Issue 17

Annual Magazine concerned with publication of the result of archaeological excavations and researches in the Emirate of Sharjah Sharjah Archaeology Authority - Govt. of Sharjah

Chairman: Dr. Sabah Abood Jasim

General Supervisor: Eisa Yousif

Managing Editor: Fawzy Saleh

CONTRIBUTIONS: R. Carita - R. Varela Gomes M. V. Gomes - E. A. Yousif K. D. Kamyab - F. Almeida M. T. Antunes - J. P. Henriques P. M. Callapez - P. A. Dinis

Directorate of Archaeology Sharjah Archaeology Antherity (SAA) - U.A.E

Portuguese Archaeological Mission NOVA University - Lisbon

Designed & Printed by: Fairmont P.P.S. Copyright Reserved© for Sharjah Archaeology Authority First Edition - 2019 P.O. Box: 30300 - SHARJAH Tel.: +971 - 6 - 5668000 Fax:+971 - 6 - 5660334

Website: www.sharjaharchaeology.com E-mail: [email protected] Index

Introduction ...... 7

1. INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 9

2. MAIN ISSUES ...... 12

3. LOCATION AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 16

4. HISTORY OF THE SITE ...... 19

5. METHODOLOGY AND MEANS AVAILABLE ...... 28

6. STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL EVIDENCES ...... 31

6.1. LEVEL SEQUENCE ...... 31

6.2. FORTIFICATION REMAINS ...... 33

6.3. POSTHOLES (A HOUSE?) ...... 36

6.4. BASIN ...... 36

6.5. WELL 1...... 42

6.6. FIREPLACES ...... 43

6.7. SHELL DEPOSIT (GU 101) ...... 45

7. MATERIAL CULTURE ...... 46

7.1. STONE ARTEFACTS ...... 47

7.2. SEASHELL ARTEFACTS ...... 55

7.3. GLASS ARTEFACTS ...... 62

7.4. METAL ARTEFACTS ...... 67

7. 5. CERAMIC ARTEFACTS ...... 68 CHINESE PORCELAIN (M. VARELA GOMES AND J. PEDRO HENRIQUES)

KERMAN COBALT BLUE-ON-WHITE WARE ...... 77

UNDERGLAZE PAINTED WARE ...... 79

LIGHT BROWN GLAZED WARE ...... 84

BROWN AND DARK GREEN GLAZED WARE (BAHLĀ WARE) ...... 85

INCISED LIGHT FINE WARE ...... 89 RED COARSE WARE ...... 92

BLACK COARSE WARE ...... 99

8. FAUNAL AND VEGETAL REMAINS ...... 109

9. CONCLUSIONS ...... 115

9.1. ORIENT AND OCCIDENT ...... 115

9.2. REPRESENTATIONS OF THE ARABIAN GULF AND SEA ...... 117

9.3. ABOUT THE LASCARIM ...... 119

9.4. MAIN ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESULTS ...... 120

REFERENCES ...... 124

ANNEX I – ‘DOCUMENTOS REMETIDOS DA ÍNDIA, LIVRO 59, FOL. 88’ ...... 129 ANNEX II – ‘KHOR KALBA UAE MISSION – GEOPHYSICAL REPORT’ (Fernando Almeida) ...... 137 ANNEX III – ‘A PRELIMINARY CHARACTERIZATION OF FOUR CERAMIC SHERDS FOUND IN A 17TH CENTURY DEPOSIT FROM THE SITE OF THE PRIMITIVE FORT OF QUELBA IN THE SHARJAH EMIRATE’ (L. F. Vieira Ferreira, I. Ferreira Machado, R. Carita, R. Varela Gomes, M. Varela Gomes, Kamyar Kamyab) ...... 161 ANNEX IV – ‘PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE PALAEOZOOLOGY’ (Miguel Telles Antunes) ...... 165 ANNEX V – ‘MOLLUSC REMAINS FROM THE QUELBA/KALBA FORTIFICATION (LATE 16TH TO 18TH CENTURIES, SHARJAH, UAE): TAXONOMIC, TAPHONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS’ (P. M. Callapez; P. A. Dinis) ...... 175

SITE INDEX ...... 217

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Introduction The Portuguese archaeological expedition joined the convoy of archaeological excavations working in the Emirate of Sharjah in early 2017. This expedition is from the University of Nova / Faculty of Social and Human Sciences in Lisbon, headed by Prof. Dr Rui Carita alongside specialists in archaeology, anthropology and other related disciplines. Based on its proposed program of work, the mission aims to achieve mutual benefit in the field of scientific and archaeological research, development, education and training and to ensure that the scientific and academic curriculum is of common interest to all relevant institutions. The Portuguese team has pledged its commitment to strengthening its role as a major archaeology body through its interaction with national and international research institutions, research centers and major units, as per the draft agreement approved by His Highness Sheikh Dr Sultan bin Muhammad Al Qasimi, Ruler of Sharjah. The Portuguese mission selected Kalba, located on the east coast of Sharjah, as the first station for archaeological excavations. The selection of Kalba is undoubtedly due to the historical information, documents and maps contained in the Portuguese National Archives concerning the period of influence and Portuguese presence in the East Coast during the 16th-18th centuries. One of the aims of the Portuguese mission is to find the remains of the Portuguese Forts that were constructed along the eastern coast, in particular, the search for the remains of an ancient fortification described in 17th-century Portuguese texts. The Portuguese began the first archaeological excavation campaign on 1st January 2017 and lasted for two weeks. The second season took place from 1st to 18th January 2018. Between the 21st and 29th of November of the same year, the expedition conducted a series of marine investigations to explore three areas which were on the east coast of Kalba, Khor Fakkan and Dibba Al Hisn. The maritime operations are part of the Sharjah Archaeology Authority›s interest in underwater exploration. Previous underwater explorations were carried out in 2002 in coordination with a specialized team from the University of Trondheim, Norway, where the results of preliminary investigations in both the Fasht area of​ Sharjah and Khor Fakkan showed important results. The Portuguese expedition has submitted reports for their work carried out

7 Issue 17 during the years 2017 and 2018 which included the results of the ground exploration and excavations in the Kalba area and underwater investigation work. The first report of 2017, addressed and reviewed some key issues. It explained that the main objective behind the selection of shores of the Sea of ​​Oman for exploration is to find the remains of the material culture of the Portuguese presence there and to analyze and study what might result from the work of exploration. The report reviews the characteristics of the site and the natural environment. It provides an interesting account of the history of the site, citing some historical documents, and cites Portuguese fortifications in the old city of Kalba/Quilba. It also provides a detailed account of the findings of the archaeological discoveries and remains of the ancient fortress that was uncovered, and examines the results of the analysis and study of the ancient animals and plant remains in the region. The second report in this issue of the Annual of Sharjah Archaeology discusses the results of the mission for the second season in 2018. It provides a detailed account of the facts and results of the excavations carried out by the team during its new season and reviews more of what has been achieved. It additionally describes the archaeological finds, which include artefacts made of stone, shell, glass, metal and clay. It also includes detailed appendices of ancient animals, which include mammals, birds, fish and snails. The third and final report was devoted to presenting the results of the underwater investigation conducted by the team in the East Coast area of ​Kalba, Khor Fakkan and Dibba Al Hisn in December 2018. The report covers the diving equipment used and the selection of the underwater targets investigated. It also discusses aerial operations carried out by drones for aerial photography at the sites of Mlieha and Qirsh Island. Finally, we should mention the exhibition of antiquities held by the Sharjah Archaeological Authority at the National Museum in Lisbon, during the second half of this year, to embody the bonds of scientific cooperation, and to strengthen joint relations in the field of archaeological excavation and museums.

Dr Sabah Abboud Jasim Director General Sharjah Archaeology Authority

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1. INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Quelba/Kalba 2017 archaeological excavation campaign, whose preliminary results are now reported, took place from the 1st to the 15th January, 2017, as part of a five year project established by a Memorandum of Agreement signed between the Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas at NOVA University of Lisbon (NOVA/FCSH, Portugal) and the Sharjah Archaeology Authority (SAA) of the Government of Sharjah (UAE). This project has been undertaken with the approval of His Highness Sheikh Dr Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, Supreme Council Member and Ruler of Sharjah, as well as the support of Dr Sabah Abbood Jasim, Director General of SAA and its Director of Excavations and Archaeological Sites, Dr Eisa Abbas Hussien Yousif. The SAA has fully sponsored travel, lodging and other logistical costs conducted in the fieldwork. The Portuguese archaeological team was comprised of the co-signers of this report, undergraduate, master and PhD Archaeology program students from NOVA/FCSH; as well as Profs Fernando Almeida (Aveiro University), who was also in the field, Pedro M. Callapez and Pedro A. Dinis (Coimbra University), Miguel Telles Antunes (NOVA University of Lisbon), Luís Filipe Vieira Ferreira and Isabel Machado (Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon University) and Carmen Barceló Torres (Valencia University). This first Portuguese archaeological mission at Quelba/Kalba was also supported by the Instituto de Arqueologia e Paleociências – NOVA, with which the team in charge is affiliated, as well as by the Faculty itself (NOVA/FCSH), in which the institute is integrated. For this support, we specifically thank its Director, Prof Francisco Caramelo. We extend our appreciation to the colleagues responsible for the valuable reports they have produced and included in this book.

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Figure 1. Sharjah archaeological authorities, Dr Sabah Abbood Jasim and Dr Eisa Yousif, with the Portuguese team at Quelba/Kalba in January 2017 (photo by Miguel Angel Núñez Villanueva).

In addition to those responsible for the project in Quelba/Kalba, the fieldwork also had the participation of archaeologists Dário Ramos Neves, Joana Gonçalves, José Pedro Henriques, Mariana Almeida, Telmo Pinheiro Silva and two archaeology undergraduate students from NOVA/FCSH, Jéssica Iglésias and Vera Gonçalves. We also had the collaboration of two workers provided by the SAA, Shir Mohammad and Mohammad Yamin. The field and artefact drawings were made by Joana Gonçalves. The lab work was assisted by archaeology under- graduate and master students from the NOVA/FCSH. All the archaeological materials uncovered during the fieldwork were delivered to the SAA in January 2018.

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Figure 2. Quelba/Kalba. View of the excavations (photo by K. Kamyab, 2017).

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2. MAIN ISSUES The Portuguese archaeological mission at the Emirate of Sharjah on the shores of the Oman Sea had, as its main goal, finding and studying the material culture of the Portuguese presence (16th-18th centuries) there, as well as examining the issues resulting from the interaction of that presence with the local population and resident power agents. Despite the presence of fortifications, with their architecture and building techniques clearly indicating a Portuguese origin and activity, artefacts that demonstrate such presence are scarce, even though the majority of defensive edifications in the region, with a Portuguese foundation or adaptation, have already been subject to interventions, either archaeological or through recent restauration works. For this reason, we have chosen to start our research in Sharjah exploring the area where there once stood the old fortification of Quelba/Kalba, briefly described in 17th century Portuguese texts. Only oral tradition and at least forty year old aerial photos indicated the location of the ancient structure, with a square plan of which only foundation remains could be found under the sand. Some topsoil materials were found during a first exploratory visit in January 2016, namely small pottery sherds with a chronological range between the late 16th century till the 19th century. None of them could be considered clearly Portuguese. However, non-invasive approach analysis using microRama, X-ray fluorescence emission and diffuse reflectance absorption spectroscopies (conducted by the Laboratory of the CQFM (Centro de Química / Física Molecular) and IN (Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology), Instituto Superior Técnico (University of Lisbon), under the coordination of Prof Luís Filipe Vieira Ferreira) allowed us to infer that at least one of the sherds may have been produced in Lisbon area (see Annex III); while the remaining ones could have originated, maybe, in Iran or the Arabian Peninsula.

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It was important to identify the defensive structures; compare them to existing (historical) drawings; study the construction methods and processes; and detect their facilities and equipment, such as ovens, wells, storage pits, date presses (madbasa); as well as the remaining artefacts used in the daily lives of the garrison. These are necessary in order to achieve a palaeoethnological reconstruction of life experienced at the site, paying close attention to the commercial and cultural networks involved, as well as to the intersection of ideological frameworks in that region of the Indian Ocean. As occurs in other areas with intense human presence, ceramic artefacts are not only the mainly retrieved as ground surface remains and excavated finds, but are also most numerous and diverse in production types, shapes and decorations, indicating different origins, and therefore the past intersection of commercial and cultural routes. However, many other artefacts are involved in these spheres. The archaeological intervention at Quelba/Kalba sought to achieve the following objectives: I. To verify, through archaeological intervention at the site, if the structure identifiable in the aerial photo and in some soil remains corresponds to the 16th/17th century fortress. II. To assess if the old fortification of Quelba/Kalba was altered by the Portuguese, reusing an earlier defensive construction, and what was the chronology of this initial construction. III. To perform an architectural study and analysis of the materials, techniques and methods of building used in the old Quelba/Kalba fortification. IV. To confirm or discard the theory that the ruins of the mentioned fortification correspond with the plan depicted in the ‘Livro das Plantas de Todas as Fortalezas, Cidades e Povoações do Estado da Índia Oriental (1635)’, and understand the accuracy of these records. V. To conduct a systematic study of the material testimonies found in the area of the fortification: pottery, metal or glass objects, fauna etc.

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VI. To analyze the collected evidence in order to identify production centers, namely the ceramic, and through that, to study the mechanisms of exchange and the trade routes from the site’s perspective. VII. In terms of historical importance, to perform consolidation works and subsequent musealization, if the excavated structure justifies it. On a final note, is important to remind that this study is based on a brief first campaign of archaeological fieldwork, which presents the recording of preliminary information and the establishment of comprehensive research questions, after which the interest in developing further work will be evaluated.

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Figure 3. The Arabian Peninsula and surrounding areas in the Lázaro Luís’ Atlas, 1563 (Albuquerque and Santos, 1990, p. 24).

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3. LOCATION AND NATURAL ENVIRONMENT The ancient fortification of Quelba/Kalba occupies a flat sandy plain area, East of the Hajar Mountains in what is now an exclave of the Sharjah Emirate, on the North-Western shore of the Arabian Peninsula, named the Batinah Coast, corresponding to the Oman Sea. The area has unique characteristics inasmuch as it provides a geographic unity that runs from the North of the present-day Sultanate of Oman and from Khor Kalba to Gharfah, in the Emirate of Fujairah, integrating the North-Western shore of the Indian Ocean. The mentioned site is located in a fertile coastline that forms a kind of peninsula, surrounded on the East, West and South by the Kalba Creek (Khor Kalba), which flows approximately 500 m away. The soil is formed by sandy sediments, containing tertiary carbonates and quartz (light in colour), and some dark ophiolites elements; with vegetation cover of mangrove type, with characteristic halophile species; as well as lagoon areas and mangrove swamps. There are also acacia woodlands, palm tree groves and cultivated lands. The shore is a tropical sandy beach, characterized by light sands and low to medium wave energy, more active from June to August, during the South-West monsoon (McLachlan et alii, 1998, p. 182). The high diversity and abundance of sea fauna originates, from remote times, his commercial exploitation and the presence of old fishing communities. Part of the mentioned area of great natural biodiversity integrates a natural reserve, although strong anthropic pressure is particularly connected to tourism and the growth of the city of Kalba. The defensive structure of Quelba/Kalba is located in the town limits of present Kalba. Near it, to the North-East, stands a later fortification, recently restored. The geographic coordinates of a central point of the excavated area are 25˚01’39.3”N; 56˚21’39.1”E.

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Figure 4. Location of the Kalba exclave (Sharjah) within the United Arab Emirates (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka lba#/media/File:United_Arab_E mirates_adm_location_map.svg)

Figure 5. Aerial photograph of the Quelba/Kalba fortified site SAA

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Figure 6. Location of the Quelba/Kalba fortress near the river with the same name Google Maps, 2017

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4. HISTORY OF THE SITE

Vicente and Brás Sodré were captains of two Portuguese ships (Esmeralda and São Pedro) of the second Vasco da Gama fleet that, while exploring the shores of the Oman Sea, sank in 1503 near the Al Hallaniyah Island. The remains of these ships were recently tentatively identified (Mearns, Parham and Frohlich, 2016), and an important set of artefacts, some of which are Portuguese in origin, has already been published (Casimiro, 2018). However, the contacts between the Portuguese, led by Afonso de Albuquerque, and the shores of what would became the UAE date from approximately 1507, during the first attempt to colonize the island of Hormuz, off the coast of Iran, which would occur in 1514. The Portuguese presence that developed in the area spread from Hormuz to the fortified complex of Muscat, Oman, with continuous relations between the several intermediate settlements throughout the 16th century, which changed allegiances numerous times as did the main towns. Kalba, then referred to as Ghallab, was occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century under the command of Afonso de Albuquerque – who also took control of Soar, Khor Fakkan and Calicut – but soon was abandoned. Tomé Pires, writing about the Arabian Peninsula at the beginning of the 16th century (1512-1515) during his travels to the area, mentions that ‘nom tem çidades nem Rey viuem em cabilas he gente de Rapina & mujto salvagem’ (they have no towns nor king, they live in tribes, they are a preying and very savage people). He also mentioned Qalhat, Muscat and Curiat, as well as Hormuz (Cortesão, 1978, p. 143). Portuguese interest in the area was mainly commercial given the intense traffic that occurred there, namely in textiles and spices but also in pearls, coral, horses, camels, incense and ambergris.

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The fortress then known as Quelba, today Kalba, was taken by Gaspar Leite in March 1624, according to António Bocarro (1646, fls. 138-139), following the orders of the Major Captain of Hormuz, Rui Freire de Andrade (Cardi, 1971, pp. 232, 233; Ziolkowski, 2002, p. 95). This event reflects the economic strategy developed by the Portuguese in the Arabian Gulf and, in this case justified by the reconquest of Hormuz Island in May 1622, since Kalba was under the dominion of its sultan, as it is mentioned in a text by Manuel Godinho de Herédia (ca. 1620). He says that Kalba was governed by Casmi, ‘a Moor(1) of great fame’ (‘governando-a Casmi, Um mouro de grande fama’) (Carita, 1999, fl. 59). Certainly, that character was an ancestor of the current emir of Sharjah, and, to the best of our knowledge, there was no direct confrontation. According to 17th century Portuguese documentation, the fortress of Quelba/Kalba had an almost square plan with a bulwark on each corner, one of which stood taller and was more complex, with an advanced higher platform defending the Northern gate and a housing area. Each wall measured between 33 to 35 m (15 to 16 fathoms) in length and two of them contained entrances. This structure, drawn by Pedro Barreto de Resende, was built ‘à maneira dos mouros’ (in a Moorish way) as was registered by Bocarro and Herédia, using a rammed earth technique, with walls 0.66 m thick (two and a half spans), without a parapet ledge and 8.80 m high (four fathoms). The walls surrounding the settlement had two other bulwarks and another one protecting the beach. As for the garrison, it was comprised of a lascoreen captain and thirty soldiers, which cost 195$840 Portuguese réis a year to maintain, paid from local taxes similar to those demanded by the prior administration. The lascarim garrison at Quelba/Kalba would have been recruited from the influence area of Hormuz, where the Portuguese had political, military and commercial influence. We do not believe that men were recruited in Ceylon, modern Sri Lanka, or from the Ethiopian shores.

(1) Moor was the designation given by the Portuguese to the Muslim peoples from North Africa, Levant, Arabian Peninsula and India. The word derives from the North African region named Mauritania and was used first by the Romans (maurus).

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Figure 7. Manuscript from Évora ‘Descrição da fortaleza de Quelba / Antes de Corfacão, três léguas, está a fortaleza de Quelba, a um tiro de falcão pela terra dentro, entre uns palmares, feita em quadro. Terá cada lanço de muro 15 para 16 braças (33 para 35 metros) com quatro baluartes nos quatro cantos e um que fica servindo a porta de cavaleiro e mais dois baluartes ao redor da povoação, que a fica defendendo com distância de tiro de espingarda um do outro. O muro da fortaleza é de adobes de dois palmos e meio de largo (0,55 metros), sem parapeito e de quatro braças de altura (8,80 metros), feito ao modo dos mouros. Tem mais na praia um baluarte pequeno para defesa dos pescadores. O presídio que lhe assiste na fortaleza e neste baluarte são trinta lascarins, com um seu capitão a quem se paga o mesmo que em Mascate. E a despesa se tira da terra como sempre pagavam quando era senhoreada de mouros. Nem aqui nem em Corfacão temos artilharia mais que a espingardaria dos mesmos Lascarins. Tomou esta fortaleza aos mouros Gaspar Pereira Leite por mandado do Capitão-Geral Rui Freire em março de mil seiscentos e vinte quatro, por haver sido de El-Rey de Ormuz, vassalo de Sua Majestade e se lhe levantar com ela o que lhe assistia, o qual chamavam Casmi (Al-Qasimi).’ ♦♦♦ Description of the fortress of Quelba / Before Khorfakkan three leagues, stands the fortress of Quelba, one falcon (cannon) shot inland away, among some palm trees, making a square. Each wall would have 15 to 16 fathoms (33 to 35 meters) with four bulwarks on the corners – one which is serving as a knight’s door and two other bulwarks surrounding the village, defending it one rifle shot away from each other. The fortress wall is made of mudbricks with two and a half spans (0.55 meters), without a ledge and four fathoms high (8.80 meters), made the Moorish way. It has another small bulwark on the beach to defend the fishermen. The garrison of the fortress and bulwark comprises thirty lascoreen and one captain to whom the payment is the same as in Muscat. And the profit that is taken from the land was the same as was always the case when the Moors were in charge. We have no more than the lascoreen rifles as artillery, neither here nor in Khorfakkan. This fortress was taken from the Moors by Gaspar Pereira Leite under the orders of Captain- General Rui Freire in March 1624, because it belonged to the king of Ormuz, liege subject of His Majesty, and took up arms with him, as it should aid him, who was called Casmi (Al-Qasimi).’

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Figure 8. Manuscript from São Julião da Barra Fortress. ‘Nove léguas de Soar está a fortaleza de Quelba como se vê afastada da praia um tiro de falcão, de 16 braças em quadro; tomou esta fortaleza aos mouros Gaspar Leite no ano de 1624 por ordem do Capitão-Geral Rui Freire, governando-a Casmi, um mouro de grande fama. Tem de presídio um capitão lascarim com 30 soldados, com os quais guarnece um reduto que está na praia. / Despesa desta fortaleza com o capitão e soldados por ano, 195$840.’ ♦♦♦ ‘Nine leagues from Sohar stands the fortress of Quelba, as can be seen away from the beach by one cannon shot, with 16 fathoms in a square. The fortress was taken from the Moors by Gaspar Leite in 1624 by command of Captain-General Rui Freire, governed by Casmi, a Moor of great fame. It has for its garrison a lascoreen captain with 30 soldiers, with which he provides a bulwark by the beach. / Expense of this fortress with the captain and soldiers per year, 195$840.’

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Figure 9. Ancient Quelba/Kalba plans. A, Madrid Manuscript; B, Ms Vila Viçosa; C, Ms São Julião da Barra Fortress; D, Ms António de Mariz Carneiro, 1639, Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa.

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We have no indication that the Quelba/Kalba fortress underwent special adaptation works following Portuguese occupation. A contemporary reference mentions a traditionally-built construction, which would be abandoned 20 years after its conquest. However, the fame of a ‘Portuguese fortress’ has been maintained until today among the local population, as was demonstrated during our stay in Kalba, so much so that it is likely that the Portuguese presence in the area significantly surpassed the official record, namely as fortress builders. On October 30th, 1648, a peace treaty signed between the king João IV of Portugal, represented by the Captain-General of Muscat D. Gil Eanes de Noronha, and the Sheik Imam N sir b. Mushid b. Malik, represented by Sheik Yūsuf b. Ali b. S lih Al-Qasimi (among other dignitaries), was signed – according to the Imam’s instructions – on the beach of Riyam. As stipulated by this treaty, the Portuguese would destroy the fortresses of Curiat, Dibba and Matrah; while the Imam would demolish his stronghold in Matrah. The Imam’s ships could freely sail in the area, exempt from paying taxes in Muscat, ‘And with that the Imam and the King of Portugal shall be friends with a clean friendship, friends of friends and enemies of enemies (…)’ (Al-Salimi and Jansen, 2015, pp. T9/385-388). Since the fortress of Quelba/Kalba was not mentioned and Sheik Al-Qasimi was present at the ceremony, it can be assumed that the fortress had already been officially returned to him. The commercial relations between the Portuguese and the local authorities were certainly kept, since they were mutually beneficial, a fact that was even declared in the treaty. However, during the second half of the 17th century, the Portuguese gradually lost commercial relevance in that region of the Indian Ocean. The commerce between Portugal and the Arabian Gulf is mentioned in several texts, specifically one concerning the famous local pearls and the Arabian horses, and varied spices and textiles being also part of the traded goods. Hormuz would become one of the largest maritime commerce centers of the Indian Ocean between the 14th and the 17th centuries (Serjeant, 1963; Lizardo, 2015, pp. 29, 31, 52, fig. 38). The textiles from Hormuz and other places produced in different locales

24 Issue 17 of Persia gained fame in Portugal from the beginning of the 16th century. In fact, the last will of D. Afonso Norandim, a Persian prince who converted to Catholicism, mentions in 1509 ‘(…) um manto e vestimenta em frontal de borcadilho da Pérsia (…)’ (a cloak and garment in Persian brocade), offered to the church of Nossa Senhora da Graça in Lisbon (Serrão, 2015, pp. 21, 22). In the ‘Inventário do Guarda-Roupa de D. Manuel’ (Inventory of the wardrobe of King D. Manuel), made in 1522, it is described as ‘(…) hũu pano de brocado da Imdia que veo de Ormuz, com huns lavores e rosas e cobras (…)’ (a cloth of brocade from India which came from Hormuz, with embroidered roses and snakes) (Ferrão, 1970, p. 161). A note in the visitation register of the church of Santa Maria de Alcácer do Sal, in Southern Portugal, from 1534, also makes a reference to ‘Fromtall que se fez de huma fota d’Urmuz que está no altar moor’ (an altar hanging made from a cloth from Hormuz which is in the main altar) (Cunha, 2012, p. 133). An entry in the same year registers a ‘huum fromtall de fota d’Urmuz mujto bom (…)’ (a very good altar hanging from a cloth from Hormuz) in the chapel of Nossa Senhora da Porta de Ferro, in the latter town (Cunha, 2012, p. 137). Also on the same date, the hermitage of São Sebastião in Alcácer do Sal, had a ‘vestimenta de fota d’Urmuz, muito fina (…)’ (a garment in a cloth from Hormuz, very fine) (Cunha, 2012, p. 144), relating a visitation made in 1552 by the Order of Santiago to the Hermitage and Hospital of Espírito Santo, also in Alcácer do Sal, which registered a flag made from a ‘fota d’Armuz’ (cloth from Hormuz) (Cunha, 2012, p. 247). The Portuguese traveller and adventurer Fernão Mendes Pinto (2004, chapter CLXV, p. 4) stated in 1546 that the nobles from the Kingdom of Pegu (Bago or Bidor, modern Myanmar) ‘(…) vestem cetins, damascos e tafeciras da Pérsia (…)’ (wear satins, damasks and tafeciras [a type of cloth] from Persia).

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Figure 10. Gates of the city of Hormuz (15 century) (National Library of France, MS 2810, Paris, Livre de Marc Paul et des Merveilles, fl. 14v).

Later on, at the beginning of the 17th century, the ‘Tafisiras da Percia’ appear in the inventory of salvaged goods from the Indiaman Nossa Senhora da Luz, shipwrecked in 1615, in the Azores Islands (Viana, 1999, pp. 93, 136, 151). The same site also provided ‘(…) hũa capaneqa de Urmuz (…)’ (a cloak from Hormuz) (Viana, 1999, p. 81). Approximately two decades ago, Prof Tatsuo Sasaki, from the School of Humanities of the College of Human and Social Sciences at the University of Kanazawa (Japan) carried out an archaeological survey of Quelba/Kalba, exploring seven trenches in the area excavated by us. This work exposed the remains of pavements of gypsum mortar, postholes, cesspits and fire places, as well as part of a cemetery in an area further away. Among the excavated materials were ceramic sherds of different types, part of a ponding stone, and faunal remains. A sector of what was then interpreted as a plaster floor, oriented North-South, and with circa two meters wide, belongs to the basement of the Eastern wall of the Quelba/Kalba fortification. The ceramics reflect broad chronological spectrum, from the 17th to the 20th centuries. The important faunal remains have not been classified and there is an unpublished report of those works (Sasaki, 2010). We recently had the opportunity to present a brief summary of the

26 Issue 17 archaeological work results of the first excavation season at Quelba/Kalba, at the 2nd Congress of the Association of Portuguese Archaeologists, Lisbon. This paper has been published (Gomes et alii, 2017).

Figure 11. Ancient Quelba/Kalba description. Ms António de Mariz Carneiro, 1639, Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa, Illuminated codex (149). ‘Quelba Estâ, hum tiro de falcão pella terra dentro Entre palmares antes de Corfação três Legoas tem, çada muro quinze para dezasseis brassas, o muro de adobes de dous palmos E meio, de largo sem parapeito E quatro brassas de alto, o seu prizidio são trinta lascarinz, com seu cappitan tomousse em 624 que era del Rey de Ormuz.’ ♦♦♦ ‘Quelba stands one falcon [cannon] shot inland away between palm trees, three leagues from Corfacão, each wall has fifteen to sixteen fathoms, the mudbrick walls have to and a half spans width excluding the rampart and four fathoms tall. It has, for the garrison, a lascoreen captain with 30 soldiers. The fortress was taken in 1624 because it belonged to the king of Hormuz.’

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5. METHODOLOGY AND MEANS AVAILABLE

Aerial photo from the 1960s, as well as the distribution of artefacts and faunal remains in the field, indicated the existence of the ancient fortress, which the oral tradition located, with unanimity, in the same place of the vast area West of the fortress known today as Khor Kalba. The area with the highest density of archaeological evidence and scarce rocks rising from the present soil level, which could be structured, is the same as that in which aerial photographs showed remains of a large construction. A grid system was established in order to record the structures and artefacts during excavation. The grid, made of squares measuring 2 m on each side, was oriented according to the cardinal points, forming the basic unit of excavation. Each square was considered as a grid unit (GU). In order to register the altimetry of the structures and artefacts, a point with the conventional level zero (0 = 0.000) was established at a corner stone from a gate of a modern building located West of the excavated area. When we receive the altimetric information of the area, it will be easier to replace all the measurements obtained with absolute quotas. The excavation started in two areas later recognized as located immediately East of the Eastern wall of the ancient fortress of Quelba/Kalba. Afterwards, the excavation progressed into the area where the remains of foundations from the mentioned structure were found, oriented NNW-SSE and spanning approximately 50 m. Eighty-two squares were excavated, with these corresponding to an area measuring 328 m2. In each grid unit, the first layer of superficial sediments (L1) was removed. Afterwards the excavation proceeded into the subsequent layers (L2 and L3), through artificial layers 0.05 m deep, with light implements.

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The excavation was made by archaeologists or experienced archaeology students, and the sediments from some layers and loci were sieved through a 0.005 m caliber iron net, in order to catch the small remains. The discovered structures were recorded on a quoted plan, and cross-section drawings when necessary, as well as via digital photographs. After being washed and pieced together, the unearthed objects were marked with the initials of the site KLB (Kalba), the grid unit (GU) or square number, and layer (L) they belonged to, followed by their order number (e.g. KLB/ GU57/L2-8). When artefacts came from inside structures or specific areas (loci), was also indicated is the locus with the initials: W1 (= well 1), PH (= posthole) or FP (= fireplace). The chromatic indexes that are used to refer to the strata and object colour in the descriptions are drawn from the Munsell Soil Color Charts (2009) and, therefore, should be understood as approximates. The most representative materials were photographed and drawn, worthy of individual description, while the remainder are referenced in tables. In the ceramic descriptions, the organic and inorganic inclusions within the fabrics were classified as very small-sized when almost unnoticeable to the naked eye; small-sized when showing a diameter of less than 0.5 mm; medium-sized when measuring between 0.5 mm and 1.0 mm; and coarse-sized when measuring greater than 1.0 mm. White inclusions found in the fabrics can be fragments of shells, lime or quartz; while black inclusions are greywacke, gabbro and basaltic stones. We have also identified some white and black (biotite) micaceous inclusions. All the measures are presented in meters.

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Figure 12. View of the beginning of the excavation Figure 13. View of the excavation when the wall was (photo by R. Carita, 2017). found (pho- to by R. Carita, 2017).

Figure 14. Drawing the East wall (photo by K. Kamyab,

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6. STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL EVIDENCES

6.1 LEVEL SEQUENCE The area now under research has been flattened with heavy machinery, which demolished structures and left marks in the archaeological remains we later identified. This also resulted in the removal of sediments whose significance is difficult to determine. In the excavated area, spanning 328 m2, the following three archaeological layers were identified: L1 - Surface level (SF), formed of sediments with a sandy matrix, very loose, with a grey colour (7.5R 5/1), part of which was blown by the wind. Small nodules of rammed earth were also identified. Its stratigraphic thickness was approximately 0.10 m. In some areas, narrow red and grey compact sand stains appeared. The layer yielded scarce contemporary pottery sherds and others from the 16th to the 20th century; as well as remains of glass objects and fauna, specifically fractured mollusc shells. L2 - Corresponds to sediments with a sandy matrix, not very compact, with a dark grey colour (7.5R 4/1) and ca. 0.20 m of thickness. It bore pottery sherds from the 17th and 18th century, as well as small artefacts and faunal remains. It corresponds to the occupation of the fortress and the spaces adjacent to it. L3 - Sands, not very cohesive and fine-grained, with a grey colour (7.5R 3/1). It corresponds to geological formation and, therefore, without archaeological content. It is a Holocene maritime deposition, in some cases containing the remains of molluscs (L3B) and where a succession of strata with a similar constitution can be recognized (L3A, L3B, L3C, L3D). A sounding 1.50 m in depth was made without reaching bedrock.

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Figure 15. Quelba/Kalba. Grid Unit 7, West section (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 16. Quelba/Kalba. Marks left on an old plastered floor by heavy machinery (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2017).

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6.2 FORTIFICATION REMAINS The excavated area revealed plastered floors and remains of a building formed by a plaster mass, with some small stones, specifically corresponding to the structure seen in the aerial photograph mentioned earlier and which should form part of the easternmost wall of the old Quelba/Kalba fortification. This building, oriented NNW-SSE (i.e. roughly North-South), and inclining towards the West on both tops, measures approximately 50 m in length and presents 2.60 m in width, although with some differences along its course. The difference in altimetry between the Northern and the Southern extremities is 0.41 m.

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Figure 17. Quelba/Kalba. Plan of the excavated area in 2017 (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 18. Quelba/Kalba. Large structure (corresponding to the foundations of the fortress wall), North-South oriented (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2017).

Figure 19. Quelba/Kalba. North-East corner of the large structure uncovered (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2017).

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6.3. POSTHOLES (A HOUSE?) In the area located to the South, on the East or exterior of the wall remains, sections of a plastered pavement with gypsum were also recognized, sometimes with small stones and where postholes were identified. One of them still had a wedge stone in situ. Postholes are more common in the Eastern area of the excavation, where they are very well identified as they pierced the plastered pavements. It is possible that such an accumulation corresponds to a house built from date-palm tree posts and branches. The circular postholes found have an average diameter of 0.130 m. When displaying oval outline, the average width is 0.140 m. These measures allowed us to conclude that the wooden trunks used in the construction had an average size between 0.120 m and 0.140 m in diameter. It is possible that some postholes, with oval outlines, received two trunks. The depth needed to fix the posts was hard to determine given the sandy character of the soil. However, we were able to verify that some of them were dug to about 0.20 m. The distribution of the postholes made in the plastered pavements and earth in Grid Units 19 to 24 seem to indicate a covered space – a house – with a rectangular plan, formed by wooden piles, whose walls would have been palm branches, possibly with a gabled roof. Six postholes define a 2.50 m long line, possibly corresponding to one of the top edges of that construction, while six other postholes define another line, perpendicular to the first one, 4.50 m long, possibly corresponding to one of the longer sides of the house. Another posthole line, with five elements parallel to the second line described, may correspond to the center beam of the gable roof. This construction would have occupied area of at least 11 m2. That area could correspond to an occupation of five people, a small family, given that most of the activities would have occurred outside.

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Ø (m) Depth (m)

KLB/GU19/PH1 0.160 0.130

KLB/GU19/PH2 0.140 0.120

KLB/GU20/PH1 0.140 x 0.160 0.120

KLB/GU20/PH2 * 0.100 x 0.140 0.080

KLB/GU21/PH1 0.110 0.160

KLB/GU21/PH2 0.280 x 0.340 0.140

KLB/GU22/PH1 0.120 x 0.160 0.070

KLB/GU22/PH2 0.120 0.070

KLB/GU23/PH1 0.100 0.170

KLB/GU23/PH2 0.120 0.200

KLB/GU23/PH3 0.160 x 0.240 0.160

KLB/GU23/PH4 0.120 0.180

KLB/GU23/PH5 0.160 0.190

KLB/GU23/PH6 0.100 x 0.120 0.170

KLB/GU24/PH1 0.100 x 260 0.090

KLB/GU24/PH2 0.160 0.170

KLB/GU24/PH3 0.100 0.080

KLB/GU24/PH4 0.140 0.090

KLB/GU24/PH5 0.140 x 0.250 0.160

Table 1. Quelba/Kalba. Posthole measurements. *Found with a stone wedge in situ.

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Figure 20. Figure 20. Quelba/Kalba. Plan of the excavated area of a plastered pavement with postholes denoting the existence of a house, and a section crossing four postholes (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 21. Quelba/Kalba. Postholes (photo by K. Ka- myab, 2017

Figure 22. Postholes (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2017

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Figure 23. Quelba/Kalba. Long house built of wooden posts with walls and roof made of palm leaves (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

Figure 24. Quelba/Kalba. House lined with palm leaves, next to the late fortification of Khor Kalba (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

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6.4. BASIN In an area between two pavements, a small basin with a tronco-conical shape was exposed. It was formed of small stones linked and plastered with gypsum. It contained the remains of plaster 0.15 m in thickness and measured 0.75 m in internal diameter, preserving walls to 0.40 m in maximum height. This was a receptacle used for producing gypsum plaster, used in wall and pavement construction.

Figure 25. Quelba/Kalba. Basin with gypsum-plastered walls (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 26. Quelba/Kalba. Basin, during excavation (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017)

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6.5. WELL 1 In the corner corresponding to the South-East area within the uncovered fortress walls, the remains of a fireplace (FP3) near the mouth of a round well was revealed. The well’s mouth was structured with stone blocks, with clay mortar, and measures 0.80 m in internal diameter. The top layer yielded ceramic sherds, as well as abundant and diverse faunal remains, mixed with brown-coloured soil (7.5YR 4/4) presenting a sandy matrix, very moist and with some charcoal. Due to time restrictions, the excavation did not go beyond a 0.30 m depth.

Figure 27. Quelba/Kalba. Well1, with circular mouth (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 28. Quelba/Kalba. Well with circular mouth (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2017).

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6.6. FIREPLACES

FIREPLACE 1 (GU 86) In the Northern area, immediately East of the large structure, the remains of a plastered pavement with gypsum were identified, over which numerous small pottery sherds were found, among them Chinese porcelain from the 18th and 19th centuries. An area with oval outline corresponding to a layer of black ashes and sands, at the top of Level 2, was also recognized, which seems to correspond to a fireplace. Measuring 0.50 m by 0.35 m, according to two orthogonal axes, with a maximum depth of 0.15 m.

FIREPLACE 2 (GU 7) Located South-East of the investigated area, with an oval outline, measuring 1.20 m by 0.70 m, according to two orthogonal axes and 0.10 m of maximum depth. Contains micro-layers of black sand and reddish clay interpolated with other less cohesive ones and light sands. No artefacts or other remains were found.

FIREPLACE 3 (GU 105) Identified in the South-West zone of the excavated area, immediately to the North-West of the mouth of Well 1. Formed of sands and some small stones (clasts), with signs of fire. It had a sub-circular outline measuring 0.85 m in diameter and 0.15 m in depth. Inside were found small fragments of pottery and charcoal.

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Figure 29. Quelba/Kalba. Detail of the plastered floor and Fireplace 1 (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 30. Quelba/Kalba. Detail of the plastered floor and Fireplace 3 (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

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6.7. SHELL DEPOSIT (GU 101) A set consisting of twenty-seven valves of marine gastropod Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798) of the Olividae Family (Latreille, 1825) was found in Layer 2 of Grid Unit 101. Although evidence of this species of mollusc are one of the most common in Quelba/Kalba, they usually appear dispersed. The finding of such a set, whose individual pieces have almost the same dimensions, may be evidence of an anthropic deposition, corresponding to different purposes. The fact that some specimens of Oliva bulbosa and Olivella sp. found in Quelba/Kalba show circular apical perforation leads to the hypothesis of their use as ornaments, namely in necklaces or bracelets.

Figure 31. Quelba/Kalba. Set of shells with an anthropic origin. Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798) (GU101/L2) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017).

Figure 32. Quelba/Kalba. Sieving of sediments for faunal remains (photo by K. Kamyab, 2017).

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7. MATERIAL CULTURE

With the exception of the artefacts from Well 1, a closed context, the remainder belong to a level forming a substantial diachrony, perhaps from the late 16th century, reaching the 17th and maybe the subsequent centuries. The archaeological site of Quelba/Kalba is, therefore, some kind of palimpsest where we have also found some early human activity, demonstrated by some Palaeolithic and/or Neolithic flint artefacts, alongside with some few remains from the 19th and 20th centuries. The great majority of the recovered artefacts are pottery fragments of diverse manufacture, chronology and functions, ranging from local or regional productions, to the majority being imports from Iran and some even from China. These are predominantly containers used for the transport and storage of water or other liquid substances; pots and pans for food cooking and bowls and plates to serve it; although a spindle whorl and a game piece, both made from fragments of bowl bottoms, have also been identified. Taking into account the current state of knowledge about historical pottery from the Oman Sea coast region, we can identify the following eight major production classes: Chinese porcelain (with blue or red colour decoration on a white surface, and polychrome); Persian faience (Kerman cobalt blue-on-white ware); underglaze painted ware (with blue, green or black decoration); light brown glazed ware; brown and dark green glazed ware (Bahl ware); incised light fine ware; red coarse ware; and black coarse ware. A larger sample will provide new classes and help establish types, forms, functions and possible origins. These features will be augmented by an essential analysis of the fabric, slip, painted decorations and glaze constituents.

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7.1. STONE ARTEFACTS Some flint tools dating to the Late Palaeolithic and/or Neolithic, long prior to the construction and use-life of the defensive structure in study, were discovered. In the area of Khor Kalba, several prehistoric settlements are known, namely shell-middens, whose chronology is, however, inaccurate (Philips and Jasinski, 2011, p. 14, fig. 1). - Stone artefacts from the Late Islamic period are represented by two fragments of a kohl (marwad) applicator in black chlorite (a stone that appears along the East edge of the Arabian Peninsula); two sling stones; a fragment of a possible spindle whorl made of chlorite; a wedge (using a basaltic stone pebble, and found in a post hole); and some pebbles with clear signs of having been used as hammerstones. - Baked bladelet (KLB/SF-3). Dark red flint (5R 3/3), with a sub-rectangular outline, a trapezoidal section and vertical and continuous flakes, along one of its largest edges. 0.026 m in length, 0.008 m in width, and 0.006 m in maximum thickness. - Burin dihedric over flake (KLB/GU43/L2-1). Grey flint (2.5YR 6/1), with a trapezoidal outline and section. Guards signs of the percussion bulb on the reverse side. 0.026 m in length, 0.013 m in width, in mesial volume, and 0.004 m in maximum thickness. - Borer over flake (KLB/GU90/L2-3). Dark red flint flake (7.5R 3/4) with an almost oval outline and a trapezoidal section. Preserves a cortical edge. 0.024 m in length, 0.016 m in width and 0.008 m in maximum thickness. - Bifacial point (arrowhead?) (KLB/GU107/L2-1). Reddish brown flint (7.5R 4/4), shows a sub-triangular outline, with two converged edges and a trapezoidal section. The lateral edges present oblique and continuous flaking. A larger negative flake, on both sides of the base, gives it a concave base. 0.018 m in length, 0.018 m in width, and 0.006 m in maximum thickness. - Prismatic core (KLB/GU55/L1-1). Dark red flint plate (7.5YR 4/3) with

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a prismatic form. We can recognize the front side where bladelets were obtained by the bipolar flake technique. 0.017 m in height, 0.019 min width, and 0.016 m in maximum thickness.

Figure 33. Quelba/Kalba. Prehistoric red and grey flint artefacts (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017).

- Core flank (KLB/GU11/L2-1). Dark grey flint (2.5Y · Sling stone (KLB/ GU1/L2-1). A white pebble with an ovoid shape. The surface shows pecking and signs of 4/1), with a sub-rectangular outline and trapezoidal section. Shows signs of flaking percussion on the two opposite edges. 0.021 m in length, 0.019 m in width, and 0.005 m in maximum thickness. - Prismatic core (KLB/GU49/L2-1). Grey quartzite (7.5R 6/1) with a prismatic form. Conserves cortical surface and negatives of some extracted rectangular flakes. 0.022 m in length, 0.015 m in width and 0.011 m in maximum thickness. - Kohl applicator or stick (KLB/GU98/L2-1). A fragment of the distal volume. Dark grey chlorite (5YR 4/1), showing a circular section and polished surface. 0.051 m in length, and 0.005 m in maximum diameter. - Kohl applicator or stick (KLB/GU 98/L2-2). A fragment of the proximal volume. Dark grey chlorite (5YR 4/1), showing a circular section and

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polished surface. 0.03 m in length, and 0.008 m in maximum diameter. - Spindle whorl (?) (KLB/GU78/L2-1). Fragment of dark grey chlorite (5YR 4/1). Approximately an eighth of the initial volume, showing a circular crown shape, with rounded edge on the larger side. 0.065 m in diameter, and 0.010 m in thickness. The central hole has a diameter of 0.024 m. - polishing. 0.052 m in length, 0.043 m in width, 0.036 m in maximum thickness and weighs 118 g. - Sling stone (KLB/GU60/L2-1). A grey coloured stone, with an ovoid shape, showing signs of pecking and polishing. Presents fractures in one of its edges. 0.048 m in length, 0.040 m in maximum thickness and weighs 108 g. - Stone wedge (KLB/GU20/PH2-1). A dark grey (10YR 5/1) basaltic (?) stone pebble fragment, roughly flaked, with semi-circular distal edge. Found inside a posthole, in its original position. 0.058 m in length, 0.050 m in width at the proximal volume, 0.035 m in maximum thickness and weighs 116 g. - Hammerstone (KLB/GU105/W1-8). A flat grey pebble, with sub-triangular outline and a flat ovoid section. It shows circular pecked stains in both sides’ centers. 0.085 m in length and 0.078 m in width, 0.022 m in maximum thickness, in the mesial volume and weighs 195 g. - Hammerstone (KLB/GU43/L2-4). A flat grey granitic pebble, with an elongated oval outline and a flat ovoid section. Shows signs of use on the edge of the distal volume. 0.116 m in length, 0.055 m in width, 0.032 m in maximum thickness on the distal volume, and weighs 323 g.

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Figure 34. Quelba/Kalba. Stone artefacts (kohl applicator fragments, spindle whorl fragment (?) and two sling stones) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017).

SLING STONES Two sling stones were found, as described above, one from a white coloured rock and the other grey. Similar small sling stones were found in the ruins of A’Ali settlement (Bahrain Island), dated between the 8th and 12th centuries (Sasaki and Sasaki, 2011, p. 24). It is not uncommon for spherical artefacts to appear in prehistoric contexts of different dates, carved from different rocks and with distinct dimensions. They are sometimes called ‘stone spheres’. The possible functions assigned to them generally comprises two broad categories: the hammerstones and the throwing weapons. Similar artefacts are known in subsequent periods going till the modern age where were used as sling stones, the smaller ones, and the larger ones as rock cannonballs, measuring up to 0.400 m in diameter. It is also possible that some of those artefacts, with diameters between 0.060 m and 0.100 m, belonged to bolas, a weapon known from prehistory to the present. A hand sling (funda in Latin) is a rudimentary weapon, made with leather

50 Issue 17 stripes or braided animal or vegetal fibers that uses the centrifugal force, transferred by the human arm, as a means of propulsion. A primitive cultural element, the hand sling can be used as a hunting weapon – evident since the Upper Palaeolithic or, maybe, since the Middle Palaeolithic, either resulting from polycentric invention or have had universal diffusion – it is still in use both among the last hunter-gatherer societies as among many pastoral ones, like some in the current days. It was used in the Aegean Sea area frequently from the Neolithic and mainly during the Bronze Age (Rex González, 1953, pp. 275-277; Vutiropoulos, 1991). This type of projectile was common in the Iberian Peninsula since the Neolithic (5th millennium B.C.). Pliny the Elder (Naturalis Historiae, VII, 57) attributes the invention of such a throwing weapon to the Phoenicians, though it had been widely used in much earlier times and in antiquity, as documented in some iconography, not only by that people but also by Hittites, Persians, Assyrians, Mesopotamians, Cretans, Greeks, Etruscans, Romans and Egyptians. At Hassuna, Iraq, clay missiles for sling were found in a context dating to 5,000 B.C. (Korfmann, 1973, p. 39). In 1922, Howard Carter found, in an annex chamber of Tutankhamun’s tomb, one basket containing toys and some slings, possibly used by the pharaoh in his childhood. Other small pebbles were laid on the ground but were probably part of the same set, which Carter archaeologist connected to the slings (Lindblom, 1940, p. 13).

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Figure 35. Quelba/Kalba. Stone artefacts (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

A known passage from the Old Testament (The First Book of Samuel), describes the success of young David, eighth son of Jesse, in the struggle against the Philistine giant and champion Goliath of Gath, shooting him down with a straight shot of sling in his forehead. Homer refers in the Iliad to the Locrians using slings during the siege of Troy, in Anatolian shore. Polybius (IV, 61, 2) made reference to Achaean slingers, who were part of the Philip of Macedon’s army. Livy (XX, 21, 12) mentions the famous funditores (slingers) from Mauritania and Balearic Islands (the latter place name may derive from the verb ballein, which in Greek means throw) that, during the Second Punic War (2nd century B.C.), fought as Hannibal’s troops (Lindblom, 1940, p. 40). But to Livy, the Achaean slingers were the most

52 Issue 17 skilful in antiquity (Korfmann, 1973, p. 39). Diodorus Siculus, writing in the 1st century B.C., reports the presence of Balearic slingers at the Eknomos battle, in which the Carthaginians defeated Agathocles of Syracuse (ca 307 B.C.). Sling stones have been found in prehistoric Portuguese, Spanish, French and Irish passage graves, carved from different local stones, measuring between 0.020 m and 0.070 m in diameter, reaffirming the votive value of such artefacts, in addition to the primary functions already indicated (Eogan, 1990, p. 126). Slings were thus used as war or hunting weapons, in this latter case mainly for killing small and medium-sized animals; but also in the direction, defense and control of herds, particularly sheep and goats; to chase away birds and other predators from the farmlands; or as toys or entertainment for children. Sling stones are easy to obtain and can serve these purposes, being naturally spherical, ovoid or polyhedral pebbles, of different rocks, stones with higher or lower degrees of carving, by flaking, and then regularized by pecking and even polishing. Ceramic spheres can also be used, as we uncovered some in Chalcolithic contexts in the South of Portugal, as well as metal projectiles. The spherical shape is the most common, as it allows for better balance in the launch, smaller trajectory deviations, and therefore better aim and efficiency. Dimensions and weight, which contributed to the larger range of projectiles, as well as for its speed and impact force, vary little in the Portuguese Neolithic and Chalcolithic examples. With diameters from 0.030 m to 0.054 m, with an average of 0.040 m, and average weight of 90 g, they are somewhat smaller than the examples of Quelba/Kalba (118 g and 108 g), which belong to recent historical contexts (Gomes, Ninitas and Borralho, 2012-13, pp. 38-42). Used in open field, slings can throw small projectiles, weighing between 20 g and 50 g, up to 200 m away and at high velocity. For example, a 30 g projectile can reach the speed of 100 km/h and make a remarkable impact (Vutiropoulos, 1991, p. 279). More robust slings and trained shooters could throw bullets up to half a kilogram in weight and more than 0.060 m in diameter, capable of

53 Issue 17 causing serious damage and, above all, death to those who had been hit by them (Gomes, 2002, pp. 132-136). Many societies used, and still use, slings across continents, but we can identify a denser concentration of them on the Mediterranean shores.

Figure 36. Sling use across the world during ancient and modern times (after M. V. Gomes).

HAMMERSTONES Artefacts of opportunity, for hammering or crushing from early prehistory till today. Pebbles of resistant rocks are used, with medium dimensions, whose ovoid forms, somewhat flattened, allow for a good grasp by the human hand. In most instances, as with an example from Quelba/Kalba (KLB/GU105/ W1-8), show sets of small pecks on one or both of the larger surfaces, which result from hammering resistant materials, from stone to seeds. They exhibit identical characteristics seen in manual grinding stones. However, other hammerstones display traces of use in one or both extremities, as an excavated example shows (KLB/GU43/L2-4).

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KOHL APPLICATORS Suitable for darkening the eye-lashes and eyebrows, protecting the eyes against blowing dust and as a cosmetic from the 3rd millennium B.C., the kohl applicators are made from finely ground antimony sulphide, lead sulphide or the soot of burnt sunflowers and vegetal essences. They are used from Morocco to India and are made of diverse material, such as metal, wood, ivory, bone or stone, like the two found at Quelba/Kalba.

7.2. SEASHELL ARTEFACTS We unearthed a small pendant, with a cordiform outline and a little circular perforation near the top edge, made from a marine mollusc valve. We also collected a small amount of little cylindrical beads made from Dentalium sp. seashells, and other shell valves bearing anthropogenic perforations. - Pendant (KLB/GU5/L2-1). Fragment of a marine mollusc valve with a heart-shaped outline. Perforated near its superior edge. 0.017 m in height and 0.020 m in maximum width. - Bead (KLB/GU43/L2-2). Almost spherical in shape, uses a marine mollusc valve, whose apex was cut, showing a perforation. 0.006 m in diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU42/L2-3). Sub-cylindrical in shape, corresponds to a Dentalium sp. valve’s mesial portion. 0.015 m in length, 0.003 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU106/L2-2). Sub-cylindrical in shape, corresponds to a Dentalium sp. valve’s meso-distal portion. 0.014 m in length, 0.002 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU123/L2-2). Sub-cylindrical in shape, corresponds to a Dentalium sp. valve’s mesial portion. 0.008 m in length, 0.002 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU110/L2-2). Sub-cylindrical in shape, corresponds to a Dentalium sp. valve’s meso-distal portion. 0.008 m in length, 0.001 m in maximum diameter.

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- Bead (KLB/GU56/L2-2). Sub-cylindrical in shape, corresponds to a Dentalium sp. valve’s mesial portion. 0.007 m in length, 0.001 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU123/L2-7). Bitronco-conical in shape, corresponds to a Conomurex persicus (Swainson, 1821) valve and shows a perforation with a circular outline at mid-ventral surface. 0.043 m in length and 0.023 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU101/L2-1). Ovoid in shape, corresponds to a Polinices mammilla (Linnaeus, 1758) valve and shows a big oval perforation at the mid-dorsal surface. The basal opening was artificially enlarged. 0.020 m in length and 0.015 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU16/L2-1). Ovoid in shape, corresponds to an Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798) valve, showing a circular perforation in the apex. 0.048 m in length and 0.028 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU5/L2-2). Oval in shape, corresponds to an Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798) valve, showing a circular perforation in the apex. 0.038 m in length and 0.021 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU5/L2-3). Oval in shape, corresponds to an Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798) valve, showing a circular perforation in the apex. 0.032 m in length and 0.016 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/SF-11). Oval in shape, corresponds to an Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798) valve, showing a circular perforation in the apex. 0.040 m in length and 0.022 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU5/L2-4). Almost hemispherical in shape, corresponds to a Nerita albicilla Linnaeus, 1758, showing a circular perforation in the center of the upper surface. 0.006 m in length and 0.002 m in maximum diameter. - Pendant (KLB/SF-12). Utilizes an almost hemispherical valve of Anadara uropigimelana (Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1827), with a circular perforation at the apex. 0.042 m in length and 0.016 m in maximum thickness.

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Figure 37. Quelba/Kalba. Seashell artefacts (pendant and beads) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017).

- Bead (KLB/GU56/L2-9). Ovoid in shape and corresponds to an Olivella sp. valve, perforated in the apex. 0.016 m in length and 0.007 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU82/L2-4). Ovoid in shape and corresponds to an Olivella sp. valve, perforated at the apex. It measures 0.022 m in length and 0.011 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU92/L2-4). Uses an ovoid Olivella sp. valve, perforated at the apex. 0.026 m in length and 0.014 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU82/L2-1). Uses an ovoid Olivella sp. valve, perforated at the apex. 0.030 m in length and 0.016 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU82/L2-4). Ovoid in shape and corresponds to an Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798) valve, with a circular perforation at the apex. 0.039 m in length and 0.022 m in maximum diameter. - Net or loom weight (KLB/SF-13). Ovoid in shape and corresponds to an Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus, 1758) valve, roughly perforated at the apex. 0.052 m in length and 0.015 m in maximum thickness. - Net or loom weight (KLB/SF-14). Ovoid in shape and corresponds to an Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus, 1758) valve, roughly perforated at the apex.

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0.068m in length and 0.022m in maximum thickness. - Net or loom weight (KLB/GU43/L2-5). Ovoid in shape and corresponds to an Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus, 1758) valve, roughly perforated at the apex. 0.056 m in length and 0.020 m in maximum thickness. - Net or loom weight (KLB/GU43/L2-6). Ovoid in shape and corresponds to an Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus, 1758) valve, roughly perforated in the apex. 0.066 m in length and 0.022 m in maximum thickness.

Figure 38. Quelba/Kalba. Shell beads. A. Conomurex persicus (Swainson, 1821); B. Polinices mammilla (Linnaeus, 1758); C. Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798); D. Olivella sp.; E. Nerita albicilla Linnaeus, 1758 (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

Figure 39. Quelba/Kalba. Shell weights made of Anadara ant quata (Linnaeus, 1758) valves (GU43/L2) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

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SHELL BEADS Small cylindrically-shaped beads that use portion of the Dentalium sp. shell, or tusk shells, are known in the South-East of the Arabian Peninsula in contexts dating back to Prehistory. Necklaces and bracelets made with Dentalium sp. shell sectors and stone beads are known from tombs in Mleiha (2,300-2,100 B.C.) and Jebel alBuhais (ca 2,000 B.C.) exhibited at the Sharjah Archaeological Museum. On those archaeological contexts are also known pendant made of shells and spherical marine mollusc valves transformed into beads, like example from Quelba/Kalba (KLB/GU43/L2-2). Dentalium shells and artefacts made with them are very common in the Andaman Islands (Gulf of Bengal), where they were used as currency (Quiggin, 1992, p. 199).

SHELL MONEY The presence of Monetaria moneta (Linnaeus, 1758) and Monetaria annulus (Linnaeus, 1758) valves at Quelba/Kalba, namely three exemplars of the first specie of marine gastropod mentioned and ten exemplars of the second specie can be related to their use as paleomoney, named ‘porcelain money’ or cowries. The name ‘cowry’, universally spread from the Hindi and Urdu designation kauri, derives from the Sanskrit word kaparda. Those shells are also known as porcelain, from French and ultimately Latin (porculus, little pig), being still used by the Portuguese and others; as well as the name búzios (whelks), in French bouges, whence are derived boejies and boesies (Quiggin, 1992, pp. 26, 30). The use of cowries as objects of exchange and representation dates back to prehistoric times in the Mediterranean, seen in exemplars of Monetaria moneta (Cypraea moneta) in Chalcolithic contexts (3rd millennium B.C.) of the Western Iberian Peninsula; and later on the Etruscan world through its contacts with the Eastern Mediterranean, where they were already appreciated. In fact, it seems that they appeared in the Pre-Dynastic Egypt, but certainly they

59 Issue 17 occurred during the 1st millennium A.D. in Sub-Saharan Africa, where their monetary value was recognized, and remained in use, with some variations, up to the 20th century. In the al-Madam region, 50 km from the shore of the Oman Sea, Monetaria annulus valves were found in archaeological contexts of the 6th-5th centuries B.C. (Morales and Llorente-Rodríguez, 2016, p. 141). Sulayman, an Arab merchant in the 9th century, refers the shell money used in the Maldives Islands, which is confirmed in the following century by the Arab historian Masudi of Baghdad (Quiggin, 1992, p. 28). In 1068, El Bekri refers to the presence of shell money in Sudan (Kangha), also mentioned in Mali and Gao during the 14th century by authors like Al-Omari and Ibn Battuta. Its value was then high, given that one dinar was worth 1150 cowries. Marco Polo wrote in 1297-98 about the monetary importance of the cowries, saying that they were taken from India to China (Yunnan Province). In mid-15th century, Cadamosto observed its use in Mauritania and Leo Africanus, in early 16th century, attests its appreciation, given that 400 cowries were worth a ducat (Saul, 1974, p. 79; Rivallain, 1986, pp. 32, 33; Quiggin, 1992, pp. 29, 31). Monetaria moneta (Linnaeus, 1758) and Monetaria annulus (Linnaeus, 1758), are gastropod molluscs belonging to the Cypraeidae family (Rafinesque, 1815) that has more than 160 varieties. Its habitat is the deep waters of the ‘warm seas’, the Indian and the Pacific Oceans. However, Monetaria moneta is most common in the area of the Lakshadweep and Maldives Islands, in South-West of the Indian subcontinent, whilst Monetaria annulus is primarily found in the waters of the Pemba Island, Zanzibar, and up to Mozambique in Eastern Africa, but also in the Philippine Sea. The Maldives were known as ‘Divah Kanzah’ or ‘Cowry Islands’, and the major commercial center for shell money was Bengal, as reported by Pyrard de Laval (Castro and Bouchon, 1998) in the early 17th century (1601-1611), where the Portuguese supplied cowries as well as pepper and cotton fabrics that were traded on in China for rice; or the Malabar Coast, Arabian Gulf and Red Sea. Such trade also occurred in Goa and Cochin, from where the products then left for the Western coasts of

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Africa, and were integrated in the commerce of black slaves. Other European merchants were interested in the trade of cowries, like the Dutch (Saul, 1974, pp. 80, 81; Quiggin, 1992, pp. 27, 28, 30; Boyajian, 1993, p. 225). A third species, Cyprea errones – with shells similar to the aforementioned two and also having monetary value –, is common of the Pacific area (Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, Marshall Islands and Philippines) (Rivallain, 1985, pp. 28, 29). From the Pacific and mainly from the Indian Ocean, shell money or cowrie currency reached Afghanistan and Persia; and, through the Red Sea, to the Mediterranean (Egypt and Maghreb); and, from there, passing to Sudan and Sub-Saharan Africa, through the caravan routes that crossed the Sahara, reached a huge level of diffusion owing to several factors, such as its oceanic and remote origin, shape, colour, shine, difficulty to break; difficulty in defacing; having equal value; ease in counting, handling, and in transport; impossibility to counterfeit, but also able to generate myths and symbolic biography (charms and amulets). Their large dispersion stemming from their monetary use – as well as the ornamental and connection to magical concepts – was also present in Asia, America and Europe, through the long distance trade provided by European colonial interaction. Aside from Bengal, Bombay was, in the 16th century, according to Gaspar Correa (1858) in Lendas da Índia (Legends of India), one of the largest cowrie port trade centers (Sousa, 1967, p. 41). Cowries were classified as ‘the most widely used currency the world has ever known’ (Saul, 1974, p. 77). In Portugal, cowries appear in archaeological contexts of the 16th to 18th centuries, which indicate trade of that species added to the trade of Olivanocillaria nana, mentioned in the context of the Kingdom of Kongo by Filippo Pigafetta (1881) in 1591 and Olfert Dapper in 1668. Olivanocillaria nana was harvested on the Angola shores but mainly on the Island of Luanda, valued before the Portuguese arrival by the Kingdom of Kongo, known as n’zimbo, zimbro or zimbo, a name that then passed on to designating money. However, the intervention of colonial authorities in several African countries

61 Issue 17 contributed towards the demonetization of different local currencies, like the cowry shells, in order to best control the local economies, by the mid-20th century (Sousa, 1967, pp. 1520, 43; Rivallain, 1985, p. 265; Quiggin, 1992, pp. 46, 47; Fuller, 2009, p. 60).

Figure 40. Quelba/Kalba. Shell money or cowries. Monetaria moneta (Linnaeus, 1758) (GU43/L2) (A) and Monetaria annulus (Linnaeus, 1758) (GUs 8, 16, 58, 123/L2) (B) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

7.3. GLASS ARTEFACTS We have recovered ten glass bracelet fragments, some of them with small dimensions; a bottle base fragment, with a very light green colour; and some flat glass fragments. - Bracelet (KLB/GU7/L2-5). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.100 m in diameter and 0.009 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/SF-5). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.048 m in diameter and 0.005 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/SF-6). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.050 m in diameter and 0.005 m in maximum thickness.

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- Bracelet (KLB/SF-4). Fragment of translucent light-brown coloured glass (5YR 6/6), showing a plano-convex section and hollow inner. 0.060 m in diameter and 0.004 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/GU1/L2-2). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.048 m in diameter and 0.007 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/GU94/L2-1). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.060 m in diameter and 0.006 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/GU90/L2-1). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.070 m in diameter and 0.005 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/SF-7). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.080 m in diameter and 0.012 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/GU6/L2-2). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section and two grooves in the exterior surface. 0.080 m in diameter and 0.010 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/SF-8). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.090 m in diameter and 0.010 m in maximum thickness. - Bottle (KLB/GU123/L2-3). Fragment corresponding to a section of the concave bottom. Made of blown glass, aqua green colour. 0.090 m in diameter at the bottom and the average thickness of the walls is 0.005 m. - Several very small and thin fragments of greenish-blue glass were recovered in GU 45, 56 (W1), 86 and 107, belonging to flat surfaces, perhaps from windows. It was impossible to determine the pane sizes or the methods of manufacture.

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BRACELETS Pieces of glass bracelets, shows solid corps, with planoconvex or semi- circular but slightly pointed cross sections. Only one of them has an elliptical section and is hollow on the inside. They are made of opaque black or translucent brown-coloured glass. Comparable fragments of black monochrome and undecorated glass bracelets have been found elsewhere in the region. Examples include those from a settlement area of A’Ali (Bahrain Island), dating between the 8th to the 12th century (Sasaki and Sasaki, 2011, p. 24). Other fragments of black glass bracelets have been excavated in Kashm Nadir, South of Ras al-Khaimah and in Husaiyy (Cardi and Doe, 1971, pp. 250-257). Twelve fragments of black glass bracelets were found in Sa’īdi (al- Qurainīyah) and one fragment of dark green glass bracelet in al-Qusūr (Failakah Island), both were locations where the Portuguese had a presence and could be attributed to the 16th and 17th centuries. Their measures varied between 0.050 m and 0.080 m in diameter. Other exemplars collected in Hormuz present a wide diachrony, from the 14th century to the 17th century. In al-Huwailah (Qatar), similar pieces were dated to the 18th century (Patitucci and Uggeri, 1984, pp. 75, 78, 82, 88, 113-115, 200, 374, 375). Fragments of glass bracelets were found in 17th century context from the Portuguese Fort Jesus (Mombasa, Kenya), whose origin was assigned to East Indian production (Kirkman, 1974, pp. 158, 317). At other Portuguese and Spanish colonial sites, glass bracelets have also been found, such as Qsar es-Seguir in Morocco (15th and 16th centuries), La Isabela (1493-98) in the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Real in Haiti (1503-78) (Deagan, 2002, pp. 134, 135).

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Figure 41. Quelba/Kalba. Glass bracelet fragments (photo by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 42. Quelba/Kalba. Glass bracelets and a bottle base fragment (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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With a long tradition in India and in the Islamic World, as well as in Europe, glass bracelets were produced in Syria (Qsar el-Hayr), Palestine (Hebron), Yemen, Qatar, Egypt (Quseir al-Qasim), Ethiopia and India (Patitucci and Uggeri, 1984, pp. 374, 375; Spaer, 1994, pp. 46, 57). They were mainly used by teenagers and young women (as also happened Europe), on arms and legs, sometimes in pairs or in series. Those with smaller dimensions could be hung from necklaces or worn by children. Examples with a 0.053 m diameter were recovered from Qsar es-Seguir, two of them were found adorning both wrists of a teenage female exhumed in the cemetery of the main church. The origin of such glass artefacts found in Iberian Peninsula and North Africa could be the Barcelona region (Spain) or Murano (Italy) (Redman, 1986, p. 204). Glass bracelets from the post medieval period in Palestine show diameters ranging from less than 0.050 m to 0.075 m. Perhaps many of those artefacts were made in Hebron, the main glassmaking site in Levant from the 14th to the 19th century (Spaer, 1994, pp, 46, 48). To M. Spaer (1994, p. 56) the 14th and 15th centuries ‘can be viewed as the golden age of Islamic glass bracelets’.

BOTTLS Glass bottles were used, like nowadays, to contain and/or transport liquids, from liquors to pharmaceutical products or water. The fragment recovered at Quelba/Kalba seems to correspond to the bottom of a glass wine bottle, but its small dimensions make the chronological attribution difficult. One thing is certain: that the production of such artefact was exogenous to the Arabian Peninsula. Formal comparison with European glass bottles and the glass colour, namely with English wine bottles, indicates a late 18th century date (ca 1770) (Hume, 1991, p. 67).

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Figure 43. Quelba/Kalba. General view of the excavation photo by K. Kamyab, 2017.

7.4. METAL ARTEFACTS The archaeological work at Quelba/Kalba yielded only one iron nail and two coins. - Coin (KLB/GU105/L2-1). Bronze, with both surfaces very damaged. One side shows an encircled Islamic text and on the opposite side we can see what is commonly identified as a cypress tree (Cypress sempervirens L. sp.). It should correspond to a false, a Safavid Dynasty currency used from the 17th century till 19th century, with large circulation in the Arabian Gulf. This example was minted in the reign of Shah Abbas III (1732-1736). 0.019 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/GU114/L1-1). Bronze, a quarter anna, very well preserved. On the obverse, in Arabic, it is possible to read ‘Oman Fessul bin Turkee, Sultan’ and, on the reverse, in the Latin alphabet, ‘FESSUL BIN TURKEE IMAN OF MUSCAT AND OMAN’. The year attributed to this coin’s emission is 1898 (1315 H.). 0.025 m in diameter.

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A recently published Safavid Dynasty coin, minted ca 1733 (1154 H.), at Shushtar (Iran), during the Shah Abbas III’s reign, also shows the cypress tree (Alaedini, 2013, pp. 78, 102).

Figure 44. Quelba/Kalba. Two bronze coins, showing both sides (photo by J. Gonçalves).

7.5. CERAMIC ARTEFACTS CHNESE PORELAN (M. Varela Gomes and J. Pedro Henri-ques). According to some written sources, Chinese trading by ship with the Arabian Gulf coasts date back to the 8th century. Existing, in the Tang Dynasty era, in Canton, a trading post which also hosted Arab and Persian merchants (Gray, 1964-66, p. 24). Chinese porcelain started to appear in Middle East during the 13th and 14th centuries, according to archaeological evidence, namely stoneware and

68 Issue 17 celadon pieces, mainly from the Calicut port in India, showing an important diffusion in the area of the Arabian Gulf and Oman Sea coast (Sohar) over the next century. It was Ibn Battuta (1340) who described the importance of Calicut as a trading post for the Chinese productions, mainly porcelain, in that region of India, supplying the shores of the Arabian Gulf and from South Arabia to the Eastern Africa (Gray, 1964-68, pp. 28, 29; Pirazzoli-t’Serstevens, 2004). Afterwards, the trade grew in volume, particularly from the early/middle 16th century onwards, when – first stimulated through commerce with Portugal, which controlled maritime trade between China and India –, mass production of export porcelain began in the Dehua and Zhangzhou kilns (Fujian Province) (Ziolkowski, 2002, p. 224). Chinese porcelain fragments from the great Ming Dynasty (Late Ming) to the 19th century are known from archaeological sites on the Arabian coastline in both Arabian Gulf and Oman Sea, namely at Failakah (Kuwait), Julf r (Ras al-Khaimah), Sir f and Kilwa, among others (Cardi and Doe, 1971, pp. 249, 250, 260-264; Power, 2015, pp. 12-14). Forty-eight fragments of Chinese porcelain were collected during the archaeological campaign at Quelba/Kalba. Of those we were able to identify the original shape of twenty-two: twelve dishes of various dimensions; nine bowls; and one small teapot lid handle. From these fragments we highlight, due to its rarity, one piece: a bowl bottom painted with circular frames containing Arabic epigraphs (KLB/GU110/L2-1). The decoration with several frames, of which only two sections remain, separated by another, showing four small-petalled flowers. The writing was made with a very thin brush and the cursive Arabic letters reproduce the diacritical marks and other script symbols with an exquisite Oriental geographical scope. In the bands, or frames, there is a chain of brief invocations to God, preceded by the formula ‘In the name of God’. It resembles a litany made with epithets of the divinity, adjectives and names that refer some of its qualities. Perhaps it shows a verse from the Koran (LIX, 2224) where one finds ninety-nine of

69 Issue 17 the most beautiful names to replace the word God (Allh in Arabic and among Muslims), although the ones showed here are not in those particular verses. On the two frames, starting from the upper part, we can partially read the following:

A possible translation can be: ‘[In name of] G[od… In name of Go]d, exalted/glorified be [His Majesty] / [...] In name of God, the Healer. In name of Go[d ...]’ (translation and comments by Carmen Barceló Torres). - The first porcelain made specifically for the Islamic world appeared during the reign of Yongle Emperor (1403-1424), but it is during the reign of Zhengde Emperor (1506-1521) – who, some authors say, himself converted to Islam – that those manufactures gain greater visibility and imitate more closely an Islamic style (Beurdeley, 1969, p. 230). - Although unusual, containers inscribed with Koran verses and the name of God, in the Arabic calligraphy, were produced in China in the first half of the 17th century, under foreign requests (Cardi and Doe, 1971, p. 263; Crick, 2010, pp. 380, 381). - Several fragments with pseudo-calligraphic elements in cobalt blue may be part of the same production as the bottom of a bowl found in Julf r (Cardi and Doe, 1971, fig. 46-9). - The inscribed bowl of Quelba/Kalba presents decorative similarities with a specimen kept at the Guimet Museum (Paris), dated to the end of the 18th century (Beurdeley, 1969, no. 27, p. 159); or with another specimen currently held at the Victoria and Albert Museum, London, with Koranic verses and invocations of the Prophet with black-coloured inscriptions, also dated to ca 1775 (Te-K’un, 1984, p. 136).

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- The Mottahedeh Collection (New York, USA) also keeps such an inscribed specimen, where we can find the same decoration of stylized flowers painted in famille rose enamels, as shown by the Quelba/Kalba fragment (Howard and Ayers, 1978, p. 470). - Apart from the Arabic epigraphics in circular frames, some of the pieces discussed have a quadrangular medallion (‘magic square’)(1) at the center divided into sixteen squares, into which are inscribed numbers from 41 to 56, whose sum, in every direction (including in the diagonals), is always 194 (Beurdeley, 1969, p. 230). - These objects were exclusively destined for the Islamic market, not only in India and Persia but also Indonesia and Malaysia (Beurdeley, 1969, p. 230), as well as the Arabian Gulf, as this Quelba/Kalba fragment demonstrates. - Looking at the polychrome Chinese porcelain in the set now brought to light, examples painted in red, black, green and pink colours can be found, namely bowl or dish bottoms, a small rim of a dish, and the wall of a small cup. The latter presents minuscule blue dots over the glaze, a feature enabling its dating (KLB/GU123/L1-1). In fact, blue dots over glazing occur among pieces in European collections, mainly from the end of the 18th century and more commonly in the early 19th century, as one can see in some of the Ricardo Espírito Santo Silva Foundation (Lisbon) specimens (Matos et alii, figs 62 and 63, pp. 76, 77), as well as in the Reeves Center Collection (Washington) (Litzenburg and Bailey, p. 149, fig. 140; p. 157, fig. 149). - At Quelba/Kalba, a small fragment of a dish rim decorated with a famille rose pattern was found, showing small details in green, which corresponds to a phytomorphic frame. This decoration presents clear affinity with pieces consumed in Europe, mainly from mid-18th century onwards.

(1) Magic squares are an arithmetic shape of Chinese origin, where they are known as Lo-Shu. Documented at least since the 1st century A.D. in Ta-Tai Li-chi (Te-K’un, 1984, p. 138), they were used since the 9th century in horoscopes composed by Arab astrologists and could be held by their owners as inheritances, mainly for medicinal purposes (Howard and Ayers, 1978, p. 470). With a clear symbolic meaning, these objects were believed to possess protective magical powers. While the text could be recited as a way to keep evil away, the medallion served as a talisman. Throughout the Islamic world, these objects were considered to be imbued with healing powers, a case in point being the belief that if a pregnant woman was to sit on one, she would give a painless and easy birth (Te-K’un, 1984, pp. 138, 140).

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- The other remains identified – fragments of rims, bottoms of small dishes or saucers, and the bottom of a small bowl – present such diminutive dimensions that it makes it nearly impossible for us to establish their chronology. Of these, five fragments are of a cup with red and green decoration, highly faded and difficult to see. The remaining four pieces belong most likely to the same artefact, and present a similar decorative composition: small vertical frames, circular on top, separated with a decorative motif that look like small chains, and highly stylized phytomorphic elements painted in red and famille rose enamels. - A bowl bottom with a high ring foot, thick walls and painted on the outer surface with a green glaze and small details in black and red, leads us comparison with examples from the Zhangzhou province (South of China) production (KLB/GU58/L1-1). Two other fragments may present the same chronology, those being bottoms of dishes or bowls with thick walls, decorated in cobalt blue over white, in which a circular frame can be observed in biscuit, characteristic of late 18th and early 19th century productions. Usually, they also present the bottom and the foot in biscuit, as this characteristic made it easier to stack the dishes inside the kiln while firing, preventing the glaze from melting and gluing the pieces together. As stated, the blue yet greyish coloured paint and faded contours of the most complete Quelba/Kalba exemplar lead us to comparisons with these productions (KLB/SF10). - A set of eight fragments seem to belong to the same piece (KLB/GU55/ L2-1), as they present decorative compositions formed with highly stylized shou characters arranged radially along the inner surface of a dish of approximately 0.255 m in diameter. Three of these fragments present remains of a borderline that delimits a central medallion composed of stylized ruy heads. - The same stylization of the shou character can be seen in a rim fragment of a small bowl (KLB/GU55/L2-2). Dishes and cups with the same type of decoration were recovered from the Diana shipwreck cargo (English East

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India Company), which sank in the Straits of Malacca (1817) (1); and from the Chinese junk Tek Sing, which sank in the South China Sea (1822)(2) and whose salvaged cargo was sold in the late 20th century by different European auctioneers. The bottom of another cup painted in cobalt blue over white shows similarities with some examples from these cargoes. - Formally identical to the dish described above is another specimen (KLB/ GU110/L2-6), where part of a chrysanthemum flower can be seen, as well as traces of wavy lines, similar to a piece of Reeves Center Collection (Washington, D.C.), also from the Diana Cargo. A fragment of a vessel with a similar decoration was found in al-Qurainīyah (Failakah Island, Kuwait) (Patitucci and Uggeri, 1984, pl. XLIX). Those are pieces with very schematic chrysanthemum flowers painted in cobalt blue, on the inner surface and in centre medallion, filled with abundant wavy lines around. Such lines have been interpreted by some authors as seashells or highly stylized Arabic inscriptions (Litzenburg and Bailey, p. 237, fig. 238). - A small tronco-conical handle, most likely belonging to a teapot lid, used in the consumption of tea and/or coffee, was also found. The small dimensions of the fragment do not allow us to establish a precise chronology, although based on its formal (e.g. the type of handle) and decorative features, we can say that they date after the late 17th century. - The remaining fragments, decorated in cobalt blue on white surfaces have such small dimensions that make it impossible to assign them any definite classification or chronology. Of those we must mention a fragment of a ring-footed base decorated with two horizontal lines, painted in a blue and orange base, with such coloration probably being due to the migration of ferruginous salts towards the surface of the walls, a characteristic of Chinese productions of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. - Bowl (KLB/GU110/L2-1). Fragment of a ring-footed base. Fabric is very well refined and compact, white in colour, somewhat greyish and with a dull

(1) https://www.patergratiaorientalart.com/home/78. (2) http://www.koh-antique.com/discovery/teksing1.html.

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glaze. The inner surface of the bottom depicts remains of two frames, with an inscription written in Arabic in a red colour, that intercalate with bands decorated with pink floral motives. 0.120 m foot diameter and a 0.002 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU123/L1-1). Fragment of a ring-footed base. Fabric is very well refined and compact, white in colour. The glaze is shiny but somewhat greyish. The outer surface of the wall bears residue of polychrome painting decoration. 0.022 m foot diameter and a 0.002 m average wall thickness. - Dish (KLB/GU123/L2-5). Fragment of a ring-footed base. Fabric is very well refined and compact, white in colour. The glaze is not very shiny. In the inner surface of the wall bears residue of a red painted line. 0.088 m foot diameter and a 0.002 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU55/L2-1). Rim fragment with semicircular lip section. Fabric is very well refined and compact, white in colour. Booth surfaces glazed light bluish. The inner surface shows series of shou character in cobalt blue. 0.156 m rim diameter and a 0.004 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU55/L2-2). Rim fragment with slightly everted, semi- circular lip section. The fabric is very well refined and compact, white in colour, somewhat greyish. Both surfaces present light bluish glaze. The outer surface shows a series of shou character decoration in cobalt blue. 0.075 m rim diameter and a 0.002 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU110/L2-6). Rim fragment with a semicircular lip section. Fabric is very well refined and compact, white and somewhat greyish in colour. Both surfaces present light bluish glaze, with phytomorphic decoration in cobalt blue. 0.220 m rim diameter and a 0.004m average wall thickness. - Large bowl (KLB/SF-10). Fragment of a ring-footed base. Fabric is very well refined and compact, white and somewhat greyish in colour. The glaze is shiny but presents, on the inside of the bottom, a circular crown without glaze, which indicates similar piece that overlapped this one while in the

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kiln. 0.180 m in foot diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU58/L1-1). Fragment of a high ringfooted base. Fabric is very well refined and compact, white in colour. The glaze is shiny but somewhat greyish. The outer surface of the wall displays remains of painted decoration in green, red and black. 0.110 m base diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness.

Figure 45. Quelba/Kalba. Chinese porcelain (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 46. Quelba/Kalba. Porcelain sherds (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017).

Rim Wall Bottom Lid Total SF 1 1 6 8 GU3 1 1 GU7 1 1 GU8 1 1 GU9 1 1 GU26 1 1 GU45 1 1 GU51 1 1 GU55 2 2 GU58 1 1 2 GU59 4 5 9 GU60 1 1 GU84 1 1 GU86 1 1 2 GU90 1 1 GU97 1 1 GU100 1 1 GU105 2 1 3 GU106 1 1 GU107 1 1 GU110 1 1 2 GU113 1 1 GU121 1 1 GU123 1 3 4 Total 14 18 15 1 48 Table 2. Quelba/Kalba. Chinese porcelain. Chart 1. Quelba/Kalba. Chinese porcelain.

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KERMAN COBALT BLUE-ON-WHITE WARE During the 17th century, Kerman kilns, in modern Iran, produced faience, with floral cobalt blue-on-white matte glazed surface, in an attempt to replicate the greatly valued and expensive Late Ming Chinese porcelain. - Although it is not very common at archaeological sites in the Arabian Peninsula, this pottery group occurs, as was to be expected, at some coastal settlements in the Arabian Gulf and in the Oman Sea, such as Julf r (Ras alKhaimah), Kashm Nadir, and Wadi Haqil fort (Cardi and - Doe, 1971, pp. 249, 250, 268). The small evidence from this production found in Quelba/Kalba helps to understand the diffusion of this ware and commercial trade routes at the time. - Bowl (KLB/SF-1). Fragment of a rim and upper body. Tronco-conical in shape with a slightly everted rim and a semi-circular lip section. Fabric is very homogeneous and compact, containing very small-sized quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core is white (10YR 9.5/1) and both surfaces show a matte white glaze. The outer surface was painted with phytomorphic motifs in cobalt blue. 0.110 m rim diameter and a 0.003 m average wall thickness.

Figure 47. Figure 47. Quelba/Kalba. Kerman blue-on-white ware. Outer and inner surfaces (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017).

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Figure 48. Quelba/Kalba. Kerman blue-on-white ware (draw- ing by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 49. Quelba/Kalba. Excavation of a fire pit (photo by R. Carita, 2017)

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UNDERGLAZE PAINTED WARE This pottery class is quite distinctive owing to its ornamental technique, which characterizes its Iranian origins at the end of the 12th century, whence it passed to Iraq and Egypt. The Iranian production differs from the others through the use of geometric decoration, executed in dark or purple manganese colour under turquoise blue or light green glazes. It presents very refined but soft fabrics light yellow in colour. Plates and bowls with plain or ring bases were the main forms identified. In Sir f, some of these ceramics were dated to the 15th century, but in Silhat (Sohar, Oman), this pottery was with a 16th and 17th century dater range, even though they could have been used in more recent times (Cardi and Doe, 1971, pp. 267, 268; Ziolkowski, 2002, p. 231; Power, 2015, p. 12). In fact, at two Fili forts (alMadam plain, Sharjah) without occupation prior to the 18th century, fragments of this type of production were found (Sasaki, Sasaki and Yousif, 2017, p. 5, fig. 1). It was also found in Khor Fakkan West Fort, though with chronologies yet to be established (Sasaki and Sasaki, 2017, pp. 11, 12). Cardi and Doe (1971, pp. 267, 268) identified two groups for this class of pottery: one painted blue or black with light turquoise glaze; and the other with purple, dark brown or dark green paint and light green glaze.

Spindle whorl The piece, which reuses a bowl bottom, has parallels in examples from the Khor Fakkan West Fort (Sasaki and Sasaki, 2017, p. 15) and other archaeological sites in the Arabian Peninsula. A pottery spindle whorl was found in the 13th century A.D. settlement at Luliyah. - The practice of spinning was also current in Europe, from prehistory to modern times, where ceramics fragments were reused in such artefacts. Spindle whorls are known in the Mediterranean shores from the 4th millennium B.C.

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- Their morphology little has changed since then, and may be flattened, spherical, conical, bitronco-conical or cylindrical, with diverse dimensions. - Spindle whorls are indicators of spinning of vegetable (flax, cotton) or animal fibers to form yarns, like wool, and used in the manufacture of fabrics, task generally attributed to the feminine sphere in the family context. Spindle whorls were used in association with a stem – wooden or metallic –, and the spindles, where the yarn rolled up, obtained by torsion of fibers. - One exemplar of a ceramic spindle whorl and a stone one from Quelba/ Kalba illustrate that only activity of an artisanal nature has been, so far, identified at this site. - Bowl (KLB/GU7/L2-4). Fragment of a rim with a semicircular lip section. Fabric is homogeneous and compact with very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core of the walls is pale yellow in colour (2.5Y 8/4) and both surfaces have painted underglaze decoration of blue and green shades. The glaze is badly applied and with a dull shine. 0.190 m rim diameter and a 0.004 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU107/L2-2). Fragment of a rim with an oblique and semi- circular lip section. Fabric is homogeneous but not very compact, with very small quartz, micaceous and black inclusions. The core of the walls is pale yellow in colour (2.5Y 8/4) and both surfaces have underglaze painted decoration, green and black inside and only green on the outer surface. The glaze is badly applied and with a dull shine. 0.230 m rim diameter and a 0.004 m average wall thickness. - Dish (KLB/GU2/L2-1). Fragment of a rim with a semicircular lip section. The fabrics are homogeneous and compact with very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core of walls is yellow in colour (2.5Y 8/4) and both surfaces have underglaze painted decoration in black, blue and green. The glaze is badly applied and with a dull shine. On the reverse we identified a zigzag motif inside a frame. 0.240 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness.

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- Bowl (KLB/GU56/W1-2). Fragment of a rim and wall body, tronco-conical shaped with a semi-circular section. Fabric is homogeneous but not very compact, containing very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core of the walls is very light yellow in colour (2.5Y 8/4). The internal surface is black painted beneath blue glaze and the outer surface a band of green glaze close to the rim covering the remainder of the surface. 0.270 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average thickness.

Figure 50. Quelba/Kalba. Underglaze painted wares (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 51. Quelba/Kalba. Underglaze painted wares (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

- Bowl (KLB/GU46/L2-1). Fragment of a bottom portion of the wall and a ring-foot base. Fabric is homogeneous but not very compact, with very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. Both the core and the outer surface are pale yellow in colour (2.5Y 8/4). The inner face presents underglaze black painted decoration – a circle with a blue dot at the center. The glaze is badly applied and with a dull shine. 0.064 m base diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness.

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- Bowl (KLB/GU3/L2-1). Fragment of a bottom portion of the wall and ring- foot base. Fabric is homogeneous but not very compact, with very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. Both the core and the outer surface are pale yellow in colour (2.5Y 8/4). The inner face presents an underglaze black painted phytomorphic motif and light blue glaze, badly applied and with a dull shine. 0.086 m base diameter and a 0.010 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU92/L2-1). Fragment of ring-foot base. Fabric is homogeneous but not very compact, with very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. Both the core and the outer surface are of pale yellow in colour (2.5Y 8/4). The inner face presents an underglaze black painted geometric motif (a star?) and light blue glaze, with a dull shine. 0.080 m base diameter and a 0.008 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU110/L2-1). Fragment of a bottom portion of the wall and a ring-footed base. Fabric is homogeneous but not very compact, with very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. Both the core and the outer surface pinkish white in colour (7.5YR 8/2). The inner face presents remains of underglaze black painted geometric motif (a star ?) and light blue glaze with a dull shine. 0.080 m base diameter and a 0.008 m average wall thickness. - Spindle whorl (KLB/GU82/L2-1). Fragment of almost half a base with a primitive, sub-cylindrical shape. Reused as a bowl bottom. Fabric is homogeneous and compact with very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. Both the core and the surface of the exterior wall are beige in colour (2.5Y 8/2), while the superior surface preserves the remains of a green glaze over black painted lines. 0.062 m in diameter and 0.018 m in height. The central orifice is 0.016 m in diameter.

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LIGHT BROWN GLAZED WARE The production of this ware is attributed to Iran, perhaps Khunj. It is easily distinguishable from Omani brown or green glazed ceramics because of its fine yellowish soft fabric, as well as its light brown or yellow glaze, which has a honey appearance and is very homogeneous. This ware can be dated to the 16th and 17th centuries as part of the little known group of the ‘Gulf glazed wares’, discussed by T. Power (2015, pp. 11, 12). However, some fragments of what seem to be vessels of the same type were unearthed in two Fili forts (al- Madam plain, Sharjah) which should not date prior to the 18th century (Sasaki, Sasaki and Yousif, 2017, p. 5, fig. 1). - Bowl (KLB/GU56/W1-5). Assemblage of fragments making up a portion of the rim and body. Tronco-conical shape with an everted rim with a half circular lip section. Fabric is homogeneous but not very compact, containing very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. Both the core and outer surface of the walls are pale yellow in colour (2.5Y 8/4), while the interior surface is very light brown or brownish yellow glaze, of honey appearance (10YR 6/6). 0.100 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average thickness.

Figure 52. Quelba /Kalba. Light brown glazed ware (drawing by J. Gonçalves). BROWN AND DARK GREEN GLAZED WARE (BAHL WARE)

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BROWN AND DARK GREEN GLAZED WARE (BAHL WARE)

This ware is not very homogeneous but has a generally compact fabric, orange or red, fired at high temperatures. The surfaces (one, both or just part of either), were thickly glazed in a dark brown or green colour, and in some cases, as seen among the fragments recovered, with dark brown spots. This ceramic class may have had diverse origins, namely in Khunj (Iran), but also Bahl (Oman), and its manufacture seems to have occurred since the 13th century, having evolved during the 16th and 17th centuries and extending to today. At Silhat (Sohar, Oman), these ceramics were dated in the 16th and 17th centuries (Ziolkowski, 2002, pp. 233-236; Al-Salimi and Korn, 2008, pp. 227, 228; Power, 2015, pp. 10, 11). At the two recently excavated Fili forts (al-Madam plain, Sharjah), this ware is represented and can be dated to the 18th century or later (Sasaki, Sasaki and Yousif, 2017, p. 5, fig. 2). Some sherds from Khor Fakkan West Fort are from the 17th century or later (Sasaki and Sasaki, 2017, p. 14). - Game piece (KLB/SF-2). A sub-cylindrical in shape, reuses a ring-footed bowl base. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small quartz, micaceous and black inclusions. The core and the outer surface of the walls are white (2.5Y 8/2), while the exterior surface conserves remains of an olive green matte glaze (2.5Y 5/4). 0.044 m in diameter and 0.014 m in height. - Bowl (KLB/GU3/L2-2). Fragment of a rim, oblique, narrowed and with semi-circular lip section. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core of the walls is red (10R 5/6) and both surfaces are glazed brown (5YR 5/4), though much deteriorated. 0.160 m rim diameter and a 0.007 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU106/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, oblique and narrowed, with a semi-circular lip section. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small quartz, micaceous and white inclusions. The core of the walls is orange (2.5YR 5/6), both surfaces offer well applied but dull light brown glaze (5YR 5/6), and spotted with manganese oxide particles. Close to the

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rim there is a perforation corresponding to a mending hole cramp. 0.194 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU82/L2-2). Fragment of a rim, thickened and oblique, with semi-circular lip section. Fabric is very homogeneous and compact, containing small quartz, micaceous and black inclusions. The core of the walls and an area of the outer surface are pink (7.5YR 8/3), while the inner surface and part of the outer surface are brown glazed (7.5YR 4/6), well applied and shiny. 0.252 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness. - Large bowl (KLB/GU56/W1-3). Fragment of a rim and body. Tronco- conical in shape and, possibly, with a flat bottom. The rim is oblique, thickened and has an almost flat lip. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small quartz, micaceous and white inclusions. The core of the walls is light red (7.5R 5/6) and both surfaces are brown glazed (5YR 4/6), well applied and shiny, with black spots. 0.290 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness. - Large bowl (KLB/GU90/L2-2). Fragment of a rim and body. Tronco-conical in shape. The rim is oblique and with a semi-circular lip section, marked inside with a wide incision and. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core of the walls is orange (5YR 6/8), the inner surface has a greyish slip, and both outer surface and rim have a matte brown glaze (10YR 5/4). 0.260 m rim diameter and a 0.008 m average thickness. - Large bowl (KLB/GU56/W1-4). Assemblage of fragments making up part of the rim and the body. Tronco-conical in shape and flat bottomed. The rim is oblique, narrowed and has a semi-circular section. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small quartz and white inclusions. The core of the walls is light reddish brown (5YR 6/4) and both surfaces have a spotted, brown coloured glaze (10YR 5/6). 0.320 m rim diameter and a 0.007 m average wall thickness.

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- Storage jar (KLB/GU47/L2-1). Fragment of a ring-footed base. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact and contains very small quartz, white and black micaceous inclusions. The core of the walls is very light grey in colour (5Y 8/1) and both surfaces are glazed, not very well done or shiny, light green in colour (5Y 7/6), now much deteriorated. 0.110 m base diameter and a 0.014 m average wall thickness.

Figure 53. Quelba/Kalba. Brown and dark green glazed ware (Bahl ware) (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 54. Quelba/Kalba. Spotted dark brown glaze from inner surface of a bowl (Bahl ware) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017)

GAME PIECE The ceramic game piece obtained from the bottom of a bowl indicates a practice seen across the Mediterranean shores and Iberian Peninsula from the Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic (4th millennium B.C.) till Medieval times (Gomes, Ninitas and Borralho, 2012-13, pp. 17, 53; Gomes, 2015, pp. 51, 107). These kinds of artefacts were normally produced in stone, ceramic or bone. Game pieces are abundant in the Islamic contexts, both urban and rural in the Iberian Peninsula between the 10th and the 15th centuries, as well as later on in Christian contexts. They denote ludic activity and socializing characteristic of all ages and, perhaps, of both genders. Wooden, ceramic or stone slabs were used as boards for these entertainments, with spaces defined by incised lines or a series of cup-marks; they could also

88 Issue 17 be improvised on the ground or on floors. However, it is important to bear in mind that games of chance (quinar) are forbidden by the Islamic laws (Gomes and Gomes, 2007, pp. 107-109).

INCISED LIGHT FINE WARE Diverse fragments of ceramics belonging to this ware, produced with very well refined fabrics, light colours, thin walls and finely incised decoration, were collected on the soil surface as well as in the excavations (Level 2). - The evidence consists of mostly small and medium sized vessels, with the functions relating to conservation, transport and water storage. The fabrics are well refined, homogeneous, compact and light coloured, well fired in an oxidizing atmosphere, and some examples are almost white coloured, alongside with beige, yellowish and pale pink. The exterior surfaces, well smoothed, present incised, stamped or plastic geometric patterns with very diverse themes, sometimes included in frames. The incised and stamped decorations were frequently executed with combs. The association of two or more of the mentioned decorative techniques and painted motifs in black or dark red, as well as slips, has been observed. - We believe this is the ceramic type that T. Power (2015, p. 6) named ‘incised white’, which is very common in the Emirates and the Oman Sea shores between the 17th and the 19th centuries, maybe even extending to the 20th century. The origin of these fabrics still remains unknown and should be traced to different production centers in Iran and perhaps the Arabian Peninsula. - Sherds of vessels from these ceramics were discovered at two Fili forts (al-Madam plain, Sharjah) and they do not date prior to the 18th century (Sasaki, Sasaki and Yousif, 2017, p. 5, fig. 3). The same type of ceramic was uncovered in Julf r (Ras al-Khaimah), Dibba and Kashm Nadir (Cardi and Doe, 1971, pp. 249, 250, 270).

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- Amongst the water jars, the most common shapes are those with a bitronco- conical body, tall and cylindrical neck, a long spout and, on opposite position, a handle, with a semi-circular section, that unites the neck to a median point on the body. The bottoms are either flat or somewhat convex (Ziolkowski, 2002, p. 227). - Water jug (KLB/GU22/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, thickened and showing a semi-circular lip section, marked on the outer surface with an incised line. Under the rim, the outer surface shows incised decoration formed by a set of horizontal wavy lines, made with comb. Fabric is very homogeneous and compact, containing very small quartz and black inclusions. The core is pinkish white in colour (7.5YR 8/2) and both wall surfaces are very pale brown (10YR 8/2). 0.120 m rim diameter and a 0.003 m average wall thickness. - Water jug (KLB/SF-9). Fragment of a rim, high and cylindrical, with a semi-circular lip section. The outer surface bears the remains of four stripes in relief, decorated with small vertical incisions, one under the rim’s lip and the three remaining on the surface between the rim to the body. The space between the first stripe and the others was decorated with incised vertical, ladder-like elements. Fabric is very homogeneous and compact, containing very small quartz and black inclusions. The core is pinkish white in colour (7.5YR 8/2) and both surfaces are very pale brown (10YR 8/2). 0.106 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness.

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Figure 55. Quelba/Kalba. Incised light fine ware (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 56. Quelba/Kalba. Incised light fine ware (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017).

RED COARSE WARE These are local and regional wares of a long manufacturing tradition, made with heterogeneous fabrics fired orange or red. While the original production centers are unknown, it is known, however, that al-Fara, close to Wadi Miduk (Fujairah Emirate), produced ceramics of this type with very diverse shapes until the second half of the last century (Ziolkowski, 2002, p. 228). Also in Lima, North of Oman, it is still made nowadays following traditional methods (Al-Salimi and Korn, 2008, p. 279). Other kilns may have also been used to produce this ware between the 12th and the 20th centuries, such as those found at Ras al-Khaimah, the old Julf r (Cardi and Doe, 1971, pp. 249, 250, 259; Power, 2015, p. 7).

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- T. Power (2015, pp. 8, 9, fig. 5) distinguished three types of red coarse ware cooking pots. The oldest has an incurved rim and triangular lug handles set on the shoulders, which he dates to the 17th and 18th centuries (Late Islamic I), echoing exemplars collected at Quelba/Kalba. Some vessels may bear painted decoration, like pieces of vessels with red stripes found at the two Fili forts (Sasaki, Sasaki and Yousif, 2017, p. 7, fig. 11). There are also some known from Kashm Nadir, in South Ras al-Kaimah and in Sir f, where they have been dated to the 15th century (Cardi and Doe, 1971, pp. 250-271). - The fragment of a storage jar with impressed digital decoration from Quelba/ Kalba has parallels with other large jars with dark red fabric from the two Fili forts (al-Madam plain, Sharjah. Some of these have a grey exterior slip, with a sequence of horizontal, finger-stamped lines on the body), with brown slip, with a post-18th century date. Also from the Fili forts comes a cooking pot lid, but somewhat distinct from the exemplar from Quelba/ Kalba (Sasaki, Sasaki and Yousif, 2017, pp. 6, 7, figs 4, 6, 12). - Bowl (KLB/GU123/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, oblique and with a semi- circular lip section and a flattened spherical shape. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small and some medium quartz, micaceous and black inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are both light red in colour (2.5YR 6/6). On the rim, a dark red line was painted (2.5YR 4/8), from which, on the inner surface, stream three vertical lines in the same colour. 0.140 m rim diameter and a 0.007 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU69/L2-2). Fragment of a rim, oblique and with semi-circular lip section. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (2.5YR 5/6). Over the rim’s lip is a line painted in a dark red colour (2.5YR 4/6). 0.140 m rim diameter and a 0.009 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU82/L2-3). Fragment of a rim, thickened and vertical, with a plain lip section. Fabric is not very homogeneous nor very compact,

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containing medium and some large quartz, micaceous, lime and black inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (2.5YR 5/6). 0.260 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average thickness of the walls. - Bowl (KLB/GU56/W1-7). Fragment of a ring-footed base. Fabric is not very homogeneous but compact, containing medium quartz, micaceous, red and black inclusions. The core and the outer surface of the walls are red in colour (10R 5/6). The interior surface bears a white slip, on which were painted several parallel lines and other radials in dark red (10R 4/4). 0.138 m base diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness. - Water jug (KLB/GU56/W1-6). Fragment of a rim, thickened and somewhat everted showing almost angular lip section. Fabric is very homogeneous and compact, containing very small quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are reddish brown in colour (2.5YR 5/4). 0.095 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Water jug (KLB/GU44/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, vertical, thickened and with a semi-circular lip section. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small inclusions. The core and both walls are red in colour (2.5YR 5/8). 0.120 m rim diameter and a 0.003 m average wall thickness. - Storage jar (KLB/GU46/L2-2). Fragment of a portion of the body. Bears a horizontal cord with stamped digital decoration. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (2.5YR 5/6). The finger- applied cord is 0.010 m in width and average wall thickness is 0.010 m. - Pot lid (KLB/GU56/W1-1). Fragment of a rim and upper body. Cylindrically shaped with an oblique plain lip. Fabric is not very homogeneous but compact, containing small quartz and micaceous inclusions and some coarse quartz and white inclusions. The core of the walls is red (10R 5/6) and both surfaces are grey (10R 5/1). The outer surface presents a line of small curved parallel incisions, laid out following the vessel diameter. 0.165 m diameter and 0.013 m of maximum thickness.

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Figure 57. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 58. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 59. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

- Cooking pot (KLB/GU56/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, thickened and with a plain lip. Fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small and medium quartz, micaceous, and black inclusions. The core and both walls red in colour (2.5YR 5/6). On the rim a dark red line was painted (2.5YR 4/6), and on the outer side it is possible to see another line, parallel with the rim, as well as four oblique lines, parallel with one other, all painted in the same colour. 0.148 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness.

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- Cooking pot (KLB/GU33/L2-2). Fragment of a rim and upper body. The rim is slightly thickened and incurved with the superior part plain, showing an angular lip. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing medium quartz and black inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (2.5YR 5/8). 0.140 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU92/L2-3). Fragment of a rim and body with an ovoid shape. The rim is thickened, slightly incurved and with an angular lip. Fabric is not very homogeneous but compact, containing small and some large quartz, micaceous and white inclusions. Both the core and inner wall surface are red in colour (10R 5/6), while the outer surface is black (10R 4/1), most likely due to the atmosphere conditions of its firing. 0.160 m rim diameter and a 0.004 m average wall thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU96/L2-2). Fragment of a rim and body, ovoid- shaped. Rim is vertical with semi-circular lip. Fabric is homogeneous and very compact, containing small quartz, micaceous, and black inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (2.5YR 5/8). 0.150 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU6/L2-1). Fragment of a rim and body, ovoid-shape. Rim is thickened and incurving, with the upper part concave and a semi- circular lip. Fabric is homogeneous and very compact, containing small quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core of the walls are reddish brown in colour (2.5YR 4/3), while wall surfaces are dark grey (2.5YR 4/1). 0.154 m rim diameter and a 0.005m average wall thickness. - Pot (KLB/GU8/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, with a somewhat thickened, everted and semi-circular lip. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact, containing medium and coarse micaceous, quartz and black inclu- sions. The core and both wall surfaces are yellowish red in colour (5YR 4/6). 0.090 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness. - Storage jar (KLB/GU7/L2-1). Fragment of a thickened rim, everted and

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with a semi-circular lip. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact, containing medium quartz, micaceous and red inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (10R 5/6). 0.140 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness. - Storage jar (KLB/GU123/L2-4). Fragment of rim, slightly thickened and everted, forming a brim and with an oblique superior part, showing incised lines and a semi-circular lip section. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact, containing medium white and black inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (10R 5/6). Both rim and outer surface are red-slipped (10R 4/6). 0.170 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness.

Figure 60. Quelba/Kalba. Red painted wares (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2017).

BLACK COARSE WARE This category of ceramics is distinguished by small, medium and big dimensions, produced with coarse fabrics, not very homogeneous and not very compact. Walls, cores, and interior and exterior surfaces are dark grey or black. This ware was produced locally and regionally, having used dark-hued

99 Issue 17 clays and inclusions of metamorphic and sedimentary origin, from the family of basalts, gabbros and greywackes, fired in a reduction atmosphere, resulting in dark colours. Vessels were occasionally slipped in dark colours. In being produced on a local or regional level, this ware perhaps came from the same centers as the red coarse ware, for many of the shapes are similar and have same chronology. Consequently, T. Power (2015, pp. 7-9) included both wares in the overarching ‘Julf r ware’ category. - Water jar (KLB/GU35/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, oblique and with a semi-circular lip section. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact, containing small quartz and black inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are dark grey in colour (7.5YR 3/1). 0.110 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Basin (KLB/GU3/L2-3). Fragment of a rim and body. Originally with a tronco-conical shape, while the rim is thickened, everted and forming a ledge, with a semicircular lip section. The rim is delimited on the outer surface by an incision and it shows a wavy incised line on the upper area. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact, containing medium quartz and black inclusions. The core and the outer surface of the walls are dark brown in colour (7.5YR 4/3) and the interior surface has a dark grey slip (7.5YR 4/1). 0.370 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU2/L2-2). Fragment of a thickened rim, everted with an angular lip section. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact, containing medium quartz, micaceous and black inclusions. The core and the wall surfaces are dark brown in colour (7.5YR 4/2). 0.160 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU107/L2-3). Fragment of a rim and body. Globular shaped vessel whose rim is slightly thickened, with angular lip section. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact, containing coarse white and black inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are dark brown in colour (10YR 3/4), with the rim and outer surface displaying painted decoration in

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the form of dark red lines (7.5R 4/4) perpendicular to the rim. 0.220 m rim diameter and a 0.008 m average wall thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU7/L2-2). Fragment of a narrowed rim and body. Globular shaped vessel with a thin, incurved rim and a semi-circular lip section. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact, containing middle white and red inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are dark grey in colour (5YR 4/1). 0.190 m rim diameter a 0.006 m average thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU7/L2-3). Fragment of a rim and body. Globular shape vessel with a slightly inverted rim with an angular lip section. A triangular lug was applied to the body surface. Fabric is not very homogeneous but compact, containing middle white and black inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are dark grey in colour (5YR 4/1). 0.200 m rim diameter and a 0.008 m average wall thickness. - Storage jar (KLB/GU33/L2-1). Fragment of the rim, thickened, everted, and with a semi-circular lip section. Fabric is not very homogeneous but is compact, containing medium and coarse quartz and white inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are dark grey (5YR 4/1). 0.156 m rim diameter and a 0.008 m average wall thickness. - Storage jar (KLB/GU69/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, thickened, everted, forming a ledge and with a semicircular lip section. Fabric is not very homogeneous nor very compact, containing medium and coarse quartz and feldspar inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are dark grey (5YR 4/1). 0.300 m rim diameter and a 0.010 m average wall thickness.

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Figure 61. Quelba/Kalba. Black coarse ware (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 62. Quelba/Kalba. Black coarse ware (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 63. Quelba/Kalba. Black coarse ware, surface of a cooking pot (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

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UNDERGLAZE PAINTED WARE BROWN AND DARK GREEN GLAZED INCISED FINE WARE RED COARSE WARE BLACK COARSE WARE WARE

GU 1 1 1 15 2 1 3 1 23 3 3 3 9 3 3 53 GU 2 3 11 1 1 2 8 6 6 2 1 4 31

GU 3 1 1 1 1 1 4 5 4 4 2 12 23

GU 4 1 1 1

GU 5 5 1 23 2 2 26 2 7 2 11 2 7 1 1 11 73 GU 6 2 7 1 1 2 9 1 1 1 3 22

GU 7 10 15 5 30 3 3 1 7 2 62 7 1 20 10 4 39 158

GU 8 6 11 17 2 3 5 2 1 33 3 1 14 1 6 1 8 77

GU 9 3 5 1 9 3 3 17 17 1 13 4 4 46

GU 10 1 1 1 GU 11 4 5 1 10 2 2 15 3 5 8 1 9 10 45 GU 12 1 1 1 3 7 1 3 4 3 3 17

GU 15 1 1 4 4 5 GU 19 4 4 3 1 4 8 GU 20 3 3 1 1 4

GU 22 1 1 1

GU 23 1 1 1 1 2

GU 24 1 1 1 1 1* 1 2 2 5

GU 26 1 1 1 1 1 1 3

GU 31 1 1 1

GU 33 5 5 3 2 5 2 2 12 GU 34 1 1 5 5 1 1 1 1 8 GU 35 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 5 GU 43 4 4 4 4 8

GU 44 2 2 1 3 4 3 3 9

GU 45 1 1 6 6 2 2 9

GU 46 1 1 7 7 1 1 2 2 2 12

GU 47 1 1 1 1 2 2 4

GU 48 1 1 1 1 1 3

GU 49 1 1 1 16 1 1 2 4 21 GU 52 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 4

GU 54 2 2 4 4 2 2 8

GU 55 1 1 3 1 1 1 6

GU 56 8 34 5 47 2 1 3 6 1 118 3 4 81 1 12 261

GU 58 1 1 6 6 2 9

GU 59 2 2 4 8 2 2 1 1 15 GU 60 1 1 10 1 2 3 14

GU 61 1 1 1 3 4 2 2 7 GU 62 1 1 1 GU 66 3 2 5 8 8 1 1 2 2 16

GU 68 1 1 1 1 2 GU 69 1 1 6 6 1 1 1 3 2 2 4 14 GU 74 1 2 3 9 9 2 2 2 1 3 17

GU 76 1 4 1 6 1 1 2 7 1 3 1 5 1 6 26

GU 78 2 2 2 2 2 26 5 5 1 24 59

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UNDERGLAZE PAINTED WARE INCISED FINE WARE RED COARSE WARE BLACK COARSE BROWN AND DARK GREEN GLAZED WARE WARE

GU 80 1 1 2 1 2 3 5 1 1 2 4 4 16 GU 82 2 1 3 1 1 2 2 22 3 5 8 8 8 42

GU 83 1 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 6 GU 84 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 GU 86 3 3 1 1 1 3 8 4 4 1 3 4 22

GU 87 1 1 1 1 17 2 2 20 GU 88 5 2 2 7

GU 89 3 9 12 3 1 9 1 6 36 GU 90 3 16 2 1 3 1 56 5 28 2 23 126

GU 91 1 1 2 11 16 2 30

GU 92 1 6 3 10 2 2 3 36 1 1 6 2 12 66

GU 94 1 1 1 1 2 5 2 2 1 1 11 GU 96 5 5 4 4 1 4 5 14

GU 97 7 7 1 1 1 3 1 5 13

GU 98 1 3 4 1 1 2 1 5 6 1 7 2 10 3 3 25

GU 99 7 1 8 1 4 1 6 14 GU 100 7 7 2 2 2 2 11

GU 101 4 4 2 2 2 2 8

GU 102 2 2 3 3 5 GU 103 9 9 8 8 17

GU 105 1 1 1 1 1 9 10 4 4 2 2 18

GU 106 1 1 4 4 2 2 7 GU 107 3 2 5 10 2 4 1 7 1 1 14 1 14 3 18 2 5 7 56

GU 108 2 2 1 1 5 1 1 2 10

GU 110 1 1 1 1 2 17 15 3 3 37

GU 112 1 1 2 1 5 1 2 2 2 11 GU 113 1 1 2 3 3 2 2 7 GU 114 1 1 2 1 3 4 4 2 4 6 1 1 2 16 GU 119 1 1 GU 121 2 3 5 1 1 10 1 6 2 9 2 2 27

GU 123 1 1 1 1 2 10 12 2 11* 1 14 5 5 33

Total 67 178 36 2 283 20 46 9 75 30 725 22 777 58 344 24 4 430 39 225 10 3 277 1842

SF 16 62 10 88 5 11 6 22 9 110 1 120 18 16 2 8 44 15 20 4 1 40 314

Table 3. Quelba/Kalba. Main ceramic classes and sherd types. * With red painted decoration.

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Chart 2. Quelba/Kalba. Percentages of ceramic ware type representation from Level 2 (2017 campaign).

Chart 3. Quelba/Kalba. Percentages of ceramic ware type representation from surface finds (SF) (2017 campaign).

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Chart 4. Quelba/Kalba. Underglaze painted ware (2017 campaign).

Chart 5. Quelba/Kalba. Brown and dark green glazed ware (2017 campaign).

Chart 6. Quelba/Kalba. Incised light fine ware (2017 campaign).

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Chart 7. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware (2017 campaign).

Chart 8. Quelba/Kalba. Black coarse ware (2017 campaign).

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8. FAUNAL AND VEGETAL REMAINS

Mammalian-, avi-, ichthyo- and malacofaunal remains were studied by Profs M. Telles Antunes, P. Callapez and P. Dinis (Annexes IV and V). The preliminary classification found mostly (young) sheep (Ovis aries Lin.); chicken bones (Gallus gallus Lin.) an indeterminate bird; some fish bones (Pagrus sp., Pagellus sp., Conger or Muraena sp.) and fifty seashells taxa. Mammal fauna are evinced by the presence of flocks of sheep (Ovis aries Lin.) which, aside from the meat (12-15 Kg), could provide, in live, wool and, in the case of ewe, milk. The ages at the time of slaughter, according to the state of the epiphyses allow considering them to be young animals. The absence of osteological pieces with signs of direct fire exposure and the bone’s dimentions indicates its consumption in boils, stews and pot roasts. Some osteological pieces of sheep display traces compatible with secondary consumption, such as, dog gnaws. Recovered osteological remains of Ovis aries Lin. belong to almost all the elements of the skeleton, although the bones of the feet are better represented (phalanges, carpals and metacarpals, ca 50%), followed by the bones of the head and the horns (ca 20%) and the ribs (13%). Less common are bones of the limbs (i.e. femur) and vertebrae, that is, corresponding to the better cuts of the animal. Lamb and kid meat, both being from young animals, had best reputation among Muslim physicians, followed by calf, as discussed by Ibn Halsun, an Andalusian physician (13th century) (Gigandet, 1996, pp. 109, 110). The large degree of sheep-goat consumption is well documented among populations under both Muslim and Christian administrations in Southern Portugal (Gharb alAndalus), between the 8th and 15th centuries, constituting 90% of the mammalian remains recovered in archaeological excavations of these periods (Gomes, 2012, pp. 58, 59).

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Figure 64. Quelba/Kalba. Ovis aries Lin. Frequency of recovered bones.

Along with sheep, chicken (Gallus gallus Lin.), being the main poultry of the time, was also an important component in the consumption of meat proteins. Its consumption did not use roasting or grilling methods, given that the osteological remains do not display evidence of being directly exposed to fire. Most of the bones recovered are vertebrae, ribs and upper limbs (ca 60%), while the lower limbs are poorly represented (15%). As occurred in sheep consumption, chicken was preferentially cooked in stews and pot roasts, the best way to take advantage of its food potential (namely its fat), and reducing waste. Chicken meat, mainly black fowl, was considered in the Islamic world as an excellent food. Ibn Halsum noted that ‘(…) its tender meat is healthy food that produced pure blood (…)’ (Gigandet, 1996, p. 112).

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Figure 65. Quelba/Kalba. Gallus gallus Lin. frequency of recovered bones.

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The different types of fish found indicate oceanic fishing, still successfully practiced today in the area of Kalba, with the use nets or traps to catch the various species. Fish seems to have been consumed mostly boiled, especially by the lower classes. Moreover, it can be preserved with salt and dried. Many of the valves of marine molluscs studied in this report are edible species, though, as is known, low in proteins. However, many coastal populations often resorted to such a type of food, namely during periods when fishing was dangerous and cattle or livestock were scarce. Other valves were used as currency, as discussed earlier. One species, Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1767) known as the giant mangrove whelk, with a characteristic conical valve, is known to exist near the archaeological site of Quelba/Kalba. Valves are roughly perforated at the apex, with large dimensions, which may stem from their use as net or loom weights. Some pieces of pearl oyster valves (Pinctada margaritifera Linnaeus, 1758) suggest the catching of pearls, whose wealth is legendary in the Arabian Gulf. Pearls of various sizes were harvested, but mainly small ones, called by the Portuguese aljôfar, a word that derives from the city of Julfar (UAE). In 1563, the Portuguese physician and botanist, Garcia d’Orta, published in Goa the Coloquios dos Simples e Drogas e Cousas Medicinais da India, were he devoted some attention to pearls, then also called aljofar (from Julfar, Arabian Gulf), owing to their medicinal properties. He also tells us that the pearls from Julf r Sea are the best of the Orient, given their perfect form and golden colour, existing in both small and larger dimensions, specifying: ‘(…) as milhores destas ostras pera dar os aljofares sam hũas ostras lisas, e brãcas a que a gente da terra chama cherigo, e fazem dellas colheres, e buzios para beber, e também as nossas ostras que comemos ha aljofare mas não he tã bom (…)’ (the best of these oysters for aljofares are the smooth and white ones, which the locals call cherigo, and from them they make spoons, they drink whelks, and also the oysters we eat there are aljofare but not that good…)

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(Garcia d’Orta, 1563, pp. 138-142). A symbol of purity and love, or even the image of the immortal soul among the Persians, the extreme beau-ty of pearls made them constitute ornaments of kings, aristocrats, sultans, and religious leaders, from Western Europe to East Asia. Some carbonized vegetable remains, still under study, were also found, namely date seeds (Phoenix dactylifera L.), whose economic and symbolic importance was prolific throughout the Near East.

Figure 66. Quelba/Kalba. Whelk shell remains from Hexaplex kuesterianus (Tapparone Canefri, 1875) (GU33/L2) used as food (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

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Figure 67. Quelba/Kalba. Fragments of pearl oyster valves Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus, 1758) (Surface and GU78/L2) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

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9. CONCLUSIONS

9.1. ORIENT AND OCCIDENT The Orient has always been considered by Europeans, since the Classical period up to the modern age, as being a territory with abundant and diverse natural resources, a perspective that originated and was confirmed when trade contacts between the Western world and the Orient were formed, first by land and afterwards, thanks to the Portuguese, by sea. In fact, the contacts between Europe and several commercial cities in the Arabian Peninsula date further back in time, as attested, among other cases, by the archaeological excavations of the Mleiha complex (Sharjah), where artefacts of Classical Greek origin or influence were unearthed, namely coins imitating the Hellenic ones aside from small bronzes, ceramics and other pieces (Jasim, Uerpmann and Uerpmann, 2016). These interactions continued during the course of the formation of the Roman Empire and increased during the Islamic expansion and the following centuries. In a short period of time, the new Islamic cities of Al-Andalus, nowadays the South of Portugal and Spain, became key centers in the Islamic world, importing several items from the Middle and Near East and exported back some of their own products, like ambergris, coral, figs and oranges. Throughout the Middle Ages, Europe’s contacts with the entirety of the vast Orient were made through the Silk Routes that, from China, reached the North of Persia and arrived to Antioch, Damascus and Tyre, as well as other cities; or, crossing South, using several maritime connections. The major distribution center of oriental products in Europe was, for several centuries, Venice among other Italian republics. The memoirs of the Venetian merchant Marco Polo (1254-1324), who travelled from a young age along such routes accompanied by his uncle and father, are instrumental in understanding this trade. He wrote

115 Issue 17 and described, in 1297 and 1298, after twenty-four years of travelling the Orient, his journeys and travels that became legendary, increasing trade itself and Western knowledge of such far regions. The situation would drastically change a hundred years after with the arrival of Vasco da Gama’s (1469 - 1524) Portuguese fleet in India in 1498. This expedition led, within a short time, to a series of meetings of the Signoria of Venice, given the awareness by the Venetian merchants of the changes that would then occur in the international trade between the East and Europe. The Portuguese project was supported by the Crown for decades, having sent informants by land, and afterwards, adapting the Islamic nautical technology from Mediterranean to Atlantic sailing, such as measuring the location of the stars with the mariner’s astrolabe, or shipbuilding innovations. Certainly, the development of the Portuguese caravel received contributions from the Islamic Mediterranean vessels and, subsequently, of the Arabian Sea vessels. Portuguese contacts with the shores of what is now the United Arab Emirates dates back to ca 1500, more specifically 1507, when the ships of Afonso de Albuquerque reached ports in the Arabian Gulf. The first attempt to establish a settlement on Hormuz Island soon followed, stemming from alliances established with the local authorities at the Arabian Peninsula ports. The interest in the East coast of Arabia was based on the need for watering and restocking, but also for purchasing a number of products that were traded at its ports, like textiles (silk, cotton and carpets), pearls, horses, spices, drugs etc. (Al-Qasimi, 2013a, p. 49). The issue of water was pivotal for Portuguese settlement, for it was almost always scarce in the entire region. That, in addition to the high temperatures, made life very difficult for the Europeans. Aside from the ongoing commercial traffic between the two shores of the Arabian Gulf, such harbours were essential to providing support to the long travels from East to West and back, the reason for which many routes passed through the gulf. Since the early years of the Portuguese settlement in East, an important system of intelligence gathering was established, centerd on Goa (Malabar

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Coast), and later on in Lisbon, enabling decision-makers to develop trade strategies within the context of the Indian Ocean. Such information concerned all Portuguese maritime movements, including the names of the ships and their captains, local trade geography and its routes and scale points, wind directions, but also existing products, dress regulations, not only those under Portuguese domain but also involving complex information gathering about the organization of regional and local political entities, protocols, treaties and agreements, social practices, religious beliefs etc. In this complex intelligence gathering system, all the Portuguese who moved in the area were integrated, like crown employees, ecclesiastical members, merchant, or military officials, many adding several of those functions, and counting, logically, on the support of a vast net of local collaborators. This kind of information circulated through letters, reports, drawings, plans, maps and travel itineraries, after being gathered, mainly in Goa, and sent to Lisbon. Special care was applied to copying all this material, at least in triplicate, thus following in two different boats and keeping one or more copies on file.

9.2. REPRESENTATIONS OF THE ARABIAN GULF AND SEA Apart from the several travel itineraries, with special emphasis on those of D. João de Castro (1500-1548), some of which are illustrated; and on the Livro das Armadas; as well as that of Lisuarte de Abreu, with the oldest known representations of Muscat and Hormuz; or the exemplar in the Lisbon Academy of Sciences (Lázaro Luís Atlas, 1563), where the aspects that are of most interest us are the cartography and fortress plans. Around 1550, all the shores of the Indian Ocean were recorded, with the Portuguese resorting to guides and local maps, to which they added the value of their own experience. Unfortunately, because they were working material, few specimens reached present time in the Portuguese archives, and the ones that were more easily preserved were the most elaborate and illuminated manuscripts, ordered or deviate by the European courts, today scattered by across the major international archives, libraries and museums.

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In 1545, an anonymous Portuguese cartographer already represented the Arabian Gulf in a planisphere, an example of which is currently at the Austrian National Library (Vienna), with correctly drawn contours both on the Arabian and Iranian side, and innumerable toponyms corresponding to the places most visited by the Portuguese. The same model is repeated in the specimens of ca 1560, like that of Bartolomeu Velho (ca 1500-1568), today at the Hungtington Library (San Marino, California); the anonymous example part of the Livro de Marinharia de João de Lisboa, today in the National Archive of Torre do Tombo (Lisbon); and the exemplar of Diogo Homem (1520/21-1567) from 1561, housed in the Austrian National Library, in Vienna; and the aforementioned Lázaro Luís Atlas (ca 1510-1570), probably dating to 1563, at the Lisbon Academy of Sciences; and the exemplar of Fernão Vaz Dourado (ca 1520- 1580), of 1576, in the Portuguese National Library (Lisbon). The various books of fortresses were commissioned at the request of the Indian Viceroy D. Rui Lourenço de Távora (1566-1616) to send to Lisbon drawings of all the fortresses of the Portuguese State of India. The task was given to the Luso-Malay cartographer Manuel Godinho de Erédia (1563-ca 1623), a Jesuit by education, later working as cartographer and an erstwhile assistant to the Italian engineer João Baptista Cairati (ca 1540-1596), with whom he visited, in 1590, at least some of the Arabian Gulf fortresses. His first work was the Plantas de praças das conquistas de Portugal, feitas por ordem de Rui Lourenço de Távora, vizo-rei da India (Book of plans of places-of- arms and conquests of Portugal, ordered by Rui Lourenço de Távora, Viceroy of India), from 1610, today at the National Library of Brazil (Rio de Janeiro), followed by others, some of which copied in Lisbon, like the 1635 specimen, from the hand of the official cosmographer of the Portuguese crown António de Mariz Carneiro (ca 1580-1642), today housed in the Portuguese National Library (Lisbon). The resemblance between the drawings and texts used by Manuel Godinho de Erédia since 1610, by Pedro Barreto de Resende (ca 1595-1650), the viceroy’s secretary, in the albums organized by António Bocarro (ca 1594-

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1642), then head guard of the Goa Torre do Tombo (Goa Archive); and from 1635 on, with specimens in Évora, Madrid, Paris and London indicative of the existence of an archive with all the pertinent material in the Portuguese State of India. The fortress plans are followed by a brief description of the garrison, whether of Portuguese or local recruitment, and the costs involved in their maintenance. These documents also state contain ample evidence of local recruitment elements, such as lascarins.

9.3. ABOUT THE LASCARIM One 17th century Portuguese text that mentions the Quelba/Kalba fortress refers that the military garrison there left by the Portuguese was formed by lascarins, a word and qualitative definition worthy of some discussion. In fact, today it is accepted that a lascarim was a mercenary of Persian, Indian or African origin. According to Al-Qasimi (2013a, p. 20), such a word derives from lascar, Arabic askar, which designated a native sailor or soldier. However, in Portuguese dictionaries, it has a more specific meaning of an indigenous soldier from India or Ceylon, with the origin of the word traced back to the Persian laxhkari, or perhaps from Aramaic. Laskar, in Persian, designates ‘army’, and in India, ‘soldier force’. Lascarim is referred to in Fernão Lopes de Castanheda (1924-33, vol. II, chapter 16, p. 57 and vol. IV, chapter 37, p. 83) as well as in D. João de Castro (1541) (Roteiro de Goa a Suez ou do Mar Roxo) (Kammerer, 1936), here informing that the best came from Ethiopia. The Diccionario da Lingua Portugueza (Portuguese Language Dictionary) (Bluteau, 1789, vol. II, p. 9), registers lascarim as a sailor who brought wife and sons with him (Nimer, 2005, pp. 321-323). The word was even used as a family name and in the Cathedral of Coimbra, which holds the tomb of the Byzantine princess Vataça Lascaris, who was a lady at the Court of the Portuguese Queen Elizabeth of Aragon, decorated with three

119 Issue 17 bicephalous eagles, from the first half of the 14th century. Vataça Lascaris, also referred to as Lady Bataça, Vatatsa of Ventimiglia, Betaça of Greece, Vetácia Lascaris (Ventimiglia; ca 1268; Coimbra, 21 April 1336), was of Byzantine origin, from the royal family of the Empire of Nicaea, who accompanied Elizabeth of Aragon to Portugal when she married the Portuguese king D. Dinis. She was daughter of the Byzantine princess Eudóxia Lascaris and still familiar to the later Holy Queen (Elizabeth of Aragon, queen of Portugal), a descendant of the king André II of Hungary, husband of the queen Saint Elizabeth of Hungary. She accompanied Princess Constance of Portugal to Castile, where she married, and returned, having the commandery of Santiago de Cacém.

Figure 68. Depiction of a lascarim and his wife (16 century) Matos, 1985, pp. 67, 68).

9.4. MAIN ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESULTS Despite the almost always laudatory testimonies of the governors and chroniclers, it seems safe to say that most of the Portuguese construction works in the Oman Sea, with rare exceptions, were progressively raised by frequently reusing local structures, as is evident in the fortresses built during those years.

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The buildings which have survived until today show some mixture of architectural styles, materials and construction methods, resulting not only from their preexistence, but also in the use of a local workforce. These buildings were commissioned by governors, who did not always follow projects or strategies that are clear to us today; as well as by master builders in charge of construction, where the workforce and the local materials had particular importance. These features raise analysis issues today. The reputation of these defensive constructions was enormous, and for this reason their successive reconstructions would sometimes assume similar shape and volumes. This practice has been maintained until very recently and still challenges any type of archaeological approach. Documentation pertaining to Portuguese presence in the Arabian Peninsula refers the construction of an important defensive system, where the most significant trade activities took place. However, no research has been undertaken to determine whether such system was newly built, or, on the contrary, if it reused old, preexisting fortresses. One of those fortresses is Quelba/Kalba, mentioned in the ‘Livro das Plantas de todas as Fortalezas, Cidades e Povoações do Estado da Índia Oriental’ (Book of plans of all fortresses, cities and settlements in the State of Eastern India), conserved in the Torre do Tombo (National Archive) in Lisbon (1632), in several versions, like the ‘Códice de Vila Viçosa’, by Manuel Godinho Erédia (ca 1620) and António Bocarro (dated 1635), in which part of the drawings were produced by Pedro Barreto de Resende (Al-Qasimi, 2013). In the aforementioned book, the fortress of Quelba/Kalba is depicted as having rectangular plan, 35 m wide, and the corners reinforced with towers. The author informs us that it was erected in adobe, also stating that the defence of the nearest coastline was supported by a smaller bastion/bulwark located near the beach. We have serious doubts that this representation corresponds to the fortress remains that exist in the present, not only in terms of its shape but also with

121 Issue 17 regards to its construction technique. The archaeological intervention at Quelba/Kalba is still at its beginning, with the 2017 campaign serving mainly to evaluate the archaeological potential of the site, as well testing the archaeological work conditions with which we were graciously provided. The main goal of the fieldwork was achieved, since we have identified what we believe to be the remains of the foundations of one of the walls, and the beginning of the adjacent walls of the ancient fortress of Quelba/Kalba. Sections of plastered floors with gypsum were also discovered, with postholes, a well, a basin and the remains of two fireplaces. No significant archaeological layer succession has been identified yet. As expected, ceramics were the most numerous artefacts, with the identification of several production types being possible, specifically the Omani brown glazed wares and several types of Iranian earthen ware, with chronologies between the ends of the 16th to the 18th centuries. The presence of Chinese porcelain, mostly made for export and also known in many other contemporary archaeological sites in the same area, is due to the significant ancestral seaborne trade and the commercial increase provided by the Portuguese and, later on, by other European nations. The recovered ceramic artefacts indicate intense commercial, and certainly cultural, interactions between the area of the Oman Sea, other parts of the Arabian Peninsula, as well as with Persia or China. The ceramics reveal several functions, such as food preparation methods, presentation, consumption, storage or transport; but they also show features connected to the social prestige certain vessels would carry with their holders, in their elaborate shapes, decorations and a foreign provenance. The most common ceramic sherds recovered were the underglaze painted wares, and the second most common were the Bahl wares. Some Chinese porcelain fragments, recovered during the excavations, provide us with enough decorative and formal information to establish a correct chronology: from the second half of the 18th century to first decades of the 19th century. They reflect

122 Issue 17 an Asian and Middle Eastern pattern of porcelain consumption, with little to no familiarity with European porcelain collections. We cannot rule out the possibility that these were specific orders made for the Islamic market. Two spindle whorls, one ceramic and the other stone, testify the spinning of wool or vegetable fibers. Shell beads, of different shapes, a shell pendant and glass bracelets correspond to objects of personal adornment used by Quelba/Kalba inhabitants in their daily lives. Some shells from Monetaria annulus and Monetaria moneta may denote paleo-money, used as old trade currency, namely in Africa, until the second half of the 19th century. A ceramic game piece indicates ludic activity, identical to many found in medieval and early modern Portuguese archaeological contexts. Since the publication of similar artefacts from 16th to 18th century North-Eastern Arabian Peninsula contexts are unknown to us, and we know of Islamic laws forbidding gambling (quinar), we can infer the evidence of Portuguese presence. It is possible that such a presence might be also associated with the aqua green glass bottle, produced in Europe in the 17th century, and also to the shape and decoration of a ceramic basin with an undulated incision line, identical to Portuguese vessels dating from the 16th century. However, for now, we have not found undeniable evidence of Portuguese presence in Quelba/Kalba, neither in the architectonic elements nor in the artefacts, despite the fact that the presence has been historically documented and embedded in the collective memory of the local community. It is important to note that, besides a small green glazed sherd, which may be a 17th century Portuguese product, until now we have not yet found in Quelba/Kalba any other ceramics of European origin.

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ANNEX I

DOCUMENTOS REMETIDOS DA - Í NDIA, LIVRO 59, FOL - 88’ ♦♦♦ (DOCUMENTS SENT FROM INDIA, BOOK 59, FOL. 88’

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ANNEX II

KHOR KALBA UAE MISSION – GEOPHYSICAL REPORT

FERNANDO ALMEIDA

Associate Professor, Geosciences Department, Aveiro University

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INTRODUCTION The investigation I accepted to participate in has sought to contribute to the geophysical characterization of an area in Khor Kalba where it is presumed that an ancient fortress dating to the 17th century existed. The geophysical prospection goal was a secondary one, as the main project and focus – supervised by Rui Carita, Rosa Varela Gomes and Mário Varela Gomes – was on archaeological excavations, supported by a protocol between NOVA/FCSH and the Government of Sharjah (United Arab Emirates). Fieldwork was conducted by the author in the first week of January with the assistance of two archaeologists from the NOVA University of Lisbon; preparation of the equipment and report writing was done by Rafael Baieta and André Ferreira, Geological Engineers of Aveiro University. Quantum GIS was used to map and georeference the available cartography; and Quantum Field was employed on the first day of fieldwork to visualize and implement the site’s excavation area. The geophysical campaign carried out was unusual for several reasons: - It was conducted in tandem with the archaeological excavation. - Previous knowledge was only in documentary form. - The equipment available for the transport to the Emirates was conditioned to 30 kilograms. - The geophysical response of the terrain was unknown in the local geological context. Once the fieldwork conditions were thus established, a strategy was adopted which consisted of outlining an area of research, centering the target indicated in a photo from the 1960s, and performing the work in tandem with and guiding the excavation, while the archaeological work obtained results consistent with

139 Issue 17 the structures looked for. In this sense, the geophysical prospection began by carrying out a strategic campaign through sections of resistivity and velocities of the P-waves, which allowed us to find anomalous zones possibly associated with the structures of old fort. Only on the last day, tactical prospecting was done based on the mapping of resistivity along profiles using the pole-pole array with 1 m spacing between current and potential electrodes (see Attachment I – Daily Report). At the end of the first week, excavation began and geophysics passed into the background. Following this, we returned to the University of Aveiro, as initially planned.

GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTION GEOPHYSICAL FIELDWORK DESIGN The first two questions set out in preparation for the campaign were: what is the depth of research? And what is the ideal geophysical method to apply at the seaside location? The choice of method is linked to the contrast in the physical properties of the bodies that are intended to be distinguished. One strong possibility was that the fort’s foundations were set into compact rock surrounded by sandy soil with some degree of humidity. This work hypothesis would allow for the identification of resistive anomalies marking the fort at a series of depths of metric magnitude. The use of georadar could also present an adequate solution to the problem; however, the mission was conditioned by the logistics of transporting the equipment, and the significant probability that the signal could be attenuated due to the site’s proximity to the sea, which would generate very low resistivity. Taking into account these issues, the electrical resistivity method and the tomographic refraction method was chosen, which are based on the physical properties of the electrical resistivity and the properties of the mechanical

140 Issue 17 resistance of the soil respectively. In this way, it would be possible to obtain two sets geophysical results simultaneously; and attain orthogonal vertical cuts geophysical models within the delimited area of exploration in order to intersect the walls of the fortress. Once these two methods were adopted, it was necessary to optimize the equipment by minimizing the weight and making the system versatile in order to use the same cable for the electric and for the seismic device, as well as the same signal acquisition system (See Attachment II). Collection of the signal data was planned with Labview software and a National Instruments NI-DAQ. This option led to a system with eight spaced electrodes of two meters for a pole-pole device along a 15 m line. As a source of current, the SAS300 of ABEM was selected to direct the current at eight points in the mid distance between the electrodes. After conducting the electrical resistivity, the eight copper electrodes were removed from the soil and connected to four geophones that receive seismic signals generated by 16 shots in each meter along the cable. Thus, four common receiver gathers were obtained by minimizing the transport of the seismic standard equipment. This challenge allowed for the development of a new acquisition system of storing 28 kg of equipment within a box that integrates seismic and electrical methods, eliminating two multicables, as well as a large number of geophones and electrodes used in conventional systems. The multicable has a plug connecting it to the DAQ. By switching it off, it was possible to operate manually with the SAS300 resistivity meter and the multicable. This was performed in the field in order to control the quality of resistance data and to evaluate the range of amplitude variations of the measurements, allowing us to determine anomalous values during data acquisition. Before the trip, the system was tested at the University of Aveiro and was packed in a box with all the necessary equipment for the campaign. Octave scripts were developed for the management of files, determining first

141 Issue 17 arrival times, calculating resistivity, and generating files or portions of files for resistivity modelling with dc2dinvres software and seismic models with rad2tomo software.

CARTOGRAPHIC PREPARATION The only document provided at the onset of the campaign was an aerial photograph from the 1960s identifying a quadrangular area at a road junction (Figure 1). The photo and the orthographic image were merged with a transparency and the resulting QGIS plan was uploaded onto a smartphone to be viewed through the QField application in the field (Figure 2).

Figure 1. Aerial photo with the target surround by a red circle photo: SAA).

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Figure 2. Deformation of the old aerial photograph and georefer- encing in QGIS (wgs84) by overlaying a recent Google image with the target surround by a red circle.

Opening the QGIS project with QField navigation mode on a GPS-enabled smartphone, drive the team to the target workplace. However, the process of restoring the old photo was complicated by the fact that the old village had been destroyed, with Google Maps providing the only points to tie the old photo to the orthographic image at locations far from the target. After several attempts, following correspondences interpreted from dismantled urban fabric and current roads, a solution was chosen that could have resulted in errors according to EW of the decametric order beyond the spatial resolution of the GPS; while according to NS, the resolution would be metric of the order of magnitude of the GPS in standard configuration (standard position system). The image from Google had a clear zone that coincided reasonably with the polynomial deformation in the center of the square structure evidenced in the old aerial photo. The centering of the two images made it possible to predict that the error EW would be of the order of magnitude of half the dimension of the quadrangular structure to be located.

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GRID GEOREFERENCING One of the first problems that required solving was to obtain a georeferenced image of the grid used to support the excavation. This task was solved using a set of UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator Zone 40N Datum WGS84 EPSG:32640) projection points (EUTM, NUTM) and their equivalent local grid Nlocal and Wlocal implanted by the archeologists with a compass towards magnetic North. One script was done to obtain a transition matrix between the two pairs of coordinates data sets. The first set (EUTM, NUTM) in the UTM40 (WGS84) Easting and Northing projection was obtained by transforming the WGS84 latitude and longitude measured in the field with the Smartphone GPS accuracy (standard position system). The second equivalent coordinates Nlocal and Wlocal Magnetic Grid correspond to the Local grid. Subtracting the mean values (centroid) of the two sets of data, resulted in basing the relation between them in the following matrix equation.

Therefore, the transition matrix can be evaluated in the following way:

This matrix minimizes the deviations in the least square sense but the transformation does not maintain the norm and the orthogonality of transformed space. To overcome this problem, this matrix was converted in a rotation matrix with the median of the four rotation angles (..) converting the transition matrix in a rotation matrix (R) thus:

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Fourteen pairs of points were used and the discrepancy of data give a mean distance of 1.99 m between the original pair of coordinates and those estimated by the converted rotation matrix process. The Local grid implemented with the magnetic North is at a bearing of one degree West – three degrees from the two degrees Easting magnetic North bearing obtained in January with magnetic model from NOAA: https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/geomag-web/#declination.

Figure 3. A horizontal projection showing the local UTM mesh of the works, and the pairs of points used in the coordinates’ conversion.

GEOPHYSICAL OPERATION The duration of the geophysical campaign was one week and had an immediate objective of guiding the archaeological excavation, whose duration was two weeks. The integration of the results after the campaign contributed

145 Issue 17 to a deeper knowledge of the archaeological site and will allow for careful planning of future campaigns. Geophysical prospection began by carrying out a strategic campaign through sections of resistivity and velocities of P-waves. This allowed for the detection of anomalous zones possibly associated with structures of the old fort. Only on the last day of work, targeted prospecting was done using resistivity along profiles using the pole-pole array with 1 m spacing between current and potential electrodes (see Attachment I – Daily Report and Attachment II – Resistivity acquisition, processing and modelling). THE RESISTIVITY INVERTED MODEL The resistivity model was divided into cells of 1m horizontally and 0.5 m along the axis of the depth. Figure 4 shows the resistivity distribution obtained by the interpretation of the models in the joined section, with a representation in plan of the results of the electric mapping performed on the last day of the mission. The results obtained by the two techniques are jointed and allow for the identification of zones of very high resistivity close to the surface, which are related to demolished structures. The identification of the resistive zones was fundamental to guiding the archaeological excavation (see Attachment – Daily Report).

Figure 4. Combined resistivity distribution.

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A0 and A1 show anomalies that can be related to a southward trend of the archaeological remains. Anomaly B shows a North-South trend, and their occurrence – as well as C and D – guided the archaeological intervention. One very important conclusion to be drawn from the resistivity data is that no fresh water is present in the subsoil, as the supposed existence of wells in the past led us to believe. It is possible to say that the region was exposed to sea-water invasion or serious environmental change.

THE SEISMIC MODEL The first important aspect of the seismic model is that it shows a high velocity layer dipping westward (13%) and southward (6%), whose top is represented by the dashed line in the figure (down). This layer lies at a depth ranging between 1.5 m to 3 m, and can be explained by semi- porous damp sediment; whereas 1 m depth velocity is 1,400 m/s in fully porous/water-logged sediment. This velacity is characteristic of sediments and no solid bedrock. In the top layer, unconsolidated sediments have intermediate velocities in the range of 700-800 m/s, probably related to the archaeological remains.

Figure 5. Resistivity distribution sections.

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AN INTEGRATED ELECTRICAL SEISMIC MODEL To obtain this model, the resistivity was normalized to 3,000 Ohm.m and the P-wave velocity to 1,500 m/s. Then, the logarithm of the square root of the sum of the squares of each normalized value was projected. This let us define three layers. The first layer – high resistivity and low velocity – corresponds to a maximum depth of one meter in the anomalous zones (A0, A1, B C and D), related to archaeological remains. The trend in A0 and A1 is also anomalous as it corresponds to Southern limit of the excavations. The bottom layer – very low resistivity and high velocity – corresponds to sediments inundated with salt water which caused the low resistivity values, this layer is probably related to an intertidal zone. The intermediate layer with low resistivity values and intermediate velocity values can be explained by a sub-saturated layer with very low resistivity brines, probably connected to the supratidal zone.

Figure 6. Velocity distribution sections.

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Figure 7. Combined electrical and seismic model.

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GEOPHYSICAL IMAGES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL EXCAVATIONS

Figure 8 shows the main anomalies (zones A0, A1, B, C and D) superimposed over the archaeological excavation plan.

Figure 8. QGIS Projection WGS 84/UTM zone 40N – EPSG 32640 overlays: 1) Google Earth image from 2010; 2) Archaeological Zonation; 3) Earth resistivity obtained with pole-pole array of 1 m inter-electrode spacing.

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ATTACHMENT I – DAILY REPORT DAY 1 (2ND JAN) After arriving on site, using the QField smartphone app, I verified that the GPS location was well-matched. The work area was then delimited using four markers. The archaeology team plotted a grid oriented towards magnetic North, and the W4S7 resistivity and P-wave section was acquired. The acquisition started on the grid point W4S7 (which names the section) and is South-North oriented. The resistivity data was processed and a two-layered model inclining southwards was interpreted. It can be observed that the most superficial metric layer presents itself as a slice of high resistivity material which is representative of a dry soil. Deeper (> 1 m) the resistivity values are lower in nature. Analyzing the Pwave velocity section showed the same stratification, as the top layer had a lower velocity than the bottom ones, which is to be expected of unconsolidated sediments on top of more consolidated ones. Both models show lateral heterogeneity. It does not seem that the section is on top of any structure.

Figure I.1 . Section W4S7 resistivity and P-wave velocity.

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DAY 2 (3RD JAN) On the second day, section W14S7 – parallel with W4S7 – was acquired using both data collection methods. This profiles were integrated to achieve near-surface models. was done while the archaeological excavation was moving westwards and discovering superficial structures not connected to the fort walls. Later, the parallel section of W24S7 was acquired only through electrical resistivity. The resistivity data was processed and the three parallel

Figure I.2. . Section W24N0 resistivity model.

The obtained results show that the westernmost section, W24S7, shows extraordinarily high resistivity values; while the W14S7 section shows a transition around the 6 m position (W14S1 in the local grid). After noticing

152 Issue 17 this, I requested the relevant area to be inspected to confirm the obtained data. On the other hand, the near surface results of the W24S7 section showed higher resistivity values and the observation of the soil allowed for the finding of a mass conglomerate between the W14S7 and W24S7 sections, which could easily be confused for adobe. On the morning of the same day, while on a visit to the coastal shoreline in the tidal channel connecting the lagoon to the ocean, I spotted a similar mass of conglomerate inclined East, which can be associated with an old beach rock formed in the interface between the salt and fresh water. Supposedly, I found the origin of the building material appearing between the two Western parallel sections (W24S7 and W14S7) in an area where ceramics were also abundant.

DAY 3 (4TH JAN) The archaeological survey was deepened on the requested area and I could verify that nothing was visible but sediments with no anthropic interventions. In the dug places, two layers were observed. The first was composed of unconsolidated materials with a level of very eroded shells leading East towards the beach. Near the surface, the sediments were finer grained and compatible with wind sands. Going deeper, grain size grew to coarse sand, compatible with the intertidal base of the beach. This sedimentary sequence shows an increase in grain size from top to bottom, and at around 1.2 m, it decreased once again, with the sediments having better mechanical properties, which explain the higher wave velocity observed at this depth. The low resistivity is explained by the presence of silt and low humidity clay. Still on the same day, I finished the seismic section of W24S7 and connected section W14S7 to W14N6. The archaeological excavation was moving Northwards between the W24 and W14 lines, and was starting to uncover a structure that incorporated the conglomerate mass as construction material. Finally, at the end of the day, the sub-soil structure was revealed and it was understood that the settlement was on the surface of the terrain. I also felt safe in my conclusions due to my experience and the obtained results.

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DAY 4 (5TH JAN) I kept moving North in the orientation of W14, connecting the W14N19 section to W14N6. Excavation started to reveal a huge structure oriented North between the W14 and W24 lines, which may be related to the fort wall. Also, the resistance values obtained in the far North showed some anomalies. I decided to rotate the measuring system 90 degrees, crossing the W14N19 section on the W14N27 position and positioning the N27W14 section towards N27 from East to West. The goal was to intersect the structure that the excavation was uncovering without crossing the road located to the West. I completed the N27 line by making another section (N27E6) that was continuing the previous one to the West. Analysis of the data clearly showed higher resistivity in the NW sector, which was limited by the road we had not crossed in the trials done on the previous days. I analyzed all the resistivity data obtained for an electrode spacing of 1m, and, due to the amount of available data, I decided on the last day of my stay to switch from a strategic prospection to a tactical one to map the surface with a 1 m square net beside the NW sector, where the resistance anomalies were occurring. The excavation was now following the archaeological structure and my time was running out.

DAY 5 (6TH JAN) I adapted the system I had developed for a strategic prospection to a tactical one. With the help of two operators, I acquired the resistance data and registered them in a grid, and in my field notebook with the goal of being able to easily visualize the data at any given time. In the end of the day, I outlined an anomalous area bound by the prospection net. After processing the data, the relevant results were obtained on the strategic sections and on the tactical map and Figure I.3 was generated. This reveals anomalies at the start of the W24 and W14 lines, W-E orthogonal to the SN alignment of the structure under excavation between the W24 and W14 lines in the NW. In the NW quadrant,

154 Issue 17 a structure oriented 45˚ with the two previous ones emerged, which may be connected to one of the turrets represented in the historical illustrations.

Figure I.3. Measured resistivity projected on the grid.

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ATTACHMENT II - THE SEISMIC AND RESISTIVITY SYSTEM RESISTIVITY ACQUISITION, PROCESSING AND MODELING THE SYSTEM AND DATA ACQUISITION The resistance data was acquired with a resistivity meter SAS300 and connecting the four electrodes ABMN to a pole-pole array. The references A and M were connected to pseudo infinity, further than 30 m from each side of the measurement line. The rig was composed of a 15 m cable that connects eight potential electrodes (N) that make contact with the soil with a spacing of 2 m (0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 m). The electrodes’ area of contact with the soil was humidified to facilitate contact. The other eight terminals were connected to a socket which allowed for manual changes in the desired N electrode connected to the resistivity meter. The current electrode (B) was placed at an alternating distance (1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 m) each time for measuring eight resistance values with the resistivity meter. The B plug was connected to the resistivity meter itself. Using this setup, 8 x 8 resistance values were obtained for processing. Figure II.1 shows the described system.

Figure II.1. Resistance acquisition system.

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The 64 resistance measurements were transcribed from those written, during recording in a field-book, to a worksheet. On this worksheet, the calculation from resistance to resistivity (O/m) was done utilizing the following geometric factor:

R is the resistance (O) and is the distance between the movable current and potential electrodes (m). The system was designed to obtain eight depth levels (at 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15m) according to the distance . However, in this particular case, due to proximity to the seashore and high salinity of the soil, deeper levels showed very low resistivity values, derived from very low measured resistance values, which are indistinguishable from noise. To overcome this problem, we decided to use only the top three levels, which means that only 39 resistance values, corresponding to = 1, 3, 5, were processed and an ascii file was created for data inversion.

INVERSION – SOFTWARE The ascii file was then used in the inversion with the open sourced program DC2DInvRes. It should be noted that during recording, some negative values where measured which have been purged from the data set. The file’s header contains an alphanumeric reference in the first line, followed by the electrode spacing, array type, number of data, location of calculation (mean distance or in the first electrode) and that there is no induced polarization. The data is divided into three columns, where the first is the first electrode of the pair; the second is ; and the last is the calculated resistivity value. Using the program, some parameters needed to be defined. A x-z grid was defined from -1 to 16 on the x axis with a 1 m spacing; depth spacing took the value of 1 m; and 10 layers were used from 0-5 m. After this, one simply

157 Issue 17 exports the new model to a file that contains the coordinates of the corner of the cells, the resistivity values and the coverage.

WAVE VELOCITY ACQUISITION, PROCESSING AND MODELLING THE SYSTEM AND DATA ACQUISITION The recording itself was done using a DAQ, more specifically a NI USB 6215 – 16 bit with 32 inputs – that converts the analogue signals into digital ones to be processed. It achieves a top sampling rate of 250 KS/s. The previously potential electrodes were now used as connectors for the geophones. This means that for each pair of electrodes, we now had a geophone totaling a number of four, separated by 5 m each. Both inputs of each geophone connect to the DAQ which itself connects to a computer with the program LabVIEW installed. The triggering circuit also connects to the DAQ and contains a 5V battery for power, a metal-tipped hammer and a metal base. This means that when the hammer touches the base, there is current flowing through the system and LabVIEW starts acquiring data from the geophones. In this way, the hammer is both source and trigger. Sixteen shots, separated by 1 m, are then made along the acquisition line. Figure II.2 illustrates the system.

Figure II.2 . Seismic wave acquisition system.

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ACQUISITION SYSTEM – SOFTWARE Making use of the LabView software, three different programs were created. Two allowed for the recording of the electrical resistivity and seismic measurements; while the third for a continuous measurement of seismic signal with the goal of confirming the readiness of the system and all its channels. Using this feature, one can simply walk in a straight line over the setup and the steps should be visible approaching and moving away from every single geophone depending on its position. Since each electrode is used as a connector for a geophone, it means that if the geophones are functional, the electrodes should be too. The programs in LabView are simple in nature. They were not intended for any processing on-site, only recording and the conversion of the signals into digital waveforms. The seismic recording program allows for the setting of the number of samples and its rate for the data input. This means that one can achieve better resolutions at the expense of more computing power and more arduous processing, or simpler models sacrificing precision. It also allows for the immediate viewing of the obtained waveforms in order to easily decide whether a certain shot should, or not, be repeated. The recording itself begins when the device is triggered and the program is prepared to recognize this. Finally, it allows for the automatic export of the data into a Notepad file. The continuous seismic recording program is similar to the previously described but as been put in a loop, meaning that it does not save any data and the waveforms are always visible on screen for an unspecified amount of time.

PROCESSING IN MATLAB AND RA2DTOMO The output file obtained from LabVIEW contains amplitudes and times. This file is then loaded to an Octave script. This script allows for arough cut in frequencies in the signal using the Fourier transform. This cut can be applied to both high and low frequencies. After applying the filter, the

159 Issue 17 waveforms are projected on to a graph and the picking effort begins. For each geophone, 16 first arrivals are determined, one for each shot. When these are done, the waveforms change to the ones obtained in the next geophone but the picked points remain visible in order to make use of reciprocal times for a better picking. The output file contains the first arrival times for all shots in each geophone. This file is then loaded onto ra2Dtomo, which performs the topographical inversion in a TIN triangular irregular network. This is the way in which the joining of resistivity and velocity models was done. The velocity model of each cell and the resistivity model were imported to Octave, where a grid regularization was made with the same cells to obtain a new parameter based on an assumption of a complex number, where the real is the resistivity and the imaginary component is the velocity. With this complex number, the phase and amplitude were projected to obtain two different views of the model. Finally, the electrical resistivity results for the anomalies interpretation were integrated into a 3D view.

View of the geophysical prospection fieldwork (photo by K. Kamyab, 2017).

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ANNEX III

A PRELIMINARY CHARACTERIZATION OF FOUR CERAMIC SHERDS FOUND IN A 17TH CENTURY DEPOSITE FROM THE SITE OF THE PRIMITIVE FORT QUELBA IN THE SHARJAH EMIRATES

LUÍS FILIPE VIEIRA FERREIRAa; INÊS FERREIRA MACHADOa, c; RUI CARITAb; ROSA VARELA GOMESb; MÁRIO VARELA GOMESb; KAMYAR DARYOUSH KAMYABd

a CQFM - Centro de Química-Física Molecular and IN-Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade Técnica de Lisboa; b Instituto de Arqueologia e Paleociências da Universidade Nova de Lisboa; c Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre; d Sharjah Institute for Heritage

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At the end of the 15th century, Portuguese ships started to navigate the Indian Ocean, until then unknown to Europeans. Several fortresses were occupied or built at key coastal locations to ensure safe points for naval fleets, for stocking supplies, and also to act as bases for commercial relations. In the 17th century, one of these fortresses was Quelba/Kalba, located today in the Emirate of Sharjah, one of the states of the United Arab Emirates. In an exploratory visit of the site’s remains, some ceramic sherds were found and collected, and later a preliminary spectroscopy characterization was made for four of them (three green glazed fine-wares and one white glazed), in order to evaluate their possible Portuguese origin.

S1 S2 S3 S4

These sherds were studied using micro-Raman, Xray fluorescence emission and diffuse reflectance absorption spectroscopies, in a non-invasive approach. Also, diffractograms for the sherds’ pastes were performed for mineral characterization. From the point of view of the mineral composition of the pastes, the main minerals found were quartz, diopside, gehlenite, microcline and analcime. No calcium carbonate could be identified in the diffractograms. The results allow all four sherds to be considered as Lisbon ceramics through comparison with the 16th or 17th century pottery, now well characterized by various studies [1-3]. However detailed Raman studies of the glazes clearly showed that S1, S2 and S3 exhibit alkaline-based glazes [4], while S4 has a lead-based glaze [1-3]. Therefore, only the latter sherd seems to be truly Portuguese, most probably

163 Issue 17 from Lisbon kilns. This research was possible thanks to the support of Dr Sabah Abbood Jasim, Director General of the Archaeology Authority of the Government of Sharjah.

[ 1] L.F. Vieira Ferreira, A. Gonzalez, M.F.C. Pereira, L.F. Santos, T.M. Casimiro, D.P. Ferreira, D.S. Conceição, I. Ferreira Machado (2015) – “Spectroscopy of 16th century Portuguese tin-glazed earthenware produced in the region of Lisbon”, Ceram. Intern. 41, pp. 13433–13446. [2] L.F. Vieira Ferreira, D.P. Ferreira, D.S. Conceição, L.F. Santos, M.F.C. Pereira, T. M. Casimiro, I. Ferreira Machado (2015) – “Portuguese tin-glazed earthenware from the 17th century. Part 2: a spectroscopic characterization of pigments, glazes and pastes of the three main production centres”, Spectrochimica Acta A, 149, pp. 285294-. [3] L.F. Vieira Ferreira, D.S. Conceição, D.P. Ferreira, L.F. Santos, T.M. Casimiro, I. Ferreira Machado (2014) – Portuguese 16th century tiles from Santo António da Charneca’s kiln: a spectroscopic characterization of pigments, glazes and pastes, J. Raman Spectrosc. 45, pp. 838-847. [4] Ph. Colomban, A. Tournié, L. Bellot-Gurlet (2006) – Raman identification of glassy silicates used in ceramics, glass and jewellery: a tentative differentiation guide, J. Raman Spectrosc. 37, pp. 841-852.

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ANNEX IV

PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE PALAEOZOOLOGY

MIGUEL TELLES ANTUNES

Academia das Ciências de Lisboa (ACL), Director of the Maynense Museum (ACL), CICEGE, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Univer-sidade Nova de Lisboa

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IVA The purpose of this paper is quite limited, even if the identification of human food remnants is very much important owing their relation with economic and NNEX political conditions in human communities. What did the population of Quelba/Kalba eat? This question may partly be answered on the basis of material collected in January 2017 by the Portuguese archaeological mission at the site.

DESCRIPTION Samples have been arranged in plastic bags. Fish are represented by teleostean vertebrae, the head, fin spines and other bones. In such conditions, accurate identification at the species level is not possible, particularly if taking P into account the lack of comparative collections. As no washing and fine sieving has been carried out, very small teeth and other objects are entirely lacking, and the small terrestrial fauna are near entirely absent.

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Table 1. Material and identification. Material too incomplete, not suitable for determination is marked “Ind.”, indeterminate; “Frag.”, fragment; “vert.”, vertebra or vertebrae, vertebral; “inc.”, incomplete.

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Chart 1. Taxa and number of specimens.

APPROXIMATE AGE OF THE SHEEP According to Silver (1971, p. 283): “Really accurate estimates of the age of an animal can be made only when the following conditions are fulfilled: A- that it belongs to a species or breed of which the age characteristics are well documented. B- that its plane of nutrition is known. C- that most of the teeth and a representative selection of bones are available. D- that it is not yet fully adult”. Not all these conditions are fulfilled in the case under study. Thus, the results have to be regarded as approximate. With this proviso, we selected the following data on sheep (Table 2) from Silver (1971, p. 285, Table A). Taking into account the whole samples, we selected among the great majority of rather young mammalian bones – mostly reported as Ovis aries L. – some specimens that lost epiphysis before they fused with the corre- sponding diaphysis. According to the table above, we obtain the approximate

169 Issue 17 age at death: - Humerus, proximal extremity without epiphysis: < 3 - 3 1/2 years; - distal articulations of metacarpals and metatarsals: sals: < 18-24 mo. - first phalanges without distal epiphysis: < 18-24 mo.

Bone Ossification centers Fusion sheep Scapula Bicipital tuberosity 6-8 mo. Humerus Proximal epiphysis 3-3 1/2 yrs Distal epiphysis 10 mo. Radius Proximal epiphysis 10 mo. Distal epiphysis 3 yrs. Ulna Olecranon (bone fusion in young adult sheep) All at 2 ½ yrs. Metacarpus Proximal epiphysis Before birth Distal epiphysis 18-24 mo. 1st phalanx Proximal epiphysis Before birth Distal epiphysis 13-16 mo.

Table 2. Bone fusion data in sheep.

Figure 1. Ovis aries. A - Distal half of left humerus (KLB/GU61/L2); B - Left astragalus with bite marks; C, D - Small carnivore humeri (KLB/GU99/L2) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

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Figure 2. Gallus gallus. Body and limb bones (KLB/Well1/L2) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

Figure 3. Teleostean vertebrae (KLB/GU82/L2 and KLB/GU86/L2) (photo by J. Gonçalves, 2018).

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CONCLUSIONS The whole collection mostly comprises of bone fragments from mammals, birds and fish, nearly always reduced to scraps. In the case of the mammals and birds, variety seems quite restricted. The whole list of taxa so far identified as possible is as follows (Table 3). Remains from Quelba/Kalba comprise many samples from several fish species, most of which are indeterminate. The sampled fish have quite large- sized teleostea, which, in conjunction with the presence of a rather large sea- bream (Pagrus sp.?) point to a marine origin, which was already expected. On the whole, this stresses the importance of fish as a food source. Another significant part of the collection is the bird bones, most of which seem to belong to chicken. Furthermore, there are many mammals remains that are nearly always comparable size and can classified as sheep. Bones, often having lost the epiphysis, point to rather young specimens killed for human consumption. Some fragments show distinct cut marks, and the bones rarely show traces of burning. The sheep were slaughtered at quite a young age, before one and half and two years, or, at most, before three to three and a half years. There is no clear evidence of hunting species being consumed at the site. Interestingly, the results are not much different from today with the predominance of sheep, chicken and fishes as the main sources of protein in the region.

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Table 3. Quelba/Kalba, list of taxa (***, predominant)

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REFERENCES

- BROTHWELL, Don; HIGGS, Eric (eds) with a foreword by CLARK, Grahame (reprinted 1971) – Science in Archaeology: A Survey in Progress and Research, revised and enlarged edition, Thames and Hudson, London. - GOMES, Mário Varela; GOMES, Rosa Varela; CARITA, Rui; KAMYAB, Kamyar Daryoush (2017) – Resultados preliminares da primeira campanha da Missão Arqueológica Portuguesa em Sharjah (EAU). Escavação arqueológica em Quelba/Kalba, Arqueologia em Portugal 2017 – Estado da Questão, pp. 1641- 1656, Associação dos Arqueólogos Portugueses, Lisboa. - SILVER, I. A. (1971) – The Ageing of Domestic Animals, Science in Archaeology: A Survey in Progress and Research, 2nd edit., pp. 283302-, Thames and Hudson, London. - UERPMANN, Hans-Peter; UERPMANN, Margarethe; JASIM, Sabah Abbood (2008) – The Archaeology of Jebel al-Buhais, Vol. 2 – The Natural Environment of Jebel al-Buhais: Past and Present, Department of Culture and Information, Government of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, Sharjah.

Figure 4. View of the excavation of osteological animal remains (photo by K. Kamyab, 2017).

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ANNEX V

MOLLUSC REMAINS FROM THE QUELBA/ KALBA FORTIFICATION (LATE 16TH TO 18TH CENTURIES, SHARJAH, UAE): TAXONOMIC, TAPHONOMIC, ENVIRONMENTAL AND CULTURAL IMPLICATIONS

PEDRO M. CALLAPEZ a; PEDRO A. DINIS b

a Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal. CITEUC - Center for Research on Earth and Space at the University of Coimbra, Astronomical Observatory, Almas de Freire, Santa Clara, 3040-004 Coimbra, Portugal; [email protected]; b Department of Earth Sciences, MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal; [email protected].

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ABSTRACT: Archaeological works at the site of the former Quelba/Kalba fortification (late 16th to 18th centuries, Sharjah, UAE) have yielded a significant bulk sample of marine invertebrates, with 24 species of Bivalvia; 32 species and subspecies of Gastropoda; a Scaphopoda; several crustaceans; and scleractinian coral debris. The taphonomic and palaeoecological analysis of this assemblage revealed a mix of elements with different origins and ages, including older shells reworked from the substrate of Holocene accretionary littoral sands on which the structure was built; elements of lagoonal and mangrove origin, with emphasis on Terebralia palustris, and many specimens from tidal flat and inner shelf environments with sandy or rocky substrates. The presence of several edible species suggests a low-scale exploration of the environment with fishing and shellfish gathering activities, and food consumption of molluscs and crabs. Several shells could also have been used as containers, and other perforated examples as adornments, including the common olive shell Oliva bulbosa. A few specimens of Monetaria annulus and M. moneta point to a possible local use of these shells as traditional currency. All this ecological and cultural diversity reveals the importance of the studied assemblage as an example of the interaction between a strategic human settlement and their natural surrounding environment in the Oman Sea during the period of the Portuguese discoveries.

KEYWORDS: Marine molluscs, archaeological context, environmental setting, cultural habits, Quelba/Kalba fortification, Sharjah Emirate.

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INTRODUCTION Marine molluscs are a common occurrence at many archaeological sites located on coastal areas, regardless of their chronology and cultural contexts. Their carbonate shells can survive rather adverse physical and chemical conditions of taphonomic processes, whereas the remains of other invertebrate groups with weaker skeletal parts are typically not preserved. They can be so abundant under certain conditions that an archaeological context itself is almost built of shell concentrations. This is the case of many known examples of shell-middens, from where repeated practices of shellfish gathering have being documented since the Palaeolithic. Most frequently, mollusc shells of the classes Bivalvia, Gastropoda, Cephalopoda, and, more rarely, Scaphopoda and Polyplacophora have been found in variable numbers, together with other invertebrate remains, such as corals, bryozoans, crustaceans and serpulids. They may also occur with vertebrate or plant remains and a variety of microorganisms, including foraminifera and ostracod tests, oogonia, dinoflagellates and palynomorphs, as a diverse taxonomical background available alongside the archaeological data, and relevant for the overall characterization of the studied site, would suggest. The diversity and complexity of settings in which marine molluscs occur is obviously high. In this way, any integrated quantitative data based on mollusc assemblages found together with artefacts and other archaeological evidence would include their taxonomic composition, diversity, relative and absolute abundance, and taphonomic imprint. These data can provide us with valuable information about the local and neighbouring environments contemporaneous with the deposit, including the record of sedimentary events, the ecological structure of the living biotic communities, and biogeographic and climatic features. They also evince several aspects of human interaction with marine molluscs

178 Issue 17 and their shells, which can be intentional or casual. There are many edible species of bivalves (mussels, oysters, clams), gastropods (limpets, abalones, topshells, whelks) and cephalopods (octopuses, squids, cuttlefish) whose abundant remains can reveal habits of shellfish gathering and consumption, sometimes related to a food economy that included a relative degree of seasonal production and exportation to other areas. Marine shells have also been extensively used as adornments or in a variety of tools, revealing cultural habits and practices of past. This multiplicity of data and their interpretation is precisely reflected in our case study, where a late 16th to 18th century archaeological context located in Sharjah (UAE) yielded a significant collection of marine shells (Gomes et alii, 2017) representative of the latest Holocene shallow-water marine assemblages of Oman Sea thermophilic molluscan fauna. These studied materials were collected during an archaeological excavation made in the first two weeks of January 2017, at the site of the ancient Quelba/Kalba fortification, a local defensive structure mentioned by several historical sourced from the period of Portuguese navigation. The main purpose of this text is to quantitatively describe this collection, including its taxonomic composition, taphonomic and anthropic imprints, palaeoenvironmental and palaeogeographical significance, and cultural meaning.

GEOGRAPHICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING The Quelba/Kalba fortification archaeological site is located on the seaside of Kalba, a coastal town of Sharjah Emirate open to the Oman Sea, in the North-East border of the Arabian Peninsula (fig. 1). The mid geographical coordinates of the studied area are 25˚01’39.3’’ Lat. N; 056˚21’39.1’’ Long. E. The fortress itself was built in the landscape of a large coastal plain area covered by aeolian sands and formed by Holocene fluvial, estuarine and lagoonal sands and muds, beach and littoral sands with interbedded coquina. This sedimentary system evolved in the proximity of the Kalba Creek (fig. 2), which presently shows the remains of a lagoonal environment with mangroves, probably much

179 Issue 17 more developed in past, but gradually silted up by marine and wind accretion. The existence of this marginal marine environment and its transition to the nearby seashore means that several ecological ecotones developed side-by- side, being a source of shell remains that contributed to the relatively high diversity of the studied mollusc assemblage, with cooccurrence of species from different coastal morphologies and abiotic conditions. As expected, the local fauna is typical of warm shallow water environments, with normal to brackish salinity conditions, and reveal adaptations to sandy soft bottoms or rocky substrates with a relative contribution of carbonate elements.

Figure 1. Location of the Quelba/Kalba fortification on the Western margin of the Oman Sea. Digital elevation model (DEM) from SRTM 1 Arc-Second Global elevation data (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/).

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Figure 2. The Kalba Creek and the coastal area surrounding the fortification. (A) Coastal lagoons visible in a 1995 Google Earth TM image (highlighted with blue ellipses); (B) DEM showing the low elevation of the coastal plain and the areas prone to lagoon development.

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TAXONOMIC CHECK-LIST The taxonomic classification and systematic arrangement of the molluscan assemblage sampled in the archaeological context of Quelba/Kalba fortification follows the proposals of Bieler et alii (2010; 2014) and Carter et alii (2011) for the Bivalves, and Bouchet et alii (2005) for the Gastropods. The monographs of Wenz (1938-44) and Moore (1960; 1969) have been also consulted, as well as the extensive books of Huber (2010; 2014) for the Bivalves. For classification at species level, special attention was given to several works available for the central and Northern Indian Ocean, Red Sea, Oman Sea and Arabian Gulf areas, where many elements of the typical IndoPacific province warm, shallow-water fauna occur together with short range species and several endemic molluscs. These areas have been investigated by Smythe (1972; 1979; 1982), Briggs (1973), Bosch and Bosch (1982; 1989), Sharabati (1984), Jones (1986), Vine (1986), Drivas and Jay (1987), Coloumbel (1994), Bosch et alii (1995), Brower et alii (2000), Feulner and Hornby (2006), Dekker and Gemert (2008), Rushmore-Villaume (2008), Al-Yamani et alii (2012), and El-Sorogy et alii (2016), among others. Finally, the monographs of Lorenz and Hubert (2002), and Tucker and Tenorio (2009) were considered respectively for the families Cypraeidae and Conidae. The proposed taxonomic check-list comprises a total diversity of 57 taxa, including 12 families, 21 genera and 24 species of Bivalvia, 21 families, 29 genera and 32 species and subspecies of Gastropoda, and a single Scaphopoda. Most elements were classified to the specific level, with a few exceptions of abraded and uncoloured shells remaining in open nomenclature (pls 1-8).

Class Bivalvia Linnaeus, 1758 Subclass Pteriomorphia Beurlen, 1944 Order Arcida Gray, 1854 Superfamily Arcoidea Lamarck, 1809 Family Arcidae Lamarck, 1809

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Genus Barbatia Gray, 1842 Barbatia obliquata (Wood, 1828) Barbatia candida (Helbling, 1779) Genus Anadara Gray, 1847 Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus, 1758) Anadara uropigimelana (Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1827) Family Glycymerididae Dall, 1908 Genus Glycymeris da Costa, 1778 Glycymeris livida (Reeve, 1843) Genus Tucetona Iredale, 1939 Tucetona pectunculus (Linnaeus, 1758) Order Pteriida Newell, 1965 Superfamily Pterioidea Gray, 1847 Family Pteriidae Gray, 1847 Genus Pinctada Röding, 1798 Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus, 1758) Order Ostreida Férussac, 1822 Superfamily Ostreoidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Ostreidae Rafinesque, 1815 Genus Alectryonella Sacco, 1897 Alectryonella plicatula (Gmelin, 1791) Genus Saccostrea Dollfus & Dautzenberg,1920 Saccostrea cucullata (Börn, 1778) Order Pectinida Gray, 1854 Superfamily Anomioidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Anomiidae Rafinesque, 1815 Genus Anomia Linnaeus, 1758 Anomia achaeus Gray, 1850 Superfamily Pectinoidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Spondylidae Gray, 1826 Genus Spondylus Linnaeus, 1758

Spondylus sp. indet. Subclass Heteroconchia Gray, 1854 Order Carditida Dall, 1889

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Superfamily Carditoidea Férussac, 1822 Family Carditidae Férussac, 1822 Genus Cardites Link, 1807 Cardites bicolor (Lamarck, 1819) Order Venerida Gray, 1854 Superfamily Cardioidea Lamarck, 1809 Family Cardiidae Lamarck, 1809 Genus Vasticardium Iredale, 1927 Vasticardium assimile lacunosum (Reeve,1845) Vasticardium rubicundum (Reeve, 1844) Superfamily Chamoidea Lamarck, 1809 Family Chamidae Lamarck, 1809 Genus Chama Linnaeus, 1758

Chama sp. indet. Superfamily Mactroidea Lamarck, 1809 Family Mactridae Lamarck, 1809 Genus Mactra Linnaeus, 1767 Mactra olorina Philippi, 1846 Genus Meropesta Iredale, 1929 Meropesta cf. nicobarica (Gmelin, 1791) Superfamily Tellinoidea Blainville, 1814 Family Psammobiidae J. Fleming, 1828 Genus Gari Schumacher, 1817 Gari maculosa (Lamarck, 1818) Superfamily Veneroidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Veneridae Rafinesque, 1815 Genus Circe Schumacher, 1817 Circe rugifera (Lamarck, 1818) Genus Dosinia Scopoli, 1777 Dosinia erythraea Römer, 1860 Genus Tapes Megerle von Mühlfeld, 1811 Tapes sulcarius (Lamarck, 1818) Genus Sunetta Link, 1807 Sunetta effossa (Hanley, 1843)

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Genus Callista Poli, 1791

Callista sp. indet. Genus Tivela Link, 1807 Tivela damaoides (Wood, 1828)

Class Gastropoda Cuvier, 1795

Subclass Vetigastropoda Order Trochida Superfamily Trochoidea Family Trochidae Rafinesque, 1815 Genus Priotrochus Fischer, 1879 Priotrochus obscurus (Wood, 1828)

Subclass Neritomorpha Order Cycloneritida Superfamily Neritoidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Neritidae Rafinesque, 1815 Genus Nerita Linnaeus, 1758 Nerita albicilla Linnaeus, 1758

Subclass Caenogastropoda Superfamily Cerithioidea Fleming, 1822 Family Potamididae H. Adams & A. Adams, 1854 Genus Terebralia Swainson, 1840 Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1767) Genus Pirenella Gray, 1847 Pirenella arabica Reid, 2016 Family Turritellidae Lovén, 1847 Genus Turitella Lamarck, 1799 Turitella cochlea Reeve, 1849

Order Littorinimorpha Superfamily Calyptraeoidea Lamarck, 1809

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Family Calyptraeidae Lamarck, 1809 Genus Crepidula Lamarck, 1799

Crepidula sp. indet. Superfamily Cypraeoidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Cypraeidae Rafinesque, 1815 Genus Erosaria Troschel, 1863 Erosaria erosa (Linnaeus, 1758) Erosaria lamarckii (Gray, 1825) Erosaria turdus (Lamarck, 1810) Genus Monetaria Troschel, 1863 Monetaria annulus (Linnaeus, 1758) Monetaria moneta (Linnaeus, 1758) Genus Lyncina Troschel, 1863 Lyncina carneola (Linnaeus, 1758) Genus Mauritia Troschel, 1863 Mauritia arabica immanis Schilder & Schilder, 1939 Mauritia arabica grayana Schilder, 1930 Genus Palmadusta Iredale, 1930 Palmadusta clandestina (Linnaeus, 1767) Superfamily Naticoidea Guilding, 1834 Family Naticidae Guilding, 1834 Subfamily Polinicinae Gray, 1847 Genus Neverita Risso, 1826 Neverita didyma (Röding, 1798) Genus Polinices Montfort, 1810 Polinices mammilla (Linnaeus, 1758) Superfamily Stromboidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Strombidae Rafinesque, 1815 Genus Conomurex Bayle in P. Fischer, 1884 Conomurex persicus (Swainson, 1821) Superfamily Tonnoidea Suter, 1913 Family Cassidae Latreille, 1852 Genus Semicassis Mörch, 1852

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Semicassis sp. indet. Family Tonnidae Suter, 1913 Genus Tonna Brünnich, 1771 Tonna dolium (Linnaeus, 1758) Family Ranellidae Gray, 1854 Subfamily Cymatiinae Iredale, 1913 Genus Cymatium Röding, 1798

Cymatium sp. indet. Genus Linatella Gray, 1857 Linatella caudata (Gmelin, 1791) Superfamily Vermetoidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Vermetidae Rafinesque, 1815 Genus Vermetus Daudin, 1800

Vermetus sp. indet. Superfamily Buccinoidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Nassariidae Iredale, 1916 Subfamily Bulliinae Allmon, 1990 Genus Bullia Gray, 1833 Bullia mauritiana Gray, 1839 Superfamily Muricoidea Rafinesque, 1815 Family Muricidae Rafinesque, 1815 Subfamily Muricinae Rafinesque, 1815 Genus Hexaplex Perry, 1810 Hexaplex kuesterianus (Tapparone Canefri, 1875) Subfamily Rapaninae Gray, 1853 Genus Thais Röding, 1798 Thais sp. indet. Order Neogastropoda Superfamily Olivoidea Latreille, 1825 Family Olividae Latreille, 1825 Subfamily Olivinae Latreille, 1825 Genus Oliva Bruguière, 1789 Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798)

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Subfamily Olivellinae Troschel, 1869 Genus Olivella Swainson, 1831

Olivella sp. indet. Superfamily Conoidea Fleming, 1822 Family Conidae Linnaeus, 1758 Genus Conus Linnaeus, 1758 Conus quercinus Lightfoot, 1786 Conus sp. indet. [abraded fragments] Genus Conasprella Thiele, 1929 Conasprella stocki (Coomans & Moolenbeek,1990)

Subclass Heterobranchia Superfamily Architectonicoidea Gray, 1850 Family Architectonicidae Gray, 1850 Genus Architectonica Röding, 1798 Architectonica perspectiva (Linnaeus,1758)

Class Scaphopoda

Order Dentaliida Family Dentaliidae Children, 1834 Genus Dentalium Linnaeus, 1758

Dentalium sp. indet.

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QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE INVERTEBRATE ASSEMBLAGE

The studied bulk sample has a total of 880 skeletal parts, which are representative of a minimal number of 817 individuals. This collection was divided in two complementary parts: the first contains the materials collected from the excavated squares, and the second a large set of shells and other skeletal parts found inside a well structure with a sedimentary fill rich in invertebrate remains. The larger part comprises 63 samples with 548 individuals collected from 61 squares of the 328 m2 dug area (Gomes et alii, 2017). They include several surface samples, specimens found in modern sand sediments (Layer 1), and shells from the sandy deposit contemporary of the fortress (Layer 2). From the well structure, there is a complementary sample of 269 individuals collected from a succession of layers, which records several fill deposition episodes of shellfish and food waste. The square sampling consists of disarticulated valves and fragments of 174 specimens of bivalve molluscs, including a few oysters and several different species of clams, together with 351 gastropod shells and fragments, and a scaphopod (tusk shell) (Tables Ia, Ib, and Ic). For quantitative purposes, only the bivalve fragments with hinge parts and the gastropod fragments with spire parts have been counted. Besides these mollusc shells, also 20 abraded skeletal fragments of scleractinian corals and two parts of decapod claws (edible crabs) were found. Other invertebrate remains such as serpulid worm tubes and fragments of incrusted bryozoan colonies may occur as epizoans on the inner and outer surfaces of several shells, but they were not used for quantitative purposes. Nevertheless, they are useful in revealing the taphonomic imprint of the skeletal parts, suggesting in many cases a significant post mortem interval of biostratonomic residence over the substrate surface. The absolute frequency and relative abundance of the taxa collected from the 61 excavated squares are detailed in Table Id and Figure 3. The most

189 Issue 17 representative species are: The gastropods Oliva bulbosa (82 individuals; 14.96 %), Conomurex persicus (48 individuals; 8.76%), Erosaria turdus (46 individuals; 8.39 %), Turritella cochlea (36 individuals; 6.57 %), Terebralia palustris (34 individuals; 6.20 %) and Olivella sp. (23 individuals; 4.20 %), and the bivalves Anadara antiquata (35 individuals; 6.39 %), and Tucetona pectunculus (25 individuals; 4.56 %). Other rather representative taxa are the gastropods Hexaplex kuesterianus (15 individuals; 2.74 %), Monetaria annulus (10 individuals; 1.82 %), Nerita albicilla (nine individuals; 1.64 %), and Architectonica perspectiva (six individuals; 1.09 %), and the bivalves Barbatia obliquata (18 individuals; 1.38 %), Anadara uropigimelana (17 individuals; 3.10 %), Mactra olorina (16 individuals; 2.92 %), Vasticardium assimile (13 individuals; 2.37 %), Vasticardium rubicundum (25 individuals; 4.56 %) and Saccostrea cucullata (eight individuals; 1.46 %). Besides molluscs, this sample contains 20 abraded fragments of undetermined scleractinian corals (5.65 %).

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(Grid unites 90 - 123; cln-Square Cleaning; srf-surface specimens)

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Figure 3. Relative frequency of the invertebrate taxa collected from the excavated squares of Quelba/Kalba fortification archaeological site. a – Barbatia obliquata; b – Barbatia candida; c - Anadara antiquata; d – Anadara uropigimelana; e – Glycymeris livida; f – Tucetona pectunculus; g – Pinctada margaritifera; h – Alectryonella plicatula; i – Saccostrea cucullata; j – Anomia achaeus; k – Spondylus sp. indet.; l – Cardites bicolor; m – Vasticardium assimile; n – Vasticardium rubicundum; o – Chama sp.; p – Mactra olorina; q – Meropesta cf. nicobarica, r – Gari maculosa; s – Circe rugifera; t – Dosinia erythraea; u –Tapes sulcarius; v – Sunetta effossa; w – Callista sp.; x – Tivela damaoides; y – Priotrochus obscurus; z – Nerita albicilla; A – Terebralia palustris; B – Pirenella arabica; C – Turitella cochlea; D Crepidula sp.; E – Erosaria erosa; F – Erosaria lamarckii; G – Erosaria turdus; H – Monetaria annulus; I – Monetaria moneta; J Lyncina carneola carneola; K – Mauritia arabica immanis; L – Mauritia arabica grayana; M – Palmadusta cladestina; N – Neverita didyma; O – Polinices mammilla; P – Conomurex persicus; Q – Semicassis sp.; R –Tonna dolium; S – Cymatium sp.; T – Linatella caudata; U – Vermetus sp.; V – Bullia mauritiana; W – Hexaplex kuesterianus; X – Thais sp.; Y – Oliva bulbosa; Z – Olivella sp.; a – Conus quercinus; b – Conus sp. indet.; c -–Architectonica perspectiva; d – Dentalium sp.; e – Scleractinian corals; f – Decapo- da claws.

Figure 4. Relative frequency of the invertebrate taxa collected in a well structure filled with garbage remains at Quelba/Kalba fortification archaeological site. a – Barbatia obliquata; b – Barbatia candida; c – Anadara antiquata; d – Anadara uropigimelana; e – Tucetona pectunculus; f – Saccostrea cucullata; g – Spondylus sp. indet.; h – Cardites bicolor; i – Chama sp.; j – Mactra olorina; k – Circe rugifera; l – Dosinia erythraea; m – Tapes sulcarius; n – Sunetta effossa; o – Callista sp.; p – Priotrochus obscurus; q – Nerita albicilla; r – Terebralia palustris; s – Pirenella arabica; t – Turitella cochlea; u – Erosaria turdus; v – Monetaria annulus; w – Neverita didyma; x – Polinices mammilla; y – Conomurex persicus; z – Bullia mauritiana; A – Hexaplex kuesterianus; B – Thais sp.; C – Oliva bulbosa; D – Olivella sp.; E – Conus quercinus; F – Conus sp. indet.; G – Conasprella stocki; H – Dentalium sp.; I – Scleractinian corals; J – Decapoda claws.

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Table 2. Quantitative distribution and relative abundance of invertebrate taxa collected from a well structure filled with waste remains.

From the second part of the bulk sample, the well infill layers yielded shells and skeletal fragments of 34 mollusc taxa, including the remains of 137 bivalves, 125 gastropods and a single scaphopod (Table 2; fig. 4). Two fragments of branched coral and several of Decapoda claws belonging to at least two large individuals have also been found together. The commonest

196 Issue 17 taxa are the gastropods Olivella sp. (31 individuals; 11.52 %), Oliva bulbosa (48 individuals; 8.76%), Terebralia palustris (13 individuals; 4.83 %), Hexaplex kuesterianus (12 individuals; 4.46 %), Nerita albicilla (nine individuals; 3.35 %) and Conomurex persicus (nine individuals; 3.35 %), and the bivalves Mactra olorina (93 individuals; 35.57 %), and Anadara antiquata (nine individuals; 3.35 %). Other rather frequent taxa are the gastropods Turritella cochlea (four individuals; 1.49 %), and the bivalves Anadara uropigimelana (seven individuals; 2.60 %) and Tucetona pectunculus (six individuals; 2.23 %).

TAPHONOMY AND SHELL HISTORY The post-mortem history of biogenic skeletal parts can be very useful for recognising environmental and cultural aspects of the archaeological contexts. There is a wide range of biostratinomic processes, both constructive and destructive, which can interact with shells and other invertebrate remains, to produce physical, chemical and/or biological changes, as a sort of individual taphonomic imprint that can tell us much about each pre-burial pathway (e.g. Lopez, 2000). Nevertheless, the more effective mechanisms in littoral and marginal marine environments can be those of biodegradation-decomposition, disarticulation, breakage, abrasion, reorientation, concentration, resedimentation, distortion, bioerosion and encrusting. They can act at the same time or sequentially, during the time residence of the skeletal parts over the subtract, and before their definitive burial in the sediments. An overview of the studied bulk sample shows evidence that all these mechanisms would have been present to some extent, changing many of the original shells in their natural environment before being transported to the archaeological site. In this way, it can be stated that autochthonous and parautochthonous elements are absent from the assemblage. All invertebrate remains have been subjected to a natural transport and resedimentation; or,

197 Issue 17 alternatively, to intentional or fortuitous human gathering from their primary environments to the archaeological context. Except for a single specimen of Mactra olorina, all bivalves from the collection were recorded as disarticulated valves. Shell breakage is high for many taxa, both bivalves or gastropods. It is often associated to mechanical abrasion of the skeletal parts, bioerosion and epizoan encrusting. More rarely, other shells show evidence of intentional breakage, such as the large specimens of Hexaplex kuesterianus, and the edible clams Callista sp. and Tapes sulcarius. These kinds of human produced fragments are also seen in a small number of crab claws found together with the shell assemblage, suggesting a low-scale shellfish diet. Bioerosion marks are common on the studied shells. They result from the destructive activity of boring sponges such as Cliona, polychaete worms or carnivorous gastropods. Most epizoans consist of agglomerated tubes of serpulid worms, colonies of encrusting bryozoans, small barnacles and calcareous algae. Both bioerosional structures and epizoan encrusting can only affect the external surface of the shells, or be present in both outside and inside surfaces, frequently with abrasion. In the first case, they could be produced during the life cycle of the animal, and persist after death through the biostratonomic phase that precedes the burial. If present on both sides of the skeletal elements, these bioerosional structures and epizoan encrusting surely occurred post mortem. These signs of a long and complex biostratonomic history have been found in many shells of the studied assemblage, including specimens of the: bivalves Barbatia obliquata, Tucetona pectunculus, Spondylus sp. indet., Vesticardium assimile and V. rubicundum, and the gastropods Terebralia palustris, Erosaria turdus, Conus sp. and Olivella sp. At least in part, the origin of these “old” shells would much likely be related to the Holocene sedimentary accretion of the sandy littoral plain where the Quelba/Kalba fortification was built. Thus, these reworked skeletal parts can be interpreted as sedimentary particles (bioclasts in the sense of Folk, 1959) of the natural environment, which have

198 Issue 17 been accumulated by the combined action of swelling, longshore drift and tidal currents. Their age may be also much older than the chronology of the archaeological context itself, meaning that the studied association has a fraction of mixed heterochronous elements. Nevertheless, it is probable that other shells with high biostratonomic changes have resulted from fishing and shellfish activities followed by fortuitous transportation to the site, for example, during the cleaning of fishing nets.

PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL BACKGROUND The main ecological requirements and present day biogeographic ranges of the sampled species suggest that all of them are shallow water, littoral to upper offshore benthic molluscs, both epifaunal or infaunal, typical of warm surface waters from the tropical Indo-Pacific realm. Several palaeoenvironments with modern equivalents in the Kalba coastal area and characterised by a combination of abiotic factors, such as salinity, substrate and bathymetry, can be recognised from the ecological analysis of the association: (a) Lagoonal and mangrove areas with low-energy brackish conditions, including sandy mud or muddy sand intertidal and upper infralittoral flats with soft substrates. These transitional environments are representative of the large mud creeper Terebralia palustris (Hellyer and Aspinall, 2006) and several other Potamididae gastropods such as Pirenella arabica, besides the edible oysters Saccostrea cucullata and Alectryonella plicatula (Feulner, 2000; Feulner and Hornby, 2006), both recorded in the studied samples. Meropesta nicobarica and other infaunal bivalves may also be present, as well as the intertidal gastropods Priotrochus obscurus and Nerita albicilla, which can live attached to mangrove roots and other hard substrates locally available. It is likely that the lagoonal system of Khor Kalba and its mangrove swamps were more extensive in past, before being gradually filled by accretionary beach and dune sands of the present day Holocene littoral plain.

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(b) Beach shore face and tidal flat, medium to high energy sandy soft substrates. These kinds of intertidal and upper infralittoral environments located above the wave-base level are very advantageous for several types of infaunal bivalves adapted to unstable and welloxygenated unconsolidated beds, including many edible clams such as Mactra olorina, Circe rugifera, Dosinia ery-thraea and Tapes sulcarius. It is also the preferred environment for the olive shells Oliva bulbosa, Olivella sp., which sometimes are recorded in large numbers. Other gastropod species may include Turritella cochlea; cowries Erosaria turdus, E. erosa, E. lamarcki, Monetaria annulus and M. Moneta; moon snails Neverita didyma and Polinices mamilla; the nassa snail Bullia mauritiana, several Conus; and the sundial Architectonica perspectiva. (c) Infralittoral rocky and coralline substrates. Submerged rocky beds and coral build-ups and are common morphological elements of Oman Sea shores and upper offshore areas located not far away from Kalba, where they integrate the noteworthy diversity of biotopes present in the Sharjah Emirate. The ecology of several species known from the studied collection is interrelated to this type of environment, where a large availability hard substrates with algal assemblages and cryptic niches allows their proliferation and protection against predators. These areas are suitable for a variety of adaptations of byssate and cemented bivalves, such as Barbatia obliquata, Anomia achaeus, Spondylus sp. and Chama sp., together with many examples of herbivorous and carnivorous gastropods, including several species of cowries, Semicassis sp., Hexaplex kuesterianus, and Thais sp. (d) Infralittoral soft sandy substrates. The inner shelf sandy shoals with depths located below the wave base and within the photic zone can be high-diversity environments for marine molluscs. Many tidal flat species can extend their bathymetric range to these deeper areas, besides other typically infralittoral. The rich algal assemblages and the oxygenated and more stable substrates also provide good ecological conditions for herbivorous gastropods and

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endobenthic species. Several bivalves such as Glycymeris livida, Tucetona pectunculus, Vasticardium assimile and V. rubicundum are well adapted to these niches, as well as the gastropods Turritella cochlea, several cowrie species, Tonna dolium, Conus quercinus and Architectonica perspectiva, among others, and the tusk shell Dentalium sp.

MOLLUSCS IN LOCAL CULTURE AND TRADITION Seashore molluscs and crustaceans have always been an available source of nutrients for human populations living near coastal areas. They were an important complement of diet and motivated recollection strategies and activities since Palaeolithic times (e.g. Prieur, 2005). From more recent periods, a generalization of traditional activities based on the shellfish production and gathering of edible molluscs also occurred in many regions worldwide, including the Arabian Peninsula, where the widespread consumption of molluscs and crabs has been widely documented in a variety of archaeological contexts of different ages (e.g. Biagi, 1994; Charpentier et alii, 1998; Boivin and Fuller, 2009). The location of Quelba/Kalba as a seaside settlement with natural conditions for fishing and shellfish traditional activities explains why the studied assemblage contains zooarchaeological remains with edible species, suggesting that the consumption of molluscs and crustaceans was part of the daily life of the local population. These resources include the arcid bivalves Anadara antiquata and A. uropigimeleana (e.g. Kasigwa and Mahika, 1991; Tebano and Paulay, 2001), the local mangrove oysters Saccostrea cucullata and Alectryonella plicatula (e.g. Chesalin et alii, 2012), and the clams Mactra olorina, Circe rugifera, Dosinia erythraea, Tapes sulcarius, Callista sp. and Tivella damaoides. Among the gastropods stand out the large muricid Hexaplex kuesterianus and the strombid Conomurex persicus, both known as edible species captured by fishermen. Representative specimens of these taxa have been found scattered in the sampled squares, but especially inside the

201 Issue 17 well structure (Table 2), where concentrated shells and intentionally broken fragments of Mactra olorina and several Hexaplex kuesterianus and crab claws suggest the existence of a local waste deposit. Besides the edible species, other exist in the bulk sample whose remains could have been accidentally transported during fish or shellfish activities and incorporated in the deposit after the local cleaning of fishing nets, traps or fish baskets. Others still, due to their dimension and form, could have been used as containers for domestic purposes, including several valves of Pinctada margaritifera and a large and convex Tonna dollium, both recorded as fragments in the collection. The first of these species is also well-known as a common source of pearls (Ellis and Haws, 1999) and their nacreous valves have been traditionally used in the confection of hooks (Bavutti et alii, 2015). The presence of several perforated shells without biostratonomic signs of reworking also points to their possible use as adornment elements. This is the case for the olive shell Oliva bulbosa, a quite common species in the bulk sample where is recorded by many “fresh” specimens with traces of their original colour. Some of them show apical perforations for possible suspension in composite adornments, a cultural practice already reported in other regional contexts of diverse chronologies, at least since the Stone Age (e.g. Uerpmann and Uerpmann, 2003). Other possible adornment elements are the small tusk shells of Dentalium sp. The occurrence of a small number of wellpreserved Monetaria annulus and a single M. moneta stand out as an additional curious aspect of the studied shell assemblage. These cowries, especially the latter species, have been widely diffused as shell money across the whole of Africa and used by Arabian merchants, slave traders and sailors during the Islamic Period. Their presence in the ancient Quelba/Kalba fortification could be an equivocal but interesting sign of the proximity of these centennial land and maritime routes, in which the Portuguese navigators and dealers played an important role in the dissemination of cultural, political and economic sceneries.

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CONCLUSIONS As expected from the diversity of materials collected at the archaeological excavation of the former Quelba/Kalba fortification (late 16th to 18th centuries, Sharjah, UAE), the zooarchaeological study of the abundant skeletal remains of marine invertebrates found yielded a substantial set of data that revealed some key aspects of the surrounding environment and cultural habits of the local community at the time. The studied bulk sample yielded 24 species of Bivalvia, 32 species and subspecies of Gastropoda, a Scaphopoda, and several crustaceans and scleractinian coral debris. Its taphonomic and palaeoecological analysis suggests the presence of elements with different origins and ages, including older shells reworked from the substrate of Holocene accretionary littoral sands where the fortress was built; several elements of lagoonal origin, with emphasis on Terebralia palustris; and many others typical of tidal flat and inner shelf environments with sandy or rocky and coralline substrates. The occurrence of several edible bivalves and gastropods in the assemblage also points to a low-scale exploration of the environment through fishing and shellfish gathering activities, and food consumption of molluscs and crabs. Several shells could also have been used as containers, and other perforated specimens as adornments, including the common olive shell Oliva bulbosa. A few specimens of Monetaria annulus and M. moneta may have been used as traditional currency. This diversity of ecological and cultural examples based in invertebrate remains reveals the importance of the studied assemblage as an example of the interaction between a strategic human settlement and its natural surrounding environment in the Oman Sea during the period of Portuguese presence. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: Our thanks go to Prof Mário Varela Gomes and to the Sharjah authorities for the opportunity to study the zooarchaeological remains from the Quelba/Kalba fortification. We also acknowledge Dr Mervyn Letts (Ottawa, Canada) for his kind help with the monograph of Bosch et

203 Issue 17 alii (1995). This work also had the institutional support of CITEUC – Earth and Space Centre for Research on the University of Coimbra (Science and Technology Foundation, Portugal).

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REFERENCES

- AL-YAMANI, F. Y.; SKRYABIN, V.; BOLTACHOVA, N.; REVKOV, N.; MAKAROV, M.; GRINTSOV, V.; KOLESNIKOVA, E. (2012) – Illustrated Atlas on the Zoobenthos of Kuwait, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait. - BAVUTTI, E.; BORGI, F.; MAINI, E.; MARK, J. (2015) – Shell fish-hook production at Ras al-Hadd HD-5, Sultanate of Oman (fourth millennium BC): preliminary archaeological and experimental studies, - Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, vol. 45, pp. 1-6. - BIAGI, P. (1994) – A radiocarbon chronology for the aceramic shell-middens of coastal Oman, Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy, vol. 5, pp. 17-31. - BIELER, R.; CARTER, J. G.; COAN, E. V. (2010) – Classification of Bivalve families, Nomenclator of Bivalve Families. Malacologia, vol. 52(2), pp. 113-133. - BIELER, R.; MIKKELSEN, P. M.; COLLINS, T. M.; GLOVER, E. A.; GONZÁLEZ, V. L.; GRAF, D.L.; HARPER, E. M.; HEALY, J.; KAWAUCHI, G. Y.; SHARMA, P.P.; STAUBACH, S.; STRONG, E. E.; TAYLOR, J. D.; TËMKIN, I.; ZARDUS, J. D.; CLARK, S.; GUZMÁN, A.; MCINTYRE, E.; SHARP, P.; GIRIBET, G. (2014) – Investigating the Bivalve tree of life – an exemplar- based approach combining molecular and novel morphological characters, Invertebrate Systematics, vol. 28(1), pp. 32-115. - BOIVIN, N.; FULLER, D. Q. (2009) – Shell middens, ships and seeds: exploring coastal subsistence, maritime trade and the dispersal of domesticates in and around the Ancient Arabian Peninsula, Journal of World Prehistory, vol. 22, pp. 113-180. - BOSCH, D.; BOSCH, E. (1982) – Sea Shells of Oman, Longman Group, London. - BOSCH, D.; BOSCH, E. (1989) – Seashells of Southern Arabia, Motivate Publishing, United Arab Emirates. - BOSCH, T.; DANCE, S. P.; MOOLENBEEK, R. G.; OLIVER, P. G. (1995) – Sea shells of Eastern Arabia, Ed. Dance P.S. Motivate Publishing, London. - BOUCHET, P.; ROCROI, J. P.; FRÝDA, J.; HAUSDORF, B.; PONDER, W.; - VALDÉS, Á.; WARÉN, A. (2005) – Classification and nomenclator of gastropod families, Malacologia, vol. 47, pp. 1-397.

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- BRIGGS, H.E.J. (1973) – The marine Mollusca of the Trucial Coast, Persian Gulf, Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History). Zoology, vol. 24, pp. 344-421. - BROWER, D.; BROWER, R.; VAN LEEUWEN, S.; SCHOTANUS, Y. (2000) – De schelpen van de sultan: Oman, Correspondentieblad, - Nederlandse Malacologische Vereniging, vol. 316(1), pp. 110-117. - CARTER, J. G.; ALTABA, C. R.; ANDERSON, L. C.; ARAUJO, R.; BIAKOV, A. S.; BOGAN, A. E.; CAMPBELL, D. C.; CAMPBELL, M.; JIN-HUA, C.; COPE, J. C. W.; DELVENE, G.; DIJKSTRA, H. H.; ZONG-JIE, F.; GARDNER, R. N., GAVRILOVA, V. A.; GONCHAROVA, I. A.; HARRIES, P. J.; HARTMAN, J. H.; HAUTMANN, M.; HOEH, W. R.; HYLLEBERG, J.; BAO-YU, J.; JOHNSTON, P.; KIRKENDALE, L.; KLEEMAN, K.; HOPPKA, J.; KRIZ, J.; MACHADO, D.; MALCHUS, N.; MÁRQUEZ-ALIAGA, A.; MASSE, J.-P.; MCROBERTS, C.A.; - MIDDELFART, P. U.; MITCHELL, S.; NEVESSKAJA, L. A.; ÖZER, S.; POJETA, J.; POLUBOTKO, I. V.; PONS, J. M.; POPOV, S.; SÁNCHEZ, T.; SARTORI, A. F.; SCOTT, R. W.; SEY, I. I.; SIGNORELLI, J. H.; SILANTIEV, V. V.; SKELTON, P. W.; THOMAS, S.; WATERHOUSE, J. B.; WINGARD, G. L.; YANCEY, T. (2011) – A synoptical classification of the Bivalvia (Mollusca), Paleontological Contributions , vol. 4, pp. 1-47. - CHARPENTIER, V.; BLIN, O.; TOSI, M. (1998) – Un village de pêcheurs néolithiques de la péninsule d’Oman: Suwayh 2 (SWY-2), première campagne de fouille, Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies, vol. 28, pp. 21-37. - CHESALIN, M. V.; AL-GHASSANI, S. A.; BALKHAIR, M. A. (2012) – Species identification of rock oysters collected from the Dhofar region, Sultanate of Oman, Agricultural and Marine Sciences, vol. 17, pp. 61-66. - COLOUMBEL, A. (1994) – Coquillages de Djibouti, Édisud, Aix-en- Provence. - DEKKER, H.; GEMERT, L. J. van (2008) – A new list with corrections to the shells pictured in “Red Sea Shells” (1984) by Doreen Sharabati, De Kreukel, vol. 44(7-8), pp. 123-136. - DRIVAS, J.; JAY, M. (1987) – Coquillages de La Réunion et de l’Île Maurice. Collection Les Beautés de la Nature, Delachaux et Niestlé, Neuchâtel. - ELLIS, S.; HAWS, M. (1999) – Producing pearls using the black-lip Pearl Oyster (Pinctada margaritifera), Center for Tropical and Subtropical Aquaculture Publication, vol. 141, pp. 1-8. - EL-SOROGY, A.; MOHAMED YOUSSEF, M.; AL-KAHTANY, K.; AL- OTAIBY, N. (2016) – Distribution of Intertidal Molluscs along Tarut Island Coast, Arabian Gulf, Saudi Arabia, Pakistan Journal of Zoology, vol. 48(3), pp. 611-623.

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- FEULNER, G. (2000) – The large mangrove mud creeper Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1767) in non-mangrove environments in Southeastern Arabia, Tribulus, vol. 10(2), pp. 15-27. - FEULNER, G. R.; HORNBY, R. J. (2006) – Intertidal Molluscs in UAE Lagoons, Tribulus, vol. 16(2), pp. 17-23. - FOLK, R.L. (1959) – Practical petrographic classification of limestones, American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin, vol. 43, pp. 1-38. - GOMES, M. V.; GOMES, R. V.; CARITA, R.; KAMYAB, K. D. (2017) – Resultados preliminares da primeira campanha da missão arqueológica portuguesa em Sharjah (EAU). Escavação arqueológica em Quelba/Kalba, Arqueologia em Portugal – 2017. Estado da Questão, pp. 1641-1657, Associação dos Arqueólogos Portugueses, Lisboa. - HELLYER, P.; ASPINALL, S. (2006) – An archaeological and ecological curiosity - Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1767) in the North-East of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, Tribulus, vol. 16(1), pp. 1-13. - HUBER, M. (2010) – Compendium of Bivalves. A full-colour guide to 3,300 of the world’s marine bivalves. A status on Bivalvia after 250 years of research, ConchBooks, Hackenheim. - HUBER, M. (2014) – Compendium of Bivalves 2. A full-color guide to the remaining seven families. a systematic listing of 8,500 bivalve Species and 10,500 Synonyms, ConchBooks, Hackenheim. - JONES, D. A. (1986) – A Field Guide to the Seashores of Kuwait and the Arabian Gulf, University of Kuwait, Kuwait. - KASIGWA, P. F.; MAHIKA, C. G. (1991) – The diet of the edible cockle Anadara antiquata L. (Bivalvia, Arcidae) in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, during the northeast monsoons, Hydrobiologia, vol. 209(1), pp. 7-12. - LORENZ, F.; HUBERT, A. (2002) – A Guide to Worldwide Cowries. second revised edition, Conch Books, Hackenheim. - MOORE, R.C. (ed.) (1960) – Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part J, Mollusca 1, Gastropoda, Geological Society of America, University of Kansas Press, Boulder. - MOORE, R. C. (ed.) (1969) – Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part N, Mollusca 6, Bivalvia (3 vols), University of Kansas Press, Boulder. - PRIEUR, A. (2005) – Les coquillages du Paléolithique à l’âge du Bronze au Moyen- Orient et en Méditerranée Orientale: interprétations environnementales et utilisation humaine, Paléorient (Anciennes exploitations des mers et des cours d’eau en Asie du Sud-Ouest. Approches environnementales), vol. 31(1), pp. 158 - 168.

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- RUSHMORE-VILLAUME, M. L. (2008) – Seashells of the Egyptian Red Sea, The American University in Cairo press, Cairo. - SHARABATI, D. (1984) – Red Sea Shells, KPI Limited, London. - SMYTHE, K.R. (1972) – Marine Mollusca from Bahrain Island, Persian Gulf, Journal of Conchology, 27, pp. 49I-496. - SMYTHE, K.R. (1979) – The marine Mollusca of the United Arab Emirates, Arabian Gulf, Journal of Conchology, vol. 30, pp. 57-80. - SMYTHE, K.R. (1982) – Seashells of the Arabian Gulf, George Allen and Unwin, London. - TEBANO, T.; PAULAY, G. (2001) – Variable recruitment and changing environments create a fluctuating resource: the biology of Anadara uropigimelana (Bivalvia: Arcidae) on Tarawa atoll, Atoll Research Bulletin (Natural Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution), vol. 488, pp. 1-15. - TUCKER J. K.; TENORIO M. J. (2009) – Systematic Classification of Recent and Fossil Conoidean Gastropods, Conchbooks, Hackenheim. - UERPMANN, H.P.; UERPMANN, M. (2003) – Stone Age sites and their natural environment. The capital area of Northern Oman. Part III, Beihefte zum Tubinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients - Reihe A (Naturwissenschaften), vol. 31(3), pp. 1-280. - VINE, P. (1986) – Red Sea invertebrates, IMMEL Publishing, London. - WENZ, W. (1938-44) – Gastropoda, Teil 1: Allgemeiner teil und Prosobranchia, Handbuch der Paläozoologie, 6. Borntraeger, Berlin.

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Plate 1.

1a-b Barbatia obliquata (Wood, 1828). 2a-b Barbatia obliquata (Wood, 1828). 3a-b Anadara uropigimelana (Bory de Saint-Vincent, 1827). 4a-b Barbatia candida (Helbling, 1779). 5a-b Sunetta effossa (Hanley, 1843). (Scale bar = 1 cm) (photos by P. Callapez, 2018)

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Plate 2.

1a-b Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus, 1758). 2a-b Glycymeris livida (Reeve, 1843). 3a-b Tucetona pectunculus (Linnaeus, 1758). 4 Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus, 1758). 5 Saccostrea cucullata (Börn, 1778). (Scale bar = 1 cm) (photos by P. Callapez, 2018)

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Plate 3.

1 Saccostrea cucullata (Börn, 1778). 2 Pinctada margaritifera (Linnaeus, 1758). 3a-b Tapes sulcarius (Lamarck, 1818). 4a-b Alectryonella plicatula (Gmelin, 1791). 5 Dosinia erythraea Römer, 1860. 6a-b Cardites bicolor (Lamarck, 1819). 7 Gari maculosa (Lamarck, 1818). 8a-b Chama sp. indet. (Scale bar = 1 cm) (photos by P. Callapez, 2018)

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Plate 4.

1a-b Spondylus sp. indet. 2a-b Anomia achaeus Gray, 1850. 3a-b Vasticardium assimile lacunosum (Reeve, 1845). 4 Dosinia erythraea Römer, 1860. 5a-b Vasticardium rubicundum (Reeve, 1844). 6 Meropesta cf. nicobarica (Gmelin, 1791). 7a-b Mactra olorina Philippi, 1846. 8 Circe rugifera (Lamarck, 1818). (Scale bar = 1 cm) (photos by P. Callapez, 2018)

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Plate 5.

1a-b Meropesta cf. nicobarica (Gmelin, 1791). 2 Circe rugifera (Lamarck, 1818). 3a-b Tivela damaoides (Wood, 1828). 4 Callista sp. indet. 5a-b Priotrochus obscurus (Wood, 1828). 6a-b Erosaria lamarckii (Gray, 1825). 7a-b Erosaria erosa (Linnaeus, 1758). 8a-b Nerita albicilla Linnaeus, 1758. 9a-b Nerita albicilla Linnaeus, 1758. 10a-b Turitella cochlea Reeve, 1849. 11a-c Erosaria turdus (Lamarck, 1810). 12a-b Terebralia palustris (Linnaeus, 1767). (Scale bar = 1 cm) (photos by P. Callapez, 2018)

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Plate 6.

1a-c Pirenella arabica Reid, 2016. 2a-b Mauritia arabica grayana Schilder, 1930. 3a-b Lyncina carneola (Linnaeus, 1758). 4a-b Mauritia arabica immanis Schilder & Schilder, 1939. 5a-b Monetaria moneta (Linnaeus, 1758). 6a-c Crepidula sp. indet. 7a-b Monetaria annulus (Linnaeus, 1758). 8 Semicassis sp. indet. 9a-b Palmadusta clandestina (Linnaeus, 1767). 10a-b Neverita didyma (Röding, 1798). 11a-b Polinices mammilla (Linnaeus, 1758). 12a-d Olivella sp. indet. (Scale bar = 1 cm) (photos by P. Callapez, 2018)

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Plate 7.

1 Conomurex persicus (Swainson, 1821). 2 Cymatium sp. indet. 3a-b Conomurex persicus (Swainson, 1821). 4a-b Hexaplex kuesterianus (Tapparone Canefri, 1875). 5Thais sp. indet. 6a-b Linatella caudata (Gmelin, 1791). 7a-b Conus sp. indet. 8 Vermetus sp. indet. 9 Tonna dolium (Linnaeus, 1758). (Scale bar = 1 cm) (photos by P. Callapez, 2018)

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Plate 8.

1a-b Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798). 2a-b Oliva bulbosa (Röding, 1798). 3a-c Conus quercinus Lightfoot, 1786. 4a-b Bullia mauritiana Gray, 1839. 5a-b Architectonica perspectiva (Linnaeus, 1758). 6a-b Conasprella stocki (Coomans and Moolenbeek, 1990). 7 Dentalium sp. indet. 8 Bullia mauritiana Gray, 1839. 9a-b Decapoda indet. (claw). (Scale bar = 1 cm) (photos by P. Callapez, 2018)

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SITE INDEX A’Ali: 29, 37. California: 74. Gath: 31. Aegean Sea: 29. Canton: 41. Ghallab: 7. Africa: 7, 35, 36, 38, 41, 76, 121. Castile: 75. Gharb al-Andalus: 69. Al-Andalus: 73. Ceylon: 7, 75. Gharfah: 5. Alcácer do Sal: 11. Coimbra: 1, 75, 121. Goa: 35, 70, 73, 74, 75. Al-Fara: 56. Cochin: 35. Goa Torre do Tombo (Goa Archive): Al Hallaniyah Island: 7. Cowry Islands: 35. 74. Al-Huwailah: 37. Curiat: 7, 11. Greece: 75. Al-Madam: 35, 47, 50, 51, 54, 56. Chapel of Nossa Senhora da Porta de Gulf of Bengal: 35. Al-Qurainīyah: 37, 43. Ferro (Alcácer do Sal): 11. Haiti: 37. Al-Qusūr: 37. Chatedral of Coimbra: 75. Hajar Mountains: 5. America: 36. China: 27, 35, 41, 42, 73, 76. Hassuna: 29. Anatolian shore: 31. Church of Nossa Senhora da Graça: 11. Hebron: 38, 39. Andamam Islands: 35. Church of Santa Maria (Alcácer do Sal): Hermitage and Hospital of Espírito Antioch: 73. 11. Santo (Alcácer do Sal): 11. Arabia: 41, 73, 74. Damascus: 73. Hermitage of São Sebastião (Alcácer Arabian coastline: 41. Dehua: 41. do Sal): 11. Arabian Gulf: 5, 7, 11, 35, 40, 41, 42, 46, Dibba: 11, 54. Hormuz/Hormuz Island/Ormuz: 7, 8, 70, 73, 74, 109. Divah Kanzah: 35. 11, 12, 37, 73, 74. Arabian Peninsula: 3, 4, 5, 7, 27, 35, 39, Dominican Republic: 37. Hungary: 75. 46, 47, 54, 73, 75, 76, 108, 120. East: 73. Hungtington Library (San Marino, Aragon: 75. Eastern Africa: 35, 41. California): 74. Asia: 36, 71, 76. Eastern Mediterranean: 35. Husaiyy: 37. Atlantic: 73. Egypt: 35, 36, 38, 47. Iberian Peninsula: 29, 35, 38, 53. Austrian National Library (Vienna): 74. Eknomos: 31. India: 7, 11, 32, 35, 36, 38, 41, 42, 70, Azores Islands: 12. English East India: 43. 73, 74, 75, 81. Baghdad: 35. Ethiopia: 38, 75. Índia Oriental: 3, 75. Bago: 11. Ethiopian shores: 7. Indian Ocean: 3, 5, 11, 35, 36, 73, 74, Bahlā: 27, 51, 53, 76. Europe: 36, 38, 42, 47, 71, 73, 76. 99, 109. Bahrain Island: 29, 37. Évora: 8, 74. Indian Subcontinent: 35. Balearic Islands: 31. Failakah Island: 37, 43. Indonesia: 42. Barcelona: 38. Fiji: 35. Indo-Pacific Province: 109. Batinah Coast: 5. Fili: 47, 50, 51, 54, 56. Iran: 3, 7, 27, 40, 46, 50, 51, 54, 74. Bengal: 35, 36. Fort Jesus: 37. Iraq: 29, 47. Bidor: 11. France: 11. Island of Luanda: 36. Bombay: 36. Fujairah/Emirate of Fujairah: 5, 56. Italy: 38. Brazil: 74. Fujian Province: 41. Japan: 12. Calicut: 7, 41. Gao: 35. Jebel al-Buhais: 35. Julfār/Julfār Sea: 41, 42, 46, 54, 56, 61, 70. Kalba Creek: 5, 108, 109.

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Kanazawa: 12. National Library of France: 11. Straits of Malacca: 43. Kangha: 35. Near East: 71, 73. Sub-Saharan Africa: 35, 36. Kashm Nadir: 37, 46, 54, 56. New York: 42. Sudan: 35, 36. Kenya: 37. Nicaea: 75. Suez: 75. Kerman: 27, 46. North Africa: 7, 38. Sultanate of Oman: 5. Khor Fakkan/Corfacão: 7, 8, 12, 47, 51. Oman: 7, 40, 47, 51, 56. Syracuse: 31. Khunj: 50, 51. Oman Sea: 3, 5, 7, 27, 35, 41, 46, 54, 75, Syria: 38. Kilwa: 41. 76, 107, 108, 109, 120, 121. Tonga: 35. Kingdom of Kongo: 36. Orient: 70, 73. Troy: 31. Kingdom of Pegu: 11. Pacific Ocean: 35, 36. Tyre: 73. Kuwait: 41, 43. Palestine: 38, 39. United Arab Emirates/UAE: 1, 5, 7, La Isabela: 37. Paris: 11, 42, 74. 70, 87, 97, 107, 108, 121. Lakshadweep: 35. Pemba Island: 35. USA: 42. Levant: 7, 39. Persia/Persian: 11, 36, 42, 73, 75, 76. Venice: 73. Lima: 56. Philippines/Philippines Sea: 35. Ventimiglia: 75. Lisboa/Lisbon: 1, 3, 10, 11, 12, 42, 73, Portugal: 1, 11, 31, 36, 41, 69, 73, 74, Victoria and Albert Museum 74, 75, 87, 99, 101. 75, 107, 121. (London): 42. Lisbon Academy of Sciences: 74. Portuguese National Lybrary Vienna: 74. London: 42, 74. (Lisbon)/Biblioteca Nacional de Lisboa: Vila Viçosa: 10, 76. Luliyah: 47. 10, 12. Wadi Haqil: 46. Macedonia: 31. Puerto Real: 37. Wadi Miduk: 56. Madrid: 10, 74. Qalhat: 7. Washington: 42, 43. Maghreb: 36. Qatar: 37, 38. West: 73. Malabar Coast: 35, 73. Qsar el-Hayr: 38. Western Iberian Peninsula: 35. Malaysia: 42. Qsar es-Seguir: 37, 38. Yemen: 38. Maldives Islands: 35. Quseir al-Qasim: 38. Yunnan Provine: 35. Mali: 35. Ras al-Khaimah: 37, 41, 46, 54, 56. Zanzibar: 35. Mar Roxo: 75. Red Sea: 35, 36, 109. Zhangzhou: 41, 42. Marshall Islands: 35. Rio de Janeiro: 74. Matrah: 11. Riyam: 11. Mauritania: 7, 31, 35. Sa’īdi: 37. Mediterranean: 32, 35, 36, 47, 53, 73. Sahara: 36. Middle East: 41, 76. Samoa: 35. Mleiha: 35, 73. San Marino: 74. Mombasa: 37. Santiago do Cacém: 75. Morocco: 32, 37. São Julião da Barra: 9, 10. Mozambique: 35. Shushtar: 40. Murano: 38. Silhat: 47, 51. Muscat: 7, 8, 11, 40, 74. Sirāf: 41, 47, 56. Myanmar: 11. Soar/Sohar: 7, 9, 41, 47, 51. National Archive of Torre do Tombo South Arabia: 41. (Lisbon): 74, 75. South of China: 42, 43. National Library of Brazil (Rio de Janeiro): Southern Portugal: 11, 69. 74. Spain: 38, 75. Sri Lanka: 7.

218 THE PORTUGUESE ARCHAEOLOGICAL MISSION AT SHARJAH (U.A.E.)

QUELBA/KALBA – REPORT OF THE SECOND EXCAVATION SEASON (JANUARY 2018)

Index

1. INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 223

2. MAIN ISSUES ...... 226

3. METHODOLOGY AND MEANS AVAILABLE ...... 228

4. STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL EVIDENCES ...... 230

4.1. LEVEL SEQUENCE ...... 230

4.2. FORTIFICATION REMAINS ...... 231

4.3. POSTHOLES ...... 231

4.4. TANNUR (OVEN) ...... 238

4.5. WELL 1 ...... 239

4.6. FIREPLACES ...... 242

4.7. STONE AGGLOMERATION ...... 248

5. MATERIAL CULTURE ...... 250

5.1. STONE ARTEFACTS ...... 250

5.2. SEASHELL ARTEFACTS ...... 253

5.3. GLASS ARTEFACTS ...... 257

5.4. METAL ARTEFACTS ...... 258

5.5. CERAMIC ARTEFACTS ...... 267

CHINESE PORCELAIN (José Pedro Henriques) ...... 267

KERMAN COBALT BLUE-ON-WHITE WARE ...... 270

UNDERGLAZE PAINTED WARE ...... 270

BROWN AND DARK GREEN GLAZED WARE (BAHLĀ WARE) ...... 272

INCISED LIGHT FINE WARE ...... 272

RED COARSE WARE ...... 274

BLACK COARSE WARE ...... 283

6. FAUNAL AND VEGETAL REMAINS ...... 290

7. PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS ...... 292

REFERENCES ...... 296 ANNEX I – PALAEOZOOLOGICAL REPORT – MAMMALS, BIRDS AND FISHES (Miguel Telles Antunes) ...... 305 ANNEX II – EDIBLE CRABS FROM QUELBA/KALBA FORTIFICATION (Pedro Miguel Callapez and Pedro A. Dinis) ...... 315

Issue 17

1. INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The Quelba/Kalba 2018 archaeological excavation campaign, whose preliminary results are now reported, took place from the 1st to the 18th January, 2018. As we have mentioned in the first campaign report, this work is framed within a five year project established by a Memorandum of Agreement signed between the Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas at NOVA University of Lisbon (NOVA/FCSH, Portugal) and the Sharjah Archaeology Authority (SAA) of the Government of Sharjah (UAE). The international project has been undertaken with the approval of His Highness Sheikh Dr Sultan bin Muhammad Al-Qasimi, Supreme Council Member and Ruler of Sharjah, as well as the support of Dr Sabah Abbood Jasim, Director General of SAA and its Director of Excavations and Archaeological Sites, Dr Eisa Abbas Hussien Yousif. The SAA has fully sponsored travel, lodging and other logistical costs sustained during the fieldwork. The Portuguese archaeological team was comprised of the co-signers of this report, undergraduate, master and PhD Archaeology program students from NO-VA/FCSH; as well as Profs Pedro M. Callapez and Pedro A. Dinis (Coimbra University) and Miguel Telles Antunes (NOVA University of Lisbon). This second Portuguese archaeological mission at Quelba/Kalba was also supported by the Instituto de Arqueologia e Paleociências – NOVA, with which the team in charge is affiliated, as well as by the Faculty itself (NOVA/FCSH), in which the institute is integrated. For this support, we specifically thank its Director, Prof Francisco Caramelo. We extend our appreciation to the colleagues responsible for the valuable reports they have produced and included in this report. In addition to those responsible for the project in Quelba/Kalba, the

223 Issue 17 fieldwork also had the participation of archaeologists Dário Ramos Neves, Joana Gonçalves, José Pedro Henriques, Mariana Almeida, Telmo Pinheiro Silva and three Archaeology master students from NOVA/FCSH, Jéssica Iglésias, Maria João Santos and Miguel Martins de Sousa. We also had the collaboration of six workers provided by the SAA, Mohammad Rafeeq; Asad Ali; Wakeel Muhammad, Jehan Zeb, Khyal Mohammad, Suhail Aziz. The field and artefact drawings were made by Joana Gonçalves.

Figure 1. Dr Kamyar Kamyab and workers of the SAA,

with the Portuguese team at Quelba/Kalba in January 2018 (photo by K. Kamyab, 2018). The lab work was assisted by archaeology undergraduate and master students from the NOVA/FCSH. The cleaning of some coins was carried out by Mi-guel Angel Núñez Villanueva at the Archaeology Labora-tory of the Sharjah Archaeology Authority, at Sharjah. The reading of the Safavid coins was made by Kamyar Kamyab of the SAA.

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All the archaeological materials unearthed during the fieldwork will be delivered to the SAA in January 2019.

Figure 2. Quelba/Kalba. View of the excavations in the north side (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

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2. MAIN ISSUES

The main guiding lines of the first archaeological campaign in Quelba/ Kalba were the same which governed the campaign presented in this report. In fact, the few days dedicated to field work at the time did not allow us to answer the questions we set out to study, although they were of great help in furthering our knowledge on the subject, as demonstrated by this report. Thus, achieving the following objectives is still relevant: I. To verify, through archaeological interventions at the site, if the structure identifiable in the aerial photo and in some soil remains corresponds to the 16th/17th century fortress. II. To assess if the old fortification of Quelba/Kalba was altered by the Portuguese, reusing an earlier defensive construction and what was the chronology of this initial construction. III. To perform an architectural study and analysis of the materials, techniques and methods of building used in the old Quelba/Kalba fortification. IV. To confirm or discard the theory that the ruins of the mentioned fortification correspond with the plan depicted in the ‘Livro das Plantas de Todas as Fortalezas, Cidades e Povoações do Estado da Índia Oriental (1635)’, and understand the accuracy of these records. V. To conduct a systematic study of the material testimonies found in the area of the fortification: pottery, metal or glass objects, fauna etc. VI. To analyze the collected evidence in order to identify production centers, namely the ceramic, and through that, to study the mechanisms of exchange and the trade routes from the site’s perspective.

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VII. In terms of historical importance, to perform consolidation works and subsequent musealization, if the excavated structure justifies it. Issues related to location, natural environment and history of the site were already addressed in the report of the 2017 archaeological campaign, and we have no more information to add to what was written then.

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3. METHODOLOGY AND MEANS AVAILABLE

The first excavation campaign was able to identify the fortress remains registered in the aerial photo from the 1960s, as well as the distribution of artefacts and faunal remains in the field, indicating the existence of a strong site occupation. The area with the highest density of archaeological evidence and scarce rocks rising from the present-day soil level, continued to be investigated, namely the remains of the fortress. The grid system, established to record the structures and artefacts during excavation, comprised squares measuring 2 m on each side, oriented according to the cardinal points, forming the basic unit of excavation and extended to new areas of the digging. Each square was considered as a grid unit (GU). In order to register the altimetry of the structures and artefacts, a point with the absolute altimetric measure was established at a corner stone from a gate of a modern building located west of the excavated area (5.45 m), the same where our conventional zero level was defined in the first archaeological campaign. The excavation progressed into the area where the remains of foundations from the Quelba/Kalba fortress were found, oriented NNW-SSE and spanning approximately 50 m in length and 50 m in width. One hundred and forty five squares were excavated, corresponding to an area measuring 580 m2. The first layer of superficial sediments (L1) was hand removed in each grid unit. Afterwards, the excavation proceeded into the subsequent layers (L2 and L3), through artificial layers 0.05 m deep, with light implements. The excavation was made by archaeologists or experienced archaeology

228 Issue 17 students, and the sediments from some layers and loci, like the fire places, the tannur or well 1, were sieved through a 0.005 m caliber iron net, in order to catch the small, objects, faunal and vegetal remains. The discovered structures were recorded on a quoted plan, and cross-section drawings when necessary, as well as through digital coloured photographs. After being washed and pieced together, the unearthed objects were marked with the initials of the site KLB (Kalba), the grid unit (GU) or square number, and layer (L) they belonged to, followed by their order number (e.g. KLB/ GU57/L2-8). Surface finds were marked with the initials of the site and SF, followed by an order number (e.g. KLB/SF-8). When artefacts came from inside structures or specific areas (loci), that was also indicated is the locus with the initials: W1 (= well 1), PH (= posthole) or FP (= fireplace). The chromatic indexes used to reference strata and object colours in the descriptions are drawn from the Munsell Soil Color Charts (2009) and, therefore, should be understood as approximate. The most representative materials, worthy of individual description, were photographed and drawn, while the remainder are referenced in tables. In the ceramic descriptions, the organic and inorganic inclusions within the fabrics were classified as very small-sized when almost unnoticeable to the naked eye; small-sized when showing a diameter of less than 0.5 mm; medium-sized when measuring between 0.5 mm and 1.0 mm; and coarse-sized when measuring more than 1.0 mm. White inclusions found in the fabrics can be fragments of shells, lime or quartz; while black inclusions are greywacke, gabbro and basaltic stones. We have also identified some white (muscovite) and black (biotite) micaceous inclusions. All artefacts and structures the measures are presented in meters.

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4. STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURAL EVIDENCES

4.1. LEVEL SEQUENCE As we have registered in the first archaeological campaign, the area now under research has been levelled with heavy machinery, which demolished structures and left marks in the archaeological remains we later identified. This also resulted in the removal of sediments whose significance is difficult to determine. In the excavated area, now spanning 816 m2, the following three archaeological layers were identified: L1 – Surface level (SF), formed by sediments with a sandy matrix, very loose, with a grey colour (7.5R 5/1), part of which was blown by the wind. Small nodules of rammed earth were also identified. Its stratigraphic thickness was approximately 0.10 m. Narrow red and grey compact sand stains appeared in some areas. The layer yielded scarce contemporary pottery sherds and others from the 16th to the 20th centuries; as well as remains of glass objects and fauna, specifically fractured mollusc shells. L2 – Corresponds to sediments with a sandy matrix, not very compact, with a dark grey colour (7.5R 4/1) and ca 0.20 m thick. It bore pottery sherds from the 17th and 18th centuries, as well as small artefacts and faunal remains. It corresponds to the occupation of the fortress and the spaces adjacent to it. L3 – Sands, not very cohesive and fine-grained, with a grey colour (7.5R 3/1). It corresponds to the geological formation and, therefore, is without archaeological content. It is a Holocene maritime deposition, in some cases containing the remains of molluscs (L3B) and where a succession of strata with a similar constitution can be recognized (L3A, L3B, L3C, L3D). A survey 1.50 m deep was made without reaching the bedrock.

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4.2. FORTIFICATION REMAINS The excavated area revealed plastered floors and remains of the foundations of a building formed by a plaster mass, with some small stones. This archaeological evidence corresponds to the structure seen in an aerial photograph and should form part of the northern and easternmost walls of the old Quelba/Kalba fortification. This building, oriented NNW-SSE (i.e. roughly North-South), and inclining towards the west on both tops, measures approximately 50 m in length and presents ca 50 m in width. The difference in altimetry between the northern and the southern extremities is ca 0.50 m. The excavations this report addresses uncovered a sector of the north part of the basis of the fortification, since it is oriented northeast corner to the northwest corner. It measures 50 m in length and 2.40 m in width. Part of a plastered floor was also uncovered outside this structure. On the south side, a small section of the fortification basis was unearthed with large plastered floors, with post holes and the remains of a tannur (oven) on the outside. In the area immediately outside the remains of the fortification’s southeast corner, the excavation revealed the remains of a hollow tower, with circular plan, measuring 8 m in diameter.

4.3. POSTHOLES Sections of plastered pavements with gypsum continue to be recognized inside and outside the areas located in the southern part of the wall remains, sometimes with small stones where postholes were identified. Postholes pierced the plastered pavements and some of them can correspond to houses built from datepalm tree posts and branches, as we have interpreted on the first excavation campaign.

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The circular postholes found have an average diameter of 0.160 m. When displaying an oval outline, the average width is 0.180 m. These measures allowed us to conclude that the wooden trunks used in the construction had an average size between 0.120 m and 0.160 m in diameter. It is possible that some larger postholes, with oval outlines, received two trunks. It continues to be hard to determine the depth needed to fix the posts, given the sandy character of the soil. However, as happened in the earliest field works, we were able to verify that one of them were dug to 0.35 m in depth. It is important to bear in mind that the actual postholes’ dimensions are certainly altered by human and taphonomic intervention, namely its depth.

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Figure 3. Quelba/Kalba. Plan of the excavated area in 2018 (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

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In the first excavation campaign, the distribution of the postholes made in the plastered pavements and earth in Grid Units 19 to 24 seem to indicate a covered space – a house – with a rectangular plan, formed by wooden piles, whose walls would have been palm branches, possibly with a gabled roof. Six postholes define a 2.50 m long line, that could match one of the top edges of that construction, while six other postholes defining another line, perpendicular to the first one, 4.50 m long, possibly corresponding to one of the longer sides of the house. Another posthole line, with five elements and parallel to the second line described, may correspond to the center beam of the gable roof. This construction would have occupied an area of at least 11 m2 and we conclude that it can correspond to a five people capacity, a small family, given that most of the activities would have taken place outside. In Grid Units 109 and 186, two postholes rows, perpendicular between them may match a house cover, with rectangular plan, formed by wooden piles. The orientation and dimensions would be similar to the aforementioned house. A row of five postholes, oriented East-West, was discovered in Grid Units 131 and 190. A second row of postholes was identified in Grid Units 247, 248 and 249, also with an east-west disposition. It is possible that continuing the excavation in these areas can show more postholes and help us interpret the functions associated to the ones already found.

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Figure 4. Quelba/Kalba. Plan of the excavated area of a plastered pavement with postholes (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 5. Quelba/Kalba. Plan of the excavated area of a plastered pavement with postholes (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 6. Quelba/Kalba. Plan of the excavated area of a plastered pavement with postholes (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

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Table 1. Quelba/Kalba. Posthole measurements. *Found with a fragment of ceramic bowl in situ.

Figure 7. Quelba/Kalba, Grid Unit 248, postholes 1 to 3. View from north (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

Figure 8. Quelba/Kalba, Grid Unit 248, posthole 2, with a fragment of an underglaze painted ware bowl (KLB/GU248/ PH2-1) (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

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4.4.TANNUR (OVEN) (GU 169, 170, 176, 177) The base of a tannur was found immediately South of the South wall remains of the fortification of Quelba/Kalba, as well as the beginning of its walls and a large area of ashes that originated during its activity. The plan of this structure offered a subcircular shape, measuring 0.08m in diameter. The compact area of ashes, with an oval outline, would have been placed in front of the oven’s mouth and offered 40m in length by 1m in maximum width. The base of the tannur was built with compacted soil, baked due to the use of the oven. The walls are slightly curved inwards and built with small blocs of rock denouncing its trunco-conical shape. No remains were found inside the annumeither in the associated ashes.

Figure 9. Quelba/Kalba. Tannur’s plan drawing by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 10. Quelba/Kalba. Tannur during excavation ) photo by M.V. Gomes, 2018).

4.5. WELL 1 As we have already described, we found the mouth of a round well during the 2017 campaign, 0.30 m under the current ground level, with cylindrical body. It occupies the corner corresponding to the southeast inner area of the fortress walls. The walls of the well were structured with stone blocks of different rock origins, with clay mortar. It measures 0.80 m in internal diameter and was excavated using artificial layers, to a depth of 1.70 m, where water appeared and the archaeological vestiges ended. All the sediments from this negative structure were sieved. The excavation through artificial layers allowed us to identify the following archaeological layers inside the well: L3 – Presents a sandy matrix with very dark brown colour (10YR 3/2), containing charcoal remnants, ceramic sherds as well as abundant and diverse faunal (AL1) remains. 0.300 m in thickness; L4 – With sandy matrix and greyish dark brown colour (10YR 4/2), ceramic sherds and faunal remains (AL2-AL4). 0.350 m in thickness;

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L5 – Also with sandy matrix, but more compacted and dark brown colour (10YR 3/3). It contains some ceramic sherds and faunal remains (AL5- AL8). 0.900 m in thickness.

Figure 11. Quelba/Kalba. Well 1, with a circular mouth and cylindrical body. Plan and elevations (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 12. Quelba/Kalba. Well 1. Stratigraphic sequence - artificial and archaeological layers (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 13. Quelba/Kalba. Well 1 with circular mouth (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

Figure 14. Quelba/Kalba. Well 1 during excavation (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

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4.6. FIREPLACES FIREPLACE 4 (GU 203) Located north of the north wall sector, was covered by a sand surface level (L1). It shows an almost oval outline, measuring 1 m, in north-south direction and 0.65 m East-West direction. It presents dark grey sands with some mollusc valves, but was not excavated.

FIREPLACE 5 (GU 168) Located North of the North wall sector, near the fireplaces 4 and 6. It presents an oval outline measuring 0.90 m by 0.65 m, according to two orthogonal axes. It contains dark grey sands with some small stones.

FIREPLACE 6 (GU 168) Standing against the North wall fortification sector. It present an oval outline, measuring 1.45 m by 0.60 m, according to two orthogonal axes. It contains dark grey sands and some ceramic sherds. A fragment of Chinese porcelain was recovered.

Figure 15. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplaces 4, 5 and 6. Plan (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 16. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplace 6. View from north (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

FIREPLACE 7 (GU 131/190) Located South of the South wall sector, it presents a polygonal outline and was perforated by a post hole, measuring 1 m in length by 1m in width.

FIREPLACE 8 (GU 136) Circa 1.5 m southeast of the fireplace 7. Presents an almost circular outline and measures 0.60 m in diameter. and composed of cohesive sand sediments, showing fire action and organic burned material, measuring 0.100m in thickness. Lastly, the third layer was composed of grey sands, with 0.05 m in thickness. A small dark brown flint block fragment (L2) and 140 ceramic sherds were found in the fireplace.

Figure 17. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplaces 7 and 8 (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

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FIREPLACE 9 (GU 256/273) Located outside the Northern wall section, it was covered by a sand surface level (L1). It shows an almost oval outline, measuring 1.80 m by 1.05 m, according to two orthogonal axes and 0.25 m maximum depth. Three layers were recognized: the first one with grey sands, covering a set of stones, with 0.16 m in thickness, con-taining mollusc valves. The second layer was very dark.

Figure 18. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplace 9. Plan and stratigraphic sequence (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 19. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplace 9. Cross section (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

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FIREPLACE 10 (GU 273) Located outside the Northern wall section, 0.50 m East of the Fireplace 9, it was covered by a sand surface level (L1). It presents an oval outline, measuring 1.40 m by 1.20 m, according to two orthogonal axes.

FIREPLACE 11 (GU 184) It is located outside the East wall sector. It was covered by a sand surface level and shows a subcircular outline, measuring 0.72 m in diameter by 0.18 m in maximum depth. Grey sands were found inside it, showing fire action. No artefacts or other remains were found.

Figure 20. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplace 11. Plan and cross section drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 21. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplace 11 (left) and fireplace 13 right), seen from west (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

FIREPLACE 12 (GU 177/221) Found in the Southern area, outside the wall sector, superimposing a plastered pavement with gypsum and 1.50 South-East to the tannur remains. Shows a circular outline and was covered by a sand surface level, measuring 0.72 m in diameter and 0.25 m depth. It shows grey sands and fire action. Some ceramic sherds were found in it.

Figure 22. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplace 12. Plan and cross section drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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FIREPLACE 13 (GU 180/181) Large spot of sands, with fire action, containing archaeo-logical remains. It offers a polygonal outline, measuring 1.85 m in length by 1.28 m width on the mesial area and 0.20 m in maximum thickness. It was covered by a sand surface level and offered three layers. The top layer, with a sandy matrix and grey colour (10YR 5/1), kept some small stones, shell remains and ceramic sherds, which may correspond to meal leftovers. The second layer was composed of very dark grey and cohesive sands (2.5Y 3/1) with minor pieces of charcoal. Between the first and second layers a small accumulation of ashes could be seen (2.5Y 6/1). The third layer shows grey sands (5Y 5/1). The second layer offered a light brown flint fragment and a very small Chinese porcelain sherd. A dark grey circular stain of sands resulting from fire action was found on its eastern side.

Figure 23. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplace 13. Plan and stratigraphic sequence (drawings by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 24. Quelba/Kalba. Fireplace 13. View from west (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

4.7. STONE AGGLOMERATION Approximately 40 m East of the ancient Quelba/Kalba fortress walls, the heavy rainfall from last summer exposed a set of small stone blocks, placed in a North-West South-East direction. This set might have an archaeological interest and so, was defined and recorded. In fact, Tatsuo Sasaki (2010) excavated some graves in an area further East and this group of stones might be correlated with similar negative structures. This is a feature which will be further explored in a future excavation campaign.

Figure 25. Quelba/Kalba. Stone agglomeration (photo by M. V. Gomes, 2018).

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Figure 26. Quelba/Kalba. Stone agglomeration. Plan (drawing by J. Gonçalves).

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5. MATERIAL CULTURE

5.1 STONE ARTEFACTS - Denticulate (KLB/GU56/W1AL1-10). Produced on a light brown flint flake, it shows a triangular outline and a trapezoidal section. The left edge presents sub-vertical retouches forming a denticulate. 0.019 m in length, 0.013 m in width and 0.007 m in maximum thickness in the proximal volume. - Denticulate (KLB/GU172/L2-1). Uses a brown flint flake, with trapezoidal outline and triangular section. The left edge presents oblique retouches, forming a denticulate. Keeps some cortical surface. 0.023 m in length, 0.018 m in width and 0.012 m in maximum thickness in the mesial volume. - Denticulate (KLB/GU219/L2-1). Dark brown flint flake, with trapezoidal outline and triangular section. It shows vertical retouches in the left edge and keeps part of the cortical surface. 0.022 m in length, 0.017 m in width, and 0.007 m in maximum thickness in the mesial volume. - Denticulate (KLB/GU56/W1/AL4-1). Dark brown flint flake, with trapezoidal outline and section. It presents oblique retouches in the left edge. 0.019 m in length, 0.016 m in width and 0.007 in maximum thickness in the mesial volume. - Gunflint(KLB/SF-41). Brown flint with trapezoidal outline and a triangular section. The four edges show few continuous retouches. 0.015 m in length, 0.014 m in width and 0.005 m in maximum thickness. - Kohl applicator or stick (KLB/SF-16). Fragment of the distal volume. Dark grey chlorite (5YR 4/1), showing a circular section and polished surface. 0.027 m in length and 0.003 m in maximum diameter. - Kohl applicator or stick (KLB/SF-17). Fragment of the proximal volume.

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Dark grey chlorite (5YR 4/1), showing a circular section and polished surface. 0.024 m in length and 0.005 m in maximum diameter. - Chopper (KLB/GU228/L2-1). Flat brown quartzite pebble with oblique flaking in the mesial and distal areas determining a point. 0.049 m in length, 0.044 m in width, 0.016 m in thickness and weighs 45 g. - Hammerstone (KLB/GU171/L2-1). Fragment corresponding to the distal volume. It presents cylindrical shape and was made from a calcareous grey rock. 0.050 m in diameter, 0.032 m in thickness and weighs 106 g. circular pecked stains on the surfaces. 0.040 m in length, 0.038 m in width, 0.028 in maximum thickness on the distal volume and weighs 63 g. - Hammerstone (KLB/GU176/L2-1). Brown quartzite ovoid pebble, with some fractures and showing pecked stains on the center of the main surface, in one edge and on the top. 0.083 m in length, 0.060 m in width, 0.034 m in maximum thickness on the mesial volume and weighs 244 g. - Sling stone (KLB/GU280/L2-1). Made of black basalt, with a sub-spherical shape, showing surface regularization through pecking. 0.048 m in diameter, 0.038 m in maximum thickness and weighs 125 g. - Sling stone (KLB/GU262/L2-1). Made of grey granitic rock, with a sub- spherical shape, it shows surface regularization through pecking. 0.051 m in diameter, 0.039 m in maximum thickness and weighs 124 g. - Sling stone (KLB/GU56/L2-3). Grey coloured sandstone with a sub spherical shape, showing signs of regularization by pecking. Presents some fractures on the edges. 0.068 m in length, 0.047 m in maximum thickness and weighs 227 g.

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Figure 27. Quelba/Kalba. Flaked flint artefacts (A. KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-10;) (B. KLB/GU172/L2-1;) (C. KLB/GU219/L2-1;) (D. KLB/GU56/W1/AL4-1;) (E. KLB/SF-41) and kohl applicators or sticks) (F. KLB/SF-16;) (G. KLB/SF-17) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 28. Quelba/Kalba. Stone artefacts, flaked and/or pecked. (A. KLB/GU228/L2-1;) (B. KLB/SF-36;) (C. KLB/GU171/L2-1;) (D. KLB/GU176/L2-1;) (E. KLB/GU280/L2-1;) (F. KLB/GU262/L2-1;) (G. KLB/GU56/L2-3) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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5.2. SEASHELL ARTEFACTS - Shell bead (KLB/SF-30). Perforated marine mollusc valve (Nerita albicilla, Linnaeus 1758). 0.012m in length, 0.009 m in width and 0.005m in maximum thickness. - Shell bead (KLB/SF-29). Perforated marine mollusc valve (Nerita albicilla, Linnaeus 1758). 0.021m in length, 0.014m in width and 0.011m in maximum thickness. - Pendant (KLB/GU220/L2-2). Marine mollusc valve (Barbatia obliquata, Wood 1828), perforated near the apex. 0.052m in length, 0.024m in width and 0.009m in maximum thickness. - Pendant (KLB/GU273/L2-1). Ovoid in shape, it corresponds to a very rolled Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus, 1758) marine mollusc valve, roughly perforated at the apex. 0.048 m in length, 0.033 m in width and 0.017 m in maximum thickness. - Pendant (KLB/GU231/L2-1). Marine mollusc valve (Turcetona pectunculus, Linnaeus 1758), perforated near the apex. 0.038m in length, 0.038m in width and 0.011 m in maximum thickness. - Pendant (KLB/GU112/L2-1). Marine mollusc valve (Anadara antiquata, Linnaeus 1758) very rolled and leaked in the edge, perforated near the apex. 0.043m in length, 0.031m in width and 0.014m in maximum thickness. - Pendant (KLB/SF-43). Marine mollusc valve (Anadara antiquata, Linnaeus 1758), very rolled, and perforated in the apex. 0.047m in length, 0.035m in width and 0.018m in maximum thickness. - Bead (KLB/SF-33). Trunco-conical in shape, it shows a large perforation in the middle, with a circular outline. 0.014m in maximum diameter and 0.005m in thickness. - Bead (KLB/SF-34). Trunco-conical in shape, it shows a large perforation in the middle, with a circular outline. 0.015m in maximum diameter and 0.008m in thickness.

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- Bead (KLB/GU221/L2-2). Uses an ovoid Olivella sp. valve, perforated in the apex. 0.013m in length and 0.006 m in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU25/L2-2). Ovoid in shape, corresponds to a Polinices mammilla (Linnaeus, 1758) valve, perforated at the central surface. 0.011m in length and 0.009 in maximum diameter. - Bead (KLB/GU25/L2-1). Corresponds to a Sunetta effossa (Hanley, 1843) valve fragment, showing a circular perforation in the apex. 0.014m in length and 0.006 m in width. - Pendant (KLB/GU173/L2-2). Uses an almost hemispherical valve of Anadara uropigimelana (Borg de Saint Vincent, 1827), with a circular perforation in the apex. 0.034 in length and 0.012 m in maximum thickness. - Pendant (KLB/GU173/L2-1). Utilises a valve, with oval outline, of Vasticardium rubicundum (Reeve, 1844), perforated in the apex. 0.039m in length and 0.012 m in maximum thickness. - Pendant (KLB/GU190/PH4/L2-1). Utilises a valve of Anadara antiquata (Linnaeus, 1758), with a circular perforation in the apex. 0.029 m in length and 0.010 m in maximum thickness.

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Figure 29. Quelba/Kalba. Seashell artefacts. (A. KLB/SF-30;) (B. KLB/SF-34; C. KLB/SF-33;) (D. KLB/ GU25/L2-2;) (E. KLB/SF-29;) (F. KLB/GU221/L2-2;) (G. KLB/GU190/PH4/L2-1;) (H. KLB/GU173/L2-2;) (I. KLB/GU231/L2-1;) (J. KLB/GU173/L2-1;) (K. KLB/GU273/L2-1;) (L. KLB/SF-43;) (M. KLB/GU112/L2-1;) (N. KLB/GU220/L2-2) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Prov. length (m) Ø (m) trimming KLB/GU111/L2 0.018 0.004 — KLB/GU112/L2 0.011 0.003 * KLB/GU118/L2 0.009 0.002 — KLB/GU120/L2 0.019 0.003 — KLB/GU129/L2 0.013 0.004 — KLB/GU132/L2 0.013 0.003 * KLB/GU136/L2 0.014 0.003 — KLB/GU137/L2 0.012 0.003 — KLB/GU138/L2 0.016 0.002 — KLB/GU139/L2 0.021 0.004 — KLB/GU139/L2 0.008 0.003 * KLB/GU169/L2 0.023 0.004 — KLB/GU169/L2 0.007 0.002 — KLB/GU177/L2 0.017 0.004 * KLB/GU187/L2 0.012 0.003 — KLB/GU189/L2 0.010 0.002 — KLB/GU189/L2 0.015 0.004 * KLB/GU189/L2 0.012 0.003 * KLB/GU191/L2 0.015 0.003 — KLB/GU191/L2 0.020 0.003 — KLB/GU191/L2 0.016 0.003 — KLB/GU216/L2 0.006 0.003 * KLB/GU216/L2 0.015 0.004 * KLB/GU221/L2 0.015 0.003 — KLB/GU221/l2 0.016 0.002 — KLB/GU244/L2 0.013 0.004 — KLB/GU245/L2 0.010 0.003 * KLB/GU245/L2 0.006 0.002 * KLB/GU246/L2 0.019 0.003 * KLB/GU246/L2 0.019 0.003 — KLB/GU246/L2 0.008 0.002 — KLB/GU247/L2 0.011 0.003 * KLB/GU247/L2 0.016 0.003 — KLB/GU248/L2 0.013 0.003 — KLB/GU248/L2 0.008 0.003 — KLB/GU248/L2 0.004 0.003 * KLB/GU249/L2 0.023 0.004 — KLB/GU249/L2 0.008 0.003 * KLB/GU249/L2 0.009 0.002 — KLB/GU294/L2 0.014 0.003 — KLB/GU298/L2 0.019 0.004 * KLB/SF 0.019 0.002 * KLB/SF 0.018 0.003 * Table 2. Quelba/Kalba. Dentalium bead occurrences.

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5.3. GLASS ARTEFACTS - Bead (KLB/SF-35). Translucent white glass, with ring shape and cylindrical central perforation. 0.009 m in diameter. - Bead (KLB/SF-15). Opaque turquoise blue glass, with spheroidal shape and cylindrical central perforation. 0.007 m in diameter. - Bracelet (KLB/GU216/L2-1). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.060 m in diameter and 0.005 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/SF-18). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.050 m in diameter and 0.009 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/GU298/L2-1). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.050 m in diameter and 0.008 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/GU56/W1/AL5-1). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.060 m in diameter and 0.007 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/SF-37). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.060 m in diameter and 0.006 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/SF-38). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.100 m in diameter and 0.007 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/SF-39). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.060 m in diameter and 0.007 m in maximum thickness. - Bracelet (KLB/SF-40). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.060 m in diameter and 0.007 m in maximum thickness.

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- Bracelet (KLB/SF-44). Fragment of opaque black coloured glass, showing a plano-convex section. 0.100 m in diameter and 0.010 m in maximum thickness. We also found a dark green bottle bottom fragment and two fragments of two flasks, with portion of the rims, both in dark opaque glass.

Figure 30. Quelba/Kalba. Glass artefacts. (A. KLB/SF-35;) (B. KLB/SF-15;) (C. KLB/SF-38;) (D. KLB/SF-39;) (E. KLB/SF-18) (F. KLB/SF-44;) (G. KLB/GU216/L2-1;) (H. KLB/SF-37;) (I. KLB/GU298/L2-1;) (J. KLB/SF-40;) (K. KLB/GU56/W1/AL5-1) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

5.4. METAL ARTEFACTS Incense burner (KLB/SF-32). Copper alloy. Shows a flat hemispherical body with three small trunco-conical feet. The rim has a semi-circular section lip. Ii preserves utilization waste on the inside. 0.078 m in diameter and 0.017 m in height.

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Figure 31. Quelba/Kalba. Incense burner (KLB/SF-32) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

- Pendent (KLB/ GU316/L2-1). Copper alloy (?). Offers a circular outline and seven perforations, one central and the others around it. 0.015 m in diameter and 0.005 m in maximum thickness. - Ring (KLB/GU306/L2-1). Silver (?). Holds half of its initial volume. One of the sides is convex and the opposite is concave. 0.020 m in diameter and 0.002 m in maximum thickness.

Figure 32. Quelba/Kalba. Pendent (A. KLB/GU316/L2-1) and ring (B. KLB/GU306/L2-1) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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- Coin (KLB/SF-19). Two annas. Copper, with a quadrangular outline, it shows the crowned effigies of the King George VI, surrounded by the legend GEORGE VI KING EMPEROR in the obverse. The reverse shows arched element and in the center the inscription 2 ANNAS, INDIA, 1943. 0.020 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-20). Two annas. Copper, with quadrangular outline, both faces are very rubbed and unrecognizable. 0.020 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-21). Copper. The obverse shows a peacock turned to the left. The reverse is unrecognizable. Minted at Tabriz in the 17th century? 0.016 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-22). Copper. The obverse shows a peacock turned to the right and the reverse has a legend with the word Rasht or Khoi (North and North-West Iran). 0.016 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/GU221/L2-1). Copper. The obverse shows a cypress and the reverse is unrecognizable. 0.017 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-23). Copper. The obverse shows a cypress and the reverse has the remains of the word folus. Measures 0.016 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-24). Copper. The obverse shows a cypress and the reverse is illegible. 0.016 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/GU186/L2-1). Copper. The obverse shows a cypress and the reverse is unrecognizable. Measures 0.016 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-25). Copper. The obverse shows a cypress and the reverse has an illegible legend. 0.016 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/GU220/L2-1). Copper. It shows perhaps a cypress on the obverse and the reverse is unrecognizable. 0.017 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-26). Copper. On the obverse it shows a peacock turned to the left. The reverse has the legend Orūmi/Orūmieh, town in North-West Iran. 0.017 m in diameter.

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- Coin (KLB/SF-27). Copper. The obverse shows what seems to be the remains of an inscription as we can also observe on the reverse. 0.015 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-28). Copper. On the obverse it shows the remains of a cypress and the reverse has the legend Shūshtar (Darb Shūshtar). 0.016 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-38). Copper. On the obverse it shows a cypress and the reverse has the inscription, in Persian, ‘folus mint at Dezful’. Dezful is the name of a city in South-Wast Iran in the Khuzestan province. 0.015 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-39). Copper. On the obverse it shows a cypress and the reverse is unrecognizable. 0.016 m in diameter. - Coin (KLB/SF-40). Copper. The obverse and the reverse are both unrecognizable. 0.017 m in diameter. - Bullet (KLB/SF-41). Bronze. 0.031 m in length and 0.007 m in diameter. - Bullet (KLB/SF-42). Bronze. 0.034 m in length and 0.007 m in diameter.

Figure 33. Quelba/Kalba. Bullets (KLB/SF-41 and KLB/SF-42) photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 34. Quelba/Kalba. Coins of two annas (KLB/SF-19 and KLB/SF-20) (2x real dim.) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 35. Quelba/Kalba. Safavid coins (A. KLB/SF-21; B. KLB/SF-22; C. KLB/GU221/L2-1; D. KLB/SF- 23) (2x real dim.) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 36. Quelba/Kalba. Safavid coins (A. KLB/SF-24; B. KLB/GU186/L2-1; C. KLB/SF-25; D. KLB/ GU220/L2-1) (2x real dim.) photos by J. Gonçalves

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Figure 37. Quelba/Kalba. Safavid coins (A. KLB/SF-26;) (B. KLB/SF-27;) (C. KLB/SF-28) (2x real dim.) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 38. Quelba/Kalba. Safavid coins (A. KLB/SF-38;) (B. KLB/SF-39;) (C. KLB/SF-40) (2x real dim.) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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5.5. CERAMIC ARTEFACTS CHINESE PORCELAIN (J. Pedro Henriques) An important set of forty one Chinese porcelain sherds was unearthed during the second archaeological campaign in Quelba/Kalba. In that set it is possible to identify the presence of twenty six vessels, grouped into five distinct formal groups. Within them, the most numerous group corresponds to tea cups, with twelve individuals. Most fragments are small foot sherds, whose lack of decoration makes an accurate chronological classification impossible. Given that, only four specimens in this collection are highlighted, each corresponding to a different decorative solution. The first fragment is a ring foot, painted on the outer surface with red and green coloured lead glazes, with a horizontal band comprised by small stylized flowers formed by small blue drops on the glaze. This is a decoration also found in the previous archaeological campaign, dated from the 19th century (Gomes and Henriques, 2018). The second fragment is a portion of a rim, decorated with blue stylized phytomorphic motifs under the glaze, quite similar to sherds recovered in the Diana (1817) and the Chinese junk Tek Sing (1822) 2 shipwrecks, very likely produced in the Southern China provincial kilns. The third fragment corresponds to a rim with brown glaze on the outer surface and a blue painted band near the rim, with small circles on the lower internal surface. To this tea-cup sherd we can easily associate a foot fragment of a saucer with similar decorative features, which can belong to the same set. This type of decoration finds numerous parallels in European archaeological collections and was profusely imported throughout the entire 18th century, as attested by the cargo of the Gendermalsen, shipwrecked in 1752 (Sheaf and Kilburn, 1988, p.146). The last fragment in this group corresponds to a tea-cup with yellow homochromous painting in the outer surface. Despite not having found any formal and decorative parallel to this sherd, the low shape of the ring foot

267 Issue 17 point to a quite recent chronology, which may correspond to a production of the early 20th century. The second most numerous set within the collection are plates. Of these, we were able to distinguish three vessels, whose decorative features were not yet identified during the archaeological works. Two small horizontal rim sherds show a Pink Family decoration. One of them displays a band filled by a reticule motif near the rim, while the other shows the beginning of a wreath motif. Both present a fine band with stylized pink vegetal windings on the outer surface. This type of decoration is produced on a large scale for the European market and some similar copies from the end of the reign of Emperor Qianlong (1736-1796) (Carvallho, 1993, pp. 88, 89). The third fragment is a blue and white decorated foot, whose quite faded painting represents a dragon in pursuit of a flaming pearl. This sherd corresponds to a production from Fujian, in Southern China, very frequent in archaeological contexts from the 18th to the beginning of the 19th centuries from Lisbon (Henriques, 2012, p. 929, figs 64-66). Within the group of bowls, we highlight a set of four small sherds from the same vessel, whose pour quality painting in blue and white represent a shou character within a circular roundel, supported by a hard to define phytomorphic element. This specimen dates from the beginning of the 19th century, as suggested by some copies from the Tek Sing (1822) cargo. The small pot rim sherd does not present any decoration, which renders an accurate chronological classification impossible.

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Table 3. Quelba/Kalba. Chinese porcelain occurrences from the 2018 campaign.

Table 4. Quelba/Kalba. Chinese porcelain occurrences from the 2018 campaign * Minimal Number of Vessels.

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KERMAN COBALT BLUE-ON-WHITE WARE Only two small fragments of this type of ceramic were found, both on the surface level. UNDERGLAZE PAINTED WARE - Bowl (KLB/GU248/PH2-1). Fragment of a rim with a semicircular lip section. The fabrics are homogeneous and compact, with very small quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core of the walls is pale yellow in colour (2.5Y 8.5/2) and both surfaces have underglaze painted decoration in black and green. The glaze is badly applied and with a dull shine. Zigzag motifs inside a frame were identified on both surfaces. 0.180 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU256/FP9/L2-1). Fragment of a rim with a semicircular lip section. The fabrics are homogeneous and compact with very small inclusions. The core of the walls is pink in colour (7.5YR 8/3). The inner surface presents an underglaze black painted geometric motif, and a green glaze with a dull shine. The outer surface has green glaze. 0.260 m rim diameter and a 0.007 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU247/L2-1). Fragment of a ring-foot base. The fabrics are homogeneous and compact with very small inclusions. Both the core and the outer surface are pale yellow in colour (2.5Y 8.5/2). The inner surface presents the remains of an underglaze black painted geometric motif and a green glaze with a dull shine. 0.070 m base diameter and a 0.011 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU186/L2-2). Fragment of a ring-foot base. The fabrics are homogeneous and compact with very small inclusions. Both the core and the outer surface are pale yellow in colour (2.5Y 8.5/2). The inner surface presents the remains of an underglaze black painted geometric motif and green glaze with a dull shine. 0.090 m base diameter and a 0.010 m average wall thickness. - Bowl (KLB/GU125/L2-1). Fragment of a ring-foot base. The fabrics are homogeneous and compact with very small inclusions. Both the core and the outer surface are pink in colour (7.5YR 8/3). The inner surface presents the remains of an underglaze black painted geometric motif and green glaze with a dull shine. 0.090 m base diameter and a 0.008 m average wall thickness.

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Figure 39. Quelba/Kalba. Underglaze painted ware bowl fragment (KLB/GU248/PH2-1) (photo by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 40. Quelba/Kalba. Underglaze painted ware fragments (A. KLB/GU256/FP9/L2-1;) (B. KLB/GU186/L2-2;) (C. KLB/GU247/L2-;) (D. KLB/GU125/L2-1) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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BROWN AND DARK GREEN GLAZED WARE (BAHL WARE) - Bowl (KLB/GU56/W1/AL6-1). Fragment of a thickened rim with a semi- circular lip section. The fabrics are homogeneous and compact with very small inclusions. The core of the walls is light grey in colour (7.5YR 8/1) and both surfaces are glazed brown (5YR 5/4). 0.240 m rim diameter and a 0.008 m average wall thickness.

Figure 41. Quelba/Kalba. Brown glazed ware (KLB/W1/AL6-1) photo by J. Gonçalves).

INCISED LIGHT FINE WARE - Water jug (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-1). Fragment of a high cylindrical neck, and part of the body. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core is pink in colour (5YR 7/4) and both surfaces are white in colour (7.5YR 8/2). On the outer side it is possible to see two horizontal cords and incised decoration, as well as sets of horizontal wavy lines, made with a comb, that alternate with oblique lines. 0.079 m neck diameter and 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Water jug (KLB/GU56/W1/L1-11). Fragment of a neck, high and cylindrical, and part of the body. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core is pink in colour (2.5YR 8/4), and both surfaces are very pale brown (10YR 8/2). On the outer surface it is possible to see two horizontal cords in the

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neck, and incised decoration with oblique and horizontal wavy lines, made with a comb. 0.072 neck diameter and 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Water jug (KLB/GU256/FP9/L2-1). Fragment of a base. The fabric is homogeneous and compact with very small inclusions. The core is reddish yellow in colour (5YR 6/6) and both surfaces are pinkish white in colour (5YR 8/2). The outer surface shows incised decoration formed by a set of horizontal wavy lines, made with a comb. 0.350 m base diameter and 0.007 m average wall thickness. - Game piece (KLB/GU86/L2-1). Fragment of a subcylindrical shape, reusing a portion of a vessel. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are pinkish grey (5YR 7/2). It showed, 0.050 m in diameter, when complete, and 0.005 m in width and average wall thickness.

Figure 42. Quelba/Kalba. Incised light fine ware. (A. KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-1;) (B. KLB/GU56/AL1-11) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 43. Quelba/Kalba. Incised light fine ware. (A. KLB/GU256/FP9/L2-1;) (B. KLB/GU86/L2-1) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

RED COARSE WARE - Game piece (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-6). Sub-cylindrical in shape, reused a portion of the body of a storage jar. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and the inner surface of the walls are reddish grey (2.5YR 6/4), and the outer surface is grey (10YR 6/1). 0.080 in diameter, the finger- applied cord is 0.010 m in width and the average wall thickness is 0.012 m. - Burner (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-8). Portion of the body. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small inclusions. The core and both surfaces are reddish brown in colour (2.5YR 5/4). In the outer surface it is possible to see a horizontal cord with incised decoration and two oblique lines with impressed dots in the interior. The finger-applied cord is 0.008 m in width and the average wall thickness is 0.007 m.

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- Burner (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-9). Portion of the body. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and both surfaces are reddish brown in colour (2.5YR 6/3). In the outer surface it is possible to see a horizontal cord with incised decoration and two oblique lines with impressed dots in the interior. The finger-applied cord is 0.010 m in width and the average wall thickness is 0.008 m. - Burner (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-7). Portion of the body. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core is reddish brown in colour (2.5YR 5/4) and both surfaces are light reddish grey (2.5YR 7/1). In the outer surface of the wall is possible to see a horizontal cord with incised decoration and two oblique lines with incised dots in the interior. The finger-applied cord is 0.006 m in width and average wall thickness 0.006 m. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-2). Fragment of a rim and body. Globular shape vessel with a slightly inverted rim and a semi-circular lip section. A triangular lug handle was applied to the outer body surface. The fabric is not very homogeneous, but compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and the interior surface are red in colour (10R 5/6) and the outer surface of the walls is dark grey (2.5YR 5/1). 0.140 m rim diameter and 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU256/FP9/L2-2). Fragment of a rim and body. Globular shape vessel with a slightly inverted rim with semi-circular lip section. The fabric is not very homogeneous, but compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and the interior surface are pale red in colour (10R 5/6) and the outer surface of the walls is grey (2.5YR 5/1). 0.170 m rim diameter and 0.007 m average wall thickness.

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Figure 44. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware. Game piece (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-6) (photo by J. Gonçalves).

Figure 45. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware. Burners’ fragments (A. KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-8;) (B. KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-9;) (C. KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-7) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 46. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware. Cooking pots’ fragments (A. KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-2;) (B. KLB/GU256/FP9/L2-2;) (C. KLB/GU56/W1/AL6-1;) (D. KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-5;) (E. KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-3) (photo by J. Gonçalves).

- Cooking pot (KLB/GU56/W1/AL6-1). Fragment of a rim, with semi- circular lip section. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and the inner surface are grey in colour (10YR 5/1) and the outer surface is pale red (10R 6/4). 0.200 m rim diameter and 0.010 m average wall thickness. - Pot (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-5). Fragment of a rim, with semi-circular lip. The fabric is not very homogeneous, but compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (2.5YR 6/8). On the outer surface it is possible to see two red painted lines. 0.180 m rim diameter and 0.009 m average wall thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-3). Fragment of a rim. The rim is

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slightly thickened and incurved with a semi-circular lip section. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and the outer surface are grey in colour (10YR 5/1) and the inner surface is red in colour (2.5YR 6/6). 0.140 m rim diameter and 0.006 m average wall thickness. - Pot (KLB/GU168/FP5/L2-2). Fragment of a rim, thickened and with an oblique plain lip. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small and medium quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core and both surfaces are reddish brown in colour (5YR 5/4). On the outer surface it is possible to see a reddish brown horizontal painted line (2.5YR 4/4) and two oblique lines painted the same colour. 0.090 m rim diameter and a 0.006 m average wall thickness. - Pot (KLB/GU124/L2-2). Fragment of rim, thickened and slightly incurved, with an angular lip section. The fabric is not very homogeneous nor very compact, containing medium and coarse quartz and feldspar inclusions. The core and the outer surface are red in colour (10R 5/6) and the inner surface is reddish grey (10R 5/1). It is possible to see a painted white line on the rim and the outer surface. 0.220 m rim diameter and 0.007 m average wall thickness. - Pot (KLB/GU124/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, thickened and everted, forming a ledge, with a semi-circular lip section. The fabric is not very homogeneous nor very compact, containing medium and coarse quartz and feldspar inclusions. The core and the interior surface are red in colour (2.5YR 4/8) and the outer surface of the walls is reddish grey (2.5YR 5/1). Inside, under the rim and on the outer side, it is possible to see horizontal and oblique lines in dark red. 0.130 m rim diameter and the average wall thickness is 0.007 m. - Pot (KLB/GU168/FP5/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, with a plain lip. The fabric is not very homogeneous, but compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core and both surfaces are reddish grey in

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colour (5YR 5/1). A reddish brown (2.5YR 4/4) line was painted on the rim, and it is possible to see six oblique lines painted the same colour on the outer surface. 0.120 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Pot (KLB/GU125/L2-2). Fragments of a horizontal everted rim and body, with a semi-circular lip section. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and the inner surface are reddish grey in colour (2.5YR 5/1) and the outer surface is reddish brown (2.5YR 4/4). On the body it is possible to see several oblique lines painted in dark red (10R 4/4), as well as two lines on the rim. 0.180 m rim diameter and 0.004 m average wall thickness. - Cooking pot (KLB/GU128/L2-1). Fragment of a rim and upper part of the body. The rim is everted and with a plain lip. The fabric is not very homogeneous, but compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core and the interior surface are red in colour (10R 5/6), and the outer surface is reddish grey (10R 5/1). On this side it is possible to see a pale red horizontal painted line and two oblique lines painted the same colour (10R 4/3). 0.170 m rim diameter and a 0.005 m average wall thickness. - Pot (KLB/GU297/L2-1). Fragment of a rim, with a somewhat thickened everted and semi-circular lip. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small and medium quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (10R 5/6). 0.140 m in diameter and 0.008 m average wall thickness. - Pot (KLB/GU56/W1/AL6-2). Fragment of a portion of the body. It bears a horizontal cord with stamped digital decoration. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core and both wall surfaces are red in colour (10R 5/6), but the inner surface received a grey coloured slip (5YR 5/1). The finger- applied cord is 0.140 m in width and the average wall thickness is 0.120 m. - Large storage vessel (KLB/GU168/FP5/L2-3). Fragment of a portion of

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the body. It bears a horizontal cord with stamped digital decoration. The fabric is not very homogeneous but compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core is reddish brown in colour (5YR 5/4) and both surfaces are grey to black (10YR 6/1; 10YR 2/1), most likely due to fire action exposure. The finger-applied cord is 0.016 m in width and the average wall thickness is 0.016 m - Large storage vessel (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-4). Fragment of a portion of the body. It bears a horizontal cord with stamped digital decoration. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous (biotite) inclusions. The core is pale red in colour (10R 4/4) and both surfaces are dark grey (5YR 4/1). The finger-applied cord is 0.013 m in width and the average wall thickness is 0.007 m.

Figure 47. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware. Cooking pots’ fragments (A. KLB/GU168/FP5/L2-1;) (B. KLB/GU124/L2-2;) (C. KLB/GU124/L2-1;) (D. KLB/GU168/FP5/L2-2;) (E. KLB/GU125/L2-2;) (F. KLB/GU128/L2-1) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 48. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware. Pot fragments (A. KLB/GU297/L2-1;) (B. KLB7GU56/W1/AL1-12) (photos by J. Gon- çalves).

Figure 49. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware. Large storage vessels fragments (A. KLB/GU56/W1/AL6-2;) (B. KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-4;) (C. KLB/GU168/FP5/L2-3) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 50. Quelba/Kalba. Ceramic beads (A. KLB/SF-45;) (B. KLB/GU180/FP3/L2-1) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

- Pot (KLB/GU56/W1/AL1-12). Fragment of a rim, with a somewhat thickened everted and semi-circular lip. The fabric is homogeneous and compact, containing very small and medium quartz, micaceous inclusions. The core is grey in colour (5YR 6/1), the interior surface is light reddish brown (5YR 6/3) and the outer surface is pinkish grey (5YR 7/2). 0.160 m rim diameter and 0.007 m average wall thickness. - Bead (KLB/SF-45). Used a ceramic vessel wall fragment and presents a sub-circular outline, with a central cylindrical perforation. 0.023 m in diameter and 0.004 m in thickness. - Bead (KLB/GU180/FP3/L2-1). Used a ceramic vessel wall fragment and presents a sub-circular outline, with a central cylindrical perforation. 0.021 m in diameter and 0.0045 m in thickness.

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BLACK COARSE WARE Pot lid (KLB/SF-42). Fragment corresponding almost to a quarter of the original volume. It is cylindrical shaped with a sub-vertical plain lip. The fabric is not very homogeneous but compact, containing small and medium quartz and micaceous inclusions. The core and both surfaces are very dark grey (GLEY1 3/3). The upper surface presents decoration composed of small impressed circles, organized in lines; one parallel to the rim and two others with a radial distribution. 0.100 m in diameter and a 0.010 m average thickness.

Figure 51. Quelba/Kalba. Black coarse ware (KLB/SF-42) (photo by J. Gonçalves).

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Table 5.Quelba/Kalba. Main ceramic classes and sherd types. * With red painted decoration.

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Chart 1. Quelba/Kalba. Percentages of ceramic ware type representation from Level 2 (2197 fragments) (2018 campaign).

Chart 2. Quelba/Kalba. Percentages of ceramic ware type representation from surface finds (SF) (248 fragments) (2018 cam- paign).

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Chart 3. Quelba/Kalba. Underglaze painted ware, Level 2 (179 fragments) (2018 campaign).

Chart 4. Quelba/Kalba. Light brown glazed ware, Level 2 (57 fragments) (2018 campaign).

Chart 5. Quelba/Kalba. Brown and dark green glazed ware, Level 2 (66 fragments) (2018 campaign).

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Chart 6. Quelba/Kalba. Incised light fine ware, Level 2 (964 fragments) (2018 campaign).

Chart 7. Quelba/Kalba. Red coarse ware, Level 2 (729 fragments) (2018 campaign).

Chart 8. Quelba/Kalba. Black coarse ware, Level 2 (202 fragments) (2018 campaign).

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6. FAUNAL AND VEGETAL REMAINS

Faunal remains, mammals, birds, fishes, molluscs and crabs, continued to be unearthed throughout the excavated area, mainly in the Well 1. Some remains of carbonized plants were also collected. Within the mammals, the Ovis aries Lin. fragments are dominant, with the existence of other occurrences, like Bos taurus Lin. and, possibly, Gazella sp. That last specie, Gazella sp., wild, was first known as Antilope arabica Lichtenstein, 1827 and is currently nominated as Gazella arabica (Lichtenstein, 1827). A similar specie was identified, Gazella gazella. It is a ruminant and small specie, endemic to the center and south of the Arabian Peninsula, also existing important nucleus in the Dhofar region, in the Sultanate of Oman, which adapted to arid conditions of semi-desert regions. In current days several subspecies have been identified (Hammond et alii, 2001; Bärmann et alii, 2013; Bärmann, Gentry and Gentry, 2014; Al Hikmani et alii, 2015). Considering birds, the remains of Gallus gallus Lin. are clearly dominant, almost all the parts being found, apart from the heads. Only a sternum can be attributed, though with some reservations, to a bird of prey (falcon?).

Figure 52. Quelba/Kalba. Right hemimandibles. (A. Gazella arabica (Lichtenstein, 1827) (?); (B. Ovis aries Lin.) (photos by J. Gonçalves).

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Figure 53. Quelba/Kalba. Gallus gallus Lin. frequency of recovered bones.

Figure 54. Fragment of a cooking pot with rim portion, from Quelba/Kalba east wall (KLB/GU48) (photo by J. Gonçalves).

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7. PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS

The 2018 archaeological excavation campaign in Quelba/Kalba, lead to the discovery of the remains of fortress, with a seemingly square plant, measuring approximately 50 m by 50 m, and with a circular tower in the southeast corner, measuring 8 m in diameter. The remaining three corners would also probably present towers (watch towers) with similar shapes and sizes. Square plant fortresses, with circular towers on each corner, made from stone, rammed earth or adobe, have a long tradition, which arises in North Africa, Eastern Mediterranean and Near East in Late Antiquity, specifically due to the diffusion of the Roman and Byzantine presence, persisting up until the Early Modern Age, and even after it. In the Limes Arabicus, stablished after the conquest and annexation the Arabian Peninsula, under the rule of Trajan, in 106 A.D., fortresses were constructed during Septimius Severus reign (196-211 A.D.) with projecting rounded towers, on the walls and at the angles, like the Ain Sinu mud brick quadrangular fortress in Northern Iraq (Lander, 1984, pp. 132, 133). Qseyr es-Sele, in Syria, was also a fort with quadrangular plan (37 m by 37 m) and protected by four round plan towers in each corner, measuring 12 m in diameter. This building is dated from the Tetrarchic Period (3rd century) when the East Roman Provinces were ruled by Dioclesianus (293-313) (Lander, 1984, pp. 190, 192, 240). Other examples exist also in Syria. Outside the Quelba/Kalba fortress there were possible households denounced by numerous postholes and living floors. The same also happens inside the walled space, were a well with copious amounts of materials and an oven were also excavated.

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Figure 54. Fragment of a cooking pot with rim portion, from Quelba/Kalba east wall (KLB/GU48) (photo by J. Gonçalves). A fragment of a ceramic cooking pot, with rim, was unearthed inside the East wall of the fortification, and can be date to the 16th or 17th century (KLB/ GU48). The local tradition claims that the ancient “Portuguese fortress” was raised in this place, as was again reiterated, that given the siltation of the area only more recently another fortification was erected near the beach, where once stood a former fishermen neighborhood, which was recently totally reconstructed. The fortress of Quelba/Kalba, which the Portuguese registered through drawings, also appears as square-shaped, with a bastion on each corner, one of which taller and more complex, with a platform, guards the North-faced entrance and shows a house infrastructure inside it. Each wall section would have 33 to 35 m (15 to 16 fathoms) in length and would have been erected “à maneira dos mouros” (the way of the moors) as mentioned by Bocarro and Herédia, in rammed earth, 0.66 m thick (two and a half spans), without a ledge and reaching 8.80 m in height (4 fathoms). The wall protecting the settlement would also have two additional bastions, and another one defending the beach. The Portuguese documentation sent from Goa, in India, to Lisbon and Madrid was, according to now available archaeological data, was certainly produced by someone who has never been to the site, having made the drawings from vague oral information and afterward copied off each other. The norm at the time stated that there should always be three specimens, two of which would be sent to Europe in separate ships, given the frequent shipwrecks, and

293 Issue 17 the third drawing would have stayed in the archives of Goa. This one was copied again later on, regardless of the fortress still being under “Portuguese” administration or not. The Portuguese presence in the Arabian coast dates back to the beginning of the 16th century and a bit after there could have existed fortified trading posts, as seems to have happened in Muscat and Suhar, in the current Emirate of Oman, and in Khor Fakkan, in the Emirate of Sharjah, according to some old records and to recent archaeological excavations in those sites. However, this should not have been the case of Khor Kalba in Mars 1624, when the Portuguese settled there. According to the text by Manuel Godinho de Herédia, the area was then under the administration of a famous leader in the region, Al- Qasimi, certainly a forefather of the presentday emir of Sharjah. The garrison placed there by the Portuguese comprised a lascoreen captain with 30 soldiers of the same origin, which comprised an expense of 195$0840 réis per year, paid by a local tax, similar to the one paid previously. The lascoreen garrison should have been recruited in the Hormuz influence area, in present- day Iran. In principle, the fortress did not underwent serious reconstructions or adaption works after the new occupation, which explains the reference “à maneira dos mouros”. The fortress was abandoned by the Portuguese thirty years later, since in October 30th 1648, a peace treaty between Portugal and the Arabic sheiks was signed in Muscat, with the presence of Al-Qasimi but where the Khor Kalba fortification is no longer mentioned. The commercial relationship between the Portuguese and the Arabians was certainly kept in the area, because it benefited both parties, a fact that was mentioned in the treaty mentioned above. Faced with the tradition that there was a “Portuguese fortress” in the area, when the archaeological evidence only point to an Islamic structure, we are led to wonder if the presence of the Portuguese in the area would not far exceed what was mentioned in the official Portuguese documents. The find of numerous low value currency Iranian (Safavid) coins, the so called “black money”, in the area excavated by us, along with Iranian faience and Chinese porcelain sherds, seems to corroborate

294 Issue 17 the idea that Khor Kalba stayed an important trade center, sustained by an ancient caravan route that crossed the Arabian Peninsula, and sea routes which crossed the Arabian Gulf and supported the navigation of the Indian Ocean between the 16th and 19th centuries. The artefact remains found during the 2018 archaeological works indicate very ancient human presence in that area (flaked flint artefacts and hammerstones), as well as an intense site occupation since the 16th century to the 19th century. It is important to note: the set of safavid coins; the collection of glass bracelets’ fragments; glass, seashell and ceramic beads; small tripod incense burner, made in copper alloy; and quite significant ceramic collection, which include Chinese porcelains, mainly from the 18th and 19th centuries, as well as some fabrics attributed to Iran and quite abundant regional or local wares (bowls, jars, cooking pots, pots, large storage vessels, burners, game pieces, …). Those remains are evidence of intense economic and cultural relations and of the strategic, commercial and politic significance of the Quelba/Kalba fortress. Osteological remains of mammals, birds and fishes contribute to the economic knowledge but also of the food consumption habits and religious precepts of the populations that lived there.

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ANNEX I

PRELIMINARY PALAEOZOOLOGICAL REPORT – MAMMALS, BIRDS AND FISHES

MIGUEL TELLES ANTUNES

Academia das Ciências de Lisboa (ACL), Director of the Maynense Museum (ACL), CICEGE, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa

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The paleozoological study of the first excavation cam- paign (January 2017) was the subject of a previous study by Antunes (2018, in press). In this report we do the same with the second excavation campaign. The specimens bearing identification were collected at the Quelba/Kalba ancient fortress, at the North-west coast of the Arabic Peninsula, corresponding to the Oman Gulf. For information on the history of the site, environment, stratigraphy, as well as the building structures and artefacts see Gomes et alii (2017). This paper reports on the identification of human food leftovers and its relationship with economic and political conditions.

DESCRIPTION

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Table 1. Material and identification. Material too incomplete, not suitable for determination is marked “Ind.”, indeterminate; “Frag.”, fragment; “vert.”, vertebra or vertebrae, vertebral; “inc.”, incomplete.

Chart 1. Taxa and number of specimens

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SOME CONCLUSIONS Among the material under study, it is obviously evident that there is a distinct prevalence of some mammal remains along with fish remnants. Birds are common, but variety is low. Identification is hampered by lack of comparison collections, and in such circumstances, the determination may be inaccurate. The provisional list of taxa is as follows.

Mammals - Bos taurus – quite scarce artiodactyl bones are too large to be reported to lamb or goat. They seem to indicate cattle, although lesser in size than common extant races. - Ovis aries – the most common mammalian remnants can be reported to sheep, and not to goat in all cases that seem characteristic enough. Age spectrum shows a vast majority of young animals along with scarce adult ones. - Gazella sp. – rare remnants of a small ruminant with very slender leg bones, like a gazelle. - Canis familiaris – bite impressions probably have been produced by dog. - Indeterminate small carnivore – bite impressions.

Birds - Gallus gallus – sets of bird bones seem closely similar to those of the common cock or hen, even if somewhat smaller in size than extant comparison material. Many are from young specimens. - Bird of prey (falcon)? - Indeterminate bird bones – some bird bones could not be further characterized.

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Fishes - Pagrus sp. - Pagellus sp. - Sparus sp. - Many teleosteans remnants so far not identified, probably from several taxa. - Lack of comparison material concerning the extant fish fauna of the region under study prevents further essays of identification. - Another issue is the age of slaughtering. Most of the data come from eruption of lacteal and definitive teeth, as well as fusion of epiphyses. Of course, this data are not accurate, even more so if we take into account that we are dealing with populations much different in age and geographic distribution. Besides individual variation, the data is not identical between different populations. As far as sheep are concerned, some are adults, but most are young specimens.

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REFERENCES

- ANTUNES, Miguel Telles (2018 in press) – Preliminary report of the Palaeozoology, Sharjah (U.A.E.). Quelba/Kalba – Report of the Portuguese Archaeological Mission. First Excavation Season (January 2017), pp. 101- 106. - BROTHWELL, Don; HIGGS, Eric (eds) with a foreword by CLARK, Grahame (reprinted 1971) – Science in Archaeology: A Survey in Progress and Research, revised and enlarged edition, Thames and Hudson, London. - GOMES, Mário Varela; GOMES, Rosa Varela; CARITA, Rui; KAMYAB, Kamyar Daryoush (2017) – Resultados preliminares da primeira campanha da Missão Arqueológica Portuguesa em Sharjah (EAU). Escavação arqueológica em Quelba/Kalba, Arqueologia em Portugal 2017 – Estado da Questão, pp. 1641-1656, Associação dos Arqueólogos Portugueses, Lisboa. - SILVER, I. A. (1971) – The Ageing of Domestic Animals, Science in Archaeology: A Survey in Progress and Research, 2nd edit., pp. 283-302, Thames and Hudson, London. - UERPMANN, Hans-Peter; UERPMANN, Margarethe; JASIM, Sabah Abbood (2008) – The Archaeology of Jebel al-Buhais, Vol. 2 - The Natural Environment of Jebel al-Buhais: Past and Present, Department of Culture and Information, Government of Sharjah, United Arab Emirates, Sharjah.

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ANNEX II

EDIBLE CRABS FROM QUELBA/KALBA FORTIFICATION

PEDRO M. CALLAPEZ a; PEDRO A. DINIS b

a Department of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal. CITEUC - Center for Research on Earth and Space at the University of Coimbra, Astronomical Observatory, Almas de Freire, Santa Clara, 3040-004 Coimbra, Portugal; [email protected]; b Department of Earth Sciences, MARE - Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre, Faculty of Sciences and Technology of the University of Coimbra, Rua Sílvio Lima, 3030-790 Coimbra, Portugal; [email protected].

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Although they are comparatively less representative in the studied macro- remains of marine invertebrates, skeletal parts of crabs were also present in the large bulk sample collected from the archaeological site of the former Quelba/ Kalba fortification (late 16th to 18th centuries, Sharjah, UAE). They are recorded by 21 fragments of dactyl and immovable fingers of claw, belonging to large individuals and collected form several squares, a fireplace structure (fireplace 3) and a well (well 1) (table I). These chela were intentionally broken by percussion with stones or hard instruments, thus revealing a repeated practice related to shellfish consumption where edible parts of seashore or nearshore crustaceans were a small but yet significant component. As already we have noted about the edible species of bivalves and gastropods, this food consumption was in line with a low scale exploration of the nearby environment through traditional fishing and shellfish gathering activities, and a relatively varied diet that included several fish, mollusc and crab species. From a taxonomic point of view, the studied crab remains are representatives of decapod crustaceans from the Order Brachyura, a major marine invertebrate group well studied in the Oman and Gulf ranges (e.g. Ismail & Ahmed, 1993; Clayton, 1996; Khvorov, 2012). They belong to the giant mangrove crab Scylla serrata (Forskål, 1775), a large, relatively common and wide-range crab species of the family Portunidae (Figure 1). This is a high-scale exploited edible species in many areas of the Indo and Western Pacific coastal ranges, where large adults are commonly found in mangrove and other related marginal marine habitats (Alberts-Hubatsch et al., 2015). They are ecologically tolerant to salinity and temperature changes, and also well-adapted to a variety of soft muddy substrates, especially when a thick vegetation cover offers good protection against predation and insolation.

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Table 1. Location and morphological parts of the macroremains of Scylla serrata (Forskål, 1775) collected from the archaeological site of the former Quelba/Kalba fortification.

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By this way, the occurrence of this crab species in the context of the Quelba/Kalba fortification can be explained by its geographical proximity to a large mangrove area available in the southern seashore range of the locality. This ecologically rich aquatic space was a source of abundant shellfish easily collected at low tide, including specimens from a population of Scylla serrata that inhabited the mangrove ecotone at that time.

Figure 1. Morphological parts of the giant mangrove crab Scylla serrata (Forskål, 1775) collected from the archaeological site of the former Quelba/Kalba fortification. 1-3 - Fragments of dactyl fingers of claw; 4-6 - fragment of immovable fingers of claw. Scale bar = 1 cm.

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REFERENCES

- ALBERTS-HUBATSCH, H., LEE, S. H., MEYNECKE, J-O., DIELE, K., NORDHAUS, I.; WOLFF, M. (2015) – Life-history, movement, and habitat use of Scylla serrata (Decapoda, Portunidae): current knowledge and future challenges, Hydrobiologia, vol. 763(1), pp. 5-21. - CLAYTON, D. A. (1996) – The ghost crabs of Oman. Journal of Science and Technology, Sultan Qaboos University, vol. 1, pp. 2735. - ISMAIL, N. S.; AHMED, A. E. (1993) – Macrobenthic invertebrates of mangrove, Avicennia marina (Forskål), and of intertidal flats of Khor Kalba, U.A.E., Gulf of Oman. In: H. Leith & A. Al Masoom (eds.) - Towards the Rational Use of High Salinity Tolerant Plants, vol. 1, pp. 155-161, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. - KHVOROV, S. (2012) – Crabs of Sultanate of Oman, Marine Science Fisheries Centre, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Wealth, Muscat.

320 Portuguese Archaeological Mission to Sharjah 2018 Underwater Archaeology Survey Preliminary Mission Report - December 2018

Index

ACRONYMS ...... 325

INTRODUCTION ...... 327

DIVING OPERATIONS ...... 328

DIVE TEAM ...... 329

CHOICE OF INDIVIDUAL DIVING EQUIPMENT AND GAS ...... 330

COMMON DIVING EQUIPMENT ...... 332

Diving ...... 333

DAILY ROUTINES ...... 333

CHOICE OF TARGETS TO DIVE IN ...... 335

AUV OPERATIONS ...... 336

LAUV-NOPTILUS-1 ...... 338

LAUV-XTREME-2 ...... 339

MANTA ...... 341

CONTROL STATIONS ...... 341

CALIBRATION AND TESTING ...... 344

KHOR-FAKKAN AUV SURVEYS ...... 345

TARGETS OF INTEREST IN KHOR-FAKKAN ...... 347

KHOR-KALBA AUV SURVEYS ...... 352

DIBBA AUV SURVEYS ...... 354

TARGETS OF INTEREST IN DIBBA AL HOSN ...... 356

BIOLOGY OF SHIPWRECKS ...... 358

UAV OPERATIONS ...... 360

MLEIHA ...... 361

SHARK ISLAND ...... 363

DISCUSSION ...... 365

REFERENCES ...... 371

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ACRONYMS

AUV Autonomous Underwater Vehicle DVL Doppler Velocity Log GPS Global Positioning System INS Inertial Navigation System LAUV Light Autonomous Underwater Vehicle LED Light Emitting Diode LNP1 LAUV-Noptilus-1 LXT2 LAUV-Xtreme-2 OMST OceanScan Marine Systems and Technology SAA Sharjah Archaeology Authority SIAS1 Shark Island Archaeological Site 1 SIAS2 Shark Island Archaeological Site 2 SSS Side Scan Sonar UAE United Arab Emirates UAV Unmanned Aerial Vehicle UCH Underwater Cultural Heritage

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Dibba Al Hisn

Khor Fakkan

Shark Island

Khor Kalba

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INTRODUCTION

Upon solicitation of the Sharjah Archaeology Authority (SAA), the Instituto de Arqueologia e Paleociências of the Universidade Nova de Lisboa (IAP- NOVA) has conducted a multi-disciplinary partial reconnaissance survey of three marine areas in the Sharjah Emirate, UAE - Kalba, Khor-Fakkan and Dibba Al Hosn. In what was to be the first time ever that the Nautical component of the Portuguese Archaeological mission to Sharjah was deployed on the Emirate, this survey was conducted between the 21st and the 29th November 2018. During that period, a team of Portuguese archaeologists, engineers from Porto University and a SAA archaeologist used two Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV) and two Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) to investigate the seabed and the underwater cultural heritage (UCH) potential of those areas, with data being gathered by a combination of geophysical and dive surveys. In this preliminary report we describe the technologies as well as the operational procedures and results from this survey: This project was carried out by nautical archaeologists and divers Alexandre Monteiro and Filipe Castro; the maritime biologist and master diver Gonçalo Calado, nautical historian and technical diver Paulo Costa, the underwater robotic engineers José Pinto and Manuel Ribeiro, expedition leader and historian Rui Carita, Sharjah’s archaeologist Eisa Yousif, Kamyar Kamyab and officers from the Sharjah Police Rescue Team. We are forever grateful to the professionalism of the Sharjah Police team led by Major Faisal Jassim Al Doukhi: sargeants Saeed Awad, Anas Mahrous Zaidan and Mohammed Khamis Al Tiniji, the cooperant Shazad Sohail and policeman Abdul Majid Mohammed.

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DIVING OPERATIONS

This section aims to present the activities and methodology of the scuba diving team involved in the maritime archaeological survey through the description of the team’s daily working routines. The archaeological survey was performed by a four-element dive team, divided into two binomials of two divers, which, following the research proposal previously presented, remained in a state of permanent readiness, in order to: 1) visually inspect possible targets detected by AUVs by diving on it, where and when the diving conditions did not present considerable risks; 2) proceed to record images (video and/or photograph) of said targets, whenever possible; 3) ensure the safety and recovery of the AUVs in case of their unexpected entanglement with obstacles in the seabed or on the water column (fishing nets, lines, fish-traps, etc.)

Figure 1: Archaeological diver Paulo Costa off Khorfakkan.

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Thus, the main objective of the dive team was to carry out a rapid and immediate visual check of the anomalies detected by the survey, to determine which targets would merit further archaeological intervention and to discard those that revealed to be mere geological irregularities or had no archaeological value.

Figure 2: archaeological divers Paulo Costa and Alexandre Monteiro on a safety stop off Khor-Fakkan

Unless an exceptional high valued target was detected, the dive team was not expected to undertake in this mission archaeological excavations or any type of elaborated archaeological intervention.

DIVE TEAM The dive team was composed by the researchers mentioned previously in the Introduction section, all of them scuba diving certified by recognized

329 Issue 17 international training agencies long before the date of the mission. In addition to their academic qualifications – one nautical archaeologist, one anthropologist, one historian and one marine biologist - some of the divers also have advanced technical diving training and one is a certified instructor. Between all of them, they have more than 4.000 dives. While not diving, the dive team also took part in AUVs and equipment handling, both on board and to and from the harbour.

Figure 3: Divers Paulo Costa, Filipe Castro and Alexandre Monteiro prepare to descend on a target off Dibba.

CHOICE OF INDIVIDUAL DIVING EQUIPMENT AND GAS The individual diving equipment, kit configuration and choice of gas were decided previously to the mission, upon study of the Nautical Charts for the areas where the survey would take place. The areas to be surveyed presented a bottom depth of less than -30 meters,

330 Issue 17 so, it was not expected that the dive team would be exposed to nitrogen narcosis or oxygen toxicity at a partial pressure of over 4 ATM. With this in mind, Air (21% O2 / 79% N2) was the gas consumed during all dives. Divers used their own personal equipment, all being autonomous open circuit systems. For thermal protection, and, again, after considering the conditions for the sites where the mission would take place, all divers opted for wetsuits. Management of diving time and gas consumption were individually monitored by personal computers and individual gauges. All divers used redundant equipment, integrating a second regulator. Detailed description of BCDs, harnesses, lights, cutting tools, spools, buoys, etc, used by the diving team is not considered relevant for the present report.

Figure 4: Sharjah’s Police Rescue Team provided for all necessary diving logistics.

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COMMON DIVING EQUIPMENT Common use diving equipment, consisting of weights of 1 and 2 kilos, respective weight-belts and scuba tanks (cylinders) was the only equipment obtained at the destination, all of this being provided by the Sharjah police. It was also Sharjah police that provided the tank fillings and transportation of equipment and individuals to the survey areas. Tanks used by the dive team were CATALINA S80 and LUXFER S080, both in aluminum alloy, with 11.1 liters capacity and a working pressure of 207 BAR (3000 PSI). All tank valves were compatible with both DIN and YOKE regulator threads used by divers.

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DIVING

DAILY ROUTINES The dive team followed closely the engineers operating the AUVs, sharing the very same daily schedule and routines, ready to perform the task described before. Survey operations started daily at about 07:30/08:00 am with a break for lunch - back at the hotel - between 12:00 am and 2:00 pm. Twice, this lunch break was performed outside, once at sea and then at Dibba harbour.

Figure 5: One of the two vessels provided by Sharjah’s Police Rescue Team to this project.

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The daily end of operations was conditioned by the lack of daylight, as sunset was rather sudden and took place about 5:00 pm. For safety reasons it was decided to complete docking manoeuvres before sundown. Only once did the team arrived at home harbour after dark, this upon the Dibba survey trip and only after operations were delayed due to the entanglement of an AUV on a fishing net.

Figure 6: Second of the two vessels provided by Sharjah’s Police Rescue Team to this project.

All the members of the team would be back at the hotel by 7:00 pm for equipment checks, batteries recharge and eventual maintenance and upkeep of equipment. After that a debriefing took place and data was acutely reviewed. Pending on the data acquired by the AUVs, the next day was planned, articulating the need for target visual inspections by the dive team with the survey and the mapping of new area. This task was greatly facilitated since two vessels were permanently available.

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CHOICE OF TARGETS TO DIVE IN In order to make the fullest use of the daily period available for the mission, it was decided that divers would check any suspect anomaly at once, providing that the dive would be carried out in safe conditions and would be terminated still during daylight. As it was possible to keep up with the survey in real time and the engineers could also process the data on board, most of the dives took place immediately after the AUV operators had processed data from the survey.

Table 1: Total number of dives done for archaeological purpose

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AUV OPERATIONS

The Portuguese team used two LAUV autonomous submarines originally developed by the Porto University in Portugal and currently commercialized by their spin-off company, OceanScan MST. AUV vehicles have been designed by the Laboratório de Sistemas e Tecnologia Subaquática from Porto University targeting easy operation with reduced logistic requirements. As such, these vehicles can be hand-carried by one or two people and operated using just one laptop and one communication gateway, being possible to launch and recover the AUVs from shore or small vessels.

Figure 7: The two AUVs used for the operation at Khor-Fakkan’s Marina.

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LAUVs are very modular in that it is possible to mount on them a plethora of different sensors, both for localization and mapping. Despite their reduced size, the LAUVs used in this expedition carried a very capable localization system that fused information from GPS (when at surface), ground velocity measured by Doppler Velocity Log distance measurements from a forward- looking sonar and inertial measurements from two separate INS systems. The two LAUVs used can travel at up to 2 m/s, being their nominal speed (speed at which they can travel longer distances) 1 m/s. All vehicle movements are controlled by their tail section, constituted by one propeller and 4 controllable fins.

Figure 8: Preparing one of the two AUVs used for the operation at Khor-Fakkan’s Marina.

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For communication, the AUVs can use Wi-Fi when close to the control station or GSM if out of Wi-Fi range. When the vehicles go underwater, however, the radios stop being used for communication (as water is opaque to these radio frequencies), thus vehicles use an acoustic modem that can communicate with them, at distances of up to 4 km, by using ultrasound. Even though the two vehicles used had similar moving and localization capabilities, they differed in respect to their payload (sensor packages) and battery endurance.

LAUV-NOPTILUS-1 The LAUV-Noptilus-1 (LNP1) AUV carries both one multi-beam and one side scan sonar from Imagenex. The Imagenex 837B “Delta T” multibeam sonar is bottom-mounted in LNP1 to acquire high-resolution bathymetry from the ocean bottom. This sonar operates at 260 KHz and measures up to 8400 distance points (beams) per second. Moreover, LNP1 also carries the Imagenex 872 “Yellow Fin” side scan sonar which, using a single modulated sonar pulse (on each side), can measure the bottom reflectivity of up to 2000 points in the bottom. This sonar has 3 configurable frequencies: 260 KHz, 330 KHz and 800 KHz. The swath width of the sonar is configurable from 10m to 200m with gradual degradation of its resolution. On this expedition the sonar was used either with 30m or 100m ranges for high and low frequencies, respectively.

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Figure 9: Picture taken with the bottom-looking video camera from LAUV-Xtreme-2.

LAUV-XTREME-2 The LAUV-Xtreme-2 (LXT2) AUV carried side-scan sonar, a video camera and also a magnetometer making it a very versatile solution for underwater mapping. The side-scan sonar on LXT2 is a Klein 3500 Dual Frequency side scan sonar. This sonar produces two different and concurrent output data streams: photo quality side scan imagery and high accuracy, co-registered Swath Bathymetry. The Swath Bathymetry option allows for wide swath performance which is typically 10-12 times the overall altitude of the UUV and thereby significantly greater coverage than can be achieved by a multi-beam sonar. This sonar operates at 455 KHz and 900 KHz, being possible to use both simultaneously for bathymetry and side scanning. The LXT2 also carried a bottom-looking video camera that can capture still photographs of the bottom when close to it. The camera has a 5MPx resolution and can take up to 7 frames per second. To illuminate the bottom, LXT2 also carries 4 strobe LEDs which are synchronized with the camera.

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Figure 10: LAUV-Xtreme-2 being launched at Dibba.

Finally, LXT2 uses a self-compensating magnetometer. Ocean Floor Geophysics (OFG) offers the only Self-Compensating Magnetometer (SCM) system that can operate with the sensor mounted in an Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) to acquire high resolution, high quality magnetic data that is automatically compensated and corrected to remove the effects of the vehicle on the magnetic data. The magnetometer can detect metal objects sunk below the surface, objects which could not otherwise be detected.

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Figure 11: LAUV-preparing to dive in Khor-Fakkan

MANTA The Manta Communications Gateway created a local wireless network of systems using Wi-Fi and acoustic modems (WiFi, GSM and Iridium comms / μModem/Evologics/SeaTrac Acoustic Modem), which allowed the two LAUV operators to control and monitor multiple vehicles in a networked environment over distinct platforms, including Android smartphones. The Manta is battery powered for portability and can handle a full day of operations without recharging.

CONTROL STATIONS All AUV operations were conducted from the boat provided by the Sharjah

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Archaeology Authority, in collaboration with the Sharjah Police. Aboard the boat, the Manta communications gateway was used to connect the operation console(s) with the AUVs using any available communication mean (Wi-Fi, GSM or Acoustic Modem). The Wi-Fi antenna was mounted in the top of the boat in order to improve the communication range. The acoustic modem was deployed submerged from the side of the boat.

Figure 12: Magnetometer data plot where an anomaly is present in the upper part of the survey.

To control the AUVs, either a laptop or a mobile phone was used to run the Neptus Software.(1) Mobile phone consoles were used to quickly verify the status of the vehicles, start and stop previously loaded plans and also to tele- operate the AUVs.

(1) The Neptus software running on the laptops allows creating waypoint-based plans for the AUVs to follow autonomously. After a mission is complete, Neptus can also be used to revise all the acquired data.

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All acquired data was geo-located onboard the vehicles using the WGS84 geodetic system. The data was then exported to other GIS systems (Google Earth or ArcGIS).

Figure 13: The MANTA and the acoustic underwater modem.

AUV/UAV operations comprised the following phases: I. AUV and UAV validation survey. This phase validated the operational state of all equipment upon arrival to the destination. 4 hours of operations in Khor-Fakkan bay - an area with low currents and low ship traffic - was enough for these tests. II. Bathymetry validation survey. In these surveys, the AUVs were deployed from the support boat and travelled close to the surface to measure distance to the bottom (using acoustic ranging sensors). III. Preliminary assessment of the operational areas. The goal of these assessments was to evaluate the operational areas in what regards currents, traffic, obstacles, and potential hazards.

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IV. UAV flights over selected areas of operation. The goal was to map the area from the air to help identify targets and potential hazards. V. AUV side-scan and magnetometer surveys. After validating the depth and ruggedness of the area, the vehicle was tasked with bottom-following surveys, where both magnetometer and side scan sonars were used to map the sea bottom.

CALIBRATION AND TESTING The first day of operations was dedicated to calibrate and test the AUVs as well as to scout the area of operations for potential dangers. The buoyancy of the AUVs was recalibrated in order to adapt to the change of salinity of the water. Moreover, the compasses of AUVs were calibrated using a circling behavior. In the first day only 2 short surveys were conducted (one with each AUV) to test that the sensors were producing the expected results and validate the control station setup onboard the boat.

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KHOR-FAKKAN AUV SURVEYS

In Khor Fakkan, most of the surveys have been conducted using the LXT2 for increased resolution and safety. It was possible to cover more than 4.5 km² in 4 days of operation (together with diving operations). For these surveys the AUV was travelling at 1 m/s with a constant altitude (relative to the bottom) of 7 meters and using 75 meters of side scan sonar range to each side.

Figure 14: Area surveyed in Khor-Fakkan during the 4 days of operations.

The area that was covered differed from the one initially proposed so as to avoid surveying in dredged areas and also to extend the length of covered coast. Due to the spike in interest resulting from finding archaeological artifacts

345 Issue 17 on Shark Island, it was decided to also cover the coast around the island and to the south. In Khor-Fakkan, two actual wrecks have been detected together with three false positives, all inspected by divers.

Figure 15: Shark Island, where two land archaeological sites were discovered by Eisa Yousif. Also verified were the positions of “two interesting sonar targets” found in 2001 by the Norwegian mission that surveyed about 4.5 km2 of the Khor-Fakkan coast line - mainly its bay all along the 20-meter bathymetric line.(1) No anomalies were found there.

(1) Philips, Carl & Jasinski, Marek 2018. “The Norwegian Expeditions for underwater excavations”, in Annual Sharjah Archaeology #13. Sharjah: Sharjah Archaeology Authority 2nd edition, pp. 7-12.

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TARGETS OF INTEREST IN KHOR-FAKKAN

Tube-shaped object Location: 25N21.3342, 56E22.8606 Depth: 17.7m | Alt.:7m

Ship shape Location: 25N21.599, 56E22.5087 Depth: 14.9m | Alt.:7m

Tube-shaped objects Location: 25N21.6355, 56E22.5157 Depth: 15.9m | Alt.:7m

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Shipwreck1 Location: 25N21.6737, 56E22.4225 Depth: 15.1m | Alt.:6.9m An 8-meter-long service ship-to-shore boat from the late 19th / early 20th centuries, with an iron frame and the now missing wood boards.

Contact1 Location: 25N22.2305, 56E23.062 Depth: 27.7m | Alt.:7m Discarded fishing traps and geological.

Contact3 Location: 25N21.6808, 56E22.7207 Depth: 17.8m | Alt.:7m Geological.

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Marks3 Location: 25N22.2432, 56E22.9568 Depth: 20.9m | Alt.:7m Discarded fishing traps.

Contact1a Location: 25N22.2432, 56E22.9568 Depth: 20.9m | Alt.:7m Geological

Contact2 (sunken tug) Location: 25N20.3262, 56E22.8732 Depth: 15.8m | Alt.:6.9m Wreckage of the Inchape2(1) Location: 25N20.3169, 56E22.8706 Depth: 15.8m | Alt.:5.0m

(1) The Inchape 2 was a tug boat sunk as an artificial reef, Chellapermal, C.; Murphy, N.; Christensen, M.; Russel, K.; Atkinson, K.; Sockett, J.; Harris, C. & Schroder, T. (2014) UAE Diving. 4th edition. Dubai: Explorer Group Ltd.

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Figure 16: SSS image of sunken tug Inchape2.

Figure 17: Shipwreck1 anomaly bow.

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Figure 18: Shipwreck1 anomaly stern.

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KHOR-KALBA AUV SURVEYS

The Kalba area survey was a bit more problematic due to strong currents in the area, intense ship traffic, shallow waters and, being an estuary, variations in salinity. As such, we opted to conduct the survey at the surface and to follow the AUV operations with the boat by entering the estuary going through the deepest channel up and down. The mission was done at the peak of high tide to maximize the area covered by the sonars. Unfortunately, although data showed some contacts, nothing was considered relevant enough to warrant a dive.

Figures 19 and 20: LXT2 travelling at the surface during survey at Khor-Kalba and area covered in one day.

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Showing the dangers of LAUV operation in this region, in Kalba the vehicle stopped once its operation because it got entangled in a line (probably from a fishing net). We approached the AUV with the boat, disentangled the line and proceeded with the survey. Total area covered in Kalba was 580.870m2.

Figure 21: LXT2 survey of Khor-Kalba, exported to Google Earth.

Figures 22 and 23: LAUV entangled in fishnet off Dibba.

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DIBBA AUV SURVEYS

One day of operations was dedicated to Dibba Al Hosn, in the northeast of Sharjah. Since there was only one day reserved for that operation, we decided to do the survey with both AUVs simultaneously, in order to cover more ground.

Figure 24: Survey areas covered with both AUVs (red lines represent the planned paths)

Operations were cut short because of one of the AUVs got stuck on a “live” fish net, of which there were several in this area. Using the acoustic modem, it was possible to pinpoint the location of the AUV. This allowed divers to locate the LAUV, cut it out of the net and recover it rather quickly. Total area covered in Dibba Al Hosn was 1.993.805m2.

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Figure 25: Fishnet that got entangled in the AUV’s propeller during the Dibba Al Hosn survey

Figure 24: Target reconnaissance by a two men team of divers.

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TARGETS OF INTEREST IN DIBBA AL HOSN

Contact Name: Speed Boat Location: N 25º 38.162’ E 56º 18.401’ Depth: 24 m Fiberglass hull of a speed boat, minus its engine and fixtures.

Figures 25, 26 and 27: wreck site of the speed boat fiberglass hull.

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Contact Name: Wreckage 4 Location: N 25º 37.704’ E 56º 17.735’

Figure 28: possible wreckage site off Dibba Al Hosn, or another site of discarded fish traps, not dived.

Figure 29: total area surveyed off Dibba Al Hosn.

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BIOLOGY OF SHIPWRECKS

Especially on sandy and muddy bottoms, wrecks act as oasis in biodiversity. When a new hard substrate became available, millions of larvae from marine organisms will fix there, almost in a first come first served strategy. Suddenly, an ecological succession starts taking place, with early “pioneers” being replaced by other species, up to a dynamic stability biologist call “climax”. Settled communities will depend on the amount of light (important for algae and shallow water corals), nutrients in the water column or a nearby source of larvae.

Figure 30: A typical “climax” tropical benthic community well established at a recent wreck in Dibba al Hosn, 24m deep.

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Fixed biological communities can also provide some clues on the dynamics of the seafloor near the wreck that could be interesting for archaeology. For example, reef-building organisms (corals, sponges, some calcareous algae or some polychaeta worms) can provide clues on whether the fixed structure was always in contact with the water column or, by contrast, if it was covered by sand of mud by a considerable period of time.

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UAV OPERATIONS

UAV usage for archaeological purposes on the Sharjah Emirate has already been discussed elsewhere(1) and its value, as an archaeological recording tool, was once more in evidence. The system used in this mission was a DJI Mavic, which has a maximum speed of 65km/h, an endurance of 20 minutes and a camera of 1/2.3- (CMOS) | 4K (video) | 12MP (photo) | FOV 78.8° 26 mm. Moreover, the team used one DJI Phantom 4, provided by Sharjah Archaeology Authority. During a day off, the team was asked to provide ortophotographic and 3D models of two structures in Mleiha – the Fort and the Farmhouse Complex - by using UAVs. The same kind of products were also delivered, on the 29th November, by aerial mapping of Shark Island, in Khor-Fakkan.

Figure 30: DJI Mavic at Mleiha

(1) Overlaet, Bruno 2018 “Cost effective drones in archaeological surveying: possible Musallah on the Jebel Fayah near Mleiha, Sharjah, UAE”. in Annual Sharjah Archaeology #15. Sharjah: Sharjah Archaeology Authority 2nd edition, pp. 90-95.

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MLEIHA Both the Fort and Farmhouse complexes are covered. The Fort was covered at an altitude of 30m, with an overlap of 80%. Area covered was 6622m2. 2D Map resolution is 1.30cm/px. The Farmhouse Complex was covered at an altitude of 10m, with an overlap of 80%. Area covered was 810m2. 2D Map resolution is 1cm/px.

Figure 31: Orthomosaic of Mleiha Fort.

Figure 32: 3D model of the Fort.

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Figure 33: Orthomosaic of the Farmhouse Complex.

Figure 34: 3D model of the Farmhouse Complex.

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SHARK ISLAND Shark Island Archaeological Site 1 (SIAS1) was covered at an altitude of 18m, with an overlap of 80%. Area covered was 8400m2. 2D Map resolution is also 1cm/px.

Figure 35: Orthomosaic model of SIAS1.

Shark Island Site 2 (SIAS2) was covered at an altitude of 12m, with an overlap of 80%. Area covered: was 14.576m2. 2D Map resolution is 1cm/px.

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Figure 36: Orthomosaic model of SIAS2.

Figure 37: Fragment of oriental Celadon pottery found between SIAS1 and SIAS2.

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DISCUSSION

Archaeology aims at reconstructing the past from material remains left behind. We are a product of history and knowing the past helps us understand the present. The seafaring history of the Oman Gulf goes back to the Neolithic and probably beyond, and archaeologists are naturally interested in the development of the many types of boats and ships that have been recorded there(1). To the watercraft developed in the region we must add those sailed into it, brought by the intense and cosmopolitan commerce that characterized the region since long. Ships and boats have always been some of the most complex artefacts built by every society, and the diversity of functions, shapes, sizes, and construction methods known to have been built and sailed in the region is an interesting and important topic, which has not yet been studied in depth. Over 4.000 years ago maritime trade in this region became well established and a wide range of goods were brought to this region from civilizations as far as the Hindustan, Mesopotamia or the Greek and Roman worlds via ports such as Tell Abraq, 30 km north of the actual Sharjah city - a port that also exported the copper mined and smelted in the Hajar mountains Through its main ports, Tell Abraq and Dibba, trade with East Africa, Iran, China and India was conducted, the region exporting mainly pearls, dried fish and dates and importing gold, ivory, carved stone vessels, pottery, oils, grain and textiles. Later, local merchant captains, the nawkhda would voyage around the Gulf, across the Indian Ocean to India and down Africa’s east coast buying

(1) Carter, R., 2002. “The Neolithic origins of seafaring in the Arabian Gulf”. Archaeology International, 6, pp.44– 47; idem 2006. “Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf during the sixth and fifth millennia BC”. Antiquity, 80(307), 52-63.

365 Issue 17 and selling in each port they visited and returning with a huge variety of goods from many different places.(1) In the 16th century a relatively small number of Portuguese adventurers, merchants, and soldiers established a number of fortresses in the region that is now the Sharjah Emirate. The remains of that presence include some constructions on land, and possibly some submerged archaeological remains of ships and boats. It is well known that the Portuguese seafarers brought ships from Portugal into the Oman Gulf, but that they also built some there, bought others around the region and even seized, and used, local watercraft. An interesting question is what kind of transfer of knowledge occurred between Portuguese and local shipbuilders and what kind of changes it triggered in their shipbuilding practices.(2) To know where the nautical knowledge resided and how it was transferred is an important part of the human history,(3) and although there have been countless studies of the local and European shipbuilding histories, the nautical history of the region occupied today by the United Arab Emirates is still waiting to be written.(4) Clues to it are shipwreck remains. Some references to Portuguese shipwrecks in the Oman Gulf exist(5) and one historical shipwreck was found so far, with a cache of artefacts dating to the early 16th century being found by treasure hunters near the island of Al Hallaniyah, Oman, in 1998, artefacts being recovered in 2013-2016 by both the Omani Ministry of Heritage and Culture and a private company named Blue Water Recoveries Ltd.

(1) Al-Qasimi, Sultan Bin Muhammad. 2013 Power Struggles and Trade in the Gulf 1620 – 1820. Al-Qasimi Publications. (2) Agius, Dionisius, 2005. Seafaring in the Arabian Gulf and Oman: People of the Dhow. New York: Routhledge. (3) Castro, F.; Bendig, C.; Bérubé, M.; Borrero, R.; Budsberg, N.; Dostal, C.; Monteiro, A.; Smith, C.; Torres, R. & Yamafune, K. 2017. “Recording, Publishing, and Reconstructing Wooden Shipwrecks”, in Journal of Maritime Archaeology, April 2018, Volume 13, Issue 1, pp 55–66. (4) Agius, Dionisius, 2008. Classic Ships of Islam: From Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean. Leiden: Brill. (5) Monteiro, Alexandre 2016. “Naus and galleons in Arabia Felix- Portuguese nautical archaeology in Oman.” Actas das Jornadas do Mar 2016. Lisboa: Escola Naval / Marinha Portuguesa, pp. 304-317.

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The ship’s anchors have not been located, and a large sand pocket near the salvaged area has not been trenched, so it is impossible to say much about this site. Historical records suggest that these materials can be part of the remains of one of Vicente Sodré’s ships lost at Al Hallaniyah in 1503.(1) Also, a very large marine astrolabe in the Museum of Islamic Art, in Doha, Qatar, although it’s provenance is unknown at the moment, displays a pattern of corrosion consistent with an underwater origin and may have been recovered from a local shipwreck context. There is no historical evidence pinpointing the occurrence of a Portuguese shipwreck in the areas around the Sharjah Portuguese fortresses, such as Khor- Fakkan, although it is almost certain that the remains of anchorage areas exist to this day. Items lost, discarded, or abandoned tend to be covered with sediment and preserved for centuries. Moreover, old ships and boats are often beached and abandoned around occupied areas and iconography of Portuguese settlements in the East frequently portray areas were ships and boats are built or repaired. As the coast has advanced around these fortresses it is likely that the old beaches today lie beneath more modern constructions or roads.(2)

(1) Mearns, D., Parham, D., Frohlich, B., 2016. “A Portuguese East Indiaman from the 1502-1503 Fleet of Vasco da Gama off Al Hallaniyah Island, Oman: an interim report.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 45.2: 331-350; Urbanos, J., 2016. “Is it the Esmeralda?” Archaeology Magazine (July/August 2016). (2) References of ship remains found under modern constructions are well-known to archaeologists. Derelicts have been unearthed in Lisbon, Portugal, in the 1990s, during the excavation of a new subway line, or in New York, USA, more recently, in the excavations of the World Trade Center site, to cite just two well-published examples.

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Figure 38: remains of the Portuguese fortress of Corfacão (Khor-Fakkan).

The existence of modern harbours and marinas suggests that at least some archaeological remains may have been dredged and discarded. Such is, certainly, the case with Kalba, Khor-Fakkan and Dibba al Hosn, where the then mooring areas have either been dredged or covered with piers and breakwaters. Finally, the beautiful and healthy coral reefs that populate the coast may have covered ship remains, making them very difficult to locate All these reasons do not prevent remains of seafaring activity, connected or not to the Portuguese 16th and 17th centuries presence in the region, or even older ones, dating back to the Bronze Age, from being found. Water is a good medium to preserve organic remains and technology – namely marine robotics – is evolving at an extremely fast pace as is immersive

368 Issue 17 technologies that can increase exploration time in an underwater archaeological site, both for the public, as well as, for researchers and scholars, raising their archaeological knowledge and cultural awareness.(1) The discovery of Dibba’s sunken speedboat and Khor Fakkan ship-to-shore remains demonstrated that, if not silted over or covered by corals or hidden beneath breakwaters, shipwreck sites, no matter how small they are, can be found, dived and researched. For this to happen it is recommended that: 1) a UAE shipwreck database must be built over the DBA results being compiled right now by this team; 2) Priority for remote sensing surveys must be given to the coastal shelf and slope areas for approaches to harbours, shipping channels and anywhere near navigational hazards, such as sunken rocks, reefs and small islands; 3) Identifiedlandscape areas based on where high concentrations of UCH are likely to occur must require higher resolution mapping for discovery of UCH. This entails more time spent on smaller areas; 4) Fishermen and local divers must be engaged in further projects of this nature.

(1) Liarokapis, F.; Kouřil, P.; Agrafiotis; P.; Demesticha, S.; Chmelík, J. & Skarlatos, D. 2017. “3D Modelling and Mapping for Virtual Exploration of Underwater Archaeology Assets”, in The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Volume XLII-2/W3, 2017 3D Virtual Reconstruction and Visualization of Complex Architectures, 1–3 March 2017, Nafplio, Greece, pp. 425-431.

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Figure 39: Sharjah Emirati and Portuguese team for the 2018 nautical archaeological mission.

Figure 40: 2018 Season’s Greetings Card sent by the Portuguese Government Minister and Secretary of State of Science, Technology and Higher Education Manuel Heitor and João Sobrinho Teixeira, to all Portuguese Researchers. Main theme was one of Sharjah’s wreck as scanned by this project’s team.

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REFERENCES

- Agius, Dionisius, 2005. Seafaring in the Arabian Gulf and Oman: People of the Dhow. New York: Routhledge. - Agius, Dionisius, 2008. Classic Ships of Islam: From Mesopotamia to the Indian Ocean. Leiden: Brill. - Al-Qasimi, Sultan Bin Muhammad. 1999. The Gulf in Historic Maps 1478 – 1861, 2nd edition. London: Streamline Press Ltd. - Al-Qasimi, Sultan Bin Muhammad. 2013 Power Struggles and Trade in the Gulf 1620 – 1820. - Al-Qasimi Publications. Carter, R., 2002. “The Neolithic origins of seafaring in the Arabian Gulf”. Archaeology International, 6, pp. 44–47. - Carter, R., 2006. “Boat remains and maritime trade in the Persian Gulf during the sixth and fifth millennia BC”. Antiquity, 80(307), 52-63. - Castro, F.; Bendig, C.; Bérubé, M.; Borrero, R.; Budsberg, N.; Dostal, C.; Monteiro, A.; Smith, C.; Torres, R. & Yamafune, K. 2017. “Recording, Publishing, and Reconstructing Wooden Shipwrecks”, in Journal of Maritime Archaeology, April 2018, Volume 13, Issue 1, pp 55–66. - Chellapermal, C.; Murphy, N.; Christensen, M.; Russel, K.; Atkinson, K.; Sockett, J.; Harris, C. & Schroder, T. (2014) UAE Diving. 4th edition. Dubai: Explorer Group Ltd. - Liarokapis, F.; Kouřil, P.; Agrafiotis; P.; Demesticha, S.; Chmelík, J. & Skarlatos, D. 2017. “3D Modelling and Mapping for Virtual Exploration of Underwater Archaeology Assets”, in The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences,

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Volume XLII-2/W3, 2017 3D Virtual Reconstruction and Visualization of Complex Architectures, 1–3 March 2017, Nafplio, Greece, pp. 425-431. - Madureira, L. et al. (2013) The Light Autonomous Underwater Vehicle: Evolutions and Networking, 2013 MTS/IEEE OCEANS. Bergen: Bergen, pp. 1-6. - Mearns, D., Parham, D., Frohlich, B., 2016. “A Portuguese East Indiaman from the 1502-1503 Fleet of Vasco da Gama off Al Hallaniyah Island, Oman: an interim report.” International Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 45.2: 331-350. - Monteiro, Alexandre 2016. “Naus and galleons in Arabia Felix- Portuguese nautical archaeology in Oman.” In Actas das Jornadas do Mar 2016. Lisboa: Escola Naval / Marinha Portuguesa, pp. 304-317. - Overlaet, Bruno 2018 “Cost effective drones in archaeological surveying: possible Musallah on the Jebel Fayah near Mleiha, Sharjah, UAE”. in Annual Sharjah Archaeology #15. Sharjah: Sharjah Archaeology Authority 2nd edition, pp. 90-95. - Pinto, José et al. (2017) Networked Vehicle Systems: from Vision to Reality. 2017 MTS/IEEE OCEANS. Aberdeen: Aberdeen, pp. 1-6. - Philips, Carl & Jasinski, Marek 2018. “The Norwegian Expeditions for underwater excavations”, in Annual Sharjah Archaeology #13. Sharjah: Sharjah Archaeology Authority 2nd edition, pp. 7-12. - Urbanos, J., 2016. “Is it the Esmeralda?” Archaeology Magazine (July/ August 2016Villiers, A., 1969. Sons of Sinbad: an account of sailing with the Arabs in their dhows, in the Red Sea, around the coasts of Arabia, and to Zanzibar and Tanganyika; pearling in the Persian Gulf; and the life of the shipmasters, the mariners, and merchants of Kuwait. New York: Scribner.

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