In order to shoot down original material between 4 and 6 seconds." (Van Dam and Michener, 260:1 and then bring copy back 260 times, auto- 1967, p. 203). matically screens out much existing poor quality For a discussion of the earlier "Walnut" system, microfilmmaterial. As for the hardware, auto- see Vogel, 1962. For example: "The image converter matically handling very high density information incorporates eight exclusion switches which repre- is not achieved at low cost. Since Micro-Vue is sent eight document classifications, each assigned basically a digital logic driven platform, moving a numeric group code. The classification codes, inrow/columncoordinates under highquality punched in the input control card, cause the input microscope optics, dictates that the price of the converter either to skip over these images or to viewer will never get down remotely into the $100 transfer them, as desired. This permits grouping range ...The process which Fairchild Hiller is like documents in a given cell. In addition, an willing to sell to users allows the laying down of X-punch in the card provides for excluding poor 10,000 images on a glass master within a one-day quality microfilm images." (Vogel, 1962, p. 37). period with- an accuracy of ± five microns on frame 4.48a"Data is stored on a 1.38 x 2.75-inch silver centers." ("Microfilm Experts Scan the Future", halide photographic film chip. Thirty-two chips, 1967, p, 29). containing a total of approximately 150 million data 4.45a-"Ford Motor Co.'s Autolite-Ford Parts Div. bits, are stored ina small plastic cell....The has signed a contract with the National Cash first cell contains 2250 cells and houses thepneu- Register Co. to transfer parts catalogs to a micro- matic blowers for cell transport. Additional files image dissemination and retrieval system. containing 4500 cells each may be added to increase "The parts catalog system, based on NCR's total on-line capacity. A manual entry stationon PCMI process, provides for filming 14,000 catalog one or more of the files permits entry and removal pages covering automobile and truck parts. With of cells from the system. Any cellcan be accessed the PCMI process, 2,560 pages can be recorded and delivered through the pneumatic tube system on a single 4 -x 6-in. transparency; the 14,000 pages to a reader in less than 3 seconds." (Kuehler and can be put on seven transparencies. Kerby, 1966, p. 735). "Initial distribution to dealers- will require up to 4.49"Magnetic cores have remained the most 70,000 transparencies, with a set of one to seven widely used main memory element and current for each dealer. Readers will be leased to Ford by research is developing increasingly smallercores, NCR. After original conversion, NCR will provide making possible faster, more compact memories. up to 500,000 additional transparencies a year IBM has recently developeda core with an outer covering catalog revisions." (Business Automation diameter of only 0.0075 inches, small enoughto fit 15, No. 3, 88 (Mar. 1968).) inside the center hole of most currently usedcores. 4.46"A novel technique devised by Aeroflex Also under developmentare new organizations of Laboratories, Plainview, N.Y., permits recording cores within large memories. Innovations in core up to 500 different pictures on a single negative. shapes have been introduced, for instance, the Film is processed in the usual way but is read on "bi-axial" core is a rectangular block withtwo holes a special viewer which allows the user to select through it that can be read in about 100nano- any 'page' at random." (Veaner, 1966, p. 207). seconds. Magnetic core memory elements in general 4.47"General Electric's Advanced Development will be in lice for at least the next fewyears because Laboratories...announced two other develop- of the large investment in existing and developing ments. One is Photocharge, a new photographic techniques." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967,p. 207). recording process. Unlike other electrophotographic "A new low-cost masscore memory has been processes such as those using selenium, or coated announced by the Ferroxcube Corp. of Saugerties, paper, Photocharge material requires no external New York...The new memories, dubbed 'Megabit', charging to activate the recording process. The are offered in modules of five million core capac- 75 366-108 0 - 70 - 6 ities...This 5-million-bit sizecan be. expanded Informationisretrievedeither throughfixed whenever desired by adding on additional 5 million address or record-content search. According tu the bit modules. For current systems, accordingto company, search by record-content is their exclusive Ferroxcude, Megabit 53.12 can cut sorting and technique that permits any field to be used as an Inerging time by one third thereby releasing vital access key. Only the nature, and not the location, computation time and extending system efficiency." of data sought need be known. This feature is said ("New Mass Core Memory", 1965,p. 40). to eliminate costly flagging and table look-up pro- 4.50"Bryant Computer Products...has grams, saves central-memory space, and permits announced the availability of anew online, real-time simultaneousoff-line search. Librascope Group, mass storage disk file system, the Model 2A series General Precision Inc., Glendale, Cal." (Computer 4000, capable of storing 3.8 billion bits of data with Design 5, No. 2, 66 (Feb. 1966).) an average access time of 100 msec." (Commun. "The [Control Data] 6608 Disk File system ACM 9, 404 (1966).) contains a double-actuator 72-diskunit with a "The disks allow more than 2.5 million 16-bit capacity over a billion bits. The transfer rate is words or 5 million 8-bit characters of on-line storage 1,680,000 characters per second. Minimumaccess simultaneously." (Data Proc. Mag. 9, No. 6, 8 time is 34 msec., maximum, 100 msec. Over 5,250,000 (1967).) characters are available at one actuator position. "Alargecapacitydiskstoragesubsystem The two actuators operate independently to provide (DS-25) storing up to 800 million characters. 64 simultaneous seeking and read/write operations." simultaneous record 'seek' operationsare combined (Commun. ACM 8, 723 (1965).) with four concurrent data transfer operations in "Sperry Rand's Univac Div. has introduced the each subsystem." (Commun. ACM 8, 343 (1965).) 8410 Disc File for use with its 9000 series computers. "A series of large disc memories features storage The 8410 provides removable direct access storage capacities up to 6.4 billion bits on a single trunk of 3.2 to 12.8 million bytes, or 6.4 to 25.6 million line and a data-transfer rate of a billion bitsper digits, in packed decimal format. The system in- second. Basic 6-disc configuration has a storage cludes a master dual disc drive expandableone capacity of 400 million bits, a data transfer rateup drive at a time to a total of eight drives. Each drive to 150 million bits per second, and an average access holds a reversible disc cartridge with two storage time of 35 milliseconds. By combining 16 of these surfaces, one of which is on-line. Each disc drive files on a single trunk line, an on-line storagecapac- can access 10,000 160-byte records plus an 8,000 - ity of 6.4 billion bits can be achieved. With special byte fast access track. Average time to locate and electronics, a data transfer rate of a billion bitsper read a record on a random basis is approximately second is available. The new memories, designated 135 milliseconds. A high speed buffer permits all the Librafile 4800 series, also feature a fixed-head disc reading, writing, checking or searching to be per track, two methods of search and retrieval, and performed simultaneously with 9200/9300 process- retractable head plates. The 4800's rotatingmemory ing and peripheral operations." (Business Auto- element is composed of six aluminum discs coated mation 15, No. 3, 68 (Mar. 1968).) with a cobalt alloy. The discs measure 48 inches in "Caelus Memories, Inc., has announced that its 1 diameter and i-inch ia thickness. Mountedon a six-high magnetic disc piacks are now in production. common shaft, they rotate at 900 rpm. Data is stored Each unit is designed to function with IBM 1311, on both disc faces. Information is retrieved either IBM 2311 and compatible e-mipment. The 10 through fixed-address or record-content search. coated surfaces in the CM VI disc pack each has Search by record-content is said to be the company's 203 tracks of information, capable of storing up to exclusive technique for permitting any field to be 14.5 million bits. Access time is in the 75-85 milli- used as an access key. Only the nature, and not the second range. The pack rotates at either 1,500 or locations, of data sought need be known. This 2,400 revolutions per minute. The units, weighing feature is said to eliminate costly flagging and table 10 pounds per pack, are shipped in sculptured and look-up programs, saves central-memory space, and ribbedstyrofoamcontainers."(BusinessAuto- permitssimultaneousoff-linesearch.Average mation 15, No. 3, 80 (Mar. 1968).) access time is 35 milliseconds. Librascope Group, "A new, low-cost, direct access storage system GeneralPrecision,Glendale,Cal."(Computer designed for the UNIVAC 9000 series computers Design 4, No. 11, 83 (Nov. 1965).) has been announced by Sperry Rand's UNIVAC "New disc file memory provides a storage capacity Division, Philadelphia, Pa. Thenew system, known of 200 million bits, a data-transfer rate of up to 42 as the UNIVAC 8410 Disc File, makes it possible million bits-per-second, and an average access time for users to bridge the costly gap between punched of 17 milliseconds. Called the Librafile 3800, the card and direct access processing. Suitable for system was designed for use in large scientific field-installation on any UNIVAC 9200/9300 System, computing centers, in message-switching centers, the 8410 Disc File provides removable directaccess in military command-and-control installations, and storage of 3.2 to 12.8 million bytes, or 6.4 to 25.6 in intelligence data processing systems. The mass million digits in packed decimal format. memory is available in a basic 6-disc configuration "A basic 8410 System includes a master dual which features a fixed-head per track, two methods disc drive expandable one drive at a time to a total of search awl retrieval, and retractable head plates. of eight drives. Each drive holds a reversible disc 76 cartridge with two storage surfacesone of which and the IBM 2314 Direct Storage Facility. The ison-line. By interchanging disc cartridges, un- latter represents a significant development since, limited storage is provided for applications which with 1600 million bits of information, it is com- require serial processing. parable to some of the large fixed disc in capacity, "Each disc drive can access 10,000 160-byte cost per bit, and average access time for a single records plus an 8000 byte fast access track called piece of information (90 milliseconds); however, the Fastband. All disc drives contain a fixed head since there are eight independent disc packs, each for reading and writing on the Fastband and a with its own accessing arm, eight different pieces of movable arm with two heads for the remainder of information can be sought simultaneously; average the disc surface. The average time required to locate access time is reduced from 90 to 40 milliseconds. A and read a record on a random basis is approxi- comprehensive comparison of bulk storage devices mately 135 milliseconds. Fastbands can be used for appears in Craver." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967, program storage, index tables, or storage of fre- p. 206). quently accessed data files. 4.51"[UNIVAC] Fastrand II Mass Storage-129, "Another feature of the UNIVAC 8410 Disc 761, 280 alphanumeric characters per unit;up to Fileisa high-speed buffer permitting all disc 8 units per computer channel; 92 millisecondsaver- reading, writing, checking, or searching to be age access time; sector addressable." (Computer performed simultaneously with 9200/9300 process- News 9, No. 7, 7 (1965).) ing and peripheral operations." (Computers and "Replacing the model 7320 for use with the Automation 17, No. 2, 46 (Feb. 1968).) 360/40, 50, 65, and 75 is the model 2303, whichcan "A high-capacity randomaccess DISCfILE store almost 4 million bytes accessible in 8.6 milli- memory system designed specifically for time shar- seconds. Transfer rate is 312,000 bytes/second. ing applications has been announced by Data Capacity is five timethat of the older unit, and Products Corp., Culver City, Calif. The Model speed is doubled. IBM DP DIV., White Plains, 5085 time/share DISCfILE stores over 5 billion N.Y." (Datamation 12, No. 3, 81 (Mar. 1966).) bits, and has lower access times and greater "A magnetic drum (MD-30) which provides operationalflexibility than has been previously high-speed storage and retrieval of frequently used available to the industry. data and instructions. Transfer rateis 370,000 "The modular concept of the new DISCfILE characters per second. Average access time is permits preventive and corrective maintenance to 8.5 msee. and it stores up to 12 million characters." be performed upon individual components while (Commun. ACM 8, 343 (1965).) remaining modules are operating on-line with the "The Honeywell random access drum file pro- computer. Each positioner module can be with- vides a medium for extensive file storage. One to drawn, and individual heads,arms, or associated eight drums can be connected to a series 200 system, electronics can be serviced without shutting down the storage capacity of each drum being 2,621,440 the system. Preventive maintenance devicesare characters which may be divided into 20,480 records, incorporated so that failures can be anticipated and each of 128 six-bit characters. Average access time avoided. to data stored on the drum is 27.5 milliseconds and "The system includes eight independent posi- information is transferred to and from the drum at tioner modules accessing 32 discs. Each positioner an average rate of 102,000 characters a second." module carries 32 heads whichaccess data on the ("Five Compatible Computers...", 1965, p. 289). eight surfaces of a four-disc group. Each positioner 4.52"The RCA 3488 is a mass storage andre- is independently addressable and electrically de- trieval unit for on-line operation. The data is stored tehted, so that all eight positioners can be simul- on 16" by 4k" magnetic cards which are removed taneously placed in motion, effectively overlapping from their magazines for read/write operations. seek delays. An option is available to operateup to In one unit there are eight (8) magazines witha total eight heads in parallel from each positioner module. storage capacity of some 0.34 x 109 alphanumeric "Random average position time is 60 milliseconds; characters. In certain arrangements, the total capac- track-to-track time is 15 milliseconds; full-stroke ity can be as high as 5.450 x 109 characters. The time is 100 milliseconds. These values include time average access time is 350 milliseconds with a data required to move the positioner and completely transfer rate of 80,000 characters per second." settle on track; reading or writing can then proceed (Bones and Kros, 1966, p. 60.) immediately. "A data cell is divided into 20 sub-cells each "Control units will be available that are compat- containing ten strips of magnetic tape 13 inches ible with existing systems using either fixedor long by 2 inches wide. Data are read from,or re- variable length records. These provide address corded on, a strip by means of a rotary positioning processing, data formatting, comprehensive error system which aligns a selected group of ten tapes checking and off-line testing capabilities. Thus the beneath a read/write head. Access to a specific 5085 directly interfaces with existing hardware and record takes between 95 and 600 milliseconds software." (Computers and Automation 17, No. 5, depending on the position of the required strip and 61 (May 1968).) the arrangement of data in the file... "Two removable-medium devices that have been "The 2321 data cell drive has a storage capacity of recently marketed are the Anelei 80 series disc 400 million bytes... up toeight 2321 units may 77 he connected to a computer, via a storage control card, about the size of an 80-column punched card, unit, providing an overall storage capacity of more which can hold up to 117,500 characters each. than th:ee thousand million alphanumeric char- These strips are housed in lightweight cartridges acters." ("IBM System/360", 1965, p. 300). each of which contains 512 magnetic strips... "A magnetic strip mass storage unit (MS-40): Data are recorded on the magnetic strips in tracks Each unit can hold more than 532 million characters, in a serial-by-bit format. Each strip contains a and eight of those units may be used together as a series of notches and when a cartridge is loaded subsystem. This provides random access to more into a unit a series of selection rods are auto- than 4 billion characters." (Commun. ACM 8, matically inserted through the notches. The selec- 343 (1965).) tion rods are actuated and a specific magnetic "A CRAM control unit interfaces up to 8 CRAM strip is retrieved by a single program command." units to a single position of a Century 100 or 200 ("Five Compatible Computers...", 1965, p. 289). I/O trunk. Each CRAM unit stores up to 124 million 4.53"This electronic system makes possible bytes or 248 million packed decimal digits in a high-speed and high-density storage (and subse- single changeable cartridge. The cartridge holds quent retrieval of digital information on recording 384 cards made of Mylar with a magnetic oxide media such as thin metallic foils or semi-conductor coating. One selected card at a time is dropped from films). the on-line cartridge and wrapped around a revolving "The heart of the system is an electron beam tube drum; this takes about 125 milliseconds. Then any which produces a spot size of five microns at the or all of the data on the card can be read and/or recording surface by magnetically focusing the written. Data is transferred at the rate of 71,250 beam. Electrostatic deflection is employed to posi- characters per second." (Hillegass, 1968, p. 49). tionthe beam wherever required.High-speed "Take the face of a king-size cigarette package, accessibility for read-out operations can be ac- coat it on both sides with a magnetic film, and you complished by special circuitry. The device is a have a 'file-card' with a potential for storing over ruggedand completelydemountableunit." 100 times as much computer information as the (McDonald et al., 1964, abstract). conventional punched card. Based on a new concept 4.54"A large scale memory system, which uses proposed by the United States Army Electronics film chips contained in plastic cells to store more Command, Fort Monmouth, a new technique in than a trillion bits of digital information is being unit record information storage developed by Sperry developed for...AEC [by IBM]...Information Rand Corporation's UNIVAC Division (Philadelphia, will be recorded by means ofan electron beam which Pa.), is almost that simple. will 'write' digital data on the 35inm x 70 mm film "The new technique employs an all-fluidic (air) chips in the form of microscopic black and white transport and a pocket-sized card with magnetic coded spots. recording surfaces. Instead of the familiar 7 x 3 inch "When a piece of information must be retrieved paper punched card, the new unit record in the from, or stored in, the mass storage systems, experimental system measures 21/2 x 4 inches and thecellsmoveautomatically,under program is made of a plastic material overcoated on both control to photoelectricreadingandwriting sides with a magnetic film on which digital data is stations. Data is transferred on-line at high speed recorded by magnetic techniques. between thestorage systems and thecentral "The plastic magnetic record can store 1,000 computer." (Bus. Automation 12, No. 8, 62 (1965).) charactersmorethantwelvetimesas much "The trillion-bit IBM 1350 storage device, an information as a standard 7" x 3" punched card offshoot of the 'Cypress' system... uses35 mm x using only 12.5% of its magnetic surface for machine- 70 mm silver halide film 'chips'. A total of 4.5 readable data. (The rest of the card is used to million bits are prerecorded on each chip by an demonstrate the feasibility of incorporating printed, electron beam. For readout, a plastic cell containing handwrittenandpictorialinformation.)Other 32 film chips is transported toa selector, which picks benefits of the plastic card include a more rugged the proper chip from among the 32; average access construction, a reusable record, and considerable time to any of the 10'2 bits is 6 seconds. After a chip better resistance to heat and humidity. is positioned, information is read using a flying-spot "The new method of handling unit records takes CRT scanner. Two IBM 1350 units are scheduled full advantage of the new but rapidly developing for mid-1967 delivery to the Atomic Energy Commis- fluidicstechnology.Insteadofelectrons the sion at Livermore and at Berkeley for use with controlling medium in electronicsfluidics uses bubble chamber data." (Van Dam and Michener, air pressure to perform control functions. Simply 1967, p. 205). stated, fluidics is the use of a small, easily manipu- 4.55"Another scheme for storing digitalin- lated control stream, such as an air current, to formation optically is the UNICON system, under control the action of a much larger stream of the development at Precision Instrument Company. same medium. The source of the low pressure This system uses alaser to write 0.7-micron- air flow is a simple reliable device." (Computers diameter holes in the pigment of a film. Informa- and Automation 17, No. 5, 66 (May 1968).) tion is organized in records of at most a million "The basic storage medium of these [Honeywell bits; each record is in a 4-micron track extending mass memory] units comprises strips of magnetic about a meter along the film...Each record is 78 identified by information stored next to the begin- high-speed, high-reliability devices andmedia with ning of that record, in an additional track at theedge no moving parts."(Hobbs, 1966, p. 38.) of the film. Readout of a particular record involves "The goals for one development programof this scanning the identifier track for the proper codeand typeare 4 millioncharacters per [solid-state then scanning the track with a laser weaker than storage] module, read-write rates in the orderof that used for writing. It is predicted, on the basis 2 or 3 million characters per second, and costsof of an experimental working model,thatone approximately 0.015 cent per character for off-line UNICON device with 35 mm film could store a storage. A further advantage thatwould be offered trillion bits on 528 feet of film, with an average by this particular approach is random access(in access time to arecord of 13 seconds." (Van Dam 1 pc sec) to any block of data within a storagemodule and Michener, 1967, p. 205). on the read-write unit ..." (Hobbs, 1966, p. 38.) "The serial data processing applications of the 4.56"At least two different programs areunder- solid-state storage modulesthat future could well use removable-medium, mass way to develop units. On-line, could be plugged into read-writeelectronics ...If storage devices in place of tape economical, the input/ random-access applications could be handledduring this proves feasible and typical output and off-linestorage functionspresently the day and serial processing at night in a provided by magnetic tapecould be provided by system." (Bonn, 1966, p. 1866). 5. Output and Post-Processing Requirements "General- 5.1a"A basic principle of systems design states Then we note also the following: that no system is better than its final products. It purpose displays and, to alesser extent, alpha- therefore follows that output requirements establish numeric consoles can provide an author/editor a framework upon whichall other elements of sys- with implementation of a file organization such as tems design must concentrate.Output products that first described by Bush and more recently by must be specified in terms ofboth content and form. Nelson as "Hypertext": "the combination of natural Unfortunately, too many automated systems have language text with the computer's capabilities for not given sufficient consideration tothe latter, and interactive, branching or dynamic display ... a although the system may be able to produce the nonlineartext ...whichcannotbeprinted necessary items of information,these are frequently conveniently... on aconventional page...". presented in such a way as to be either extremely Englebart'sextensive work oncomputer-aided difficult or in some cases virtually impossible to use. text manipulation using a flexibleeditor's console It is also unfortunate that, in this era ofmodern illustrates this concept. Another summary of on-line computer technology, thedevelopment of sophisti- process building, informationretrieval, and text cated output devices has lagged seriously behind manipulationisfoundinCorbin.Magnuski's other types of data processing equipment. This master's thesis gives overall design specifications paper will discuss theseproblems, and in addition for the capabilities of an Information Retrieval and to presenting a detailed reviewof currently available Display terminal, using existing equipment in the equipment, will describe some of the more important context of the MULTICS GE 645time sharing elements of systems design to be considered in system. Research continues onthe BOLD (Biblio- relation to the output of systems." (Austin, 1966, graphic On-Line Display) system:" (Van Dam and p. 241). Michener, 1-967, p. 197). 5.1b"University of Pittsburgh. The Computa- 5.1cThus, "it is not unreasonable to imagine an tion and Data ProcessingCenter (CDPC) with author, sitting at a typewriter in his own office to support from theAdvanced Research Projects be able to edit his manuscript by entering changes Agency of the Department of Defense, hasdeveloped for the computer, type requests for bibliographic a system forbook and journal printing. Under the references from the library, control the format of leadership of Kehl (now at M.I.T.), this group at thispublication, and request the computer to first carried on the work begun byBarnett at M.I.T., produce an index automatically." (Kehl, 1965, p. later developing a separate system,which included 26). use of light pen,on-line typewriter, display scope, 5.2"One of these [CRT] displays was available and a general-purpose text-editing program,for in 1953 on the ILLIAC ..." (Frank, 1965, p. 50). handling the processes of editing, formatting,and 5.3DYSEAC, later PILOT, and to a certain introducing author's alterations.Large amounts of extent the latter's halfsister machine,Burlesc, at 31-channel monotype tape generated incomposing Aberdeen, included, for the relatively early period The Physical Review were accumulatedfor conver- oftheirdesign, unusual featuresof multiple, sion to magnetic tape via aspecial reader built at variable-format input and output, priority interrupts the Center, to serve as a data base forexperimenta- and control interlocks, and multiprogram swapping tion.Thesedevelopmentsaredescribedby and sharing characteristics. Ohringer,and Roudabushetal."(American "As an example, before digital computers can Institute of Physics Staff, 1967, p. 351.) be successfully incorporated into the often-predicted 79 `automatic factory' and 'automatic office' of the "One further device that may be attached to future, such equipment must possess ready means DYSEAC for special experiments is SEAC itself. for sending intelligence to and receiving intelligence As the two machines employ the same digital from a variety of external devices performing language, this attachment can easily be made many diverse functions. Some of these devices will through their regular input-output terminals. By have to store, tabulate, file, convert, display, and use of a coordinated pair of programs, the two sense information; still other devices will have to machines can be made to work together in common actuate mechansims such as servo equipment in harness on a number of interesting and potentially response to signals sent out by the computer as a useful tasks. Indeed, this mode of operation can, result of information being processed withinit. by the application of available technology, be The computer will have to direct all these devices extended to a widely dispersed group of information- and coordinate their activities into an ensemble processing machines that are interconnected by operation. Indeed, to achieve the full effect of an means of a communication network. With suitable ensemble operation, the system needs to have the feedbackfacilitiesandcorrelatedprocesii.6 characteristics of a generalized feedback loop. programs these machines could even engage in That is, the computer must not only exert control cooperative tasks for which the supervisory func- over these external devices, but they in turn must tions are transferred back and forth, as the need be capable of calling for alteration in the course of arises, among the several machines in the network. action of the computer. Such requests enter the These new approaches to the problem of automatiz- computer as special signals or information transfers ingindustrialand commercialoperationsare from the external devices.... reasonable extrapolations of current trends and can "This feedback arrangement can be used to be expected to lead to practical results if vigorously introduce human monitoring and selective inter- pursued.... vention into the normal operation of the system. "As a second example of a potential application In its simplest form, pertinent information is dis- which requires thesecapabilities,consider an played to the human monitor who can elect to installation engaged in the control of air traffic at respond by actuating other external devices that an airport terminal. For this application, the human supply the computer with either new data or operator can be coupled to the machine system (1) instructions. This feature will doubtlessly be a through the medium of a visual display device which highly significant factor in the efficient exploration exhibits graphically the numerical data stored inside of the new areas for which digital techniques appear the internal memory and (2) by means of a battery so promising. ... of manual control switches capable of inserting new "The kind and extent of the external devices to numerical data or certain new control commands be added will necessarily depend on the particular into the machine. The numerical data displayed by applicatiop which is being explored. Nearly all the machine represent in real time a map of the tasks need some printing and external storage predicted traffic patterns in the neighborhood of an facilities; hence, the initial installation will have a airport, e.g., the predicted locations, based on latest directly connected electromechanical typewriter scheduling information, of all aircraft inside a cer- and one or more magnetic wire cartridges for tain area. The human operator can, by means of the speedy loading and unloading of the machine. manual input-controls, enter newer data into the External storage in the form of magnetic tape equip- machine as the information becomes available, ment is also to be included initially in order to handle interrogate the machine for more detailed informa- the more usual computing and data-processing tion concerning certain individual flights as the tasks. More demanding tasks requiring somewhat need arises, and instruct the machine to exhibit faster access to a rather large volume of data will the effectto be expected from issuing revised probably lead to the annexation of one or more flight-control orders. In the latter case, parts of the magnetic drum units. Still more extensive problems internal information of the machine must be pre- concerned with means for handling masses of sented to the operator in a rather complex pictorial paper work will probably lead to the subsequent form in order to be meaningful to him. Applications addition of experimental magnetic disk memory of this sort, like the previous one, require a constant assemblies and experimental versions of the auto- interchange of intelligence between the computer matic magnetic file. For the exploration of real- and its operator, and between the computer and time problems, including simulation and control other devices." (Leiner et al., 1955, pp. 39, 40, 51). aspects, it will be necessary to annex input and 5.4"A computer system, to work in partnership output converters to permit translation of infor- with a designer, must have several clearly definable mation back and forth from digital to analog form. capabilities. It must be able to accept, interpret, For example, digital-to-analog conversion is used andremembershapedescriptiveinformation when visual display of information stored inside introduced graphically. When such a graphical the computer is provided externally by means of input capabilityis properly designed, the man- special cathode-ray tube devices. This listing of computer combination can manipulate the elements external devices includes only those for which of a drawing in an entirely new way, with a freedom serious attention and development are already in and precision far surpassing what is possible with progress.... pencil and paper." (Coons, 1963, p. 301). 80 5.5"A display scope capable of generating image of each user when his program is not running. three dimensional curvilinear figures with con- A user's program in run status isrun for 140 venient control of translation and rotation would milliseconds, then if there is another user also in be extremely useful. The approach that has been run status, the state of core memory is stored in the taken is to provide a function generator capable first user's core image on drum and simultaneously of generating straight lines or second-order curves, the second user's core image is loaded into core and and to have special purpose computing equipment the second user's program is started in theappro- in the display unit which can perform the three- priate place." (McCarthy et al., 1963, p. 51). dimensions to two-dimensional axonometrie pro- 5.8 "AESOP is an experimental on-line informa- jection computations.... tion control system realized in the Systems Design "A system is presently being designed for the Laboratoryof the MITRE Corporation...It Electronic Systems Laboratory which will display is a CRT display-oriented system in that theuser on a scope a standard two-dimensional plot or a experiencestheinformationsystemprimarily rotated axonometric projection of a three-dimen- through his CRT displays and exercises his control sional line drawing. The system will be capable of through his light pencil. The current version of the generating first- and second-order lines and will AESOP prototype operates on an IBM 7030 (Stretch) provide easy means for the computer to translate computer (65 K memory with 64-bit words) with a or rotate the picture, or to magnify or de-magnify it. 353 disk storage unit holding two million words. Techniques are incorporated to prevent plotting Each of the four user stations consists of an on-line when the limits of the scope edge are reached." Data-Display-13displayconsolewithaphoto- (Stotz, 1963, p. 325). electric light pencil, an on-line typewriter, anda 5.6"Each time a drawing is made, a description Stromberg-Carlson 30370 medium-speed printer." of that drawing is stored in the computer in a form (Bennett et al., 1965, p. 435). that is readily transferred to magnetic tape. A library "The AESOP system, developed at the Mitre of drawings will thus develop, parts of which may be Corporation, employs an interactive display show- used in other drawings at only a fraction of the ing data structures and other aids in query formula- investment of time that was put into the original tion." (Minker and Sable, 1967, p. 137). drawing...A drawing in the Sketchpad system may contain explicit statements about the relations 5.8a "As we have noted, the MCG [Man-Com- between its parts so that as one part is changed the puter Graphics] concept is relatively new. It first implications of this change become evident through- began to achieve significance when I. E. Sutherland out the drawing. For instance, Sketchpad makes presented his 'Sketchpad' work at Lincoln Labs to it easy to study mechanical linkages, observing the the Fall Joint Computer Conference in 1963. Lock- path of some parts when others are moved...The heed-Georgia began its work in MCG early in 1964 ability of the computer to reproduce any drawn without knowledge of any other industrial activity symbol anywhere at the press of a button, and to in MCG. In the fall of 1964, Lockheed-Georgia recursively include subpictures within subpictures ordered a Univac 418 and a Digital Equipment makes it easy to produce drawings which are com- Corporation 340 scope. At that time, no computer posed of huge numbers of parts all similar in shape." manufacturer had announced an MCG system. (Sutherland, 1963, p. 332). Shortlythereafter, IBM announced itsAlpine 5.7"Sketching is facilitated by the computer, MCG system, while Control Data Corp. announced which posts a background outline plan having the its Digigraphic system in 1965, and the General proper dimensions and showing existing structures Motors DAC-1 (Design Augmented by Computers) thatcannotreadilybealtered...On their was unveiled at the Fall Joint Computer Conference sketches, which they can readily file away and recall in 1964. (The GM work had begun about 1959, for revision, the planners label the various depart- but had been undisclosed until this conference.)... ments and the stairs, elevatorS, dumbwaiters, etc. "One of the first applications envisioned for MCG Each label, typed on the typewriter, appears at wasthe numerical controlparts programming the top of the oscilloscope screen, and then is ad- function. Conventionally, the parts programmer justed to desired size, trapped by the light pen, starts with a blueprint of a drawing and redraws it moved toits proper location on the plan, and according to his own needs. He then gives a coded dropped there. Each label serves as a storage and name to each point, line, and arc, and writes a retrieval tag for the sketch to which it is attached. computer program in some stylized language such as The plan can therefore be made up in small parts APT (Automatic Programmed Tooling) to describe and displayed as a whole." (Licklider and Clark, the path a cutting tool must take to cut out the part 1962, p. 118). on a milling machine. This requires conventional "The purpose of the BBN time-sharing system batch processing and the usual wait is required to is to increase the effectiveness of the PDP-1 com- get a plotted output from which the program may be puter for those applications involving man-machine verified. Mistakes require corrections to the program interaction by allowing each of the five users, each and additional waits for 'batch' output. at his own typewriter to interact with the computer "With MCG, the drawing is put onto the display just as if he had a computer all to himself....A scope by input from cards, light pen, tape, or com- 4096 word drum field is allocated for saving the core binations thereof. The cutter path is depicted on the 81 scope as the operator maneuvers it with the light such output displays as maps, charts, and diagrams." pen. Any mistakes in path definition are instantly (Direct Communication Between Man & Computer", apparent and may be immediately corrected. As National Bureau of Standards Tech. News Bull. the operator describes the cutter path on the scope, 50, 53-54 (Apr. 1966).) a tape is automatically defined. This tape, when "ACCESS, A DATA-PROCESSING SYSTEM post-processed to adjust to the format for a par- RECENTLY DEVELOPED BY THE NATIONAL ticular milling machine, is then used to cut out the BUREAU OF STANDARDS' INSTITUTE FOR depicted part as often as is required." (Chasen and APPLIED TECHNOLOGY, represents an advance Seitz, 1967, p. 25). in communication between man and computers. 5.8bSee also Gallenson as follows: "A graphic This system will receive and process data from tablet display (GTD) console has recently been local and remote sources and can present its output designed to operate with the Q-32 Time-Sharing in a form immediately intelligible to the human System (TSS) at System Development Corporation. operator. Access (so-called for Automatic Computer The successful completion of the task has provided Controlled Electronic Scanning System) was devel- new insights into system design problems involving oped for use by the Office of Emergency Planning highly interactive consoles in a time-sharing environ- to help provide rapid access to digital and pictorial ment; some interesting innovations in the design of a data. The ready availability of these data will aid graphic tablet console; and some solutions to graphic the OEP in evaluating situations during a national tablet interface problems.... emergency.Accessacceptsinputinformation "Employing the tablet display as a projection on directly from microfilm records of hand-marked the writing surface has improved the 'naturalness' documents and digital information either from other of this I/O device and has encouraged more users. machines or directly from its keyboard. It has been The display hardware is more expensive for equiva- used in experimental work at the Bureau to accept such graphical material as specially prepared maps lent quality of direct-viewing displays, but the and charts. Access scans marked documents by additional advantages gained may be justified for means of an advanced version of Fosdic which is a given applications. Additional innovations can be "Film Optical Sensing Device for Input to Com- introduced to improve the flexibility of the GTD puters." Fosdic was initially developed jointly by configuration. These include:theprojection of NBS and the Bureau of the Census for machine slides in conjunction with the CRT image for tablet reading of census documents." (Computer Design 4, manipulation; the adding of a color wheel to achieve No. 12, Dec. 1965, p. 12). computer-generated color displays; and the use of a camera to achieve hard copy output from the CRT. "A machine which has been developed...as a Significant improvement inlight output of the research tool for the investigation of man-machine projected CRT image must be achieved before these techniques involving CRT displays...has been additional capabilities are introduced." (Gallenson, designated MAGIC (Machine for Automatic Graphics 1967, pp. 689, 694-695). Interface to a Computer). This machine combines We note also the following: "Work is proceeding large-diameter cathode-ray displays with a specially on the implementation of anexperimental network designed programmable digital computer.Itis involving the APEX time-sharing system running on designed as a remote display station and is intended the TX-2 computer at M.I.T. Lincoln Laboratory in to be connected to a large ADP system via voice Lexington, Massachusetts, and the time-sharing quality communication systems." (Rippy etal., system running on the Q 32/PDP-1 computer 1965, p. 819). complex at System Development Corporation in "A presentation can be obtained on MAGIC's Santa Monica, California. Initially, a 4KC four-wire primary display in three ways: a previously mem- dial-up system will be used with 1200-bit-per-second orized figure can be obtained from the machine's asynchronous modems." (Marill and Roberts, 1966, memory, the operator can draw a straight-line figure p. 430). by means of the light pen, or a drawing can be 5.9 ACCESS (Automatic Computer Controlled assembled from components inthe machine's Electronic Scanning System) "was developed for "library" of symbols. In the last method the position- use by the Office of Emergency Planning tohelp ing operations are used to manipulate components provide rapid access to digital and photographic and the light pen to connect them.... data...[It]accepts input information directly "The operator can not only position material; he from microfilm records of hand-marked documents can also shrink, expand, and rotate it. When the and digital information either from other machines drawing has been edited to the operator's satisfac- or directly from its keyboard. It has beenused in tion, it can be returned to the machine's memory. experimental work at the Bureau to accept such The digital information can be used to produce graphical material as specially prepared maps and `hard' copy also; this has been done by placing it charts.It will store the information, perform a on magnetic tape to drive an XY plotter. This variety of operations on it, and present outputs capability lends itself to making engineering changes either in digital form for use by other machines or on drawings and keeping up-to-date drawings on the in a form requiring no further translation for man. tape for ready inspection and reproduction. It also The system includes an XY plotter which prepares permits making additions to maps, charts, or floor

82 r,4

plans, a capability which should be useful in chart- Consoledesigned as a man/machine interface ing routes and courses, adding isobars and symbols forinformation-handlingsystems. The console to weather maps, and recording occupancy assign- provides all the necessary tools for graphical data ments." (NBS Tech. News Bull. 50, No. 8, 135 analysis, data generation and computer control.... (Aug. 1966).) "The console can interface with almost any com- 5.10"The Shared Memory Computer Display puter or digital communications system. It uses System described by Ball et al., useda DEC 340 keyboard buttons that can be labeled by an overlay CRT whose display instructionsare stored in an innatural, problem-related termsto query an attached PDP-4, which is in turn connectedto a associated computer.... larger, batch-processing CDC-1604A. The display "The operator presses these buttons to actuate computer receives input from three keyboards, computer-programmed subroutines; the computer pushbuttons,shaftencoders,three-dimensional responds in the form of alpha-numeric or graphic trackball(rollingspherecontrol),light-pen,a displays on a cathode ray tube.... RAND tablet, and has 'bell, two-tone gong, telegraph "It is possible to reorient the console and the sounder, and other small noise-making devices, computer programitcontrols for virtually any operated by relays under program control'. The application through keyboard overlays. The two DEC 338 is a commercial version of this type of new and significant features of the BR-90 VAC system: a small computer dedicated to a CRT to are stored - program logic and combined electronic provide flexible display programming." (Van Dam and photographic displays on a rear-ported cathode and Michener, 1967, p. 196). ray tube." (Technology Week, Nov. 21, 1966). 5.11"Bell Labs has devised a simple andeco- 5.14"A display system that provides continuous nomical console that displays line drawings, letters, visual presentation of data from high-speed digital and numbers in answer to problems submittedto a computers has been developed by the Strand Div. computer. Known as Glance, the console can display of Datatronics Engineers, Inc....The system computed data such as graphs, plots, IC masks, and consists of an input buffer unit, display programer drawings." (Data Proc. Mag. 9, No. 6, 3 (1967).) unit, character generator, line generator, and 12- 5.12"Benson-Lehner Corporation...has de- inch screen monitor. In typical applications,more veloped a new solid-state Large Table Electro- than 1,000 flicker-free characters and line segments plotter (LTE) ... [which] affordsa complete may begeneratedanddisplayed...Special contouringpackageforlarge-scalecomputer microfilm output from the D-200 recorder is suited applications for exact delineations in minute detail to intermediate storage of computer output data." of surface contours, weather maps, and topo- (Bus. Automation News Report 2, No. 14, 2 (1962).) graphicalfeatures.Itproducesreport-quality 5.15"The Gerber Scientific Instrument Co., graphs and maps rapidly and accurately from digital Inc., has announced the design and delivery of the computer generated output tapes. From either pro- first Stored Program Graphic Display System for gram or operator control, it plots points, symbols, or automatic drafting. Now in operation at Lockheed- alphanumeric characters, and draws straightor Georgia Company, the System will be used initially contour graphs from digital input data". (Com- to lay out full-scale undimensioned structural draw- munications ACM 8, 343). ings and contour-lines drawings for aerodynamic 5.13[Bunker-Ramo 85 Control/Display Console] testing and structural studies during design of the "Text, symbols, point plots, and lined drawings C-54 logistics transport aircraft." (Comm. ACM 9, may be produced on the 12- by 16-inch active display 781 (1966).) area of the 23-inch aluminized TV-type screen... 5.16"InformationDisplays'high capacity Symbols are generated at the rate of 100,000per display system Type CM 10001 uses three consoles second, may be produced in two sizes, andmay be driven from a common display generator, and the made to blink on the screen." (Dig. Comp. News- entire system operates on-line with the UNIVAC letter 16, No. 4, 39-40 (1964).) 1107 computer. Provisions are included for vector "A new video display system that providescom- writing, character writing, and circle drawings,as puterprocessedinformationaboutdeveloping well asprogramablelinetexture, programable market trends on the New York Stock Exchange character size and programable intensity." (Data has been installed by the Bunker-Ramo Corporation Proc. Mag. 7, 45 (Feb. 1965).) at Shields & Company's new Stamford, Conn., "A new computer-controlled display system, the office." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 5, 12 (1965).) Type CM 10093, will be shown by Information "A new family of display devices, the 200 series, Displays,Inc....The 10093featuresafast is being offered by the Defense Systems Div. of response, large screen CRT display, along with the Bunker-Ramo Corp. The display units combine high speed character and vector writing capability a TV-like screen with a keyboard similar to that of and program control of size, intensity, and line a standard typewriter. Information being entered structure. The completely solid state CM 10093 into the computer or the computer's responseare features a light pen tofacilitate man-machine simultaneously displayed." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, dialogue." (Commun. ACM 9, 782 (1966).) No. 10, 63 (1965).) "Up-to-the-momentcompany operating data can "Bunker-Ramo's consoleBunker Ramo landed be presented on the Information Displays, Inc.... an Award of Honor for the BR-90 Visual Analysis Management Display System, IDI Type CM 10009, 83 shown for the first time at IFIP Congress 65. Driven a highly effective method of real-time use of time- over Dataphone from a UNIVAC 490 computer, shared computers..." (Commun. ACM 8, No. 11, the system can bemany miles from the computer. A 715 (Nov. 1965).) large (4096 x 30) corememory in the display "In the READ System, the single monitor and refreshes the display rapidlyat flicker-free rates, light pen is replaced by a group ofup to 15 consoles while at the same time,accepts low speed Data- with both keyboard and lightpen. These consoles phone signals from the computer." (Commun. are driven from a single set of display logic which ACM 8, 479 (1965).) consists of a character generator, vector generator, 5.17"InformaticsInc..hasreceivedover format generator, control logic unit and computer $400,000 contracts from the U.S. Air Force'sRome interface. This system is unique in that the presently Air Development Center to evolvea system for high speed of operation of digital logic is utilizedto on-tine computer use. Thesystem to be ksiown as generate characters and vectors at a speed which DOCUS (Display Oriented Compiler UsageSystem), exceeds the amount of data thatcan be displayed willemploysophisticateddisplayequipment, on a single cathode ray tube. By using this high operating on-line with modern, large-scalecom- speed, a single set of generation elementscan be puters." (Comp. News 9, No. 7, 5 (1965).) used to drive several parallel consoles. This results "DOCUS, developed by Informaticsfor the in very great economy since the generation units multicomputer complex at Rome Air Development form a major portion of the total cost ofa display Center, providesa display-oriented man-machine system. The READ System has the ability to dis- system with some built-in data management func- play over 200,000 charactersper second and over tions and a capability to assign functionsto control keys at the display and define and 100,000 vectors per second on theremote consoles. execute com- The organization of the system is such thata unique pound functions basedon earlier defined tasks." display can be formed (Minker and Sable, 1967,p. 137). on each of the remote "The development of software techniques monitors or an identical display can be shownon for each of the monitors. Thecommon display logic on-line information processing andman/machine communication is then the focal point for the to monitor separation in this system cannot exceed 75 feet. The computer tocommon display logic Display Oriented Computer Usage System(DOCUS). Techniques are being developedto facilitate the connection could be made considerably longer since implementationof on-lineprocedures and the the data rateisrelatively slow between these operation of such procedures througha man/ terminals with an average word time of approxi- computer conversion mode. The users'areas of mately 15 microseconds. The entire READ System interest may be related to information retrieval, interfaces to a 131 aata channelon a DEC type scientific research,management, or command and PDP-1 computer. A portion of the 20Kmemory control. It is desirable to make these on-lineusers of the computer is utilized to refresh the display less dependent upon the professionalprogrammer with approximately one third of the available by simplifying the implementation andreducing the memory cycles used for this purpose." (Scholten, time for programming 1965, p. 128). new applications." (Corbin 5.21 and Frank, 1966,p. 515). "Sanders Associates, Inc., has announced "DOCUS has been implemented fora CDC a new line of information display systems primarily 1640B computer to which designed for use with commercialcomputer in- is attached a Bunker stallations." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. Ramo 85 display console. The techniqueswhich 11, 56 (1965). were developed are, however, not restricted to 5.22"Development ofa versatile-display Com- this hardware which has served primarilyas a puterInput/OutputCommunicationsConsole test bed." (Corbin and Frank, 1966, p. 515). combining multiple input controls, visual displayof entire messages before transmission, andcom- 5.18 "A display console combining electronically patibility with a broad generated symbols and slide projectedimages has range of digital data process- ing systems has been announced by TaskerInstru- been announced by ITT Federal Laboratories... . ments Corporation...The Model 544 console The console is called MACCModular Alter and can be tied in with up to 15 similar slave sub- Compose Console." (Commun. ACM 9,707 (1966).) consoles.. 5.19" `3M', the Minnesota Mining and Manu- ." (Communications ACM 8, 645). "A high-speed, -real-time modular CRTdisplay facturing Company, offersa 'Visual Communications system that permits the customer to 'build his own' Center' utilizing a desktop projector whose display him& aal configuration is announced can be 'written on' and a transparency-copier." by Tasker Instruments Corp. of Van Nuys, Calif.Designated (Bus. Automation 12, No. 10, 60 (Oct.1965).) Series 9000 Modular Display 5.20 "A computer-driven Console, the new display systemis system features customer options ofa customized scheduled for delivery to the Carnegie Instituteof or any standard keyboard, five other control devices, Technology Computation Center inPittsburgh four display devices, and four this different memory Fall by Philco Corporation. The complex subsystems. The Series 900 Display Consolewill cathode ray tube system... wasadapted from be shown to the industry for thefirst time on Novem- Philco's Real-Time Electronic Access and Display ber 8 at the FJCC in San Francisco."(Commun. (READ) system. The advancedsystem will provide ACM 9, 831 (Nov. 1966).)

84 5.23"The IBM graphic data processing system With this new keyboard/display station,programs takes advantage of the power of a computer to can be displayed in a format identical to the pro- handle information displayed in the form of sketches, grammer's coding sheet, and in a data acquisition drawings, diagrams and graphs. This system allows system, the station can also be used for display of scanning of an existing microfilm image or calling raw or reduced data as the test progresses." (Sys- out an image stored digitally within a computer, /ems 7, No. 2, 8 (1966).) displaying it on a screen, changing the image with an "New data display devices for the RCA 301-3301 electronic `pen', and, within seconds, recording the processors ...[consist] of a keyboard, display new image permanently on microfilm and reviewing and memory-logic element connected toa central a projection of the image 19 times its actual size." processor through data sets, voice grade communi- (Data Proc. Mag. 7, 45 (Feb. 1965).) cation circuits and communication buffers.. 4. ." ..[IBM] announces the new, low-cost IBM (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 2, 44 (1965).) 2260 display station, which can be linked to an IBM "The CRT sets to be designed and manufactured System/360. The new device will make vital informa- by Univac will be able to display over 1000 char- tion stored in the computer available for review on a acters on a 5" x 10" viewing screen. The -.1" char- 4 x 9-inch screen. The information also can be acters are now formed through a stroke generation revisedor updated with a display keyboard." method. Since the sets will be the major interface (Commun. ACM 8.342 (1965).) point between the users and the computer, a great "The IBM 2260 enquiry display terminal com- deal of time was spent during the development and prises an input keyboard which is used to enter an negotiation phases of the study to design a set enquiry, and an outpat screen which displays the that incorporates features that recognize human answer ...The information is written on the view- engineering factors." (Porter and Johnson, 1966, ing screen at a rate of up to 2,560 characters a p. 81). second and a total 960 characters arranged in 5.24"The automatic drawing of PERT charts 24 lines each of 40 characters, can be displayed at was demonstrated recently by North American one time.... Aviation. .The chart is reproduced by General "An even more afi ; wed display unit is the IBM Dynamics/Electronics' SC4020, which printsan 2250 which has the a-'..tity to display graphic images image from a cathode ray tube onto a 9" x 9" hard- as well as alphanc.meric data derived from the copy or 35 mm film." (Datamation 9, No. 6, 50 computer. The lIasic console contains a 21-inch (June 1963).) cathode-ray tube on which 3,848 characterscan be displayed simulta:;ously in 52 lines with 74 char- "Other applications of visual display...altera- acters per lir',using a character generator and tion of a PERT network to determine the effect optional buff t,; r image regeneration]." ("IBM of different target dates..." (Silveira, 1965, p. 37). System/360", 1963, pp. 297-298). 5.24a"...Human engineering in the broad "A user can tiansmit messages to other display sense is a basic consideration in this system con- stations or to the central computer complex from cept; the system is required to present to the user either an alphanumeric or numeric keyboard. The the interface which is best matched to the problem messages are composed in their entirety, displayed and the user's approach to its solution." (Mills, for verification and editing, and then transmitted 1966, p. 196). for computer processing and possible display at "More than any other single concept, the man- other locations." (Commun. ACM 8, 343 (1965).) machine system concept is the one around which "The cursor can be moved to any point on the most human factors engineers rally. It is perhaps screen, giving the use' freedom to position informa- now the core of the field. Thus, all human factors tion wherever he desires or to erase any displayed engineering can be thought of as dealing with the data. This symbol gives the user the ability to edit appropriate allocation of tasks between assemblages and correct alphanumeric charts or listings on the of men and machines, in which the two anomalous screen, and update information stored in System/360 componentsthe man and the machineare in with these changes." (Commun. ACM 8, 343 (1965).) such an intimate cooperative relationship that the "A computer-directed drawing system whichcan designer is obliged to view them as a single system. produce detailed construction drawings 25 times Rather than being called upon to adapt a finished faster than a draftsmE n was demonstrated recently machine so human operators can live with it more by Control Data Corp. The demonstration involved easily, the human factors specialist wants to be in computers in the cc inpany's Chicago and Min- on the design from the very beginning to insure that neapolis data centers and the use of long distance best trade-offs between men and machine functions telephone lines over which the problem and solution are chosen." (Lindgren, 1966, p. 135). were submitted." (Bus. Automation 12, No. 7, 55 5.25"One of the more promising areas of (1965).) computer use involves the coupling of a man to a "Raytheon Co. has recently announced that it computer systemforreal-timeproblem-solving has made several improvements on its 520 Computer where the procedure for solution of the problem is System. These includea1-microsecond main either unknown or involves complex tasks such as memory andanewkeyboard-displaystation pattern recognition, that can best be perforried by which makes possible on-line display and editing. humans." (Brown, 1965, p. 82). 85 "Use of the graphical input-output console allows "At the present stage of this project, the quantities the designer to pause and study his design at all of displacement...and wetted surface can be stages in its process without unnecessarily tying up evaluated for any hull or portion of a hull; the frame- the computer. Furthermore, he can make modifica- work also exists for future subroutines to calculate tions at any time and be appraised within seconds waterplane inertias, mass inertias, weight of shell of the effects of each change." (Hamilton and Weiss, plating, and eventually (given some loading patterns), 1965, p. 3). stress distributions in hull plating." (Hamilton and "Accessibility, provided through some type of Weiss, 1965, p. 11). remote computing facility such as time-sharing, "Arthur D. Little, Inc., is developing under the permits the engineer to interact with the computer sponsorship of the Naval Ship Engineering Center, during the problem solution." (Roos, 1965, p. 423). Naval Ship Systems Command,a computerized "The complex of recent developments centered system for the design detailing of hull structures for around time-sharing systems and aimed at exploita- naval ships. The system takes its input data from tion of man-machine interaction is, in the view of the ship's contract plans, standard design specifica- many, the most exciting current trend in the tions, and parameters; it producesas output working computer field, and the one with the most far- drawings foruse in the shipyard, APT part programs reaching implications to each of us as an individual for numerically controlled flame cutting machines, and to society as a whole." (Fano, 1967, p. 30). and auxiliary information suchas center of gravity 5.26"The IBM graphic data processing system statements andbillsof material and weight." takes advantage of the power ofa computer to (Cohen et al., 1967,p. 341). handle information displayed in the form of sketches, Research at the University of Glasgow is also drawings, diagrams and graphs. This system allows aimed at the computer design of ships, "from the scanning of an existing microfilm imageor calling initial conception of the shape of the hullto the out an image stored digitally within a computer, production of detailed drawings of the steelwork." displaying it on a screen, changing the image with (Commun. ACM 9, 539 (1966).) an electronic 'pen', and, within seconds, recording 5.29 "CADET [Computer-Aided Design Ex- the new image permanently on microfilm and review- perimental Translator] systemsare aimed at mixed ing a projection of the image 19 times its actual size." verbalandgraphicalman-machineproblem- (Data Proc. Mag. 7, 45 (1965).) solving.... 5.27"A display system that provides continuous "An initial version of the CADET system is sched- visual presentation of data from high-speed digital uled for operation in the fall of 1965 and will be computers has been developed by the Strand Div. applied in such areas as three-dimensional shape of Datatronics Engineers, Inc....The system description, nonlinear electroniccircuitdesign, consists of an input buffer unit, displayprogramer etc.... unit, character generator, line generator, and 12- "The designer communicates to thecomputer by inch screen monitor...In typical applications, moving the Display Console light pen to various more than 1,000 flicker-free characters and line positions on the CRT. He indicates the meaning of segments may be generated and displayed... these positions by pushing buttons while thepen is Special microfilm output from the D-200 recorder at the desired locations.... is suited to intermediate storage of computer output "The PLOT operator is used to create a picture data." (Bus. Automation News Report 2, 2 (1962).) on the oscilloscope corresponding to the graphical 5.28"The...characteristicsof the design language statements...It builds a list of 'console problem strongly suggest that theprocess would be commands' (plot a point, or a line, reposition the greatly enhanced if tools were made available by beam etc.) known as the display file, whichare which the designer could be quickly appraised of interpreted by the display console hardwareso the multifaceted effects of fixingany particular producing the desired picture." (Lang et al., 1965, variable. Such is the capability of the high-speed pp. 3, 4, 5,21, 39). digital computer.... Similarly "an experimental computerprogram "The idea that the designercan (in a CAD system) which determines how to interconnect 80 electronic explore a much wider range ofanswers to the circuits on a wafer of silicon, and then controls decision-makers' questions may bean appealing fabrication of the interconnections, was described one, particularly because of the vagueness and recently by an IBM scientist. change ability of the ship's missions at the inception "The program for the first time permits automatic of design." (Hamilton and Weiss, 1965,p. 5). by-passing of any faulty circuits on the wafer,so "The designer or engineer is interestednot only that most wafers are usable despite theoccurrence in the surface shape, but also in most of the various of faulty circuits at random positions." (Data and surface properties: area, volume,mass moment of Control 4, No. 4, 5 (Apr. 1966).) inertia,cross-sectioninertia, center of gravity, 5.30It is noted that "Lockheed-Georgiauses a resultants and equivalent points of application of Univac 418 and a DEC 340 displayscope with light external loads (both point and distributed loads), pen for research design applications for aerospace." cross-sectional views, and views of the surface, Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 5, 8 (May, 1965).) including 'hiddenlines',as seen from various 5.31"Master dimensioning gives a computer the orientations." (Hamilton and Weiss, 1965, p. 13). ability to derive math definitions of complexsur- 86 faces, and to combine many complex surfaces by riN ets. He then drew a support at each end of mathematicallytoproduce aperspective view the girder and a load at its center. The sketch of of an object...North American Aviation, Inc., the girder then sagged under the load, and a number is reported to 'nave used master dimensioning in its appeared on each member indicating the amount of design of the B-70 supersonic bomber. Boeing also tension or compression to which each memberNsas used master dimensioning for perspective art on a subjected." (Teitelman, 1966. p. 11). new fighter aircraft." (Gomolak, 1964, p. 68). "An IBM program, ALDEP (Automated Layout "At General Motors in Detroit, the comptiter-aided Design Program) aids the plant or builder designer design system, GEM, is used operationally in the in developing optimized layouts for various activities design of automobile bodies. Among other things, to be accommodated within .:onstraints of the space GEM coordinatestheartisticand engineering available, including the graphic display of layouts aspectsof design, checking, for example, the as they have been evaluated." (Seehof et al., 1966, strength and manufacturability of a fender as soon p. 191). as the designer has sketched it on the oscilloscope "GraphicalI/Oappearsto have very great screen." (Lick lider, 1965, p. 66). potentialfor the engineering of transportation "Using the 1965 models as a starting point, the facilities. A scope with input as well as output designer ins-ifts still another piece of information capabilities allows easy, positive and rapid change into the computer. Looking at this year's car, he in any assumptions or designs which can be ex- says, 'Let's see what it would look like if the body pressed graphically a highway network, a roadway were two inches longer, the greenhouse an inch cross-section,verticalandhorizontalroadway lower, and the fenders wrapped around an addi- alignment,intersectionlayout.Plottersmake tional three inches'. This information in almost this possible automatic drafting of final or intermediate exact language is...loaded into the computer designs, even construction plans." (Breuning and ...When the stylist tells the computer what view Harvey, 1967, p. 261). he wants, the computer takes the modified master "A noted architect is experimenting with the dimensioning data, combines it with the graphics technique for designing apartment houses, office program and comes up with the coordinates needed complexes and ideal communities. A major bridge for the perspective drawing." (Gomolak, 1964, p. 69). builder is also looking at drafting machines. And 5.31a"Rowland Brandwein, director of research one of the leading makers of home appliances for Span Arch Structures, Inc., Newtown, Conn., plans to use the graphics program for selecting has designed a new kind of arched roof with the models, along with numerically controlled machining aid of a communications terminal in his office linked to turn out washers, dryers and refrigerators." to an IBM computer in New York City. The metal- (Gomolak, 1964, p. 71). and-plastic arch is cheaper and easier to put up than conventional ones, and so light that it does 5.32"In current practice, the woven design is away with many of the supports normally used. represented on point paper (graph paper) which "After hitting upon the idea of making an arch has the number of horizontal or vertical lines per by sandwiching an adhesive plastic between thin inch in the same ratio as the number of weft and metal, Brandwein used his terminal linked to an warp threads. Each rectangle represents the inter- IBM QUIKTRAN center to see if his theory was section of one warp and one weft thread, i.e., one practical. He not only used the computer to work interlacing. At each intersection the warp thread out the basic methods for constructing the arch, may pass over the weft thread or vice versa. This but also to design special equipment needed by binary choice now represented by painting or not contractors for the job and to create instructions painting the point paper rectangle corresponding for them." (Computers and Automation 17, No. 5, to each interlacing.... 54 (May 1968).) "In reference 1, the first approach, the pattern 5.31b"At the Atlanta meeting of the American is scanned by a `photohead'. Then it is dissected, Association of Highway Officials in December, a within a computer, into small equal parts called civil engineer designed a superhighway interchange shape elements. Each of these parts is then sub- in ten minutes through an IBM 1050 data communi- jected to a pattern recognition routine in order to cation system connected a thousand miles to the classify it into a 'primary standard image' category. MIT 7094 in Cambridge." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, The setof primary standard images represent No. 2, 7 (1965).) various versions of shape elements prepared by the Another system designed by Nordisk ADP and artist. When the shape element is classified, its the Swedish Board for Road Construction has been corresponding secondary standard image is chosen reported as capable of making automatic "a large to representitin woven form. The secondary amount of the work of road design." (Langefors, standard image represents the same shape element 1965). with account taken of the laws of weaving (inter- Other civil engineering examples are represented lacing rules). Each shape element is analyzed in by the ICES system and by the following: turn, thus producing, in one pass, a complete set "In one impressive demonstration, Dr. Sutherland of fabric interlacings.... sketched the girder of a bridge, and indicated the "After the design has been introduced into the points at which members were connected together computer by tracing or scanning, the CRT is used as 87 the primary display device. By manipulating the graphical and alphanumeric displays of the results display with function keys and light pen, the provided within minutes. designer can use the computer as an experimental "A 'demonstrator' version of this system is designing tool." (Lourie et al., 1966, p. 539). available for the IBM 1620 computer. The demon- "He may display the design on a grid with different strator uses only the standard computer console ratios of horizontal and vertical lines which repre- typewriter and card reader/punch, and does not sent different ratios of warp and weft. He may also requireanyspecialequipment." (Clem1966, alter the number of warp threads per inch to see Abstract, p. 116). how the design would look woven with different 5.32b"The AMTRAN (Automatic Mathematical degrees of coarseness. He may refine the mesh by TRANslation) System has been developed at the enlarging the design on the same grid or holding the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, design constm t and imposing a finer grid. The Alabama and has been available on a limited basis designer may manipulate the display in other ways. to users there since early 1966." (Ruyle et al., 1967, He may 'repeat' the design with different spacing p. 151). See also Reinfelds et al., 1966. between centers; he may specify different lines of 5.32c"The Culler-Fried System is one name symmetry and thus develop a full design from a for two physically separate but direct descendants small segment. Many other techniques can also be of the system developed by Glen Culler and Burton made available to him.... Fried at Thompson Ramo Wooldridge, Canoga Park, "When a set of weaves has been determined, rules California, beginning in 1961. The first of these is concerning the interaction of adjacent weaves must the On-Line Computer System (OLC) at the Uni- be applied. For example, for structural purposes versity of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB) there is a rule that no warp thread may float over which operates on the same computer as the original more than n weft threads (or vice versa).A violation system. The OLC system is used for research and of this rule will be pointed out to the user who may teaching on the Santa Barbara campus as well as correct the situation by altering a specific interlacing from remote terminals at UCLA and Harvard. The with a light pen or by changing the starting position second, an expanded version of the original system, of one or both of the weaves in question. Another has been implemented at TRW Systems (formerly example of such rules concerns a special set of Space Technology Laboratories) in Redondo Beach, interlacings which delineate an area and which California for the use of scientists and engineers are 'shape binders". and has been operating .ince late 1964." (Ruyle "Programming can incorporate many of the prin- et al., 1967, p. 151). ciple.5 of this technique. Refinements may be made 5.32d"The Lincoln Reckoner system has been by the designer with the light pen. It is this ability developed at the Lincol:i Laboratory of the Massa- to alter and 'touch up' the automated output that chusetts Institute of Technology to operate within gives this system the required flexibility." (Lourie the APEX Time-Sharing System for the TX-2 et al., 1966, pp. 537, 539, 542-543). computer and has been used by the staff of the 532a.See also Ruyle et al. (1967) as follows: laboratory since early 1966." (Ruyle et al., 1967, "Martin has developed a PDP-6 LISP program that p. 152). converts complex mathematical expressions stored "The Lincoln Reckoner is a time-shared system in a list structure form into a CRT display that is for on-line use in scientific and engineering research quite close to textbook mathematical notation, and ...It offers a library of routines that concentrate with which the user can interact by means of a on one particular application, numerical computa- light pen." (Ruyle et al., 1967, p. 166; ref. is to tions on arrays of data. It is intended for use in Martin, 1966). feeling one's way through the reduction of data "The AMTRAN computer system is a time- from a laboratory experiment, or in trying out sharing, keyboard computer system which permits theoretical computations of moderate size." (Stowe a scientist to enter mathematicalequations into a et al., 1966, p. 433). computer in their natural mathematical textbook 5.32e"The MAP (Mathematical Analysis with- format end, barring complications, to obtain im- out Programming System, which operateswithin mediate graphical and alphanumeric display of the theM.I.T.Compatible Time Sharing System solutions on a cathode ray scope and a typewriter. (CTSS) at the M.I.T. Computation Center or at The system can be used for straightforward prob- Project MAC, has been used in research and teach- lems by a scientist with no previous computer ex- ing at M.I.T. since mid 1964. The system is access- perience while, at the same time, it provides the ible from any teletype or IBM 1050 terminal that flexibility required by the experienced programmer can dial into CTSS, regardless of thephysical to solve non-routine problems.Great improvements location of the terminal." (Ruyle et al., 1967, p. 152). in convenience and accessibility as well as in 5.32f"The MATHLAB System of Engelman, programming and turnaround times accrue to the which operates under CTSS, is an important start user in comparison with existing computer systems. toward providing a system capable of providing For example, a typical nonlinear differential equa- both analytical and numerical assistance." (Ruyle tion can be entered and solved, and permanent et al., 1967, p. 166; ref. is to Engelman, 1965).

88 5.32g "A new user-oriented programmingsystem communicationandfeedback,whichgreatly for the purpose of facilitating the programmingand simplifies the user's task, is an important function of analysisof well-formulated problems has been most on-line systems particularly graphic ones. designed and implemented at Columbia University, This provides a 'forgiving' system in which mistalies Hudson Laboratories. This system consists ofa by the user are not catastrophic but are called to standard Flexowriter modified toconstruct two- hisattentionforappropriateaction."(Hobbs, dimensional mathematical expressions anda new 1966, p. 1873). programming language." (Klerer and May, 1965, 5.34 "The present approach was to define an p. 63). algorithm capable of one-pass operation on a small Other aspects of the program at the Hudson (IBM-1620) computer, using a Caicomp digital Laboratories of Columbia University include the incremental plotter online to produce the annotated development of auxiliary consoles for "pushbutton" flowchart." (Anderson. 1965, p. 38). programming, R & D efforts with respect to auto- matic mathematical text typesetting, and investiga- 5.35"Applied Data Research, Inc.,...intro- duced AUTOFLOW... tion of capabilities for two-dimensionalprogram [which] accepts assembly and text editing. (Klerer, 1966). or higher level languages and produces quality 5.33 flowcharts for online or offline printing...The For example, "using an NCR Elliott 4120 AUTOFLOW system allocates the necessary size with a display and light pen equipment, the NPL for a symbol, rearranges groups of symbols and will develop methods to aid the computerprogram- mer by allowing him to write, test and edit programs draws lines between symbols." (Commun. ACM 9, in a high-level language, on-line to the computer. 469 (1966).) The computer and display will also be used in "1966 additions to Applied Data Research Inc.'s patten recognition research..." (Data and Control AUTOFLOW systems were for system 360 COBOL 3, 11, (1965).) and FORTRAN. (Datamation 12, No. 11, 93 (Nov. c`. ..Recent rumors suggest flow charts to be 1966).) used on oscilloscope terminals for on-lineprogram- "The proprietary package AUTOFLOWwas ming." (Burkhardt, 1965, p. 7). released in February 1967, having been developed "Other, more radical uses of display devices in under NASA support. This system produces flow- debugging are now being investigated. Flow-chart charts from program units written in MAP/FAP, languages, where programs are created on-line by FORTRAN, andMYSTIC. MAP/FAP and generating a flow chart with a light-pen,are being FORTRAN decks may be optionally augmented studied at Lincoln Laboratory and at RAND. A by special comment cards and codes which will dynamic display of the program state atany point alter the interpretation of thesource and thus in terms of the flow chart is expected to bea useful modify the quality of the flowchart produced. Of debugging tool." (Evans and Dar ley, 1966,p. 44). course the use of these options requires extra effort "William Sibley's and Thomas Ellis's on-line on the part of the user. AUTOFLOW also produces programming system, FLOWCHART, in which a Table of Contents and a Cross Reference Listing. the flow diagram is the source-languagecomputer Output may optionally be obtainedon the SC-4020 program and through which the programmer writes, and/or the line printer; the internal tablesmay be edits, debugs, and operates theprogram by sketch- employed to drive either output. Table overflowcan ing and printing with a stylus on a RAND Tablet. occur, but a capacity of 30,000 input cards and 1700 The Tablet is a graphical input device that looks statement numbers is claimed. The output employs like a sheet of paper on a blotter pad but underneath variously shaped boxes to represent the action and is actually a grid of wires, through capacitative pays much attention to the location of all boxes, coupling to which an electronic devicecan sense especially transfer points. All boxesare identified the position of the stylus." (Licklider, 1967,p. 10). by page and sequence number. The contents of "Use ofon-linegraphical displaysforflow the boxes are identified bypage and sequence charting and programming is an interesting applica- number. The contents of the boxesare language tion in the computer field. An example of work dependent, but clear, and insome cases expanded, of this type is that done at the RAND Corporation in reproductions of the source card content." (Abrams, which a rough flow chart can be drawn witha 1968, p. 745). graphical input device and displayedon the screen. 5.35a "AUTODIAGRAMMERISoftware Re- A computer provides such nicetiesas straightening sources Corp., Los Angeles, Calif. This proprietary lines and squaring boxes. However, themore im- program, developed by ARIES Corporation and portant function of the computer in this case is to being marketed throughout the western United incorporate into a program the subroutinesor func States by Software Resources, producesaccurate tions called for by the individual symbolson the and standardized flowcharts ofprograms written flow chart. If the flow chartas d; awn by the pro- in IBM System/360 Basic Assembly Language. grammer does not make sense or if necessary in- The use of AutoDiagrammer eliminatesa significant formation or linkages are omitted, the computer part of the time needed for program documentation can indicate the discrepancies and ask the program- and shifts the burden of flow chart production mer for clarification. This ability to provide two-way from the programmer tothe computer itself." 89 (Computers and Automation 17, No. 2, 47-48 the output copy can occupy several pages if the (Feb. 1968).) size of the program being flowcharted requires it. 5.35b"A new program now available from IBM Even so, they do report a limitation of 200 state - enables flowcharts to be produced by a System/360 ments;Iurthermore, they do not indicate how their computer. Compared with earlier programs of this program goes about recognizing thebranches. type, System/360 Flowchart has more automatic Since they claim an application for their program featuresfor labelling and for linking elements in drawing PERT networks, it is inferred that pre- of the chart; it also provides for footnotes." The processing is required by the user." (Abrams, 1968, Computer Bull. 11, No. 2,159 (Sept. 1967). p. 744). 5.35c"It is hoped to generalize the Flowlister "A program by Stelwagon called FLOW 2 which so that it indexes a complete program, producing produces flowcharts of FORTRAN and FORMAC an alphanumerically ordered listof all common programs directly from the source decks became assignments and subroutine calls, and a map of part of the open literature in August 1966. Actually the program as a whole. It could also be extended this data is deceptive, since the instructions for to handle subt-.)utines written in various assembly using the program are dated one year earlier. An languages. amazing degree of flexibility is available to the user "Exceptfora few smallcharacter-handling of this program, including the option of producing routines, the Usercode Documenter, Auto-Diagram- an intermediate flow deck which directly controls mer and Flowlister are all written in Fortran." the graphical output produced and may be manip- (Roberts, 1967, p. 22). ulated by the user to improve the esthetics of the "One of the early efforts was reported in 1959 by topology. Since the graphical hardcopy is produced Haibt who was concerned with flowcharting machine by an SC-4020, Stelwagon had the problem of language. Although not completely clear, it appears page segmenting and referencing to contend with. that extensive use of tables was required to produce He has rejected the flow matrix approach as being output on the line printer. Since she felt it unde- too consumptive of storage and has, instead, de- sirable to attempt to describe an entire program veloped a reduced matrix which serves to position unit in one flowchart, probably because of the branches and boxes in quite a clear output. Using limitations of the line printer and the extensive auxiliary memory, he claims to be able to flowchart detail present in machine language, the decision to program units in excess of 2,000 statements. Various produce multilevel flowcharts was necessary. The shapes of boxes are provided for identification of program featured a sketchy description of the type of operation. In solving the paging problem, procedure represented by a box. Certainly this out- Stelwagon has brought his branch lines out both put was not at all language independent since cross horizontally and vertically. Thus, if a one-piece references weresuppliedtoprogramlistings. flowchart is desired, one obtains a large rectangular Although mention was made in this paper of drawing mural when thepagesarepasted together." flowcharts directly from a FORTRAN program, it (Abrams, 1968, p. 744). appears that this feature was never accomplished." "The present author has developed a flowcharting (Abrams, 1968, p. 744). program MADFLO that produces continuous output "Knuth, in 1963, reported on a system which on a CALCOMP drum plotter. The use of this produced flowcharts on the lineprinterif the completely random-access graphical output device assembly code were augmented by descriptive allows the construction of a program which requires comments. No doubt the inclusion of such com- no tables or arrays to determine the position of ments is a valuable tool, but it does require special boxes in advance. Following what seems to be a effort on the part of the programmer and does also normal mode, single column output results from restrict generality. Furthermore, his flowcharts were non-branching, algorithms. Multicolumn output is cross-indexed to a flow outline which was in turn produced whenever the program contains decision indexed to the assembly listing. Each level conveyed making branches; the number of columns is limited more precise information concerning the action by the width of paper available. The input scanner within each box. He felt that 'it is unnecessary to operates much like the statement recognition phase specify all the details of a program in the flow of a compiler. Only the syntax of the source language outline' and even less so in the flowchart. His statement is examined to determine the shape of requirement of documentation effort on the part box required to properly represent the operation. of the programmer does introduce the concept of Sinceitwas desiredtomaketheflowchart using computer-drawn flowcharts as creative tools essentiallylanguageindependent,thescanner in debugging." (Abrams, 1968, p. 744). deletes certain phrases when the statements are "An interesting flowchart-drawing program which lettered within the drawn box. Except for this edit- draws a picture of the (undirected) branches of a ing, the entire statement is always lettered out for program by disregarding the specific contents of the user. He can of course ignore any lettering that the boxes was reported by Hain and Hain in 1965. does not interest him. Some further development of A very elegant connection matrix is employed to the methods of Rich and Stone may be necessary to generate this 'connection graph'. Hardcopy output achievelessarbitrarylinedivision;also,the is produced by an SC-4020 microfilm plotter; thus relationaloperatorsand assignmentindicators 90 !

1

present in the source language character set should by the designer. These include scaling, rotations, be replaced with universally-acceptable symbols translations,contiguityassignments,insertions, perhaps taken from the t?SASCII character set." replicationsall possible on both the parts (sepa- (Abrams, 1968, p. 745). rately within the whole of the drawing.) and on the 5.36"A computer controlled approachto the entire aggregate of features in the drawing." (Cheyd- logicalblockdiagramconstruction...would leur, 1965, p. 174). have the following advantages: "Among thespecialfacilitiesavailablefor a. Computerstorageof acompletelogical operation of the display system are provisions for design, either on paper tapeor magnetic tape. displaying text, for drawing on the screen, and for This means that the current design is inone rotating three-dimensional objects." (Fano, 1964, placeandprintsreflectingthiscurrent p. 15). design would be available foruse by all 5.38a"The program 'package' called CALCUL- concerned with the design. AID provides a convenient way to specify and b. Easy correctionor modification to the design execute requestsfor mathematical computation and prompt issuance of revised prints reflect- and manipulations. It runs entirely within the OPS-3 ing these changes. system. In addition to a general assignment-state- c. The built-in checking of the logical operation ment capability, such as the execution of the of the design to see if, in fact, it does perform statement as expected. Also the analysis of the circuit for such items as the loading of the output(s) X = 11+ /1*(Z + 5) , of each unit, and signal delay along various signal paths." (Loomis, 1960, p. 10-11). several more specific programs have been provided. These include a multiple linear or simple polynomial "Although a flow chart compiler is not yet avail- regression program, a solver of polynomial equations able, a graphical circuit simulator...has been in one unknown, a count-by-interval program, and programmedfortheTX-2 computer at Lin- a programtorank-order a given sequence of coln....Thissystemshouldbecapable of numbers. providingacircuit designer who has no pro- 5.39 "CALCULAID and MAP are twomore sys- gramming ciperience, with a comprehensive simu- tems for using the computer as a mathematician's lation facility which he can use with little instruction helper. CALCULAID is oriented toward writing to supplement his knowledge of the normal symbols, programs to solve large problems with much data. conventions and graphical properties of electrical It has built in FIT and REGRESSION operators, t network theory." (Roberts, 1965, p. 216). and a convenient way of specifying matrixopera- "The MIT researchers plan to extend the tech- tions. MAP has facilities for performing convolu- nique from electronic networks to digital systems, tions,Fouriertransforms,andothermore treating logic gates as components. They will also sophisticated analyticaloperations."' (Teitelman, apply it to distributed systems transmission and 1966, p. 15-16). acoustic lines.... 5.40"By means of displays, the user receives "CAD includes a unique circuit analysis tech- immediate feedback of the results of his actions, nique called circa', a computer program developed and he is able to modify his decisions in order to by an MIT graduate student, Charles Therrien." obtain a system response that is most relevant to (Electronics 39, No. 3, 39-40 (1966).) his needs." (Borko and Burnaugh, 1966,p.1 "A typical use of AEDNET involves drawing (abstract).) the circuit diagram on the scope, typing or plotting "These programs can be used singly, to perform values and characteristics of the components, and individual tasks or they can be combined together requesting calculation of the response to a specified in 'programs', where each step of theprogram is input. At the user's request, the program displays one of these macro operations. The system can be the various network variables (currents, voltages, used either as a very large and fast 'desk calcu- charges, and fluxes) as functions of time or as func- lator' or as a powerful programming device which tions of each other. The user can at any time modify allows simultaneous creation and execution of the network and ask for a recalculation and redis- programs." (Wantman, 1965, p. 8). play." (Evans and Katzenelson, 1967, p. 1135). "By providing instantaneous response anda 5.37"The major use of the console system so multiplicity of input controls, the operator,on his far has been for problcins requiring at some stage CRT screen, is able to create and manipulatea `dynamic scratch pad' capabilities. Included in model of his problem in the most descriptive and such problems have been printed circuit component meaningful manner. With a graphic display, the and wiring placement, schematic circuit design, user is given complete freedom in the presentation block or flow diagram design, text composing and of his data, choosing whatever pictorial form he editing..." (Ninke, 1965, p. 845). desires. Rich, problem-oriented, graphic languages 5.38"With this[Sketchpad] system a wide can be tailored to each user's needs, allowing full variety of structural transformations and agglom- statements to be made with the flick of a light pen. erative actions can be evoked extemporaneously Concepts can be depicted in entirelynew ways. 91 366-108 0 - 70 - 7 Data can be condensed andpresented in clear "The term CAI should be reserved for thosepar- understandable graphs." (Stotz, 1968,p. 13). ticular learning situations in whicha computer "Most graphic input-outputsystems are involved contains a stored instructionalprogram designed in computer-aided designa class of environments to inform, guide, control, and test the student until involving a high degree of interactionbetween a prescribed level of proficiencyisreached." designer and problem-solvingsystem. Computer- (Silvern and Silvern, 1966,p. 1651). supported drawingsare a good medium for com- 5.42 "A much older CAI system is the PLATO munication between human beings anddesign System, developed at the University of Illinois. systems because drawings are easily understood In the present system, each of the 20 studentsta- by people. The graphics problem isnot so much tions connected to a CDC 1604computer has an automating the draftingprocess, as automating the electronic keyboard for student communication interpretation. of drawings."' (McCarthy, 1967,p. 64). with the central computer anda CRT screen for ..The engineer must be ableto communicate viewing information selected by thecomputer. with the computer inan interactive environment This CAI system has been appliedto the actual where he can: teaching of electrical engineering and nursing." 1. Request an operation. (Van Dam and Michener, 1967,p. 199.) 2. Examine his results. "The purpose of the PLATO project has been 3. Determine the next operation to be performed to develop an automatic computer-controlled teach- based on the previous results. ing system of sufficient flexibility to permit experi- "This suggests that a problem-oriented language mental evaluation ofa large variety of ideas in functions best in a time-sharing environment." automaticinstructionincludingsimultaneous (Roos, 1965, p. 425). tutoring of a large number of students ina variety 5.40a Two examplesare: "To correct an input of subjects." (Coordinated Science Laboratory, and to immediately signal theman in the loop for 1965, p. 43). a correction or the need for a correction, isan "Bitter & Easley describea particular automatic important time saving factor. Many needless hours teaching system (PLATO) inuse at the University of 'turn around time'can be saved by finding out of Illinois. The interface language of PLATOex- immediately thatatranscriptionerror exists." hibits an interesting approachto the problem of (Bauer, 1965, p. 18). smoothcouplingtothe problem environment "A most important form ofoutput is interim (example: the studentcan interrupt the main in- feedback, which will sharpen the focus of theques- structional sequence forsome special tutoring by tion after the search has started." (Taylor, 1962, pressing a button labeled "Help";a button labeled p. 393). "Aha!" returns him to the main sequence). Among It is to be noted in particular that the author's conclusionsare an indication that the "A communication network that doesnot let the system is actually performing as a successful edu- user know how long it will be before his message will cational device and that thesame system imple- be delivered to the end addresseemay be theoretically mented on an appropriately largecomputer would oscillatory." (Baran, 1964,p. 7). provide this kind of teachingto as many as a thou- 5.40b"The man-machine coupling problem in sand students simultaneously." (Mills, 1967,p. 238). its full breadth is the central issue in advancing "PLATO, which stands for Programmed Logic interactive-computer technology." (Mills, 1966,p. for Automatic Teaching Operations, is another 196). laboratory for educational research.Ituses an ILLIAC computer-controlledsystem of slides, TV 5.41"Application of man-machine systems in displays and student support of education already promises to be among response panels for simul- taneously instructinga number of students.... It the most important in terms of future implications. is part of the Coordinated Science Laboratory From a philosophical standpoint, problems of edu- of cation can be included as part of the so-called the University of Illinois.... "In the PLATO system, the computeraccepts `information explosion' problemarea, since the each student's request insequence, but because body of information to be transferred by the educa- of its high speed studentscan be served without tion process must ultimately reflect the growth of noticeable delay. Each student hasa key set and a the aggregate of human knowledge." (Mills, 1967, television set. The keyset, used by the student to p. 235). communicate to the centrai computer, has keys of 5.41aIn another paper, these authorscom- two types: character keys, suchas numerals, letters ment: "While Programmed Instruction,or PI, has and other symbols; and logic keys suchas "con- been evolving for a number ofyears, Computer- tinue", "reverse", "help", "judge", and"erase". Assist Instruction,or CAI, is a much more recent These logic keysare used by the students to proceed arrival. This is because thecomputer itself is a through the instructional material. Fromthe stu- relatively new device and time-sharing, which makes dent's responseor from the position he has reached CAI economically feasible, is onlynow being applied inthe program, information is selected by the on a large scale in commercial systems." (Silvern computer for display on the student's television and Silvern, 1966, p. 1651). screen. This information has two sources: (1) a 92 central slide-selector, and (2)an electronic black- the instructor. A maximum of 32 stations can be board. Although a single slide-selector is shared by linked to the computer for simultaneous instruction. all students, each student has independentaccess This system has been used at the Brentwood School, to any slide. Each student has an electronic black- in East Palo Alto, California, to present mechanized board on which the central computer can write reading and mathematics (e.g., set arithmetic) to characters and draw diagrams. Information unique first grade classes." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967, to a student such as his answer to a question, is p. '199). written on his own blackboard by the computer. "The IBM 1500 Instructional System is an experi- The images from the slide-selector and the black- mental system for computer-assisted instruction, board are superimposed on the student's television designed to administer individual programmed les- screen." (Egbert, 1963, p. 622). sons to 32 students at once. Working through one 5.43"CLASS stands for Computer-Based Lab- or more teaching devices at his own instructional oratory for Automated School Systems and is a station, a student may follow a course quite different facility developed and operated by Systems Devel- from, and independent of, lessons presented at opment Corporation. The CLASS facility is not other stations.Instructional programs stored in considered a prototype of a school system but is centralfilescontrollessoncontent, sequence, devoted rather to educational research ina system timing, and audio-visual medium, varying all of context. The laboratory permits the integration of these according to the student's responses." (Terlet, (1) individual student automated instruction, (2) 1967, p. 169). group instruction, both automated and conven- 5.45"This means that a chemistry student can tional, and (3) centralized data processing for admin- sit at his desk and type directions to a machine that istration, guidance, and planning functions. For will 'perform' chemical experiments step by step... flexibility, the central control of the laboratory is The student has a viewer on his desk that shows him exercised by a digital computer, the Philco 2000. what would happen, for instance, if he orders potas- Various innovations in instructional load, adminis- sium chlorate to be added to a solution of hydro- trative data processing, and counsePlg procedure chloric acid. If the solution turns yellow or the can be provided by computer program modifica- mixing causes an explosion, the student sees this tion." (Egbert, 1963, p. 621). on his viewer." (Bushnell, 1965, p. 19). 5.43a"PLANIT (Programming LANguage for 5.46"The CAI system has the capability of Interaction and Teaching) is a system employing collecting student data, and this can be processed a flexible language designed for CAL PLANIT and regurgitated in the form of reports to the teacher provides for the designer a powerful and flexible and administrator. The system can provide rates of tool for entering communication material into the progress, areas of difficulty, problems, unexpected computer, for modifying the material, for presenting responses, time to complete, adherence to schedule, it to the user, and for prescribing the behavior of attendance facts, etc." (Silvern and Silvern, 1966, the computer as a function of the user's current p. 58). response and past performance. In addition, the "A cumulative record is kept of the student's language is simple enough to allow a nonprogrammer performance on each of the topics. These perform- to use it easily." (Feingold, 1967, p. 545). ance measures includethe student's response "Materials produced via PLANIT are: Instruc- time, error count, and pattern of errors. If a stu- tional sequences in statistics (aimed at students of dent's performance falls below an acceptable level the social sciences enrolled in a first course in for a topic, the student is branched or detoured to statistics);spelling and vocabulary (for children a special set of remedial items on that topic." three to eight years); economics (for undergradu- (Egbert, 1963, p. 621). ates); introduction to computer programming (for 5.46a"A few commercial speech output devices persons having some knowledge of algebra). Agen- for computers or computer controlled systems have cies who have used or are using PLANIT are: been announced. All but one of these rely on the System Development Corporation, Southwest Re- playback of analog audio signals under digital gional Laboratory, University of California at Los control of selection, switching, and sequencing. Angeles, University of Southern California, Uni- The analog recording has been both magnetic and versity of California at Irvine, United States Naval photographic. These devices generally have in- Personnel Research Activity (San Diego, California), dividual wordsinuniform time slots and can New England Educational Data System, and Lack- provide sequencing of these words under computer land Air Force Base." (Feingold, 1967, p. 551). control. They have been used in such applications 5.44"The IBM 1500 Instructional System is as providing stock market quotations and telephone indicative of the complexity inherent in general- number change information." (Hogan, 1966, p. 92). purpose CAI hardware. The 1500 hardware consists 5.47"The IBM 7770 audio response system of CRT display units, alphanumeric keyboards and furnishes spoken replies to telephone inquiries... light-pens for student input, image projectors, tape- The inquiry is processed by the computer against recording units, a central processing unit (the new stored data. The reply is composed from a selected, IBM 1130), an audio adapter for sound transmission prerecorded vocabulary and transmitted back to to student stations, a station control, at least two the caller as a spoken message." (Licklider, 1965, disk units, and a printer and card reader for use by p. 102). 93 "In the case of the 7770 the enquirer enters a one language might be used within the same system request by dialling digits which are immediately at the same time. In the United States this is not a transmitted to the audio response unit and then sent major problem but in Canada and in some European to the processor. The computer processes the data, countries where people are often times multilingual, composes a coded reply, and returns the message it is only right to assume that one should have a to the 7770. This device then interprets the coded computer that would be too. Such a device is the reply, selecting the appropriate words from a stored IBM 7772 Audio Response Unit." (McDonald, 1966, vocabulary of between 32 and 128 words, and tells p. 54). the enquirer the answer to his query." ("IBM Sys- 5.49"Cognitronic's 'Speechmaker' audiore- tem/360", 1965, p. 299). sponse units also have a fixed vocabulary of words "The 7772... generatesaudio on the `vocoder' selected and combined by computer command. principlethat of energizing tone filters and com- These units have a maximum vocabulary of 189 bining the output result first to form words and then words. Each word is 1.6 seconds long and is pre- sentences ..." (Urquhart, 1965, p. 857). Knauft recorded, by a technique similar to that used to etal. (1966) describe further developments with produce a sound track for a motion picutre, on a respect to the 7772 audio response unit involving cylinder of photographic film mounted on a drum hardware and software features for treatment of in the response unit. A narrow light beam, directed unvoiced components of coded speech signals. through the sound tracks on the rotating drum, is "The 7772 can have a vocabulary of several modulated by the prerecorded audio on each track thousand words, stored on a disc device in digital and is detected by photocells. The output of the form. The audio response unit recreates the spoken photocells is amplified and fed directly to telephone voice from these digital records." ("IBM System/ lines. This system is in use at the American Stock 360", 1965, p. 299). Exchange, enabling stockbrokers to dial four-digit 5.48Vocoder techniques, which were initially codes on their office telephones and receive stock described by Dudley in 1936, involve devices de- quotations; it can answer 1200 telephone inquiries signed to compress "the bandwidth of speech in a minute." (Van Dam and Michener, 1967, p. 193). signals in order to transmit them over channels of 5.50 "RCA announced that it has developed a very limited capacity. The vocoder measures the new voice responseunit...[providing]vocal speech power in a number of frequency bands and replies to queries fed into the computer by tele- transmits these measures as signals over a set of phone from up to 100 remote points. It is designed narrow low-frequency channels ...At there- to work with the Spectra 70/35, 45 and 55." (Com- ceiver the speech is reconstituted by modulating mun. ACM 9, 468 (1966).) the spectrum of a broad band source in accordance 5.50a"Burroughs Corporation has announced with the frequency region and amplitude of each a data communications system which uses com- of the measure-signals derived from the original puter-stored information to generate a spoken reply speech. Normally this reconstituted speech signal through a telephone hand set...The voice re- is presented acoustically for a listener. Alterna- sponse generator's memory is a rotating, cylindrical, tively, vocoded speech signals can be presented photographic film containing 64 parallel tracks on visually or tactually." (Pickett, 1963, p. 2). which numbers, words, phrases, and silence are An alternativeto the vocoder approach, also recorded. Photoelectric cells read the 64 tracks as investigated by IBM, involves the development of they pass by, and words or numbers are selected, a library of analog synthesizer control signals cor- as instructed by the computer program, in the responding to subword segments of speech. Thus, proper sequence to compose a message. One track "segments of control signals can be made which is silent and provides timing and pauses desired in correspond to segments of synthetic speech, and messages. The other 63 tracks can contain three a library of speech segments can then be stored in words or numbers, each of one-half second duration the form of a library of synthesizer control-function or a phrase up to one and one-half seconds long. The segments. The synthesizer may then be controlled 63 tracks, segmented into thirds, can contain a by composite functions assembled from the se- maximum of 189 individual words and numbers." quence of control-function segments corresponding (Commun. ACM 11, No. 4, 289 (Apr. 1968).) to the desired utterance. In order to investigate this 5.51"Audio equipment enabling a computer approach to speech synthesis, a terminal analog to talk to students has been delivered to Stanford synthesizer and associated control system have been University by Westinghouse Electric Corporation, constructed. Our goal is to generate a library of US. It uses a Prodac 50 computer that controls a reproducible control-function segments from which battery of 12 random access magnetic tape units we can construct connected speech." (Estes et al., on which verbal information is recorded." (Elec- 1964, p. 2-3). tronics Weekly, No. 258, 8/11/65, p. 11). 5.48aIt is to be noted that both the IBM 7770 5.51a "The RADC Information Processing Lab- and 7772 units are available in languages other than oratory has sponsored research on a digital to analog English (Urquhart, 1965, p. 857). converter techniquefor speech. A breadboard "Of particular advantage is that the technique is model demonstrated feasibility of converting digital language independent, and if so desired, more than information into spoken words using optical sound-

94 track techniques and using a vocabulary of 385 even to 300 bps but with markedly reduced quality." words." (Shiner, 1962, p. 338). (Franco et al., 1965, p. 131). 5.52"Pushbutton input and audio response can "Fairly good quality speech can be produced be combined in the home use of computers. IBM using about 48,000 bits per second. Even with the is now experimenting with the student use of com- vast economical digital storages available today, puters for homework problems, using home tele- thebitstorage (using the minimum acceptable phones to link to a 1710 computer; spoken answers sample rate and resolution) for a 1000 word vocabu- are generated by a 7770 response unit."(Van Dam lary is not particularly attractive.... and Michener, 1967, p. 193). "Certain economies of storage can be achieved by 5.53"A typical dial access medical tape re- the use of the channel vocoder mainly because of cording library is in operation today at the University the redundancy of human speech. That is to say, of Wisconsin Medical School.Staff physicians every instant of speech is not a wholly new complex record four-to-six minute commentaries on current waveform but is generally the repetition of the same information having to do with various subjects or complex wave form a number of times and then procedures. The list of subjects is circulated by changing to another. By taking advantage of this mail to physicians in the state. A practising physi- unique quality of speech, it is possible to digitize a cian may telephone...at any time of day or portion of speech, a word, inspect it for its redun- night and request that a particular tape be played." dant aspects and rather than store all of the redun- (Becker, 1967, p. 8). dancy, establish a count of the number of times a 5.54"The Bankers Trust Company noted both given pattern is used before it changes to another favorable response and rapid adjustment of bank pattern.... personnel and the public toits audio response "By the use of this technique it is possible to installation." (Swanson, 1967, p. 38). storereconstructabledigitizedspeech sothat 5.55"Audio-responsetechniquesarebeing approximately _twenty-four hundred bits represent used at the Space Division of North American one second of speech [one to two words]. This is a Aviation for engineering-design status information considerable saving in space over the minimal on NASA's Apollo and Saturn projects. In this case, 24,000 bits and the desirable 48,000 bits." (Mc- the words in the audio vocabulary are the appro- Donald, 1966, p. 53). priate ones to provide information about engineer- 5.56Under the general direction of G. Fant ingdrawingsandspecifications."(Whiteman, (1959), the work of J. Liljencrantz, U. Ringman, 1966, p. 67). P. Tjernlund and others of the Vocoder Group, "Another system is EDICT, which the space and Speech Transmission Laboratory, R.I.T., ispri- information systems division of North American marily concerned with speech analysis and speech Rockwell uses to provide the company's engineers synthesis. Both a speech analyzer and a speech with design data. Data from more than 75,000 engi- synthesizer are in operation can be used together neering drawings is available from any of the com- to improve the vocoding performance. A new spec- pany's 42,000 telephones via an IBM 7770." (Berul, trum analyzer has been designed for on-line opera- 1968, p. 29). tion with a computer, including such tasks as 5.55a"The ability of a computer to generate varying formant and anti-formant information, i.e., answers in audible words makes itpossible to obtain to take samples of natural speech, to extract param- a great deal of information in a form understood by eters, and to try to replicate them with the speech anyone and with the use of unsophisticatedand synthesizer. (See Stevens, 1968). thereforeinexpensiveterminalequipment. A 5.56a"A speech synthesis program was written number of computer companies have designed at Manchester (Mathers, 1964) based on the Para- inquiry devices. Telephones which use tones for metric Artificial Talker at Edinburgh University dialing can also be employed for this purpose by (Anthoy and Lawrence, 1962). The eight param- using the pushbutton tone dial after the call is eters required by this program were measures of established to submit the inquiry. In this case, the the frequency of relatively dense energy bands answer is heard in the telephonereceiver." (Gentle, in the spectrum, energy amplitude measurements, 1965, p. 86). and measurement of the fundamental frequency 5.55b"It has been estimated that the informa- of the waveform. Two other synthesis programs tion content of the digital voice signal is as low as 50 were developed which required nine and eleven bits per second. Direct digital encoding of an analog parameters, representing a closer description of speech signal by sampling, quantizing, or pillse the spectrum. Three analysis programs were written code modulation techniques requires a bandwidth which automatically measured the spectrum and of 56,000 bps. With fixed channel vocoding tech- produced the appropriate parameters from the niques,thebit rate required to transmit ... speechwaveform."(Lavington and Rosenthal, [speech] in digital form with adequate scores on 1967, p. 338). intelligibility, articulation, and speaker recognition "Routines r6 and r7 were developed for use in tests, has been reduced to 2,400 bps. There are a system of automatic speech analysis and synthesis other vocoding techniques which will eventually (Rosenthal, 1965). This system was based on the reduce this bandwidth still further to 1,200 bps, and assumption thattheintelligibleinformationin

95 speech may be expressed as values of a few slowly high degree of accuracy." (Van Darn and Michener, varying parameters, and that these parameters 1967, p. 194). may be measurements of characteristics in the 5.59a"It should be clear that with the addition spectrum of the speech waveform. The object of of a printer character-recognition unit, the system the exercise was to obtain a reduction in the data is useful as a reading machine for the blind. It rate of speech transmission without loss of infor- was originally with this purpose that our research mation. It was desired to produce analysis pro- into computer generation of connected speech from grams which would form the spectrum of the speech text source began." (Lee, 1968, p. 333). waveform and measure the values of several param- 5.59a2"Formant amplitudes have not been eters which would then be used as input to a syn- studied much in previous investigations Formant thesisprogram. The synthesis program would frequencies and over-all intensities have received produce a waveform whose spectral characteristics much more attention....A correct reproduction were controlled by the parameters, and which would of formant amplitudes in synthesis is necessary hopefully, be judged similar to the original by for ensuring one of the elements of naturalness, human listeners." (Lavington and Rosenthal, 1967, such as, for instance, a voice source of correct p. 338). spectrum shape." (Fant et al., 1963, p. 1760). 5.59a3"It is a mistake to suppose that, once 5.57"A voice-excited vocoder has been suc- cessfully simulated on the IBM 7094 computer and vowelsandconsonantshavebeensimulated satisfactory quality of voice has been reconstructed inisolation, their conjunction will result inin- with 220-660 cps frequency used as the voice- telligible speech. If the formants are varied in a excitation band. Experiments are under way to stepwise fashion, the resulting sounds are quite convert the vocoder output to a binary data stream unintelligible unless one knows what was intended and investigate the effect of channel coding tech- beforehand. In natural speech, the formants vary niques on the reconstructed voice." (Quarterly slowly and smoothly, even persisting through seem- Progress Report No. 80, Research Laboratory for ingly colourless sounds like `sh', where they form a smooth interpolation between the preceding and Electronics, M.I.T., 179 (1966).) succeeding values occurring in the speech. But "The general research problem of artificial speech with sufficiently fast machines, all these things generationisunder continuing investigationin could be allowed for by program." (Woodward, Professor K. N. Stevens' Speech Communications 1966, p. 262). Group and particular application to the reading- "Perhaps the intonation of the voice will be the machine system is being considered incoopera- most resistant problem; we have no notation for its tion with his group." (Quarterly Progress Report inflexion and little understanding of the rules by No.80,ResearchLaboratoryforElectronics, which inflexion conveys meaning. This, it may be M.I.T., 218 (1966).) suggested, is why computer voices are often pro- 5.58"Study of the speech process is interesting grammed to sing rather than to speak." (Woodward, in its own right. It is, moreover, a route to practical 1966, p. 262). applications, not only in the engineering of devices 5.59b"The resulting speech is usually intelligi- for speech recognition, bandwidth compression, and ble, but not suitable for long-term use. Several prosthetic aids to the blind or deaf, but also to the problems remain, apart from those concerned direct- more common problems that arise in connection ly with speech synthesis by rule from phonemic with the use of language by normal and handicapped specifications. First, many words can be nouns or people. The research on speech has necessarily verbs, depending on context [refuse, incline, sur- beeninterdisciplinary,requiringcloseworking vey], and proper stress cannot be specified until the cooperation among linguists,experimental psy- intended syntactic form class is known. Second, chologists, and engineers." (Cooper, 1967, p. 1214) punctuation and phrase boundaries may be used 5.59"An interesting application of audio output to specify pauses that help to make the complete is the work at MIT's Research Laboratory of Elec- sentence understandable. Third, more complicated tronics to develop a 'reading' system for the blind stress contours over phrases can be specified which thatwill read printed English text aloud. The facilitate sentence perception. Finally, intonation project is divided into three phases: recognition contours, or 'tunes' are important for designating of characters; translation of words into 'phonemes,' statements, questions, exclamations, and continu- the minimum units of speech; and conversion of ing or terminal juncture. These features (stress, the phonemes into speech, using a speech synthe- intonation, and pauses) comprise the main prosodic sizer. To date, phases one and three have been or suprasegmental featuresof speech." (Alien, completed. These modules have been built at the 1968, p. 339). Laboratory and have cost only a few thousand 5.59c"The parser makes two passes (left-to- dollars, since special high-speed equipment was right) over a given input sentence. The first pass necessary. The character recognizer uses TX-0 computes a tentative bracketing of noun phrases and PUP -1 computers to perform the recognition. and prepositional phrases. Inasmuch as this initial It can now scan printed input, recognize each letter, bracketing makes no clause-level checks and does and output the character vocally. The overall read- not directly examine the frequently occurring noun/ ing rates are about 60 to 80 words a minute, with a verb ambiguities, it is followed by a special routine 96 designed to resolve these ambiguities by means of "The speech signal being displayed is cut in the local context and grammatical number agreement same manner that it would be for splicing. However, tests. These last tests are also designed to resolve in this case the portion of the waveform between the noun/verb ambiguities that do not occur in bracketed `cuts' is played back to the operator on headphones. phrases, as [refuse] in [They refuse to leave.]. As a The selected portion may be played -back a single result of these two passes, a limited phrase bracket- time, or (under operator control) it may be joined ing of the sentence is obtained, and some ambiguous to itself and repeated continuously as many times words have been assigned a unique part of speech, as desired. This feature is particularly useful for yet several words remain as unbracketed constitu- listening to repeated versions of single periods in ents." (Allen, 1968, p. 341). voiced speech which can be used to determine 5.59d"Another possible approach isto use boundaries of voiced dyads. partial words as the the basic unit to be stored. "Finally, a word should be said about the problem Research in this area has been very limited. Stowe of intonation. In this experiment, we have not and Hampton have constructed connected speech attempted to produce any prosodic features. This from syllablesand have reportedintelligibility problem could be handled in two different ways. scores of 90 per cent when the speech was pro- First rules could be developed for modulating the duced at the relatively slow rate of 2 words per pitch, amplitude, and duration of the stored dyads, second. When the rate was increased to a more according to the intonation needed in a given mes- natural 4 words per second intelligibility dropped sage. These rules would presumably be similar to to 66 per cent. Harris attempted to construct those being developed in various speech model speech by using the basic sound of English as his synthesis systems. Secondly, the dyad inventory stored units; that is he stored (in analog form) sounds could be expanded to include several representa- representing P, T, A, and so on, these having been tives of each of the dyads, some with rising inflec- cut from words in which these sounds occur. Since tion, some with steady high pitch, etc. -Wang and it has been long recognized that production and Petersonhavecalculatedapproximately8500 perception of sounds are affected by adjacent segments would be required to represent all of the sounds, it was necessary in his method to have inflections used in English. Although this would several representatives of many of the sounds. That greatly expand the work required to constructa is, a different kind of 0 might be necessary if it dyad system, the technique is relatively straight- were to follow a T than if it were to follow a K, and forward and might be justified in the case ofa user so on. Using a small inventory of such sounds, plus who needed very high-quality, natural speech." rather elaborate analog equipment for synthesizing (Becker and Poza, 1968 p. 795-800) Referencesare monosyllables from the stored sounds, Harris ob- to Stowe and Hampton (1961), Harris (1953), and tained approximately 75 per cent intelligibility. Wang and Peterson (1958). "An approach somewhere between the use of 5.59eIn this connection, Dolby et al. point out single sounds and the use of syllables is the use of that "solutions to the affix and syllable-counting dyads that approximately represent the last half of problems are essential to the determination of an one sound and the first half of a following sound. algorithm for transcribing written English into any The advantages of dyads are that they include the of the standard phonetic transcription systems now natural transitions of speech from sound to sound, in use." (Dolby et al., 1965, pp. 1-15). while still keeping the required inventory to a man- 5.59f"Speech synthesis by rule is the method of ageable size. Wang and Peterson, on theoretical converting from a discrete representation of speech grounds, have calculated that an infinitely large in linguistic units, that is, phonemes and stress message set could be produced using approximately marks, to a continuous acoustic waveform... 800 dyads for monothonic speech and approxi- The discrete input is converted to continuous con- mately 8500 dyads for intonated speech. Assuming trol signals by the synthesis strategy. The synthesis that a dyad lasts for 50 to 100 ms, it can be seen strategycontainsstored information about the that even using high-quality PCM coding of the phonemes and stored rules about the mutual effects waveforms, an 800-dyad inventory would require of adjacent phonemes. The stored rules operate only about 5,000,000 bits of storage... on the input sequence to produce the control signals "The decision to use natural rather than synthetic for the synthesizer. The speech synthesizer converts speech to obtain our dyad inventory necessitated the control signalsto continuous speech. The the development of a system to extract portions of synthesizer may be a terminal analog, a dynamic a speech waveform and store them for later recall. analog of the vocal tract, or a combination.... It was necessary to isolate segments of speech "Each phoneme has a characterization indepen- as short in duration as 40 ms. Splicing speech seg- dent of adjacent phonemes. The characterization ments to this degree of precision was accomplished includes format information, source characteristics using a research tool developed at the Sensory in the production of the phoneme, a description of Science Research Center. A CDC-3100 computer, whether it is nasal or fricative, and a set of fre- coupled to a high-performance, interactive display quency regions surrounding the formant positions. system, has been programmed to provide a visual "The formant information is a set of target posi- display of a previously digitized speech signal... tions for both center frequency and bandwidth of

97 1 formants one, two and three. The source character- vices. A good tune was, to the best of the author's istics describe the condition of the vocal cords knowledge, first played on the Ferranti Mark I during the production of the phoneme. If the vocal computer at Manchester, with Mr. C. Strachey at cords are vibrating the sound is voiced. The fre- the controls. Nowadays, with faster computers, it quency regions of a phoneme represent the degree is possible to play several good tunes at the same to which certain acoustic parameters must approxi- time. S. N. Higgins produced a common chord from mate the target values of these parameters in the a computer (TREAC) by time-multiplexing as long context of connected speech. In an articulatory ago as 1954. The compilation of the necessary in- analog, the corresponding concept would be the structimm made a more startling sound than the extent to which a given vocal tract configuration climatic chord itself." (Woodward, 1966, p. 257). must approximate the target configuration for the "As the preparation of the tape for a piece of phoneme... music can be most time-consuming and the final "For certain consonants maximum durations are performance is of little serious value, the effort specified. Consonant duration (as measured from is unrewarding unless a suitably convenient code human speech) is not a fixed quantity but is very is devised. The code should allow the use of variable- dependent on context. (For example, initial con- length notes referred to a diatonic scale modifiable sonants are much longer than medial consonants.) by sharps, flats and naturals. Rests can be input as The synthesis strategy generates consonants whose notes of zero frequency. The score is best stored in duration is variable within certain limits. Maximum its entirety with all variables ready converted into durations are specified to prevent the consonant the form needed by the program at run..me. Dur- from being unnaturally long, hence objectionable. ing play, a pitch transition in any one part neces- sitates resetting a pitch constant in the program, 3, "Among the topics that will be considered for and as the various parts have unrelated audio future work are the effects of stress and rhythm on phases, no time for such resetting can be found timing of an utterance, the inclusion of more than without interrupting the other parts. If all the other one breath-group in an utterance,and studies of parts move at the same time, the break is insuffi- further correlates of word boundaries." (Rabiner, ciently long to destroy a legato effect, but if one part 1968, pp. 17, 23-24, 36). is tied, its continuity is spoiled unless the rc:setting 5.59gSee Lee (1968). In summary, computation is carefully timed and short enough not "F. F. Lee of the Cognitive Information Process- to interrupt it. The author has found it necessary ing Group has concluded that the technical advance to draw the line before incorporating this last re- 1 inlow-costhigh-densityread-only storage has finement, which is only the first of what could made it feasible to consider the imitation of the easily become an evermore demanding pastime." human reading habit by machine and is now de- (Woodward, 1966, p. 261). veloping a scheme for automatic translation of 5.60b"At present, the generation of sound by English text from lettersto phonemes. Specifi- computer affords the researcher and composer at cally, a lexicon containing on the order of 32,000 least three interesting possibilities: (1) experiments selected morphemes and words can be used together in auditory perceptioncharacterized by Babbitt with algorithms to give phonemic translation for as 'the most refractory ofareas', (2) the study of a vocabulary equivalent towhat is contained in musical 'grammars', (3) the development of original the Webster New Collegiate Dictionary." (Cornew, compositions. The greatest amount of activity has 1968, pp. 88-89). occurred in the latter category. Early credits go to 5.60"Spelled speech offers a slower but simpler Max Mathews and the MUSIC IV program for auditorydisplaythanartificialspeech. Under sound-generation and to Lejaren Hiller at the Uni- consideration are magnetic and optical storage versity of Illinois. More recently, computer genera- and read-out of the spoken-letter sounds, and under tion has been carried out at Princeton (by James , investigation is the compression of spelled speech Randall, Godfrey Winham, Hubert Howe, and by sampling in sections, temporal truncation, and others), at Yale (by James Tenney), and at M.I.T. temporal-overlap superposition.... (by Ercolino Ferretti and by A. Wayne Slawson)." "Errors in phonetic spelling, arising from erro- (Forte, 1967, p. 328). neous characterrecognition and resulting in pho- netic nonwords, can be accommodated byspelled- Forte suggests further that "computer-generated speech display of the erroneous English word. graphic displays offer new resources for the editing Spelled speech is also a reasonable possibility for procedures that are central to much work in musi- phonetically intractable proper names." (Quarterly cology" (1967, p. 329). Progress Report No. 80, Research Laboratory for 5.60c"ExperimentsatStanfordUniversity, Electronics, M.I.T., 219 (1966).) Stanford, Calif., indicate that a computer fitted 5.60a"The work reported here was concerned with a special device can be used to teach pitch with what we might call the pianola problem, that tosingers.Prof. Wolfgang Kuhn of Stanford's is to say, the use of the computer to reproduce a Music Department, writinginthefall issue of sequence of predeterminedsounds from a pre- The Journal of Research in Music Education, viously handwritten'score'withoutthe use of reported favorable results with an experimental specialized peripheral equipment or analogue de- `pitch extraction device'. The device was developed 98 as a laboratory research tool by two IBM engineers, an oscilloscope tube. This work isapparently ex- Jerome D. Harr and Bruce Moncreiff, for use with tendible to a wide range of structural representa- IBM's 1620 computer at the company's Los Gatos tions. Consideration of the problems associated Advanced Systems Development Division. with storing, interlinking, retrieving, and trans- "The computer is programmed to evaluate a lating the data to compose a three-dimensional series of musical tones by comparing a student's model on the scope provides an intriguing view of pitch to the true pitch. It can distinguish between data-handling capability that will be required in the male and female voices, which it translates as future. How widely such a technique will be useful `high' or 'low'. It also can detect deviations from depends upon the availability of required data in perfect pitch from as much as four per cent to as the literature, but if the techniques of retrieving and little as half a per cent. When a student is ready manipulating the data are not developed, the data to practice with the computer, a tape-recorder can are apt never to be generated and used."(Tate, offer him a sample pitch or he may play a series 1967, p. 295). . _ of notes on an organ-like keyboard which produces "We...decidedtodevelop programs that a true tone. Then he sings into d wicrophone the would make use of a man-computer combination to tones which the computer has printed out to the do a kind of model-building that neither a man nor beat of a metronome. a computer could accomplish alone.This approach "Prof. Kuhn programmed a series of sight- implies that one must be able to obtain information singing exercises together with tests and options from the computer and introduce changes in the into the computer's memory with the help of his way the program is running in a span of timethat is assistant, Raymond Allvin. He used 10 under- appropriate to human operation. This in turn sug- graduate music students from San Jose State gests that the output of the computer must be pre- College. They were instructed in the use of the sented not in numbers but in visual form ... machine, and given a standard musical achieve- "In working with molecular models we are inter- ment test. Then they went through a three-hour ested in being able to obtain data quickly in order period on the machine, spread over a three-week to evaluate the effect of changing the input variables period, after which they were again tested against of the program...We realized that our best hope the same (Aliferis) achievement test. of gaining insight into unexpected structural rela- "The students noted an increased awareness of tionshipsrelations that had not been anticipated pitch and accepted the machine's criteria of perfect lay in getting the computer to present 'a three- pitch.Prof. Kuhn said IBM's pitch-extraction dimensional picture of the molecule..." (Levinthal, device worked well; only once in 10,000 tries did 1966, pp. 49-50). it give an erroneous report. 'Each note in the per- "During the last year we have written a set of formance was sampled', Prof. Kuhn reports, 'and programs which allows the construction, the dis- the pitch analyzed. The computer decided whether play, and the analysis of macromolecules using a a specific exercise was to be repeated, or whether digital computer and an oscilloscope display. With the student should go forward in the program or this computer controlled display and real time rota- repeat similar material for more practice.' Each tion of the projection of the molecule being dis- student's_records of performance are collected and played, itis possible for the observer to obtain stored in the computer memory so that his progress atruethree-dimensionalvisualizationofthe can be accurately measured and help given where molecule.... needed. "Since even a small protein molecule may contain "Prof. Kuhn, who used a small Music Depart- 1500 atoms, the total number of pairs to be tested ment allocation for his study, foresees the day is very large. In order to avoid the enumeration of when a complete curricula in melodic, rhythmic all possible pairs, a set of programs has been written and harmonic sight-singing and dictation could which divides space into cubes and then makes a be computerized and adapted for any level of list of all atoms in each cube. In this way it is pos- musical development. He also envisions instruc- sible to enumerate all pairs of neighboring atoms by tional systems for learning to play instruments." searching through the cubes and listing those pairs (Computers and Automation 16, 61 (Dec. 1967).) in which one member is in a cube and a second 5.60d"The display can also represent a three- member is in the same cube or one in the 26 sur- dimensional object which can be automatically rounding ones. By using this list processing pro- rotated around any given axis keeping the drawing cedure itis also possible to define 'holes' in a .in proper perspective as it rotates. The ability to molecule by locating empty cubes surrounded by display a three-dimensional perspective drawing filled ones. In addition, Insidedness' and 'out- and rotate this drawing to show the view from other sidedness' of the molecule can be determined by vantage points is particularly interesting in archi- finding cubes which have filled neighbors on one tecturaldesign...."(Hobbs,1966,p.1873). side and empty neighbors on the other side. The 5.61"Levinthal has recently started to develop knowledge of these aspects of the topology of a a system for sequentially displaying two-dimensional folded protein are necessary in order to evaluate images of a protein molecule, to proNide an apparent the contributions resulting from the interaction of three-dimensional molecular model on the face of particular amino acid residues with the water which 99 normally surrounds all protein molecules." (Levin- lows: "A computer at Brown University (Providence, thal, 1966, pp. 315, 317). R.I.) is creating picturesas simple as a cube and "It is still too early to evaluate the usefulness of as complex as a refinery pipelinethat can be seen the man-computer combinationinsolving real in three dimensions. The 3D project has been under- problems of molecular biology. It does seem likely, taken by Charles M. Strauss, a graduate student, however, that only with this combination can the and Dr. Andries N an Dam, assistant professor of investigator use his 'chemical insight' in an effective applied mathematics, who is supervising this doc- way. We already know that we can use the computer torate work in the Division of Applied Mathematics. to build and display models of large molecules and "Mr. Strauss has created a program for the uni- that this procedure can be very useful in helping versity's System/360 Model 50 which enables the us to understand how such molecules function." computer to construct a pair of images, differing (Levinthal, 1966, p. 52). slightly in perspective, side by side on a television- 5.62"Multipurposethree-dimensional graphs like screen. When viewed through the stereoscope can now be produced from electronic data process- mounted in front of the IBM 2250 display screen, ing equipment witha newly developed spatial a person sees the two images merged into one with data plotter announced by Spatial Data Systems, the added dimension of depth. Inc....X- and Y-dimensions on the flat bed of "The images, geometric models stored in the the plotter are represented by the position of a computer's memory, can be manipulated on the series of metal pins thrust upward through the screenenlarged, reduced, moved up or down board's surface; the Z-dimension is pin height. or rotated by pressing various keys on the display All pins are step-motor positioned." (Commun. unit. In addition, a person can draw or alter the ACM 10, 253 (1967).) pictures generated by the computer through the 5.63 Some illustrativenotes and comments use of a light pen." (Computers and Automation on three-dimensional data input, from an earlier 16, No. 11, 52 (Nov. 1967).) report in this series, are summarized as follows: Inaddition, we note that "an experimental Stereoscopic initial data recording and three-dimen- pseudo 3D display at the White Sands Missile sional data depth reconstruction by machine proc- Range was reported to incorporate several 3D essing and computational techniques are of sig- cues, including perspective, shadow patterns and nificance in such areas of information processing color." (Vlahos, 1965, p. 15). system application as aerial photograph interpre- 5.64 A recent example ib summarized as follows: tation, map or contour matching, and analysis of "A perspective transformation is developed whereby bubble-chamber data. For example, ascanner an object in space as viewed from an arbitrary developed by Moore et al. (1964), digitizes 9" aerial point can be projected into a plane and plotted photographs for computer analysis of stereographic ...An algorithm which eliminates the plotting of differences. hidden portions of the object is discussed." (Kubert R & D interests in the area of three-dimensional et al., 1968, p. 193). For earlier examples and dis- data input and manipulation are exemplified first cussion see the first report in the present series. by the Sketchpad III system at M.I.T., which is a 5.64a"Thereare ...considerablereasons computer program to facilitate entry and processing for developing techniques by which line drawings of three-dimensional drawings (Johnson,1963). of solids can be shaded, especially the enhancement Roberts reports that: "After a list of three-dimen- of the sense of solidity and depth...Shading sional objects has been obtained in some manner, can specify the tone or color of a surface and the it should be possible to display them from any point amount of light falling upon that surface from one of view...The three-dimensional display program or more lightsources. Shadows when sharply will do all this and more." (Roberts, 1965, p. 185). defined tend to suggest another viewpoint and Fano comments further that "special equipment improvedsurfacedefinition. When controlled, developed by the Electronic Systems Laboratory shading can also emphasize particular parts of at M.I.T. makes it possible to draw with the light- the drawing. If techniques for the automatic deter- pen a three-dimensional object and display its mination of chiaroscuro with good resolution should projection on the face of the cathode-ray tube just prove to be competitive with line drawings, and this as if the object were continuously rotating in three is a possibility, machine generated photographs dimensions under the control of the viewer." (1967, might replace line drawings as the principal mode p. 31). of graphical communication in engineering and An idealized graphic input-output system, to be architecture." (Appel, 1968, p. 37). capable of processing "three-dimensional curve 5.65"The examples given in the preceding and surface projections ", is reported by Parker paragraphs are representative only of a few of the (1965). Developments in new technologies, such as many provocative visual presentations using depth those of holography, offer additional possibilities made possible by the computer technique described for three-dimensional data processing, storage, and in thisarticle. The most obvious use is in the retrieval. presentation of curves and functions of three vari- A more recent example of practical 3D data ables. When visualized in true depth, many im- processing applications has be,m reported as fol- portant trends in data become quite evident, as 100 for example, the formant structure of the speech "The scientists are working under a four-year, $5 spectra....Hereisa method fotpresenting million contract with the Advanced Research Proj- stress diagrams, the construction of beams and ects Agency, Department of Defense, Washington, bridges, the structure of molecules, functions of D.C., to increase communications and graphic tech- a complex variable, and much more all viewed niques between man and computers. from any angle and any distance. It is apparent that "In the halftone research, which is part of the further applications are limited by only the imagina- project, the group is working initially with geo- tion of the prospective user." (Noll, 1966,p. 156). metric shapes, like cubes, pyramids, and spheres. "The present system definitelyproves the feasi- These building blocks, once they are programmed bility of the real-time display of two-dimensional into the computer, are 'stretchable' and can be half-tone images. It is felt that the techniquemay manipulated into many different combinations of be easily extended to stereo representation of half- design forms and shapes. tone images. Furthermore, the algorithm is so con- "One of the practical applications of halftone structed as to allow computations to be executed in research may come in the field of architecture. The parallel (see the dotted section in Figure 11). As new computer graphics should allow an architect many scan lines as hardware permits may be calcu- to design a building on a large cathode-ray tube lated simultaneously. Also, much of thecomputa- instead of a drawing board. He will need to do so tion may be performed by incremental hardware. only once, and he will be able to do so in perspec- The parallel and incremental characteristics of the tive, right down to the last detail. In the process, algorithm lead us to believe that real-timemovement the computer can rotate the design for a view from and display of half-tone images isvery near realiza- any angle. The architect can magnify any section tion." (Wylie et al., 1967, p. 58). for close-up examination, and can remove walls 5.66"A researcher at the Mitre Corp....has to look inside any part of the structure." (Computers developed a technique to makea three-dimensional and Automation 17, No. 2, 11 (Feb. 1968).) display with mirrors and an off-the-shelf loud- "A computer that makes television pictures out speaker...As the flexible mirror vibrates, becom- of numbers has been developed by General Elec- ing alternately concave andconvex under the tric's Electronics Laboratory, Syracuse, N.Y. This influence of the speaker's pneumatic drive, the computer, designed for NASA's Manned Spacecraft change in curvature causesa reflected image vibra- Center in Houston, Texas, will be a part of NASA's tion also...One of the potential applications is in simulation facility. air traffic control for displaying air space in three "The purpose of the computer is to generate dimensions, range, azimuth and elevation." (Elec- life-like TV pictures of objects such as NASA's tronics 39, No. 3,41-42 (1966).) Lunar Module, Command & Service Modules and 5.66a"Utah computer researchers create 'Idea the lunar surface. The computer creates pictures Photographs'. Researchers at the University of of these objects from numbers stored in its mem- Utah are using a computer to create three-dimen- ory numbers that mathematically describe the ional, halftone 'photographs' ofa man's ideas. shapes and colors of the objects. There are no TV The research opens the door toa large area of crea- cameras, no films or slides, and no models or draw- tive visual electronics, with remarkable possibilities ings in the system. in nearly every field from entertainment and educa- "The numbers that describe a particular scene tion to architecture and medicine. are on tapes which are read into the computer's "The group of scientists workingon the project memory initially and remain there until deliberately has made 'photographs' of objects that exist only erased or until a new tape is read in. Since the in the minds of those at the computer controls. The `models' are only computer tapes, it is possible to photograph-like reproductionswere 'materialized' change from one simulation task tt, another in a by the computer, which had been previouslypro- matter of seconds. grammed in the mathematics appropriateto light "The operator can see the computer's visualiza- and shape. tion from any vantage point. In effect, he enters the "This development opensup many future pos- computer's world by manipulating an aircraft-type sibilities such as: control stick. The computer senses his location 1. Motion pictures in three dimension which give through the movements of the control stick, then the illusion of live action; computes and presents a TV picture of the scene 2. Computerized architecture, which would allow as it would appear for an instant in time. This the designer to spend ninety percent of his process is repeated up to thirty times per second, time on creative work; this would include three- giving the operator the same visual sensations he dimensional building design, eliminating the experiences in a 'real-world' situation. need for blueprints in the designprocess, and "In addition to space objects and scenes, the allowing the designer to show viewers (through computer has been programmed to create pictures a special set of 'goggles') how the structure of an aircraft carrier, an aircraft, an airport, and a will look on the site; and street scene ...The computer is given a series 3. Realistic visual aids which will modify teach- of numbers that tell it the shape and colors of the ing methods in education. airport. From the numbers fed to its memory, the

101 I

computer draws the airport on a TV screen. As the multi-color displays from the user standpoint against %iewer manipulates the aircraft-type control stick the penalties that may result in other performance to inform the computer where he would like to be characteristics, in cost and size, and in reliability." in relation to the airport, the computer re-computes (Hobbs, 1966, p. 1877). the exact perspective and size of the scene for the 5.69b"Current [command and control] systems viewer's location." (Computers. and Automation call for displays that can handle lai ge volumes of 16, No. 11, 53 (Nov. 1967).) data in real time and that are bright, in full color, i 5.67"Dr. Nathan (Jet Propulsion Lab.) says of high resolution, and highly flexible. There are no that he has been able to use the computer to draw existing displays that can provide this total capa- three-dimensional contour maps of the lunar sur- bility. New techniques must be provided to ensure face. The 7094 accomplishes this by comparing that the display does not become the weakest link 1 light and dark areas in lunar pictures and com- in the data-processing chain." (Baker and Rugari, puting the angle of slopes and relative roughness 1966, p. 37). and elevations between them." (The Computer 5.69c"The technical and economic obstacles Bull. 9,62 (1965).) that have prevented the use of color in console 5.67a"This paper describes Design Language displays are rapidly vanishing with the effect that I (DLI) a prototype computer-aided design system. at least two manufacturers (ITT and Philco-Ford) , DLI addresses the creative design of 3-dimensional are currently producing full-color,general purpose, structure, using a display console for communica- console displays. General Electric has also an- tion with the user.... nounced a small-screen color display designed for "The prototype DLI system handles design of NASA. 3-dimensional objects consisting of points, straight "The Sylvania tube produces two colors using a lines, and planes. Additional elements are scalars single gun tube and two phosphors, one for each (holders for single numbers), sets (collections of color. The color selection is performed by changing elements), views (2-dimensional displays of ele- thepost-deflectionacceleratingvoltagewhich ments) and modes (holders for definers to be applied changes the beam energy. A high energy beam to each element created when the mode is active)." penetrates the first phosphor layer and excites the (Denil, 1966, p. 527). second, while a low energy beam does not penetrate "Results fromtheprototype implementation thereby exciting the first layer.... indicatethat the language modelling approach "One recent system, developed by General Elec- to the design problem is sound. A designer may tric, produces a full color perspective picture of an start work by sketching a basic object using the aircraft carrier deck and is used to train naval pilots. APPNT and SKLINE nouns. Once a rough outline The position of the carrier is under computer control is obtained, the object may be modified into the and changes according to the trainee's actions." desired shape with no difficulties; it is found that (Mahan, 1968, pp. 20-21, 31). 1 the process is very similar to the process one uses 5.69d"Radio Corporation of America (RCA) has in sketching and then refining this sketch into a modified its color scanners so they can produce finished design." (Denil, 1966, p. 535). four-color separations from reflection copy, as well 5.68"The questions of color, 3D, and size of as from colored transparencies.RCA has also display are matters of continuing controversy in announced the Graphic 70/8821 Composing Color our service laboratories." (Rosa, 1965, p.412). Scanner. It has a three-part scanning cylinder. Two 5.69"A technique that could permit radar or transparencies can be mounted on two of these, sonar screens to display hundreds of different colors with a mask on the third. The scanning head over has been developed by Sylvania Electronic Sys- the mask controls the switching-over from one color tems ..." (Electronics 37, No. 18, 18 (1964).) transparency to the other to produce any desired 5.69a"It is necessary to make compromises composite picture. in some characteristics in order to accept a display "Crosfield Electronics, Ltd. also has a new scan- technologythat meets other essentialrequire- ner, called Diascan 2000. It scans onecolor at a ments more important to the particular application. time, with a resolution of 500, 1000, or 2000 lines A decision as to whether to use a multi-color per inch." (Hartsuch, 1968, p. 57). system in a large-screen display is an example of 5.70"The hardware is based on a 7090 computer, the compromises that must be made. The use of the Stromberg-Carlson 4020 microfilm recorder, several colors in a display offers definite advantages provision on the master film for designating se- in terms of the abilityto distinguish different quence lengths for individual frames andstandard types of items (e.g., in a simple case, friendly and optical printing. hostile forces); hence, from the user standpoint a "The programming involves a 'scanner language' multi-color system is desirable. :Iowever, a color which assumes 26 addressable scanners 'looking at' display usually involvesasignificantly greater specified cells of a 252 x 184 image .atrix, where amount of equipment and hardware which implies numeric values 0-7 indicate gray scale." (Knowlton, an increase in space and cost(and probably adverse 1964). effects on reliability and maintainability). Hence, 5.71"To completely automate the movie proc- the systems designer must balance the need for ess, one experiment osed a General Dynamics/

102 Electronics SC-4020 cathode-ray tubeas an elec- the problem of photographic intelligence and the tronics draftsman. This tube, with its associated synthesis of this and other data into indications of circuitry, was connected directly to the computer. hostile activity...The total network requirement The different drawings were projected electronically [is] for presentation technology-in-combination... on the face of the tube. The time of each projection "And why should we be concerned about mixing was 0.035 second. These projections were then media text, audio, pictorial into one single infor- recorded on film." (Gomolak, 1964, p. 70). mation network? For two reasons: one, to accom- 5.72"Previously, animated movies were made modate the transfer of information to some users for a single frame at a time a time-consuming and whom one form will not suffice; two, because of the tedious process. Now, however, special photo-optic very nature of information itself, because certain equipment under the control of a high-speed digital types of information are communicated more effec- computer is being used to generate animated movies. tively in visual or audible forms... For example, such computer-generated movies "We must, therefore, consider ways to handle have been used at the Bell Telephone Laboratories digital data, video, analogue and any combinations to demonstrate the effects of different gyroscope of these to best affect the transfer of knowledge constraints on an orbiting satellite. Also, an in- from originator to user. genious computer-programming language has been "The problem of mixing presentation media is devised for producing computer movies...."The extraordinarily complex if we consider the various computer method for generating a three-dimensional forms that data can take and the various sub-sets movie is first to calculate, at some particular instant of this data. The primary forms of data, for example, in time, the three-dimensional coordinates of the are original text, or the written word, audio informa- points in a line-drawing representation of the desired tion and pictorial data. If we draw these three forms object. The three-dimensional movie program then of data as three overlapping circles, we can see that calculates the points required for the two perspec- we have seven combinations of data to contend with. tives and also generates the instructions for draw- In medicine the written data would be the texts of ing the perspectives with a plotter. The three- authors contained in books, journals, and miscel- dimensional coordinates of the object at a small laneous monographs. Audio data would be heart time increment later are then computed, and the murmurs. Pictorial data would be surgical tech- three-dimensional program generates the instruc- niques. Audio data could be combined with visual tions for another frame of the movie. This procedure demonstrations of palpations. Written data could is repeated on a frame-by-frame ba2is until the be accompanied by diagrams or illustrations. desired movie sequence is completed. The movie "Thus, we have seven combinations of data pres- is then recorded on magnetic tape which is used entation to consider. Let us now look at the sub-sets as input to the plotter. The plotter decodes the of each of these. Full text can appear as abstracts instructions on the tape and repeatedly advances the of the text, as shorter indexes, as titles and pagina- film and deflects the electron beam until the entire tions, or as evaluative data about the text such as movie is completed." (Noll, 1966, pp. 143-145). reviews or comments on the content of the text. 5.72a"This paper presents a generalized tech- For the text set alone we, therefore, have four sub- nique for generation of off-line CRT motion-picture sets of information, all or none of which may be displays of objectsin three-dimensional space. available. All of these should be considered for the Initial implementation of the system, called VISTA* total information network." (Mayeda, 1967, pp. 4-5). (Visual Information for Satellite Telemetry Analy- 5.74"It seems to us that there is some merit in sis), uses the Univac 1108 computer to generate trying to develop such large-scale, high-resolution time-sequence displays for output on the Strom- dynamic displays for group-computer interaction, berg-Carlson 4020 microfilm plotter. The system though at the same time we appreciate the difficulty accepts satellite orbit and attitude data and pro- of the technical problems involved." (Licklider, duces motion pictures illustrating the three dimen- sional position and orientation of the spacecraft 1965, p. 102). in orbit, relative to one or more celestial bodies." 5.74a"With the ability to scan preliminary or (Chapman and Quann, 1967, p. 59). approximate results while his problem is still on 5.73"Until now the designer has been con- the computer, and to immediately make on-line cerned with the many, detailed problems of design- modifications in method or detail of calculations, ing and producing large, single-path information the user need not plan his calculations so carefully systems. Mixing presentation media into one system in advance, nor does he need to request fine detail has been limited to the efforts of the military, notably over all ranges of a function simply because he can- intelligence, groups who were forced to cope with not tell in advance where the interesting regions are." (Ward, 1967, p. 48). VISTA was developed by Computer Sciences Corporation for NASAGSFC. See also note 5.40, pp. 91-92. 6. System Output to Microform aad Hard Copy 6.1"First, the well-established tradeoffs improved in terms of capability and lower cost. between digitaland microform technologies have These improvements have made equipment more changedlittle;both technologies have steadily accessible to the 'average' user or installation. 103 The two technologies will increasingly becom- systems offer higher density than any magnetic bined;forinstance,with computers decoding tape device can provide. Image systems can also complicated retrieval patterns into locations in be easily read by their human managers, whereas bulk microform memory thatstore difficult-to- `reading' of mag tape data requiresrelatively digitizegraphical information." (Van Dam and complex equipment. For thesereasons, says the Michener, 1967, p. 215). firm, manufacturers of EDP gear are gradually "For a number ofreasons, computer-based joining EDP and information retrieval systems, libraries that service a wide spectrum ofusers, while makers of other-than-digital storage equip- such as is found in a university, will be faced with ment are responding to the challenge with super operating on two basically different types of data micro-image systems." (Kornblum, 1965, p. 35). that which is digitally stored and that which is 6.4"The Stromberg-Carlson SC-4020 micro- photographically stored in some microfilm form. film plotter consists primarily ofa cathode ray tube The latter will be images of the original fulltext and a 35-mm camera for taking pictures of the of the documents contained in the library whereas information displayed on the face of the tube. In- the digital data willconstitute the augmented structions for the SC-4020 are written on magnetic catalog of the library from which the libraryuser gleans information about the library data and tape; the tape is then decoded by the SC-4020 documentsby and used to generate commands for opening and conductingon-linecomputer closing the shutter of thecamera, for advancing the searches." (Haring, 1968, p. 35). film, and for deflecting the beam of the cathode . 6.2"Recent developments have-been in thearea of microfilm readout devices which transfer data ray tube. Development of the film produces a 35-mm microfilm transparency which consists of linescon- from magnetic tapetomicrofilm..." (Com- mun. ACM 10, 387 (1967).) necting points, drawn, in effect, directly under the "Right now the microfilm recorderswhich control of a digital computer. In thismanner, the appear to be the most promisingshow signs of perspective points computed by an IBM 7094 digital being successfulin computer are used as the input to an off-line SC- threemajor applications. 4020 microfilm plotter throughan intermediate 1. Direct computer output for scientificcom- magnetic-tape storage. After photographic devel- puter work where the plotting capability is opment, the microfilm can then be viewed directly required. in a stereoscope, and the final result isan illusion 2. Computer applications whichare in the area of depth created by a completed computerized tech- considered primarily data retrieval, where nique." (Noll, 1966, p. 152-153). direct transfer to microfilm for efficientstorage "This system is presently being developed and is isa primary consideration, and hardcopy scheduled for firstdelivery early next year.It secondary. represents a combination of the knowledge gained 3. When the computer is used toprepare data in over 10 years of CRT display-microfilm recording for graphic arts reproduction. Here isa vast equipment experience. The S-C 4060 is a stored new field only beginning to be opened up. program, data recording system which translates (Webster, 1966, p. 33). digital data into alphanumerics and graphics and For example, "we (General Electric)are moving records on microfilm and/orpaper. The system can towards using computer output almost completely operate from the output of a computer or it can in microfilm form." (F. B. Campbell in "System operate independently since it .is equipped with its Magazine's Third Annual Microfilm Seminar", own computer. The S-C 4060 provides great flexi- 1965, p. 36). bility through a variety of options. To a great degree its'building block' modular design permits the 6.3"Bell & Howell's Micro-Data Div. underlines user to match his requirements as they change." its 'yes' evaluation, that progress is being made, by (Peterson, 1966, p. 133). pointing out that modern recording devicesare placing computer information onto microfilmat "The significant trend in output technology that began to develop in 1966 is theuse of microform for speeds of up to 30,000 linesper minute. At the computer output to achieve substantial reduction same point in hardware technology, modern film in cost, in printing time of master and dissemination readers are furnishing copies of film-held informa- copies, and in physical volume. Stromberg-Carlson's tion to the ultimate user in from four to ten seconds." highly successful SC-4020 microfilm printer/plotter (Kornblum, 1965, p. 36). is to be updated by an entire `micromation' line "National Cash Register Co. puts forthsome of equipment of varying capability andcost. The meaty and positive thoughts relative to the survey's microfilm recorders in this seriesthe SC-4060, first query. NCR states thatan increasing number the SC-4360, the SC-4440, and the SC- 4460 all and variety of EDP systems will allow forcomputer convert digital codes from a computer to their alpha- output to micro-image forms. Some should even numeric and graphical formson a CRT, where a permit micro-images to be usedas input, with auto- camera records them. The SC-4060 printer/plotter matic conversion to digital data. This trend,con- (the replacement for the SC-4020) is used for scien- tinues NCR, could bring micro-image systems into tific and engineering graphics and for frames for EDP communications, remembering that the image animated movies;it can plot curves, diagrams, 104 maps, etc. This system leases for about $8000per movies were being generated ata rate of about month. The SC-4440converts alphanumeric com- 1,000,000 framesper year." (Christenson and puter output into microfilm at the rate of 9000pages Pinson, 1967, p. 697). per hour. Hardcopy equipment is available with 6.6 Some further detailsare as follows: "After these recorders. Many other manufacturers,such as an image is processed by the computer program and California Computer Products and Benson- modified and verified by theoperator at the graphic Lehner, have similar equipment." (Van Damand console, it Michener, 1967, pp. 191-192). is frequently necessary to producea 6.4a "The introduction by Stromberg-Carlson of permanent output document of the processed image. Film is used for the output image media,as for the Micromationor microfilm directly produced from input media, because of its compatibility with a computer, bypassing the paper stage..." computer speeds, (Kalagher, 1968, p. 37). flexibilityof use, and high image quality.... "SC 4460 recorder converts magnetic-tape mate- 6.6a rial to roll film or microficheat speeds A up to 90,000 Thus itis noted that "seldom is there cps. The characters are proportionally spaced and control of original subjectmatter. It varies from computer forms can be overlaid on the microfilm perfect, fresh, raisedprinting or litho offsetto to eliminate expense of forms printing." (Berul, crumbling pages from archives;from clear black- 1968, p. 30). and-white linecopy to smudged spirit purpleon yellow sulfite paper; from sharp, dense 6.4b"The system combines facsimiletech- characters to burned out, illegible script, fromthin, fine lines niques with digital processingto provide a scanning, to heavy solid illustrations digitizing, and playbacksystem. Particular emphasis or even fine half-tones with four and five colorseparations." (Dunning, has been placedon the requirements of high resolu- 1965, p. 14). tion and the ability to handle large image formats. "CRT recording The resulting device is capable of digitizingpictorial on silver film permits images to information in 16 discretegray levels, at a data be generated by computer controlat computer-data- density of 1000 elementsper inch in both x and y channel speeds. The CRT used foroutput image directions. Formats up to 9x 18 inches can be recording issimilar to the type used for input handled. image scanning. As in thescanner, a CRT image is formed by vectors drawn "Image data on tape, generated bycomputer on the CRT screen. processing, can be recordedon film by the system The vector trace is visible when the beamis un- at the same resolution and gray-shaderange as are blanked, in order that the beamtrace can be used in scanning." (Gilman, 1966,p. 29). recorded on the film. When the beamis blanked, 6.5"Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing's the trace is not visible and the beamcan be posi- `drysilver'ElectronBeamRecorder(EBR) tioned over the image withoutexposing the film. provides strong competitionto the more traditional An imagefor example,a drawingis divided into CRT microfilm recorders. Output iswritten directly straight line segments. Corestorage contains the on the microfilm with an electron beam ata rate of X and Y coordinates of the end pointof each vector. 30,000characterspersecond(bypassingthe Vectors may vary in length from thevery short traditional filming ofa CRT display), thus yielding traces required to form a smootharc to longer a sharper picture. Film is processed by traces which are used for straight linesegments of a dry hot- the drawing." (Hargreaves air developing method (rather than thewet-stage et al., 1964, p. 367). development used with conventionalmicrofilm), 6.6bFor example, Nelson found ina university providing high-speed, real-timeoutput. The EBR library installation that the focusing lever"had unit is expected to rent for $3000per month, with been broken off, and theperson who was running the additional costper microfilm page image ex- the equipment didn't know that itwas necessary pected to be less than two-tenthsof a cent." (Van to focus it. By this time, it was apparent that the Dam and Michener, 1967,p. 192.) material was perfectly good...Here they were, "3M has a new electron beam recorder (SeriesF) ready to send $5,000 worth of stuff backbecause that converts computer generated datainto human they weren't maintaining theirown equipment readable language at speeds of 60K linesper minute properly." (C. E. Nelson in "SystemMagazine's on dry silver microfilm. Film is developed by heat Third Annual Microfilm Seminar", 1965,p.39.) and can be viewed instantly." (Data Proc.Mag. 9, Similarly, Holmes reported:"...Our head No. 6, 3 (1967).) technician...found layers of dirt anda cracked 6.5a"Graphical output has beenan important lens.After theseconditions were clearedup, way of presenting results to Bell Laboratories' of course, the filmswere no longer faded." (D. C. computer users since the fall of 1961, whena Holmesin"System Magazine's Third Annual Stromberg-Carlson 4020microfilmprinter was Microfilm Seminar", 1965,p. 39.) installed at Murray Hill. It has allowed users to 6.7"Lockheed's experience has affirmeduser replace pages of tabular data withpictures that acceptance to be broadly based and has brought are far easier to understand. Microfilm picture requests to TIC management to installa micro- generation was running recently ata rate of about film catalog in R & D oriented buildings."(Kozum- 500,000 frames peryear. In addition, computer plik and Lange, 1967,p. 67). 105 "StudiesattheBattelle Memorial Institute, simultaneously." (Christenson and Pinson, 1967, 1961-62,identifiedimportantfactorsaffecting pp. 699-700). satisfaction in the reading of microtext, including 6.7b"Another scanningconverterbuiltby the especial importance of high resolution, and United Aircraft Corporation for the USAF feeds demonstratingthatunderproperconditions computer output directly to a local facsimile re- microreproductions can be even more readable corder or out over a network withoutany inter- than the originals." (Council on Library Resources, mediate hard copy." (Alden, 1964, p. 13). 10th Annual Report, 1966, p. 22). 6.7c"Remote copying and the computer have "From experience with the Library of Congress, been successfully merged at Bell Telephone Lab- the research worker prefers to work with microfilm oratories.The link-up...joinscomputer-gen- rather than original material." (D. C. Holmes, in erated data display with Xerox's Graphic Terminal "SystemMagazine'sThirdAnnualMicrofilm Hardcopy Printer System...The graphic ter- Seminar", 1965, pp. 35-36.) minal has its own core memory consisting of 125,000 6.7a"Computer-stored graphic data such as bits and a drum memory of 11 million bits. The charts, graphs and grids can now be reconverted, latter can store 8 individual images. By using LDX [Long Distance Xerography] scanned and memory units for temporary storage of the signals transmitted to a remote printer by a device Xerox as a buffer, the terminal is able to regulate the flow callsitsLDX/Computer Adapter." (Commun. of data in scan line form to the printers ata speed ACM 9, 889 (1966).) ofonepageeverysevenseconds."("Just Looking forward to the not too distant future, Merged...", 1967, pp. 50-51). Dunning (1965) reports: "Long range concepts of 6.8"GeneralPrecision,Inc.,Pleasantville, hard copy include LDX (LongDistance Xerography), N.Y., has been working for a number ofyears on where multiple output stations will beat variable equipment designed to transmit microfilm images distances from the input. Soft copy displayon by closed circuit television. .The latest version tubes is already here with closed-circuit TVsys- shown at the 1965 Western Electronic Show in- tems. Opportunity for hard copy print-out by selec- cluded the GPL TV Printer which allows theuser tive push button control at any out-put location is to take a hard copy of whatever he is viewing on the in the making". Present difficulties, of course, screen. Prints 8.5" x 11" are delivered in about include those of high costs. half a minute by rapid processing of conventional "Facsimile equipment normally requires a Sched- silver halide paper." (Veaner, 1966,p. 208). ule 2 telephotograph channel. For a small additional 6.9"On October 2, 1957, a proposal was sub- terminal charge, the same line can be used alter- mitted to the Council on Library Resources by a natively for voice messages." (Alden, 1964, p. 11). manufacturer of closed-circuittelevisionequip- ..Xerox Corporation's work in facsimile... ment for design and construction of a prototype, LDX, which stands for 'long distance xerogra- remotely controlled, catalog card viewing system. phy'...The equipment, at the output end, is The proposed `Telereference' system would permit much like our Xerox 914 or 813 copier. The input, a researcher to view catalog cards in a central however, may be some distance away, up to thou- catalog from a remote location by the use of closed- sands of miles away, if necessary . . . We pro- circuit television and a remotely controlled card pose, in order to produce high quality, that we scan manipulator." (Bacon et al., 1958, p. 1). the original document at approximately 200 lines 6.10"All the librariesinthe Lake County per inch. ... Library system share in a growing book collec- "The LDX system is presently designed for full- tion...A union catalog in book form, in single size originals at the transmitting end, but it is a or multiple copies as required, is furnished to each straightforward design job to provide means to participating library; the closed circuit teletype accept the input in the form of microfilm." (Mayo, communicationprovidesthenecessary means 1964, pp. 77-78). of sharing the common collection as reflected in "The STARE hard-copy facility accommodates the union catalog." (Burns, 1964, p. 14). up to eight rapid hard-copy output stations. The 6.11"One laboratory will have a closed-circuit system consists of multiple remote Xerox LDX TV link with the computer so that a graphical (Long Distance Xerography) Printers interfacedto presentation (plotted curves as well as alpha and a central buffer memory and control unit that is numeric information) of computer output will be located near the GE-645. The LDX printers form available at the remote terminal." (Neilsen, 1965, an image by a raster scan technique, so the data p. 635). from the central buffer unit to the printersare 6.11a"The idea behind this [video-storage dis- essentially a video signal for controlling the intensity play] device is to take advantage of the very low along each scan line. These data to the LDX Printer cost of commercial TV for the display and to are transmitted from the central buffer at about utilize reasonably inexpensive magnetic drum or a 250,000-baud date over coaxial cable links. There disk storage to record the video data for the display are eight separate buffer areas on the magnetic memory. Rapid strides in high-density magnetic drum which function independently. Therefore, recording have made this console a reality. Brook- transmission to up to eight printers can take place haven Laboratory has an operational 10 station 106 video-station of their own design [Brad]." (Stotz, which 'employs the upper- and lower-case print 1968, p. 14). chain,and... a newtechniqueofprinting 6.11b"A new records retrieval system called boldface by overstriking the headword in each Remstar is now available from Remington Office citation'." (Stevens and Little, 1967, pp. 73, 75). Systems. With Remstar, closed circuit television 6.16"The Potter Chain Printer, Model PS-6020, is combined with automated records retrieval units operates at up to 600 lines-per-minute and features to not only locate records, but to transmit them as interchangeable type fonts and up to 192 different well." (Systems 7, 6 (1966).) characters."(Commun. ACM 9, 651(1966).) 6.12"Alltold,twenty or more non-impact "The Model PS-6020 Off-line Printer utilizes the devices are being, or have been, marketed. They Potter Model SC-1060 tap unit, and the Model vary widely in their capability and cost. Those PS-6030 utilizes the Model SC-1080 tape unit. which are extremely fast tend to have poor print Both models use Potter's HSP -3502 Chain Printer. quality. Those which offer sufficient quality are The chain printing mechanism permits precise limited to one-ply, or may require additional proc- vertical registration, which is difficult to achieve essing to obtain even the single copy." (Webster, with drum printers... 1965, p. 43). "The HSP-3502 Chain Printer prints one to six 6.13"The typicalcomputer-printer or tabu- copies on forms 2.5 to 18.5 inches wide. Standard lating machine produces monospaced upper case fan-fold or roll forms, heat transfer or pressure- characters, that is, evenly spaced capital letters. sensitive papers, card stock, and multilith masters The result is a monotonous looking product with can be printed in lengths of up to 44 inches per no typographic variation between captions and form... body. There is little reader appeal and the eye "Ten numerals, 26 upper-case and 26 lower-case must work overtime to find what it wants from the letters, and 30 symbols are available for inclusion printed page." (Lannon, 1967, p. 81). in the printing character set. Any special character "As long as Mr. Watson would only give us a or symbol can be provided optionally. Character character font in capital letters there could not be sets of any size up to 192 characters, made up of any great fervor to load [machines with biblio- any combination of numerals, letters, and special graphic information records]. If I may say so, the symbols, can be provided." (Melick, 1967, p. 46). whole picture of automation in libraries from the 6.17"Mechanical output printers have increased thirties right down to the present date has been in speed to the point where they are now commonly controlled by that uppercase limitation." (Clapp, producing 600 to 1,000 lines per minute (2,000 cps) 1964, pp. 54-55). depending upon many factors, including the size of 6.14"[Theupper-caselimitation]reduces the repertoire or character set.... readability so much that the page layout must be "A one-thousand-line per minute printer with 120 extremely open if the material is to be usable at print positions can create text at the rate of 2,000 all." (Kraft, 1963, p. 275). characters per second. The character set used in "A major disadvantage of computer print-out this extremely rapid process is, however, very small is its poor legibility and its low information density." and it is manipulated without any of the control (Corrado, 1965, p. 271). devices (justification, leading, etc.) used by type- "It has been reported that 20 percent of the total setting machines." (Sparks et al., 1964, p. 177). volume printed by the Government Office is data 6.17"To achieve Thermal Printing, two novel assembled by computer. In general, such material components are utilized. The first, a print head, is has been either printed out then keyboarded again an array of resistors selectively heated electrically for typesetting or the printiut has been simply to generate a thermal image. The second is a thermal photographed and reproduced. In the latter case, sensitive paper which is held in contact with the the printed material is less legible than if itwere print head to provide a printed record of the thermal typeset, and 40 percent more bulky." (Webster, image... 1966, p. 33). "Five wafers are mounted together to form a print 6.15"The IBM 1403 chain printer involves use head (Figure 1c). Each print head contains ten 5 x 5 of a continuously moving chain consisting of 240 matrices; each matrix is capable of printing one character positions usually divided into 5 sets of character. Eight print heads are mounted side by 48 characters each, so as to minimize access time side in the printer to achieve the 80 character to the appropriate characters to be selected. How- line.... ever, by redividing, a character set of 120 can be "The Thermal Printer can print data received at accommodated, although at significant loss (up to any mixed rate of inputincluding input from a 50 percent-60 percent) of printer speed. This tech- keyboard. The rate of input has been tried and nique is used, for example to provide upper and tested at rates as high as 240 characters/sec which lower case for the KWIC index, Chemical Biological is certainly not the upper limit. Since we also get Activities...In addition, the cover of the Pro- an electronic, nonimpact printer which appears to ceedings of the Literary Data Processing Con- be very reliable and can produce multiple copies on ference Messingeretal.,1964]illustratesan plain paper, thermal printing may have potential experimental concordance of theGothic Bible application in many systems both communications 107 systems and automatic data processing systems." 6.20"However, since all photocomposers exist- (Joyce and Homa, 1967, pp. 261-262, 267). ing or under development appear to use photo- 6.18Further, the system modifications will pro- graphic recording, we can start at the light-sensitive vide for multiple use of a battery of printers. "In a emulsion, and explore the various methods used to system of 32 printer terminals a translator clock form and position the optical images. High-speed derives a sequence control which is connected to a photocomposers generally fall into six principal 5-bit printer scanning buss. Each printer is set to categories: recognize its own scan number and will respond to a. Those which have a stationary master glass the column print pulses on the print buss only if it grid from which the symbols are selected, has been addressed and only when it is scanned." sized and positioned onto the photographic (De Paris, 1965, p. 49). emulsion by purely optical-mechanical means. 6.18a "USAECOM has also sponsored a develop- An example of this is the Mergenthaler Lino- ment of Miniaturized Techniques forPrinting film System. (MINIPRINT) with NCR. This is an exploratory b. Those which have the symbols on a spinning development printer which prints at 15 characters/ master glass grid and a single stroboscopic second, can be operated from a keyboard, and was flash tube that can be flashed at the proper developed for potential use as a self-contained, instant to select anv desired character, with battery operated, tactical teleprinter. The package sizecontrol; imaging and positioning by size of the present model (cigar-box size) may also optical-mechanical means. Examples of this contain all the required electronics. The printing is 500, and 700 series immediately visible on new thermal sensitive master are the Photon 200, paper. The master and first copy are made simul- machines and the Harris-Intertype spinning taneously in this printer and at least ten legible disc photocomposer. copies can be obtained using the master copy and c. Those which have the symbols on a stationary plain paper in an off -line pressure device." (Joyce master glass grid, with a separate flash tube and Homa, 1967, p. 267). for each symbol, a reciprocating lens which 6.18b"New teleprinter devices have recently positions all symbols across a complete line come on the market. Included are a high speed through an optical tunnel, with the various electrostatic printer and an ink jet, which squirts flash tubes being fired as each symbol is charged ink particles onto the page, deflecting the imaged in each of its desired positions in the ink jet with electrostatic plates. The added printing line, permitting a complete line to be composed speed makes these devices attractive as printers; in one pass of the lens. The only machine of but both units shield the printed line from the view this type is the Photon 900 (Zip or GRACE) of the user until the line is complete which limits machine, the first of which was delivered to the their utility in an on-line terminal. Furthermore, National Library of Medicine in 1964. their complexity means a higher price tag although d. Those which have the symbols on a stationary they remain alphanumeric devices." (Stotz, 1968, master glass grid, steadily illuminated and p. 13). opticallyprojectedontoalight-sensitive 6.18cWebster also reports that "the Radiation cathode of an image-dissecting tube, which `Super-Speed' printer has a single line of styli ex- simultaneouslyproduces scanned video tending across the continuously moving paper. These electron beams from all symbols, one of which also are pulsed several times to form characters is allowed to pass through an electrostatic from top to bottom, and by this means a speed of wire grid selection matrix to produce a video over 31,000 lines per minute is achieved." (Webster, brightening signal for a high-resolution cathode- 1966, p. 32). ray display tube, with positioning and size on 6.18d"Electronic methods for changing the display tube being controlled electronically character size may be employed, for example, by The only such machine of this type is the ip zooming. The images produced on the CRT face Mergenthaler-CBS Linotron system being de- are focused onto a microfilm strip which then, velopedforldeliverytothe Government after development and printing, becomes the hard Printing Office and the Air Force in 1967, copy output record." (Potter and Axelrod, 1968, employingthe CBS "Reconotron" image p. 2). dissector-scanner, and the CBS "Microspot" 6.19For example, as described by Barnett, high-resolutioncathode-raydisplaytube. Kelly, and Bailey: "In photocomposition... suc- e. A special cathode-ray tube employing a beam- cessive characters along a line are displayed with shaping metal plate perforated with the symbol collinear base lines, regardless of their magnifica- shapes, with means to cause the electron beam tion (i.e.) point size....The same character is to impinge on any symbol area, emerging as displayed in different point sizes, in photocomposi- a shaped electron beam, which can be deflected tion, by the use of different lenses....Special to display the symbol at any position on the characters can appear anywhere in a text, and can face of the cathode-ray tube. An example is be magnified and spaced in the same ways as theCharactron tube, employed inphoto- ordinary alphabetic characters." (Barnett etal., composers built by the Stromberg Carlson 1962, pp. 60-63). Divisionof theGeneral Dynamics Corp., 108 i i

such as the S-C 4020. The repertoire of line of information onto the face of a cathode-ray symbols is usually severely limited to less than tube. It does this by plotting on the tube the coor- 100. dinate points which make up the shape of an in- f. Methods employing a conventional or high- dividual letter. The result is optically projected, a resolution cathode-ray tube to display the line at a time. to a spool of moving, unexposed film." symbols as they are generated by some means (Becker,'' 1967, pp. 3-4). which will produce suitable beam deflections ...[The SC-4020] composes characters and and video brightening to form the symbols." symbols at a rate of 17,400 per second. The char- (Stevens and Little, 1967, p. 22). acters are formed by directing a beam at the desired 6.20a"The year has seen remarkable progress character; then horizontal and vertical deflection in the field of phototypesetting. Photon, Inc. added circuits deflect the selected character to the ap- to its 713 line. The model 713-5 operates at 30 propriate spot on the CRT display. This technique newspaper linesper minute. Fairchild Graphic has also been successfully combined with a dry Equipment entered the field with two machines, the process Xerographic printer which has achieved a Photo Text Setter 2000 and the Photo Text Setter composing rate of 1 million characters per minute." 8000. American Type Founders also announced an (Sparks et al., 1964, p. 180). additiontoitslineof phototypesetters, to be "Our investigations at RSIC [Redstone Scientific known as the ATF Photocomp 20... Information Center] have indicated that today the "Alphanumeric, Inc.,has a new very high- CHARACTRON tube can give the best quality speed phototypesetting machine that is being used within the state-of-the-art." (Burger, 1964, p. 12). in its service center at Lake Success, Long Island. 6.23"The Linotron consists of three main units: And Harris-Intertype is producing a CRT type of Control, Character Generation, and Display. Mag- fast phototypesetting machine, the first of which netic tape is the input for this machine. This tape was scheduled to be installed at Baird-Ward Co., contains all data characters and control codes re- Nashville, Tenn., near the end of 1967. quired to operate the photocomposer. Four grids, "K. S. Paul & Associates, London, England, also each containing 255 characters, can be loaded into has a CRT type of phototypesetting machine. It the Linotron. The character generator can position is not quite as fast in its operation as the ones the required grid in one-half second and select any mentioned above, but is less expensive. Mergen- character on the grid at electronic speeds. (There thaler Linotype Company has announced that it are no shutters or other mechanical devices involved will market this machine in the United States under in character generation.) The output of the char- 1 the name of Linotron 505." (Hartsuch, 1968, p. 61). acter generator is an electric signal which serves as I 6.21"The A. B. Dick Videograph tube transfers an input to the display section. The beam of the charaCters by means of a set of fine wires embedded display tube is positioned to the required X- and in its face." (Webster, 1965, p. 43). Y-coordinates; then the signal from the character "A. B. Dick Co.'s Model 904 Videograph Page generator causes the character to be scanned out Printer translates a digital coded input into a printed on the surface of the display tube. This character is output at the rate of 7200, 130-character lines per projected through a lens onto the film. The beam is minute." (Data Proc. Mag. 7, No. 2, 51 (1965).) then positioned for the next character and this proc- "The Videograph electrostatic printing process ess is repeated until the page is complete. There is uses a special cathode ray tube for creating alpha- no mechanical motion of any kind while the page is numeric characters on dielectrically coated paper being composed. The film is advanced only after the at rates in the order of 10,000 characters per sec- page has been completed." (Rollert, 1968, p. 7). ond. In electronic data processing systems, the 6.24 "RCA recently unveiled a new computer- source data are usually provided from computer- controlled photocomposing system called VIDEO* prepared magnetic filetapes. The binary-coded COMP. With this system, it is possible to store signals from the tape are decoded in the Videograph the analog equivalent of several type fonts and system by means of an electronic character gener- styles. This enables the user, in the final printing ator into the video signals necessary to modulate the stage, to select a variety of intermixed type fonts printing tube and create the character shapes. The and styles with virtually no restrictions. It results principal application of Videograph printers has in page copy which resembles letter press quality been to produce address labels of the type used on in terms of page makeup precision and aesthetic magazines, newspapers, and direct mail." (Gerlach, appearance." (Becker, 1967, p. 3). 1968, p. 17). "Videocomp is the generic name which RCA 6.22"Perhaps the best quality is produced by has given to electronic composition systems and the Stremberg- Carlson `Charactron' shaped-beam equipments which employ high-speed cathode ray tube which uses a tiny 64-character mask within the tube (or equivalent) photocomposing techniques. tube itself. The images displayed on the tube are These systems and equipments are capable of captured by microfilm in the S-C 4020, or printed greater speed and flexibility than first generation electrostatically io the lov, -cost S-C 3070." (Webster, optical-mechanicalphotocomposers. The 70/822 1965, p. 43). Videocomp is the output system which performs the "The SC 4020, on-line to the computer, uses a actual photocomposition in response to magnetic charactron tube which can produce the letters of a tape data and control input. The 70/9300 Video- 109 comp Electronic Composition System is an inte- A character set may be replaced with an alternate grated system which includes the 70/822 Video- set of 180 characters by transfer from auxiliary comp and executes the complete composition store in approximately one-half second." (Stevens process from manuscript to final photocomposed and Little, 1967, pp. 33-34). page." (Coleman et al., 1968, p. 30). 6.25a"Scores of printing jobs can be typeset up "A new all-electronic typesetter that can set the to six times faster than before with a c'mputer- complete text for a magazine page in less than four controlled photocomposition unit announced by seconds or write information for microfilm storage IBM Corporation, White Plains, N.Y. The new at computer speeds has been announced by RCA, device called the IBM 2680 CRT printer, is the New York, N.Y. The Videocomp 70/830 generates first of its kind to tap the full power of a computer. characters at a rate of up to 6,000 per second a It can be used for a variety of typesetting jobs, thousand times faster than manual typesetting including books, newspaper?, catalogs and direc- machines. Additionally, the Videocomp provides tories.Linked directly to an IBM System/360, full page composition through its 70 pica (12 inch) it can set graphic-quality type at speeds ranging line length and its ability to write in sizes from as high as 6,000 characters a second. 4 to 96 point type (approximately 1i inches high) "The 2680 CRT printer is operated completely with proportional reduction for 35mm microimage under the control of System/360. Draft copy is output. usually fed into the computer on paper tape or "Videocomp can be used to set type in almost magnetic tape, but it can be entered through any every format conceivablefrom a full page tabloid System/360 input device. A user can choose from newspaper compositiontodirectoriesor parts a large variety of type styles and sizes all stored manuals. Equally important, the new equipment magnetically on the disc files seen in the foreground makes possible quality typeset printout of computer of the picture. information at speeds well in excess of the 1,100 "The computer formats and justifies the copy, lines per minute typical of high-speed printers automaticallyhyphenatingwordsthatbreak now used for computer readcut. This could result in between lines. It then commands the 2680 to write easier handling and reading of the business and the finished text electronically on a television-like scientific data now being processed by computers.. cathode-ray tube (CRT)." (Computers and Auto- "In operation, original copy and composition mation 17, 58 (Jan. 1968).) instructions are fed to a computer which produces 6.25b"Consideration is given to the possibility an output magnetic tape or sends signals directly of providing a computer and a cathode ray printer to the 70/830. In response to taped or direct signals, with an unlimited repertory of characters. Digi- the machine generates characters on a cathode ray talizations are presented for mathematic, carto- tube. As the characters appear on the tube they graphic, and calligraphic characters. The repertory expose standard or 35 microimage film, stabiliza- is available to any computer through FORTRAN IV tion paper for quick proofing, or short run offset programming. The latestcathode ray printers plates. are almost adequate for the preparation of mathe- "Videocompstorestypefontsinelectronic matical reports."(Hershey, 1967,ii,abstract). memory where they can be used instantly. This Some of the problems of character and symbol internal storage reduces load on computer memory generation are discussed in another report in this and permits use of the Videocomp off-line with series involving overall system design requirements, any computer. especially, character set considerations. "Because theentireoperationiselectronic, 6.26Automatic hyphenation methods required every letter can be altered electronically to form for line justification variously involve the use of roman, oblique, extended, condensed and superior dictionary or table lookups, suffix and prefix splitting, and inferior versions of the basic face. Every face, logic rules, and combinations of these techniques. in every variation, can be mixed at will on the Automatic hyphenation techniques for languages same line, in the same wordwith every other face. other than English include those for Dutch, French, In addition, Videocomp can store and write any German, and Italian as reported in the "Computer special form including scientific, mathematical and Typesetting Conference Proceedings," The Institute engineering symbols, foreign alphabets, ideographs of Printing (1965). or trademarksliterally, almost any visual image." 6.26a"The dot or raster mode of the system is (Computers and Automation 17, No. 4, 63 (Apr. used to generate half-tone pictures. The machine 1968).) can generate any desired dot density and practi- 6.25"The Digiset developed by Dr. Rudolf cally any resolution up to a maximum of 660 dots per Hell of Kiel utilizes an 8-bit character selection inch in either field direction." (Potter and Axelrod, code and it sets justified and hyphenated lines of 1968, p. 5). 11, 18, or 28 picas at rates of up to 400 characters 6.26b"An added feature common to the modern per second....In a telephone directory applica- CRT is the ported window at the rear of the tube. tion, the character set consisted of 180 alphanumeric The port is designed so that static overlays such as and other symbols. Character patterns are stored maps can be projected from a slide or film clip onto in a core memory of 180,000-190,000 bit capacity. the face of the CRT. The overlay relieves the display 110 of the need to continuously regenerate static data." "For many situations the operator may desire (Mahan, 1968, p. 19). hard-copy text of the image on the display. Two "Static information can be superimposed on the means are currently employed. A Polaroid photo- beam written data by projecting pictures (slides) graph provides a quick copy adequate for many through an optical port in the CRT. Typical systems purposes. For complex drawings where more resolu- can select from among 25-150 slides." (Machover, tion is required, or where it is desirable to be able 1967, p. 157). to write on the copy, the...MODEL T [a] "So that an optically projected image can be com- device can provide signals for either a. digital or bined with the electronically generated image, analog mechanical plotter." (Miller and Wine, 1968, CRT's in terminals supplied by Bunker-Ramo and p. 475). Stromberg-Caeson have a window through which "The hard copy should be of high enough quality a picture can be projected onto the screen." to reproduce legibly the information on the display, (Machover, 1967, p. 150). (although it probably need not be of record-keeping 6.26c"Techniques with the greatest potential quality). Another important consideration is that are all based on photocomposition. Photon wasthe the copying process should not materially delay the first to introduce a spinning-disk -type of photo- user from going on with his work while printing composer. The Photon 900 or 'Zip' is the machine takes place." (Stotz, 1968, p. 16). employed in the GRACE system at the National "Hard-copy outputs can be provided, where Library of Medicine to produce Index Medicus, needed, by a variety of devices, ranging in speed described by Austin. It is a text-only machine cap- from typewriter rates of 10-15 cps up to 60,000 cps. able of operating at speeds on the order of 250 char- The high-speed end of the range tends to be im- acters per second from magnetic tape input. The practical because broad-band communication lines improved PI:oton 901 overcomes the problems of are needed and they are very expensive." (Berul, variable character density and variable base lineup 1968, p. 29). of characters, and also has an attachment for in- 6.29For example, "The information system's serting graphics from projected slides." (Amer. designer is faced with a dilemma. If he provides for Institute of Physics Staff, 1967, pp. 355-356). unlimited hard copy service, a major portion of his 6.27Relatively early examples are discussed in budget is absorbed in fulfilling hard copy requests. the 1961 report of Buck et al. Then we note: (1) "The If he insists that obtaining hard copy is the user's tonal scale of the illustration is simulated in the responsibility, he and the user may unwittingly printing process by making the dot pattern structure be with-holding information which may be extremely on the printing press plate a function of the tonal valuable. The 'missed' item in some instances gradations of the original illustration. Thus the dark could exceed in value the total cost of operating areas of the original illustration are represented the information system. by a dot pattern in which the dots are relatively "A third aspect of the hard copy dilemma is large and with little white space between the in- attempting to satisfy a need which may not be dividual large dot areas... related to either use or value. This need will be called the 'Possession is Security Syndrome' or (2) "The output graphic must be a dot pattern frecplently referred to as the 'pack rat instinct'. structure in which the distribution of the dots over It is a very important aspect often encountered in the image area represents a faithful reproduction of investigations of users' needs and satisfactionsyet the continuous tone input image. It should be noted it is little understood in the documentation area." that since the dot pattern structure does not appear (Resnick, 1964, p. 317). in the input graphic, it must be created within the "The real answer tothe hard-copy problem LGCP system." (Mergenthaler, 1963, p. 13). requires convincing users that they will never 6.28[In a T axical-Graphical Composer-Printer lose easy access to information they have once (LGCP) system at Wright-Patterson AFB j, "The uncovered. This is far from a trivial problem in Video Graphics Copier converts illustrationsto documentation and we seem no further along video tape. The Format Processor accepts full-text towards solving it than we were a decade ago." coded mag tape, effects composition, and produces (Ohlman, 1963, p. 194). an instruction tape. The photocomposer accepts 6.30 "Developments include electrostatic the instruction and video tapes as input, is driven printing,magneticprinting,smokeprinting, by the instruction tape to select and position data thermal recording, thermoplastic recording, and characters onto the output and to insert the graphics photographic recording. Many of these techniques from the video tape when necessary, and creates can be applied to the making of replica copies of fully-composed pages in the form of film positives." existing documents as well as to generating the (Kehler, 1968, p. 119). initial copy of a document from an electronic or 6.28a"The need for hard copy which the user digital store." (Sparks et al., 1964, p. 181). can take to his office for contemplation still exists, 6.31"Photographic film of the text will then be however. We currently use Polaroid photographs, provided in a format suitable for an automatic but the need for a more convenient and larger character reader... copy ... wasoftenexpressed."(Evansand "Theplannedseparationmethodissemi- Katzenelson, 1967, p. 1143). automatic in that decisions to separate text from 111 graphics are to be made by a human operator." 6.33 An example of current research in this area (Bus. Automation 12, No. 8, 66, Aug. 1965). is provided in Qua:terly Progress Report No. 80, 6.31a"Theareaofmicrofilm-to-hard-copy The Research Laboratory for Electronics, M.I.T. conversion is not yet very advanced. There are a More specifically: "By a judicious choice of ele- number of reader-printers, such as the Itek 1824 mentg for the lexicon and the use of a set of very or the 3M Filmac 200, which under operator simple algorithms itis possible to decompose a control can make copies from any type of microfilm. word in an orderly fashion into the stored elements The problem, however, is that the process is too from which the phgnemic translation can be found. slow and the cost of the copies too hi,r'for pro- A lexicon containing approximately 32,000 elements duction volumes." (Berul, 1968, p. 30). is sufficient for the decomposition of all entries 6.31b"The emphasis was on making it easy to in the Seventh Edition of Webster's 'New Collegiate use the system to obtain information. This included Dictionary'.Additional markings' inthe lexicon such things as producing printed output which provide the basis for the resolution of syntactical would not look like an accounting ledger, but would ambiguities which cannot be handled by the phonic be similar to the majority of printed documents approach." (Quarterly Progress Report No. 80, people are used to reading and which would provide Research Laboratory for Electronics, MIT, 225 visual cues for ease of scanning and interpretation." (1966).) (Ebersole, 1965, p. 172). "An efficient scheme has been developed for 6.31cFurther, "...IDEA provides for displays the automatic translation of English text from letters of specified variables. At present these include to phonemes. This process of translation is an frequency distributions and contingency tables. indispensable part of a reading machine that pro- We also intend to provide other plots, scatter dia- duces synthetic-speech output." (Quarterly Progress grams, etc., with such aids as discriminant func- Report No. 80, Research Laboratory for Electronics, tions, regression analysis, iso-probability, and iso- MIT, 225 (1966).) distant curves derived under various assumptions." "The problem of automatic translation from letter (Press and Rogers, 1967, p. 39). spelling to phonetic spelling in English text has been 6.32"The properties and techniques by which studied. A procedure has been developed, based a high-speed printer can be made to emboss regular upon a 'dictionary' of approximately 30,000 root printing paper with braille symbols is described in words and a set of combination and generation laws, Sterling et al...." [Sterling, 1'. D., M. L chstein, suchthatthecorrectpronunciation (phonetic F. Scarpino D. Stuebing and W. Stuebing, "Pro- spelling) of 250,000 English words can be alit, fessional Computer Work for the Blind", Commun. mated."(QuarterlyProgressReport Research ACM 7, 228 (1964)]. (Landwehr et al., 1965, p. 302). Laboratory for Electronics, No. 80, MIT, 218. (1966) Then, "at MIT one aspect of work to aid the blind further ref. to F. Lee Ph.D. Thesis, EE. Oct. 1965). includes coupling of a high-speed electric Blaine A project at the Institut fiir Phonetik and Kom- typewriter and a small computer to achieve an munikationsfordung, University of Bonn, has both inexpensive conversion of machinable documents FAP and COMIT language programs written to into Braille code." (E. Glaser, report of panel dis explore this possibility. cussion on Computers and Aid to the Handicapped, 6.34Project of A. Risberg, Royal Institute of Commun. ACM 8, 638 (1965).) Kehl (1965) also Technology, Stockholm, Sweden. (Stevens, 1968, mentions the M.I.T. high-speed Brailleprinter. pp. 21-22). It is of particular interest to note in this connec- "A conference on compressed speech, sponsored tion that "initial experience with several trainees by the Division for the Blind...The method indicated that the blind progatniner equipped with may be used by students as a review technique and routines which print input, output and/or memory by blind persons to increase their reading rate contents in braille is no more dependent on external appreciably when using recorded books." (L C Inf. help than is his sighted colleague." (Landwehr et al., Bull. 24, 674 (1965).) 1965, p. 300). See also note 5.60, p. 98. Nelson (1965) has also explored some of the pos- sibilities for on-line Braille display.

7. System Use and Evaluation

7.1"The [test or sample] problems were in- "The quantitative data, the analyses, and the variablysimple because generally any typical conclusions about man-computer systems thatone problem would require the amassing of considerable seeks in a controlled experiment will emerge only data and its manual manipulation to determine if the data-reduction effort is painstakingly planned check-pointsforsystemrating.The expense and executed." (Morey and Yntema, 1965,p. 356). involved was considerable and generally was not 7.2"One of the most difficult problems in evalu- approved the pertinent management groups." ating information retrieval systems is to identify (Davis, 1965, p. 82). meaningful evaluationcriteria. Most of the im- 112

1 1

portant criteria can be directly related tocost, therefore, connected withuser performance and reliability and time." (King and Terragno,1964, capability which may only be assessed ina qualita- p. `.393). tive manner." (Blunt, 1965,p. 9). ..No quick and simple evaluation procedure "The setting up of criteria of evaluation,on the which is both conceptually coherent and empirically other hand [in contrast tomeasures of effective- convincing is possible. There is not, in fact, wide- ness] demandsuser participation and provides an spread agreementor conviction as to what would indication of whether theuser understands the qualify as a criterion for evaluatingan information reason for the system, the role of the system and system." (Ossorio, 1965,p. 52). his responsibilitiesas a prospectivsystem user." 7.3"The value of an informationsystem is, (Davis, 1965, p. 82).

i., Appendix B. Bibliography* Abramowich,J.,Storage Allocationina Certain Iterative 157, 172 p. (U.S. Govt. Printing Office. Washington. D.C., Process, Commun. ACM 10, No. 368-370 (June 1967). Dec. 31,1961). Adams, C. W., Responsive Time-Shared Computing in Busi- Baker, C. E. and A. D. Rugari. A Large-Screen Real-Time Display ness-Its Significance and Implications, AFIPS Proc. Fall Technique, Inf. Display 3, 37-46 (Mar./Apr. 1966). Joint Computer Conf., Vol. 27, Pt. 1, Las Vegas, Nev., Nov. Baker, F. T. and W. E. Triest, Advanced Computer Organization, 30-Dec. 1, 1965, pp. 483-488 (Spartan Books, Washington, Rept. No. RADAC-TR-66-148. 1 v. (Rome Air Development D.C.. 1965). Center, Griffiss Air Force Base. N.Y.. May 1966). Adams, S., Information- A National Resource, Am. Doc. 7, Barnett, M. P., K. L. Kelley and M. J. Bailey, Computer Genera- No. 2, 71-75 (April 1956). tion of Photocomposing Control Tapes. Part 1, Preparation of Alden, W. L, Cutting Communication Costs with Facsimile. Flexowriter Source Material, Am. Doc. 13, No. 1, 58-65 Data Proc. Mag. 6, 11-14 (Sept. 1964). (Jan. 1962). Allen, J., Machine-to-Alan Communication by Speech Part III: Barnett. M. P., D. J. Moss, D. A. Luce and K. L. Kelley, Computer Synthesis of Prosodic Features of Speech by Rule, AFIPS Controlled Printing, AFIPS Proc. SpringJoint Computer Conf., -Proc. Spring Joint Computer Conf., Vo.l 32, Atlantic City, Vol. 23, Detroit, Mich., May 1963. pp. 263-288 (Spartan Books, N.J., Apr. 30-May 2, 1968, pp. 339-344 (Thompson Book Co., Baltimore, Md., 1963). Washington, D.C., 1968). Barnett, M. T., Computer Typesetting: Experiments and Pros- Amdahl, G. M., Multi-Computers Applied to On-Line Systems, pects, 245 p. (M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1966). in On-Line Competing Systems, Proc. Symp. sponsored by Barton, R. S., A Critical Review of the State of the Programming the Univ. of California, Los Angeles, and Informatics, Inc., Art, AFIPS Proc. Spring Joint Computer Conf., Vol. 23, Los Angeles, Calif., Feb. 2-4, 1965, Ed. E. Burgess,pp. 38-42 Detroit, Mich., May 1963, pp. 169-177 (Spartan Books, Balti- (American Data Processing, Inc., Detroit, Mich., 1965). more, Md., 1963). American Institute of Physics Staff, Techniques for Publication Baruch, J. J., A Medical Information System: Some General and Distribution of Information, in Annual Review of Informa- Observations, in Information System Science and Technology, tion Science and Technology, Vol. 2, Ed. C. A. Cuadra,pp. papers prepared for the Third Cong., scheduled for Nov. 21-22, 339-384 (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1967). 1966, Ed. D. E. Walker, pp. 145-150 (Thompson Book Co., Anderson, H. E., Automated Plotting of Flow-Charts on a Small Washington. D.C., 1967). Computer, Commun. ACM 8, 38-39 (Jan. 1965). Bauer, W. F., On-Line Systems-Their Characteristics and Moti- Aoki, M., G. Estrin and R. Mendell, A Probabilistic Analysis of vations, in On-Line Computing Systems, Proc. Symp. spon- Computing Load Assignment in a Multiprocessor Computer sored by the Univ. of California, Los Angeles, and Informatics, System, AFIPS Proc. Fall Joint Computer Conf., Vol. 24, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif., Feb. 2-4, 1965, Ed. E. Burgess, Las Vegas, Nev., Nov. 1963, pp. 147-160 (SpartanBooks, pp. 14-24 (American Data Processing, Inc., Detroit, Mich., Baltimore, Md., 1963). 1965). Appel, A., Some Techniques for Shading Machine Renderings of Becker, C. H., UNICON Computer Mass Memory System, AFIPS Solids, AFIPS Proc. Spring Joint Computer Conf., Vol. 32, Proc. Fall Joint Computer Conf., Vol. 29, San Francisco, Calif., Atlantic City, N.J., Apr. 30-May 2, 1968, pp. 37-45 (Thompson Nov. 7-10, 1966, pp. 711-716 (Spartan Books, Washington, Book Co., Washington, D.C., 1968). D.C., 1966). Appel, A., The Notion of Quantitative Invisibility and the Becker, J., Technology in Information Presentation, transcript Machine Rendering of Solids, AFIPS Proc. Spring Joint Com- of lecthre delivered to the Institute of Management Science, puter Conf., Vol. 32, Atlantic City, N.J., Apr. 30-May 2, 1968, Washington, D.C., Chapter, Nov. 1, 1967, 12 p. pp. 387-393 (Thompson Book Co., Washington, D.C., 1968). Becker, R. and F. Poza, Natural Speech from a Computer, Applebaum, E. L., Implications of the National Register of Micro- Proc. 23rd National Conf., ACM, Las Vegas, Nev., Aug. 27-29, film Masters, as Part of a National Preservation Program, 1968, pp. 795-800 (Brandon/Systems Press, Inc., Princeton, Lib. Res. & Tech. Serv. 9, 489-494 (1965). N.J.. 1968). Arnovick, G. N., A Computer-Processed Information-Recording and Association System, in Statistical Association Methods For Bell, G. and M. W. Pirtle, Time-Sharing Bibliography, Proc. Mechanized Documentation, Symp. Proc., Washington, D.C., IEEE 54, 1764-1765 (Dec. 1966). Mar. 17-19, 1964, NBS Misc. Pub. 269, Ed. M. E. Stevens Benner, F. H., On Designing Generalized File Records for et al., pp. 181-184 (U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, Management Information Systems, AFIPS Proc. Fall Joint D.C., Dec. 15, 1965). Computer Conf., Vol. 31, Anaheim, Calif., Nov. 14-16, 1967, Aron, J. D., Real-Time Systems in Perspective, IBM Sys. J. pp. 291-303 (Thompson Books, Washington, D.C., 1967). 6, No. 1, 49-67 (1967). Bennett, E., J. Dept] and J. Spiegel, Eds., Military Information Austin, C. J., Dissemination of Information and Problems of Systems-The Design of Computer Aided Systems for Com- Graphic Presentation, Proc. 1965 Congress F.I.D. 31st Meeting mand, 180 p. (Frederick A. Praeger, Pub., New York, 1964). Congress, Vol. II, Washington, D.C., Oct. 7-16, 1965,pp. 241- Bennett, E., E. C. Haines and J. K. Summers, AESOP: A Proto- 245 (Spartan Books, Washington, D.C., 1966). type for On-Line User Co:arot of organizational Data: Storage, Automatic Typesetting, First International Technical Information Retrieval and Processing, AFIPS Proc. Fall Joint Computer Congress, La Compaigne Francaise d' Editions, Paris, 1965, Conf., Vol. 27, Pt. 1, Las Vegas, Nev., Nov. 30-Dec. 1, 1965, 374 p. pp. 435-455 (Spartan Books, Washington, D.C., 1965). Berul, L., Information Storage and Retrieval: A State-of-the-Art Bacon, F. R., N. C. Churchill, C. J. Lucas, D. K. Maxfield and Report, Rept. No. PR-7500-145, 1 v. (Auerbach Corp., Phila- C. J. Orwant, Application of a Telereference System to Divi- delphia, Pa., Sept. 14, 1964). sional Library Card Catalogs: A Feasibility Analysis, Final Berul, L. H., Survey of IS & R Equipment, Datamation 14, No. 3, Rept., 91p. (Engineering Research Inst., Michigan Univ., 27-32 (Mar. 1968), Ann Arbor, May 1958). Bessinger, J. B., Jr., S. M. Parrish and H. F. Arader, Eds., Literary Bagg T. C. and M. E. Stevens, Information Systems Retrieving Data Processing Conference Proceedings, Sept. 9-11, 1964, Replica Copies: A State-of-the-Art Report, NBS Tec!t.lote 329 p. (IBM Corp., White Plains, N.Y., 1964). *Additional references on page 124.

114 Bhimani, B. V., R. D. Merrill, R. P. Mitchell and M. R. Stark, Examining Patent Offices, ICIREPAT, Washington, D.C., An Approach to Speech Synthesis and Recognition on a Digital Oct. 7-16, 1964, Ed. H. Pfeffer, pp. 362-377 (Spartan Books, Computer, Proc. 21st National Conf., ACM, Los Angeles, Washington, D.C., (1966). Calif., Aug. 30-Sept. 1. 1966, pp. 275-296 (Thompson Book Buck, C. P., R. F. Pray III and G. W. Walsh, Investigation and Co., Washington, D.C., 1966). Study of Graphic-Semantic Composing Techniques, Rept. Blunt, C. R., An Information Retrieval System Model, Rept. No. No. RADC-TR-61-58, Final Rept. Contract AF 30(602)2091, 352, 14-R-1, 150 p. (HRB-Singer, Inc., State College, Pa., 1 v. (Syracuse Univ., Research Inst., June 1961). Oct. 1965). Burchinal, L. G., The Expanding Role of Microforms in Educa- Bobrow, D. G. and D. L. Murphy, Structure of a LIST System tion, NMA J. 1,2-6 (Fall 1967). Using Two-Level Storage, Commun. ACM 10, No. 3, 155-159 Burger, J. B., High Speed Display of Chemical Nomenclature, (March 1967). ular Formula and Structural Diagram. Rept. No. C105-- Bobrow, D. G., R. Y. Kain, B. Raphael and J. C. R. Licklider, R-4, 19 p. (General Electric Co., Huntsville. Ala., Dec. 3L A Computer- Program System to Facilitate the Study of Tech- nical Documents, Am. Doc. 17,186-187 (Oct. 1966). Burgess, E., Ed., On-Line Computing Systems, Proc. Symp. Bohnert, H. G., English-Like Systems of Mathematical Logic sponsored by the Univ. of California, Los Angeles, and Infor- for Content Retrieval, in Automation and Scientikc Communi- matics, Inc., Los Angeles, Calif., Feb. 2-4, 1965, 152 p. (Amer- cation, Short Papers, Pt. 2, papers contributed to the Theme ican Data Processing, Inc., Detroit, Mich., 1965). Sessions of the 26th Annual Meeting, Am. Doc. Inst., Chicago, Burkhardt, W. H., Universal Programming Languages and Ill., Oct. 6-11, 1963, Ed. H. P. Luhn, pp. 155-156 'Am. Doc. Processors: A Brief Survey and New Concepts, AFIPS Proc. Inst., Washington, D.C., 1963). Fall Joint Computer Conf., Vol. 27, Pt. 1, Las Vegas, Nev., Bohnert, H. and M. Kochen, The Automated Multilevel Ency- No.. 30-Dec. 1, 1965, pp. 1-21 (Spartan Books, Washington, clopedia as a New Mode of Scientific Communication, in Some D.C., 1965). Problems in Information Science, Ed. M. Kochen, pp. 156-160 Burns, L. R., Automation in the Public Libraries of Lake County, (The Scarecrow Press, Inc., New York, 1965). Indiana, in Proc. 1963 Clinic on Library Applications of Data Bones, W. L. and F. A. Kros, Nationwide Real-Time Warranty Processing, Univ. of Illinois, Apr. 28-May 1, 1963, Ed. H. System, in Data Processing, Vol. X, Proc. 1966 International Goldhor, pp. 9-17 (Graduate School of Library Science, Data Processing Conf., Chicago, Ill., June 21-24, 1966, pp. Illinois Univ., Urbana, 1964). 56-64 (Data Processing Management Assoc., 1966). Bushnell, D. D., Computer-Mediated Instruction -A Survey of Bonn, T. H., Mass Storage; A Broad Review, Proc. 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