Engaging Adolescents in High School Music

Engaging Adolescents in High School Music Jennifer Claire Rosevear Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Elder Conservatorium of Music Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences The University of Adelaide February, 2008 i CONTENTS Page Abstract iv Declaration vi Acknowledgments vii List of tables viii List of figures x List of musical examples xiii Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Purpose of the study 1 1.2 Theoretical basis of the study 3 1.3 Research questions 4 1.4 Significance of the study 5 1.5 Context of the study 6 Chapter 2 Review of Literature on Self-perception and Motivation 2.1 Self-concept as an umbrella term 10 2.2 Self-esteem 13 2.3 Self-efficacy and self-regulation 19 2.4 Self-concept development 25 2.5 Indicators of motivation 28 2.6 Social cognitive theories/models of motivation 30 2.7 Impact of self-perceptions on engagement, learning and achievement 38 Chapter 3 Review of Literature on Learning and Music 3.1 Basic principles of learning 43 3.2 Principles of music learning 50 3.3 Learning to play a musical instrument 57 3.4 Singing, listening, creating and music technology 67 3.5 Musical literacy 78 . ii Chapter 3 (continued) 3.6 Informal learning 88 3.7 Music learning and academic achievement 96 3.8 Overview of music, self-concept and identity development 99 3.9 Motivation and engagement in music learning 105 Chapter 4 Research Design and Methodology 4.1 Introduction 110 4.2 Development of survey 111 4.3 Description of method of data collection 115 4.4 Organisation of variables for data collection 116 Chapter 5 Results 5.1 Overview of data collected 122 5.2 Survey Section A – background information 123 5.3 Survey Section B – musical experiences 131 5.4 Survey Section C – Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale 149 5.5 Survey Section D – Chan’s Perceived Competence Scale 150 5.6 Academic achievement 152 Chapter 6 Discussion of Results 6.1 Research questions 154 6.2 General discussion 159 Chapter 7 Conclusions 7.1 Introduction 168 7.2 Conclusions about learning in general 168 7.3 Conclusions about music learning 170 7.4 Limitations of the research 172 7.5 Directions for future research 174 . iii Appendices Appendix A Constructivism and the SACSA Framework 176 Appendix B Boston Globe article by Richard A. Knox: 180 Music makes you smarter, October 14, 1993. Appendix C Selected music research reports included in the Critical Links report (Deasy, 2002) 182 Appendix D Extract from Harland et al. (2000) report entitled: Arts education in secondary schools: effects and effectiveness 184 Appendix E Survey of Musical Experiences and Self-concept 187 Appendix F Information sheet and consent form for survey participants 200 Bibliography 203 . iv ABSTRACT This investigation aims to explore the attitudes of adolescents towards learning music and to gauge the extent of their involvement in the activities of playing, singing, creating and listening to music. It also seeks to determine the views of adolescents on attributions for success in various activities, including music. Beliefs about self- concept, or self-identity, and their relationships to academic achievement and musical involvement are explored. The review of literature spans various facets of self-perception, including self- concept, self-esteem, self-efficacy, self-regulation, and self-concept development, and considers the role of music in self-concept development. The impact of self-perceptions on motivation, which is central to learning, achievement and engagement, is also considered. The basic principles of learning, and their application to learning in music, provide the foundation for specific aspects of music learning, namely, music literacy, learning to play a musical instrument, singing, music technology and informal learning. The relationship between music learning and academic achievement is reviewed. The particular importance of music in adolescence, and adolescent attitudes to school music, provide a backdrop to the analysis of the wide-ranging factors involved in self-concept development, motivation and learning principles, thus leading to an overview of the various approaches which can facilitate the engagement of adolescents in learning in general, and in high school music in particular. A researcher-designed Survey of Musical Experiences and Self-concept was administered to Year 9 and 10 students in three high schools in metropolitan Adelaide, South Australia. Data from the survey, along with academic results, were collected from the 282 participants in the study. The data provide background information about each participant, along with their perceptions about perceived areas of strength and reasons for success in these areas. Information about involvement in musical activities was collated for all students, with approximately half of the students not studying music at school. Measures for self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965) and perceived competence (Chan, 1993) were included in the survey. Using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods, the data were analysed in relation to the extent of involvement in . v music, attitudes to learning music, students’ attributions for success, and strengths of the relationships between musical involvement, self-concept and academic achievement. Conclusions can be drawn based on the survey data and the literature review, and these emphasise the importance of the social nature of learning and of providing opportunities for creative work in classroom activities. The most outstanding finding to be highlighted from the study was the aspect of enjoyment as a reason for achievement which appears to feature prominently in students’ responses, yet it is less widely recognised in the literature. vi DECLARATION This work contains no material which has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution and, to the best of my knowledge and belief, contains no material previously published or written by another person, except where due reference has been made in the text. I give consent to this copy of my thesis, when deposited in the University Library, being made available for loan and photocopying, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. Signed: Date: . vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to acknowledge the following people for their support and encouragement without which I would not have been able to complete this study. Prior to his retirement at the end of 2001, my first supervisor was Dr Warren Bourne, whose guidance in assisting me to formulate the original research proposal was much appreciated. I am grateful to Dr. Jolanta Kalandyk in Canberra, who was willing to discuss early ideas and whose book entitled Music and the self-esteem of young children provided some original inspiration when embarking on this study. The late Professor Kevin Marjoribanks, Head of the School of Education at the University of Adelaide, was always willing to provide constructive feedback. He was instrumental in helping to fine tune the research methodology, and I learned to use the SPSS software by attending a course that he taught. I have been inspired by the work of Dr. Doreen Bridges over many years and I am grateful that I have been able to discuss with her various facets of the study over the last couple of years, and I am especially appreciative of her feedback on some draft material in the latter part of 2007. My external co-supervisor, Dr. Neryl Jeanneret (initially at the University of Newcastle and over the last two years at the University of Melbourne) has provided timely and beneficial feedback whenever I have sought it, and I am very appreciative of her efforts and support. My principal supervisor, Professor Charles Bodman Rae has assisted greatly in the latter stages of the study, especially in helping me to formulate realistic goals and timelines. His encouragement and belief in me have made a significant impact on my approach to completing the study, and I greatly value his strong support. I am also appreciative of the ongoing support of the Postgraduate Coordinator at the Elder Conservatorium, Associate Professor Kimi Coaldrake. I am indebted to the following colleagues and friends whose moral support and inspiration have been most welcome: Dr. Pauline Carter, Carl Crossin OAM, Associate Professor Elizabeth Koch OAM and Dr. Diana Weekes. Finally, I wish to acknowledge my daughter, Miri, my mother, Kath, and my late father Jim, who have always been most supportive of my efforts. viii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 Comparison of likely outcomes based on efficacy beliefs (adapted 21 from Bandura, 1997, p. 39). 2 Summary of learning goals as opposed to performance goals (based on 36 description by Maehr et al., 2002, p. 360). 3 Two goal orientations and their approach and avoidance states 36 (Pintrich, 2000, p. 100). 4 Gardner’s intelligences applied to music (Hallam, 1998a, p. 35). 50 5 Self-regulatory processes for effective music practice (McPherson and 66 Davidson, 2006, p. 342). 6 Comparison of formal and informal learning practices (Green & 95 Walmsley, n.d., p. 2). 7 List of quantitative variables from Survey of Musical Experiences and 115 Self-concept used in SPSS for data collation. 8 Positive and negative statements in Rosenberg’s SES. 116 9 Cognitive, social, physical, and general perceived competence 118 subscales in Chan’s PCS. 10 List of Variables from closed questions in Survey of Musical 119 Experiences and Self-concept. 11 List of Variables from open-ended questions in Survey of Musical 120 Experiences and Self-concept. 12 Number of participants and sub-groups. 121 13 Perceptions of which were best subjects when one, two or three 123 subjects were listed, as a percentage of responses. 14 Reasons given for best school subject. 124 15 Types of pursuits based on perceptions of being good at these pursuits.

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