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NON-WOOD FORESTFOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS \ 1 7

Wild edibleedible fungifungi A global overview ofof their use and importance toto peoplepeople

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4- ol4 NON-WOOD0\ -WOOD FORESTFOREST PRODUCTSPRODUCTS 1717

Wild edibleedible fungifungi A global overview of thetheirir use and importance to peoplepeople

by Eric Boa

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONSNATIONS RomeRome,, 2004 This paper discusses some traditional and contemporarycontemporary usesuses ofof fungi fungi asas foodfood oror in in medicine. medicine. ThisThis materialmaterial isis pre-pre­ sented for information only and does not implyimply endorsementendorsement by the author oror byby FAO.FAO. UseUse ofof thesethese productsproducts isis not recommended unlessunless takentaken underunder thethe care care andand guidanceguidance ofof aa qualifiedqualified expert or physician. Reports of edible and poisonous speciesspecies are based on named sources. The accuracy of this information lieslies with thesethese original sources.

Transport of some fungi across international boundariesboundaries maymay posepose aa risk of accidental introductionintroduction of insects or other potentially destructivedestructive agents.agents. It isis recommended that anyoneanyone planningplanning toto movemove fungi across international boundaries check with appropriate authorities in thethe country fromfrom wherewhere thethe productsproducts areare toto bebe exportedexported andand thethe countries into which the products areare toto bebe importedimported forfor import import perrmit perrmit requirements, requirements, phytosanitaryphytosanitary certificatescertificates or restrictionsrestrictions that mightmight apply.apply.

Movement of certain fungi or other non-wood forestforest productsproducts acrossacross internationalinternational boundaries may be subject toto tradetrade restrictionsrestrictions (both(both tarifftariff andand non-tariff).non-tariff). AppropriateAppropriate authoritiesauthorities shouldshould bebe contactedcontacted prior toto plannedplanned move-move­ ment of any of these products acrossacross internationalinternational boundaries.boundaries. AA reviewreview of tradetrade restrictionsrestrictions affectingaffecting international trade in non-wood forest products maymay be found in:in:

FAO 1995. Trade restrictions affecting affecting international international trade trade inin non-wood forestforest products,products, byby M.M. Iqbal. Non-wood Forest Products, No.No.8. 8. Rome.Rome.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product dodo notnot implyimply thethe expressionexpression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal or development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.boundaries.

ISBN 92-5-105157-7

All rights reserved. Reproduction andand disseminationdissemination ofof materialmaterial in thisthis informationinformation product for educational or other non-commercial purposes areare authorizedauthorized withoutwithout any prior written permissionpermission fromfrom thethe copyrightcopyright holdersholders providedprovided thethe sourcesource isis fullyfully acknowledged. ReproductionReproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposespurposes isis prohibitedprohibited without written permissionpermission of the copyright holders.holders. Applications for such permission should bebe addressedaddressed to:to: Chief Publishing Management ServiceService Information Division FAO Viale delledelle TermeTerme didi Caracalla, 00100 Rome,Rome, Italy or bybye-mail e-mail to: copyright@[email protected]

© FAO 20042004 iiiUI

CONTENTS

.. ForewordForeword Vllvii AbbreviationsAbbreviations Vlllviii AcknowledgementsAcknowledgements IixX SummarSummaryy xiX l

1 Introduction: settingsetting thethe scenescene 1

1.1 GeneralGeneral importance 1 1.2 Traditions and history ofof useuse 2 1.3 PurposePurpose andand structurestructure ofof the publication 4

1.4 SourcesSources of of informationinformation 5

2 Characteristics: biology,biology, ecology, uses, cultivationcultivation 7 2.1 WhatWhat areare fungi? 7 2.2 IdentificationIdentification 10 22.3.3 MajorMajor groupsgroups ofof wild fungi 13 2.4 EdibilityEdibility andand poisonouspoisonous fungi 17 2.5 CultivationCultivation of edibleedible fungi 20

3 Management: wild edibleedible fungi,fungi, trees,trees, forestforest usersusers 25 3.1 Multiple useuse ofof forests: forests: issuesissues and conflictsconflicts 25 3.2 RegulatingRegulating collectioncollection 26 3.3 CollectorsCollectors andand locallocal practicespractices 28 3.4 HarvestingHarvesting methodsmethods andand approachesapproaches 31 3.5 MeasuringMeasuring productionproduction 33 3.6 PracticalPractical planning:planning: towardstowards sustainablesustainable productionproduction 35

4 Importance to people: food, income,income, trade 41 4.1 WildWild edibleedible fungifungi andand livelihoodslivelihoods 41 44.2.2 NutritionNutrition andand healthhealth benefitsbenefits 43 4.3 LocalLocal marketingmarketing andand incomeincome 47 4.4 NationalNational andand internationalinternational tradetrade 49

5 Realizing thethe potential: prospects,prospects, actions, opportunities 59 55.1.1 KeyKey facts 59 5.2 GeneralGeneral constraintsconstraints 5959 5.3 ResearchResearch priorities:priorities: wildwild edible fungi 60 5.4 EffectiveEffective managementmanagement 61 5.5 CommercializationCommercialization and cultivation 63 5.6 TheThe future for wildwild edibleedible fungifungi 64

6 SourcesSources of advice and informationinformation 67 6.1 MycologicalMycological expertiseexpertise 67 6.2 FieldField guidesguides to wild (edible)(edible) fungi 67 IViv

6.3 InformationInformation on on medicinal medicinal and and poisonous poisonous mushroomsmushrooms 69 6.4 WebWeb sitessites 70

7 ReferencesReferences 71

Annexes

1 Summary ofof thethe importance ofof wildwild edible fungi byby regionregion and country 89 Africa 90 Asia 93 Europe 96 North and CentralCentral AmericaAmerica 99 Oceania 101 South America 102 2 Country records ofof wildwild useful fungi (edible,(edible, medicinal and other uses)uses) 103 3 A global list ofof wildwild fungi fungi used used asas food,food, saidsaid toto bebe edibleedible or with medicinalmedicinal propertiesproperties 131 4 Edible andand medicinalmedicinal fungifungi that cancan be cultivated 143 5 Wild edibleedible fungifungi soldsold inin locallocal marketsmarkets 145 v

TABLES

1 Numbers ofof species of of wild wild edibleedible and medicinal fungi 1 2 Disciplines andand areas areas of of activity activity containing containing informationinformation on wild usefuluseful fungi 2 3 Plant families withwith edibleedible ectomycorrhizalectomycorrhizal fungi 9 4 Preferred (current of "correct")"correct") namesnames of economicallyeconomically important wild fungi 12 5 Important generagenera of wildwild fungifungi with with notes notes on on uses uses andand tradetrade 14 6 Fungi withwith conflicting reports on edibility 16 7 Incidents of largelarge scale poisoningpoisoning causedcaused by by consumption consumption of of wildwild fungifungi 19 8 Sale ofof permits for collectingcollecting nnatsutakematsutake in Winema NationalNational Forest,Forest, Oregon, 1997-20021997-2002 28 9 Collecting wild fungifungi in in the the United United Republic Republic of of Tanzania, Tanzania, Mexico,Mexico, thethe RussianRussian Federation, Bhutan, Finland, IndiaIndia andand ChinaChina 30 10 YieldsYields of wildwild edibleedible fungi fromfrom differentdifferent countries countries 33 11 National production of wild edibleedible fungi 34 12 PreparingPreparing managementmanagement guidelines forfor wild edible fungi 35 13 Ethnoscientific studiesstudies of of wildwild fungifungi with edibleedible andand medicinalmedicinal propertiesproperties 43 14 NutritionalNutritional composition composition ofof some some wildwild edibleedible fungifungi 44 15 EstimatedEstimated nutritionalnutritional values values ofof some some edibleedible fungifungi 46 16 AA generalgeneral comparisoncomparison of nutritionalnutritional values values ofof variousvarious foods compared toto mushrooms 46 17 PropertiesProperties andand featuresfeatures ofof 25 25 majormajor medicinal medicinal mushroomsmushrooms 48 18 Local collectioncollection marketingmarketing and use ofof wildwild edible fungi 50 19 WorldWorld productionproduction of of cultivated cultivated mushrooms mushrooms 52 20 ValueValue ofof wildwild useful useful fungifungi collectedcollected byby country of origin 52 21 Matsutake 1:1: domestic production andand importsimports inin tonnestonnes toto Japan, Japan, 1950-99 53 22 MatsutakeMatsutake 2: 2: exports exports to to Japan Japan inin tonnes tonnes by by various various countries,countries, 1993-971993-97 53 23 MatsutakeMatsutake 3: 3: value val ue of of exports exports to to Japan Japan by by various various countries,countries, 1993-971993-97 54 24 VolumeVolume of of exports exports of of named named wildwild edible edible fungi fungi from from selected selected countries countries 54 25 InformationInformation needs needs and and issues issues concerningconcerning sustainablesustainable useuse ofof wild edibleedible fungi 62 26 SourcesSources of technical advice andand informationinformation on wild edibleedible fungi 68 27 Field guides andand WebWeb sitessites for for identifyingidentifying macrofungimacrofungi andand edibleedible varietiesvarieties 68 28 GeneralGeneral WebWeb sitessites on wild edibleedible fungi andand relatedrelated topicstopics 69 vi

PLATES

1 Types ofof macrofungi 21 2 How fungi grow:grow: mycorrhizas, mycorrhizas, saprobessaprobes and pathogenspathogens 22 3 Which fungi areare edible?edible? IdentifyingIdentifying species species 23 4 Truffle collecting in Italy 38 5 The trade inin BoletasBoletus edulisedulis 39 6 Edible fungifungi inin AfricaAfrica 55 7 Edible fungi inin LatinLatin AmericaAmerica andand thethe CaribbeanCaribbean 56 8 Edible fungifungi inin AsiaAsia 57 9 Edible andand medicinalmedicinal fungifungi inin AsiaAsia 66

FIGURES

1 Naming the parts of aa mushroommushroom 11

BOXES

1 Wild edibleedible fungifungi andand mushroomsmushrooms 2 2 A developing countrycountry perspectiveperspective 4 3 "If II eateat thisthis bowabowa itit isis OKOK to buy"buy" -- MrMr Sabiti Sabiti Fides,Fides, tradertrader fromfrom Malawi 18 4 Matsutake and exportsexports to JapanJapan 26

5 Practical inventory:inventory: measuringmeasuring productivityproductivity in Malawi 36 6 Development projects andand wildwild edible fungi 42 7 Amino acids andand thethe nutritionalnutritional value of wild edibleedible fungi 45 8 Permits andand regulatingregulating the collectorscollectors 49 9 Product qualityquality and its importance for tradetrade 64 vii

FOREWORD

Much of thethe forestryforestry andand developmentdevelopment debate in international forafora focuses onon how forests, forestforest products and forestry can contribute to the United Nations MillenniumMillennium Development GoalsGoals ofof halving poverty and food insecurityinsecurity byby 2015.2015. FAO's programme on thethe PromotionPromotion andand developmentdevelopment ofof non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts (NWFP)(NWFP) isis contributing toto this goalgoal byby improvingimproving the sustainablesustainable useuse ofof NWFP in orderorder toto improve income-generation and food security, toto contribute to thethe wise management of the world's forestsforests andand toto conserveconserve theirtheir biodiversity.biodiversity. One ofof thethe importantimportant groupsgroups ofof NWFP, NWFP, collectedcollected allall overover the worldworld andand usedused forfor subsistence purposes as well as sold on local markets and restaurants,restaurants, areare fungifungi - often called mushrooms. However, most information on fungifungi isis availableavailable onon cultivatedcultivated species while data on wild edibleedible fungifungi (WEF)(WEF) remainremain scarce.scarce. The presentpresent publicationpublication was supported by fundsfunds fromfrom thethe NorwayNorway PartnershipPartnership ProgrammeProgramme "Forests"Forests forfor sustainablesustainable livelihoods".livelihoods". It aims at documenting and analysing the rolerole of WEF inin foodfood securitysecurity withwith focusfocus onon developingdeveloping countries.countries. ItIt compilescompiles inin oneone volume the much scattered information on the uses and prospects for development ofof WEF, including issuesissues suchsuch asas ecology,ecology, collection,collection, harvesting,harvesting, socio-economicsocio-economic benefitsbenefits and trade.trade. By disseminatingdisseminating this information, it is expectedexpected thatthat thethe attentionattention ofof forestryforestry technicians, nutritionists, natural resourceresource planners,planners, policy-makers andand otherother stakeholders concerned willwill bebe drawndrawn to the links between this important category of NWFP, food securitysecurity andand sustainablesustainable forestforest management.management. It isis hopedhoped thatthat thethe useuse ofof thisthis documentdocument willwill helphelp toto promotepromote thethe sustainablesustainable useuse of WEF as a valuable componentcomponent in the process of economic development and poverty alleviation.

Wulf Killmann Director Forest Products andand EconomicsEconomics Division Forestry Department viii

ABBREVIATIONS

DFID Department for International Development ECM Ectomycorrhiza FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of thethe UnitedUnited Nations NGO Non-governmental organization NTFP Non-timber forestforest products NWFP NonNon-wood-wood forestforest productsproducts TCM Traditional Chinese Medicine SEMARNATS EMARNAT Secretariat dede MedioMedio AmbienteAmbiente y Recursos Naturales (Secretariat of Environment and Natural Resources)Resources) WEF Wild edible fungi WUF Wild useful fungi (including thosethose withwith edible, medicinal andand otherother properties) IXix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This publication isis basedbased on aa draftdraft presentedpresented byby EricEric BoaBoa fromfrom CABICAB! Btoscience.Bioscience. TheThe author firstfirst becamebecame involvedinvolved withwith wildwild edibleedible fungifungi throughthrough Jim Jim Waller, Waller, aa colleaguecolleague from CABICABI Btoscience.Bioscience. This This led led toto thethe Miombo Edible FungiFungi project, fundedfunded by the Department forfor InternationalInternational DevelopmentDevelopment (DFID)(DFID) from from 1999 1999 toto 20022002 andand carriedcarried outout in conjunction withwith thethe ForestryForestry Research Research InstituteInstitute ofof Malawi. Malawi. PaulPaul Kirk,Kirk, GeraldGerald MekeMeke and Janet Lowore made major contributions to thisthis projectproject andand towardstowards thethe author'sauthor's own understanding ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi and their use by rural people.people. The authorauthor waswas repeatedlyrepeatedly intriguedintrigued andand astoundedastounded byby howhow muchmuch hashas beenbeen writtenwritten about wild edibleedible fungi, often buried awayaway in reportsreports andand otherother less less visiblevisible places.places. Two British colleagues, BrianBrian MorrisMorris and Graham Piearce, have been a particularparticular inspiration. Both have undertaken broad and sustainedsustained researches thatthat havehave notnot only helped to demonstrate the importance ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi to people in southernsouthern Africa,Africa, butbut havehave also raised awareness onon a broader frontfront ofof anan oftenoften neglected neglected resource.resource. GrahamGraham hashas been a generous and promptprompt provider of comments, information and photographsphotographs.. Dave Pilz of the UnitedUnited StatesStates is one of aa groupgroup ofof scientistsscientists who havehave worked onon wild edibleedible fungi in the PacificPacific northwest. Their work hashas alsoalso been an inspiration and source of insightsinsights.. The author thanksthanks DaveDave inin particular forfor thethe benefitbenefit ofof hishis insightsinsights on critical scientific issues. JefferyJeffery BentleyBentley hashas done much to educateeducate meme onon people people issues issues and without thisthis II wouldwould still still bebe strugglingstruggling toto makemake thethe enrichingenriching connectionsconnections betweenbetween science andand development.development. AtAt FAO,FAO, Laura Russo suggested thatthat thethe authorauthor should write this book, whilewhile SvenSven Walter has overseen the execution, casting a patientpatient yet critical eye over the manuscript.manuscript. The authorauthor thanksthanks himhim andand hishis colleagues,colleagues, in particularparticular FloranceFlorance Egal, FranwisFranc;ois N'Deckere-Ziangba,N'Deckere-Ziangba, JorikeJorike Potters,Potters, MetteMette Loyche-Wilkie, Loyche-Wilkie, MichelMichel Laverdière,Laverdiere, Olman Serrano, Paul Vantomme,Vantomme, Peter Bailey and Tina Etherington,Etherington, forfor their comments.comments. The author thanksthanks hishis familyfamily forfor givinggiving him the time to completecomplete the task and other friendsfriends whowho providedprovided himhim withwith accommodation accommodation andand peacepeace toto write.write. The other peoplepeople whowho havehave helpedhelped areare arrangedarranged alphabeticallyalphabetically byby firstfirst name.name. Alessandra Zambonelli (Italy); Anabela Martins (Portugal);(Portugal); Ana Franco-MolanoFranco-Molano (Colombia); AndreAndre de de MeijerMeijer (Brazil);(Brazil); AndréAndre dede KeselKesel (Belgium);(Belgium); Andrew Pulford (UK);(UK); Antonella Amicucci (Italy); Anxious Masuka (Zimbabwe); Arailde Fuentes (Brazil);(Brazil); Arie Bijl (South Africa); AttilaAttila HegedusHegedus (Hungary); Bart Buyck (France); BrendaBrenda DownDown (UK and Sierra Leone); Brian Morris (UK); Caroline BoaBoa (UK);(UK); Daniel Winkler (USA);(USA); Dave Pilz (USA);(USA); David Minter (UK);(UK); DennisDennis DesjardinDesjardin (USA);(USA); DuncanDuncan BoaBoa (UK);(UK); ElaineElaine Marshall (UK andand Mexico);Mexico); ElseElse VellingaVellinga (USA); EmidioEmidio Borghi (Italy); Frank Taylor (Botswana); Gene Yetter (USA); Georges RenéRene (Italy(Italy andand Haiti);Haiti); GeraldGerald Meke Meke (Malawi); (Malawi); Gerritt MaraisMarais (South(South Africa);Africa); Gianluigi Gregori (Italy); H HosakaHosaka (Lao(Lao People'sPeople's Democratic Republic);Republic); GrahamGraham PiearcePiearce (UK); Giuseppe CardinaleCardinale (Italy);(Italy); HarryHarry Evans Evans (UK); Hildegun Flom (Norway);(Norway); IanIan HallHall (New(New Zealand); Zealand); IbuIbu Leyulani Leyulani (Indonesia); (Indonesia); Irina GorbunovaGorbunova (Russia(Russia Federation);Federation); IrmaIrma GamundíGamundi (Argentina);(Argentina); JanetJanet ProbynProbyn (Lowore) (Malawi);(Malawi); JavierJavier LanderLander (Spain); JerryJerry Cooper (New(New Zealand);Zealand); Jim WallerWaller (UK); Jimmy LoworeLowore (deceased:(deceased: Malawi);Malawi); Jolanda Roux (South(South Africa);Africa); LauroLauro RussoRusso (Italy); Lesley Ragab (UK);(UK); LubaLuba NanaguylanNanaguylan (Armenia); LuoLuo Ghuozhong (China);(China); M.M. Snowarski (Poland); Marc Ducousso (France);(France); MariaMaria ChamberlainChamberlain (UK);(UK); MariaMaria TeresaTeresa Schifino-Wittmann (Brazil); Marisela Zamora-MartinezZamora-Martínez (Mexico); Marja HärkönenHarkonen (Finland); Mary Apetorgbor (Ghana);(Ghana); Meral Gurer (Turkey);(Turkey); MikeMike HowardHoward (South(South Africa); Miriam de RomanRomán (Spain);(Spain); Myles ManderMander (South Africa); NeclaNecla Caglarirmark (Turkey); PaulPaul House (Honduras and UK);UK); PaulPaul KirkKirk (UK);(UK); PhuntshoPhuntsho NamgyelNamgyel x

(Bhutan); Pierluigi andand LunaLuna thethe dog (Urbino,(Urbino, Italy); Roberto Flores (Guatemala); RoryRory McBurney (UK);(UK); RoyRoy Watling Watling (Scotland);(Scotland); SaraSara Maltoni and her mothermother (Sardinia); (Sardinia); SeonaSeona Anderson (UK);(UK); SinclairSinclair TedderTedder (Canada);(Canada); SolomonSolomon WasserWasser (Israel);(Israel); Soulemane Yorou (Benin);(Benin); Stephanos Diamandis (Greece);(Greece); SusanSusan Alexander (USA);(USA); Sven Walter (Italy); Tim Livesey (UK); Warren Priest (UK);(UK); YunYun Wang (China and NewNew Zealand). Zealand). These friends and colleagues havehave providedprovided thethe authorauthor with much information. AnyAny errors in presentationpresentation or interpretationinterpretation remainremain with the authorauthor andand FAO.FAO. PaulPaul KirkKirk has checked scientific namesnames forfor wild fungi and suggestedsuggested changes toto reflect current taxonomic thinking.thinking. This is an area of some confusion and there are doubtless further changes that need to be made to the lists compiled for the book. New initiativesinitiatives on wild edible fungi are being developed, aimed at sustainable use by rural people, particularly but notnot exclusivelyexclusively inin developingdeveloping countries.countries. xi

SUMMARY

Wild edible fungi are collected forfor food and to earnearn moneymoney inin moremore thanthan 80 80 countries.countries. There is a hugehuge diversitydiversity ofof differentdifferent types,types, fromfrom trufflestruffles toto milk-caps,milk-caps, chanterelleschanterelles to termite mushrooms, with moremore thanthan 11 100100 speciesspecies recorded during the preparation of this book. AA smallsmall group ofof speciesspecies are of economic importanceimportance inin terms of exports, but the widerwider significancesignificance of wild edibleedible fungifungi lieslies with theirtheir extensiveextensive subsistence uses in developing countries. They provide a notable contribution toto dietdiet in central and southern Africa during the months ofof thethe yearyear whenwhen thethe supplysupply of of food food is is oftenoften perilously perilously low. low. Elsewhere they areare aa valuedvalued andand valuablevaluable addition toto dietsdiets ofof ruralrural people.people. Commercial harvesting isis an important businessbusiness in countriescountries suchsuch asas Zimbabwe,Zimbabwe, Turkey, Poland, the United StatesStates ofof America,America, thethe DemocraticDemocratic People'sPeople's Republic of Korea and Bhutan. The export trade is driven by a strong and expanding demand from Europe and Japan and is predominantly fromfrom poorpoor to rich countries. This is goodgood forfor local businesses andand collectors,collectors, providingproviding importantimportant cash incomeincome thatthat pays for children to gogo toto schoolschool andand helpshelps toto reducereduce povertypoverty inin areasareas wherewhere thethe optionsoptions forfor earningearning money are limited. Local markets around thethe worldworld revealreveal aa widespread thoughthough smallersmaller individual trade inin an extensiveextensive range of species. ThoughThough difficult toto measure compared with thethe moremore visiblevisible exportexport ofof wild wild edibleedible fungi,fungi, locallocal trade isis ofof considerableconsiderable value to collectors and increases the supply of food toto manymany areasareas ofof weakweak foodfood security.security. Collection andand consumptionconsumption within within countries countries varies varies fromfrom thethe extensiveextensive andand intensiveintensive patterns of ChinaChina toto moremore restricted restricted useuse byby indigenous indigenous peoplepeople inin South South America. America. Substantial quantitiesquantities areare eaten throughthrough personal collections thatthat may go unrecorded. The nutritional value of wild edible fungi should not bebe underestimated:underestimated: they are of comparable value with manymany vegetablesvegetables andand inin notablenotable casescases havehave aa higherhigher foodfood value.value. Wild edible fungi play an important ecologicalecological role.role. ManyMany ofof thethe leadingleading speciesspecies live symbiotically with trees and this mycorrhizal associationassociation sustains the growth of native forests and commercial plantations in temperate and tropical zones.zones. The saprobicsaprobic wild edible fungi, though less important in termsterms ofof volumesvolumes collected collected and money earnedearned from locallocal sales,sales, are important inin nutrientnutrient recycling. recycling. TheThe saprobic saprobic species species areare thethe basis basis for thethe hugelyhugely valuablevaluable globalglobal businessbusiness inin cultivatedcultivated mushrooms,mushrooms, currentlycurrently valuedvalued atat around US$23US$23 billionbillion eacheach year.year. This isis anan increasingincreasing sourcesource ofof incomeincome forfor small-scalesmall-scale enterprises in developing countries. Wild edible fungi are among the most valuable NWFPNWFP with much potential for expansion of trade, but therethere areare alsoalso challengeschallenges in the integration of their managementmanagement and sustainable production asas part ofof multiplemultiple use forests. There are concerns about the impact of excessive harvesting,harvesting, whichwhich requirerequire betterbetter datadata onon yieldsyields andand productivityproductivity and a closer examination of collectors and local practices.practices. CloserCloser cooperation between forest managers and those usingusing wild edibleedible fungi is needed and suggestions are made on how this mightmight bebe achieved.achieved. There is aa strongstrong emphasisemphasis onon subsistencesubsistence uses of wildwild edibleedible fungifungi andand theirtheir importance toto ruralrural peoplepeople inin developingdeveloping countries, although thisthis isis an area where there are still significant gaps in information. ThereThere isis alsoalso significantsignificant commercialcommercial harvestingharvesting in developed countries, such as the United StatesStates of AmericaAmerica and Canada, and inin thethe emerging economies of eastern Europe, forfor exampleexample Poland andand SerbiaSerbia and Montenegro. However, countries in the northnorth areare ofof greater greater significancesignificance to wildwild edibleedible fungi as aa destination for exportsexports andand asas aa sourcesource ofof scientific scientific expertise,expertise, especiallyespecially in mycology (the study ofof fungi).fungi). XIIxii

This scientificscientific expertise isis increasingly beingbeing appliedapplied toto help achieveachieve the majormajor development goals, which include poverty alleviationalleviation and sustainable use of naturalnatural resources. Real progress has been and continues to be made in the roles that wild edibleedible fungi contribute towardstowards thesethese goals.goals. 1I Introduction:Introduction: setting setting thethe scenescene

GENERAL IMPORTANCE Wild edible fungi (WEf!)(WEF') have been collected and consumed by people for thousands of years. The archaeologicalarchaeological record revealsreveals edibleedible species associated with people living 13 000000 yearsyears agoago inin ChileChile (Rojas and Mansur, 1995) butbut it is in China where thethe eatingeating of wild fungi is first reliably noted, several hundredhundred years before the birth ofof ChristChrist (Aaronson, 2000). Edible fungi were collected fromfrom forests in ancientancient Greek and Roman times and highly valued, though more by high-rankinghigh-ranking peoplepeople thanthan byby peasantspeasants (Buller,(Buller, 1914). Caesar'sCaesar's mushroommushroom (Amanita caesarea) isis aa reminderreminder ofof anan ancientancient tradition tradition thatthat stillstill exists inin many parts ofof Italy,Italy, embracingembracing a diversitydiversity of edibleedible speciesspecies dominated today byby trufflestruffles (Tuber(Tuber spp.) spp.) andand porcini porcini (Boletus (Boletus edulis).edulis). China features prominently in the earlyearly and laterlater historicalhistorical record of wild edibleedible fungi. The Chinese have for centuries valued many species, notnot onlyonly for nutrition andand taste but alsoalso forfor theirtheir healinghealing properties.properties. These values andand traditions are as strong today asas theythey werewere centuriescenturies agoago andand areare confirmedconfirmed by thethe hugehuge rangerange ofof wildwild fungifungi collected from forests andand fieldsfields andand marketedmarketed widelywidely (Wang,(Wang, 1987)1987) (Plate 8).8) . China isis also the leading exporter of cultivated mushrooms.mushrooms. It is less well known that countriescountries suchsuch asas MexicoMexico (Plate(Plate 7) and Turkey, and major areas of central and southern AfricaAfrica (Plate(Plate 6),6), also have a long andand notable tradition ofof wild edible fungi. The list of countries where wild fungi are reported to be consumed and provide incomeincome toto ruralrural people people is is impressiveimpressive (Annex(Annex 1).1). The threatthreat posedposed byby poisonouspoisonous and and lethal lethal species species isis oftenoften overstated. overstated .Incidents Incidents of poisoningpoisoning and deathsdeaths areare fewfew andand farfar betweenbetween comparedcompared toto thethe regularregular andand safesafe consumption ofof edibleedible species, but publicity and cultural attitudes continue to fuelfuel an intrinsicintrinsic fearfear ofof wildwild fungifungi inin somesome societies.societies. This isis moremore commonlycommonly foundfound inin developed countries and hashas undoubtedly ledled toto generalgeneral beliefsbeliefs that globalglobal use of wild edible fungi is small-scale and restricted to keykey areas.areas. AsAs thisthis publicationpublication conclusivelyconclusively shows, thisthis isis simplysimply notnot true true (Table (Table 1).1). TheThe useuse ofof wild wild edible edible fungifungi isis bothboth extensive extensive and intensive, though patterns of use do vary (Annex 1).1). TABLE 11 Numbers ofof species of of wildwild edible and medicinal fungi Wild edible fungi add flavour to blandbland staple foods but theythey areare alsoalso valuablevaluable foodsfoods CATEGORY No. OF SPECIESSPECIES PERCENTAGE TOTAL in theirtheir ownown right.right. LocalLocal namesnames forfor termitetermite 1. Edible only 11009 009 43 mushrooms (Termitomyces) (Plate 6) reflect mushrooms (Termitomyces) (Plate 6) reflect 2. Edible and medicinalmedicinal 88 4 local beliefs thatthat they are a fairfair substitute forfor 3. Food only 820 35 meat, a belief that is confirmed by nutritional 4. Food and medicinal 249 11 analyses. NotNot allall wildwild edibleedible fungifungi havehave 5. Medicinal only 133 6 such a highhigh proteinprotein contentcontent butbut theythey areare 6. Other usesuses (none of above)above) 29 of comparablecomparable nutritionalnutritional value to manymany TOTAL wildwild usefuluseful speciesspecies 22327 327 vegetables. ALL edible onlyonly (1+2) (1+2) 1 097 ALL food (3+4)(3+4) 11069 069 In additionaddition toto makingmaking substantialsubstantial contri-contri- ALL medicinal (2+4+5)(2+4+5) 470 butions to the diets of poor people in ------''-----'------­ butions to thediets of poor people in Note: Compiled from moremore thanthan 200200 differentdifferent sources sources fromfrom 110110 developing countries, they are anan importantimportant countries, but excludesexcludes a detailed reviewreview ofof species species from developeddeveloped countries. VarietiesVarieties andand subspeciessubspecies are countedcounted separately.separately. TheThe categories food andand edibleedible areare mutuallymutually exclusive. exclusive. ToTo distinguishdistinguish 1 SeSeee BBoxox 11 forfor a didiscussionscussion ooff terminologyterminology usedused in thistlus clearly between useuse andand propertiesproperties ofof a aspecies: species :substantial substantial book.book. numbers of edibleedible speciesspecies lack confirmed useuse asas food. 2 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa globalglobal overvieovervieww of theirtheir use andand importanceimportance to people

BOX1BOX 1 Wild edibleedible fungifungi andand mushroomsmushrooms Fungi are a distinct groupgroup ofof organismsorganisms whichwhich includeinclude speciesspecies with largelarge and visible fruiting bodies (macrofungi).(rnacrofungi). The best known examplesexamples of macrofungi areare thethe mushrooms. TheyThey have have aa capcap andand aa stalk and are frequently seenseen inin fieldsfields and .fores.ts.forests. Most areare simplysimply inedibleinedible butbut therethere areare notablenotable examples examples that can be eaten.eaten. The number ofof poisonous speciesspecies is relativelyrelatively small whilewhile thosethose thatthat are fatal belongbelong to a tinytiny minority.minority. TheThe mostmost familiarfamiliar edibleedible mushrooms are those that areare cultivatedcultivated and sold fresh and tinned in shops. Macrofungi have many different shapes and appearances.appearances. Boletes havehave porespores rather thanthan gillsgills on the undersideunderside ofof thethe cap;cap; trufflestdiffles growgrow Undergroundunderground and dodo notnot have have aa stalkstalk and and aa cap cap (Plate(Plate 1).1). Huitlacoche is a Mexican foodfood produced when maize cobs are infected by a fungus. This is clearly notnot a mushroom. Wild edible.. f1mgusfungus (fungi(fungi isis thethe plural form, usually pronouncedpronounced withwith.a a hard e

source of income.income. Wild edibleedible fungi areare soldsold inin manymany locallocal marketsmarkets andand commercialcommercial harvesting hashas providedprovided new sources ofof incomeincome forfor manymany rural people. The demand for specialist wildwild mushroomsmushrooms from Europe and Japan continues to earn significant amounts for countries suchsuch asas Bhutan, thethe DemocraticDemocratic People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof KoreaKorea andand Pakistan.Pakistan. Wild fungi also havehave medicinal properties,properties, somesome ofof whichwhich are found in edibleedible species (Table(Table 1).1). WildWild usefuluseful fungi fungi thereforetherefore contributecontribute towardstowards diet,diet, income and human health. Many speciesspecies also play aa vitalvital ecologicalecological role through thethe symbioticsymbiotic relationships knownknown asas mycorrhizas thatthat they form withwith trees.trees. TrufflesTruffles and otherother valuable wild edible fungifungi dependdepend on trees for their growthgrowth andand cannotcannot bebe cultivatedcultivated artificially. The The mycorrhizasmycorrhizas enableenable trees trees to to growgrow inin nutrient-poornutrient-poor soils. The trees of the miombo woodland of centralcentral and southernsouthern AfricaAfrica and the woodland itselfitself would not exist without theirtheir fungalfungal partners. The importanceimportance of wildwild edibleedible fungifungi continuescontinues to growgrow forfor moremore fundamental fundamental reasons. Logging bansbans inin several countriescountries hashas renewedrenewed interestinterest inin non-wood forestforest products (NWFP) asas anan alternativealternative source of income and jobs for people previously employed in forestry. Wild edible fungi have played an important role inin providingproviding new sources of incomeincome inin ChinaChina and the UnitedUnited States ofof America.America. FurtherFurther informationinformation is given inin Chapters 33 andand 4.4. To summarize, wild edible fungi are important for threethree mainmain reasons:reasons: • as a source of food (plus(plus healthhealth benefits);benefits); • as a source of income; • to maintain thethe healthhealth ofof forests.forests.

TRADITIONS AND HISTORYHISTORY OFOF USEUSE Ethnomycology is is thethe study study of of people people and and fungi fungi and and is is aa recentrecent areaarea of academic interest. It tracestraces itsits rootsroots toto a a landmark landmark publication publication entitled entitled Mushrooms, Mushrooms, RussiaRussia and htstoryhistory (Wasson andand Wasson, 1957). ThisThis privatelprivatelyy publishedpublished and discursive opus contains a wealth of usefuluseful information on the cultureculture and history ofof wildwild fungi.fungi. Although Introduction: settingsetting thethe scenescene 3 ------

ethnomycology began withwith a clear interest in wildwild edibleedible fungi,fungi, laterlater developmentsdevelopments saw a strong emphasisemphasis onon hallucinogenichallucinogenic mushrooms and theirtheir culturalcultural significancesignificance (Schultes, 1940;1940; Wasson,Wasson, 1968). 1968). While While this this continues continues toto bebe an area of understandable intrigue,intrigue, thethe spotlight has turned back to wild edible fungi.fungi. DuringDuring thethe lastlast twentytwenty toto thirtythirty years researchersresearchers have substantially increased our knowledge of local traditionstraditions inin Africa, Asia and Mesoamerica (Mexico,(Mexico, Guatemala).Guatemala). An early distinction waswas mademade betweenbetween mycophilia mycophilia andand mycophobia:mycophobia: In mycophilicmycophilic societies oror cultures, fungi are esteemed andand therethere is a strong and longlong traditiontradition ofof popular use.use. MycophobicMycophobic culturescultures havehave a a minorminor regardregard forfor fungi and they are oftenoften actively feared (Wasson and Wasson,Wasson, 1957). TheThe British colonial record inin AfricaAfrica contains little information about thethe locallocal useuse ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi,fungi, despitedespite the factfact that peoplepeople throughoutthroughout southern southern Africa Africa have have eateneaten themthem forfor centuries centuries (Morris,(Morris, 1994;1994; Piearce, 1985).1985). The history of useuse of wildwild edibleedible fungi is well recorded forfor China, although much information isis stillstill inin ChineseChinese (Plate(Plate 3). China isis anan exampleexample of a mycophilic country while Britain isis usuallyusually classifiedclassified as mycophobic. TheseThese distinctionsdistinctions areare becomingbecoming lessless clear, however, andand although there is stillstill aa w-eakweak traditiontradition of collecting inin northern Europe inin general,general, more people gather from the wildwild thanthan before.before. SomeSome of thisthis isis for commercialcommercial reasons (Dyke andand Newton,Newton, 1999)1999) butbut immigrantsimmigrants fromfrom mycophilicmycophilic countries have also changed attitudes. There is an expandingexpanding group of peoplepeople whowho now collectcollect wild edibleedible fungi in thethe UnitedUnited States,States, forfor example.example. Traditions vary within countries: thethe central and northern regions of Italy areare stronglystrongly mycophilic, but the tradition of collectingcollecting and consumingconsuming wild edible fungi is less strong in thethe south.south. Catalonia in Spain has aa markedlymarkedly greatergreater interestinterest inin wildwild edibleedible fungifungi comparedcompared to otherother regions.regions. VariableVariable traditions also exist in thethe UnitedUnited RepublicRepublic ofof TanzaniaTanzania (Härkönen,(Harkonen, Saarimäki Saarimaki andand Mwasumbi,Mwasumbi, 1994). 1994). Finland represents a particularly interesting meeting of traditions. The historicalhistorical influence of Swedish cultureculture diddid littlelittle toto enthuse local interest inin the west west but,but, inin thethe east,east, KarelianKarelian people who camecame fromfrom thethe RussianRussian FederationFederation toto livelive inin FinlandFinland brought aa muchmuch strongerstronger tradition tradition and and liking liking for for wild wild edible edible fungi fungi (Härkönen,(Harkonen, 1998). 1998). Russians are notednoted forfor their their general general (though (though not not universal) universal) love love of of -wild wild edible edible fungi, fungi, as witnessed byby large-scalelarge-scale movement of peoplepeople toto forestsforests atat the the weekend weekend (Filipov, (Filipov, 1998). TheThe EstoniansEstonians have a saying thatthat describes the Russian passion: "Where there is a mushroom comingcoming up,up, therethere isis alwaysalways aa RussianRussian waiting for it". InIn FinnishFinnish KareliaKarelia theythey usedused toto saysay "Shouting"Shouting like like Russians Russians inin [a] [aJ mushroommushroom forest"2. forest"2. The Latin AmericanAmerican tradition isis almostalmost whollywholly restrictedrestricted toto Mexico Mexico (see(see reviewreview byby VillarrealVillarreal and Perez-Moreno, 1989). ItIt extends south toto GuatemalaGuatemala andand brieflybriefly intointo Honduras (House,(House, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: WildWild edibleedible fungi inin Honduras)Honduras) but thenthen abruptlyabruptly ends, ends, despitedespite thethe widespreadwidespread occurrenceoccurrence of pine forests and other treestrees with edibleedible mycorrhizalmycorrhizal fungi.fungi. There isis littlelittle evidenceevidence of strong traditionstraditions inin South America,America, althoughalthough studiesstudies ofof native native peoplepeople inin AmazoniaAmazonia (Prance, (Prance, 1984)1984) revealedrevealed regular consumptionconsumption and managementmanagement of wildwild edibleedible fungifungi (though(though allall saprobic).saprobic). A little-knownlittle-known studystudy fromfrom PapuaPapua New New Guinea Guinea (Sillitoe, (Sillitoe, 1995)1995) revealsreveals a wealthwealth ofof information onon wildwild edibleedible fungi that hints atat wider use in other countries. Local people reject some species that are edible. BolBoletesetes areare notnot eaten inin partsparts of the United RepublicRepublic of of Tanzania Tanzania asas aa general rule (Harkonen,(Härkönen, 2002).2002). An Italian priest living in Guatemala found thatthat local local peoplepeople werewere ignoringignoring BoletusBoletus edulis, despite their general 'ikingliking ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. WithWith hishis encouragementencouragement theythey werewere ableable toto enjoyenjoy a a species species they had previously ignoredignored (Flores,(Flores, 2002,2002, personal communication: Guatemala edibleedible fungi).fungi). ItIt isis notnot clear clear whetherwhether people people inin Europe Europe would would readily readily eat eat Phallus Phallus impudicus,impudicus, however, despite its widespread popularity in ChinaChina (Plate(Plate 9)9) andand somesome culturescultures areare

2 2 Information providedprovided byby Marja Hark6nen.Hiirkonen. 4 ___ ----,!!,Wildild edible fungi:fungi: aa global overview of their use and importance to people

BOX2BOX 2 A developing country perspectiveperspective Most of thethe informationinformation onon the the biology biology and and ecology ecology of of edible edible macrofungimacrofungi isis basedbased on researchresearch carried out inin developeddeveloped countries.countries. TheThe literatureliterature isis heavilyheavily weightedweighted towardstowards perceptionsperceptions ofof valuevalue andand usefulness of wild edible fungi foundfound in the North. HereHere therethere isis aa strongstrong emphasisemphasis onon valuablevaluable types such asas true trufflestruffles (Tuber(Tuber spp.),spp.), chanterelleschanterelles andand variousvarious boletesboletes - of which Boletus edulis is the best knownknown.. There isis muchmuch lessless knowledge,knowledge, forfor example,example, aboutabout thethe manymany species species ofof LactariusLactarius oror Russula Russula eaten in Africa, from aa biological,biological, socialsocial or economiceconomic perspective.perspective. Income from wild edibleedible fungi is an important sourcesource ofofrevenue revenue for ruralrural communities,communities, especiallyespecially in developing countries. In central southern Africa,Africa, WEFWEF areare aa significantsignificant source of nutrition; soso tootoo in rural parts ofof China,China, IndiaIndia andand Mexico.Mexico. InIn Europe,Europe, WEFWEF areare aa specialistspecialist food,food, aa gourmetgourmet itemitem toto be savoured infrequently - a reflection of the highhigh pricesprices demandeddemanded forfor prizedprized species. species. ThisThis cancan meanmean good incomes for thethe less well-off in rural parts ofof Spain and Italy, but the overall importance of WEF to such societies,societies, and indeedindeed thethe potentialpotential for for increased increased locallocal incomes,incomes, isis smallsmall comparedcompared to locallocal useuse and markets in thethe developingdeveloping world. TheTht; publicationpublication concentratesconcentrates onon improvingimproving knowledgeknowledge aboutabout wildwild ediblet;dible fungifungi inin developingdeveloping countries, though research and published information fromfrom the North hashas notnot beenbeen ignored.ignored. TheThe experiences inin thethe Pacific northwestnorthwest of North AmericaAmerica havehave beenbeen widelywidely quotedquoted followingfollowing an expansion ofof activities on NWFP generallygenerally as traditionaltraditional forestry industriesindustries declined and ruralrural communities sought new sources of income. Finland has long promoted aa widerwider useuse ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi as the countrycountry emergedemerged fromfrom timestimes ofof economiceconomic difficulty,difficulty, while the demand for matsutake (Tricholoma spp.) in JapanJapan has been of major significancesignificance for developing countries suchsuch asas China,China, thethe Democratic People'sPeople's~epubIic Republic of Korea and even Bhutan. These examples offeroffer widerwider insights onon a number of differentdifferent aspects of wild edible fungi, from management of natural resourcesresources to collectioncollection practices.practices. A comprehensive review of WEF use in the South and in the North is,is, however,however, beyond the scope of the current publication. ThatThat is notnot to say that thethe collectioncollection ofof truffles truffles in in Italy Italy or or France, France, or or niscalos niscalos (Lactarius (Lactarius deliciosus) deliciosus) inin Spain,Spain, areare without economic importance toto locallocal peoplepeople (de(de Román, Roman, 2002, 2002, personalpersonal communication: communication: Trade Trade in in niscalos niscalos from NorthNorth SpainSpain toto CataloniaCatalonia and and truffle truffle production), production), but but again again these these are are of of lesser lesser significance significance asas a source ofof incomeincome comparedcompared withwith comparable comparable activities activities inin manymany developingdeveloping countries.countries.

instinctively fearful of Amanita species.species. This genus contains deadly poisonous asas wellwell as flavoursome speciesspecies (Plate(Plate 7).7).

PURPOSE ANDAND STRUCTURE OFOF THETHE PUBLICATION This publication presents information onon thethe importanceimportance ofof wild wild edibleedible fungi to people. It includesincludes detailsdetails of speciesspecies collected andand sold,sold, but there is a particular emphasisemphasis on social and economic aspects inin an attempt toto showshow howhow wildwild edibleedible fungifungi mightmight contribute to ruralrural livelihoods.livelihoods. There is a wealth of information on thethe biologybiology andand general characteristicscharacteristics of of macrofungimacrofungi but but thisthis isis only discussed inin detail where it isis relevant to either people oror thethe useuse ofof naturalnatural resources.resources. A broaderbroader aimaim ofof thethe publicationpublication isis toto increase increase awarenessawareness ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi andand to emphasize thethe ecologicalecological linklink betweenbetween keykey species species ofof -wild wild edible fungi andand forests.forests. Suggestions areare mademade onon how to managemanage wildwild edibleedible fungifungi inin aa sustainablesustainable manner,manner, taking into account thethe multiple use of forests and other forestforest users.users. There is a strong emphasisemphasis on developingdeveloping countries (the "South") inin manymany ofof thethe discussions, particularlyparticularly when reviewing how to improve the benefitsbenefits of wild edible fungi and their sustainablesustainable production. InformationInformation isis alsoalso drawndrawn fromfrom casecase studiesstudies and experiences withwith wildwild edible fungifungi inin developed countriescountries (the(the "North")."North"). TheThe reasons for concentratingconcentrating on developingdeveloping countries are explainedexplained in more detaildetail inin Box 2. Introduction: settingsetting thethe scenescene 5

The publication isis divideddivided intointo fivefive chapterschapters andand includesincludes aa comprehensivecomprehensive seriesseries of tables and annexes.annexes. The reader is pointed towards primary and otherother sourcessources ofof information, bearingbearing inin mind thatthat personal communicationscommunications withwith thethe authorsauthors havehave beenbeen an important meansmeans ofof learning more about wildwild edibleedible fungi. Original publications areare often difficult to obtainobtain andand generalgeneral sourcessources suchsuch asas thethe excellentexcellent literatureliterature reviewsreviews byby Rammeloo and WalleynWalleyn (1993)(1993) and Walleyn and Rammeloo (1994) are recommended for Africa south ofof thethe Sahara.Sahara. There is a need to undertake similar reviewsreviews forfor otherother regions of thethe world,world, thusthus increasingincreasing awarenessawareness ofof aa surprisingsurprising breadthbreadth ofof published published information andand stimulatingstimulating interestinterest in in new new lines lines ofof research. research. The characteristicscharacteristics ofof wild edible fungi are brieflybriefly described in Chapter 22 andand include key factsfacts onon biology,biology, ecology,ecology, edibilityedibility andand cultivation.cultivation. TheThe emphasisemphasis isis on generalgeneral informationinformation andand fewfew technicaltechnical detailsdetails areare presented.presented. MajorMajor generagenera areare described in outline. Latin names are mostly used throughout thethe bookbook sincesince therethere are few common names for wild edible fungi that easily transfertransfer fromfrom one country or language to another. The exceptions include matsutake (Tricholoma(Tricholoma matsutakematsutake but also T magnivelare andand otherother species), species), chanterelleschanterelles (Cantharellus(Cantharellus spp.)spp.) andand porcini porcini (Boletus(Boletus edulis). Management issuesissues are explored in Chapter 3, 3, andand this includes a review of collectors and the relationshiprelationship betweenbetween harvesting harvesting andand forestforest management.management. ThisThis sectionsection examinesexamines some of thethe broaderbroader issuesissues concerningconcerning multiplemultiple useuse ofof forests,forests, productivityproductivity ofof wildwild edible fungi andand accessaccess toto collectingcollecting sites.sites. Chapter 4 continues the discussions begun in the previousprevious chapterchapter but pays particularparticular attention toto peoplepeople andand howhow wildwild edibleedible fungifungi areare traded, their importance to diet andand nutrition. TradeTrade data,data, marketingmarketing and and commercializationcommercialization are are explored,explored, withwith a a finalfinal section that brieflybriefly summarizessummarizes thethe useuse ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi byby regionregion andand country.country. The finalfinal chapterchapter movesmoves from thethe presentpresent toto thethe future. future. ChapterChapter 5 5examines examines possibilities forfor future initiatives withwith an emphasisemphasis on practical steps that could bebe taken toto increaseincrease benefitsbenefits toto ruralrural peoplepeople whilewhile sustainingsustaining production ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi andand achievingachieving soundsound forestforest management.management. TheThe publicationpublication describesdescribes knownknown constraints to thethe sustainablesustainable useuse ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. AA forestforest managermanager inin westernwestern China despaired ofof gettinggetting locallocal collectors toto adoptadopt less less destructivedestructive harvestingharvesting practicespractices for aa prizedprized edibleedible fungusfungus knownknown as as matsutakematsutake (Winkler, (Winkler, 2002).2002). Such constraints, it is suggested, cancan be overcome and changes effected, butbut only if actions are basedbased on aa sound knowledge of what peoplepeople do andand why.why.

SOURCES OFOF INFORMATIONINFORMATION Information hashas beenbeen gatheredgathered onon activitiesactivities inin 8585 predominantly,predominantly, butbut notnot exclusively,exclusively, developing countries (see(see Box 2). The published andand accessibleaccessible information hashas variedvaried hugely in termsterms ofof emphasisemphasis (Table(Table 2),2), detaildetail andand accuracyaccuracy andand hashas demandeddemanded carefulcareful examination. There areare manymany mycologicalmycological publications,publications, for for example, example, thatthat list list species species asas being "edible" but do not elaborateelaborate onon theirtheir locallocal use. General accounts ofof NWFPNWFP talk about "mushrooms" withoutwithout specifying specifying whichwhich types.types. Over 800800 papers, books, newspaper articles,articles, personal communications,communications, Web Web sitessites and miscellaneous other sources of information were consulted. InformationInformation onon wildwild edibleedible fungi is spread across many differentdifferent disciplinesdisciplines (Table(Table 2). Each discipline represents a different set of interests but also with some overlap. ThisThis is thethe first time thatthat a broad review of wild edible fungi has been attemptedattempted and there is undoubtedly stillstill much toto learn, particularly from thethe RussianRussian andand ChineseChinese literature.literature. InformationInformation aboutabout wildwild edible fungi in the RussianRussian FederationFederation was was onlyonly available available becausebecause ofof aa translation mademade by DrDr SeonaSeona AndersonAnderson of of a a key key text text (Vasil'eva, (Vasil' eva, 1978).1978). 6 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa globalglobal overviewoverview of theirtheir use andand importance to people ------

TABLE 22 Disciplines andand areasareas of of activity activity containing containing informationinformation on wild usefuluseful fungi

DISCIPLINE OR TOPICTOPIC NOTES

Mycology, including The study of fungi (mycology){mycology} includesincludes molecular biology, biochemistry and mycorrhizasmycorrh izas more traditional topics topics suchsuch as ecologyecology andand taxonomy.taxonomy. PublishedPublished information information generally hashas littlelittle detail about the useuse of fungi byby people,people, particularly the social andand economic aspectsaspects.. Mycorrhizal Mycorrhizal studiesstudies havehave aa combined combined interestinterest in fungi andand plants.plants. EdibleEdible ectomycorrhizalectomycorrhizal fungi havehave onlyonly recentlyrecently emergedemerged as aa subdisciplinesubdiscipline withinwithin a much larger areaarea of study.study.

Field biology and natural Field guides contain descriptions of speciesspecies andand photographs and are usedused history mostly for identificationidentification purposes.purposes. The majority of guidesguides are published in the NorthNorth andand thereforetherefore havehave aa limitedlimited useuse inin developingdeveloping countries.countries. AA fewfew guides are specifically for for edible fungi. NaturalNatural historyhistory publicationspublications havehave provided some information onon usesuses of WEF byby people,people, thoughthough this group isis often ignored or dealt with fleetingly.fleetingly.

Cultivation ofof mushrooms mushrooms There is an extensive literatureliterature on cultivatedcultivated mushrooms.mushrooms. RegularRegular meetingsmeetings are held whichwhich havehave strongstrong commercialcommercial support.support. ThereThere hashas beenbeen recentrecent interest (e.g.{e.g. Mshigeni and Chang, 2000}2000) inin thethe introductionintroduction ofof small-scale small-scale production units to developingdeveloping countries and a smallsmall butbut growinggrowing literature on managingmanaging natural areas forfor productionproduction of matsutakematsutake and trufflestruffles (Federation-Francaise-des-Trufficulteurs,{Federation-Franca ise-des-Trufficu Iteu rs, 2001).2001}.

Ethnomycology Ethnomycology is a relatively young area of investigation.investigation. Topics Topics includeinclude thethe cultural, ceremonialceremonial and medicinalmedicinal usesuses ofof fungi byby people.people. EthnomycologyEthnomycology was originally dominated byby thethe studystudy ofof hallucinogenic hallucinogenic mushrooms mushrooms andand their culturalcultural significancesignificance andand littrelittre attention hashas been paid toto thethe usesuses of WEF byby people.

Nutrition, humanhuman health, The literature on nutritionalnutritional valuevalue isis surprisinglysurprisingly largelarge thoughthough analyticalanalytical food securitysecurity approaches varyvary andand comparisoncomparison ofof results is difficult. MostMost analysesanalyses have involved cultivated mushroommushroom species with with only a fewfew wildwild edible edible species species included.included. There has been aa hugehuge expansionexpansion ofof scientific scientific researchresearch onon cultivated, medicinalmedicinal mushrooms,mushrooms, mushrooms as dietary supplementssupplements and "nutriceuticals", but thisthis isis ofof limitedlimited relevance relevance toto developmentdevelopment initiatives.initiatives. There areare fewfew studies that that have consideredconsidered wild wild edible edible fungi fungi in the context of food security,security, though thisthis angleangle deservesdeserves closer attention.attention.

Markets and trade Data on volumes and valuesvalues of of wwildild edible fungi collectedcollected are weak, patchy and often unreliable.unreliable. Global estimates of of tradetrade are open toto interpretation and unreliable sourcessources may acquireacquire a spuriousspurious credibilitycredibility by repeat references. Although cautioncaution isis neededneeded when reviewing marketingmarketing datadata therethere hashas beenbeen more accurate documentation inin recentrecent years. years.

Wood and non-wood Wild edible fungifungi appear appear regularly regularly in in NWFP NWFP studiesstudies but individualindividual species species are forest productsproducts often notnot mentionedmentioned (if{if ever ever identified).identified}. Specific Specific andand detaileddetailed interestinterest hashas grown asas the result of activities in the Pacific northwestnorthwest of the UnitedUnited StatesStates and Canada and elsewhereelsewhere.. General NWFP studies studies are are often often a disappointing source ofof informationinformation on wild edible fungi. 7

2 Characteristics:Characteristics: biology, biology, ecology, ecology, uses, cultivation

Mycology is the study ofof fungifungi andand mycologistsmycologists are the people who carry out thesethese studies. New researchresearch methodsmethods havehave substantiallysubstantially increasedincreased knowledgeknowledge about thethe fundamental nature of fungi.fungi. Much of thisthis researchresearch has focused on fungifungi thatthat causecause plant diseases.diseases. Research on edible fungi hashas concentratedconcentrated onon aa smallsmall groupgroup of of species species that areare commerciallycommercially cultivated.cultivated. WildWild edibleedible fungifungi have,have, untiluntil recently,recently, beenbeen relativelyrelatively ignored byby science,science, though amateuramateur mycologistsmycologists oftenoften documenteddocumented speciesspecies theythey foundfound in field studies, mostly in Europe oror countriescountries inin whichwhich EuropeansEuropeans havehave settled.settled. There hashas always,always, however, been a keen interest inin aa smallsmall groupgroup ofof valuablevaluable wildwild edible fungifungi that cannot be culticultivated.vated. These includeinclude thethe trufflestruffles (Tuber(Tuber spp.),spp.), matsutake matsutake (Tricholoma spp.) and porcini or cèpesd:pes (Boletus edulis)edulis).. TheirTheir biology and ecologyecology havehave been studied in some detail - a marked contrast to the manymany otherother wildwild edibleedible fungifungi used around the world. The consequenceconsequence ofof this neglectneglect is thatthat wildwild edibleedible speciesspecies usedused inin developingdeveloping countries are poorlypoorly known.known. SomeSome informationinformation isis availableavailable fromfrom studiesstudies ofof closeclose relatives inin temperate regions.regions. RussulaRussula and and LactariusLactarius occur occur aroundaround thethe world,world, for example, andand knowledge of species inin EuropeEurope can be applied with some caution and caveats toto AfricanAfrican species.species. The mainmain problemproblem isis namingnaming andand recognizingrecognizing species.species. Genera and speciesspecies concepts were originally based on the narrower rangerange of diversitydiversity found inin temperatetemperate regionsregions andand thesethese maymay requirerequire fundamentalfundamental reappraisalreappraisal as tropical species become better known. This chapter provides a briefbrief introductionintroduction toto thethe larger larger fungi fungi (macrofungi),(macrofungi), withwith special referencereference toto those that areare edible.edible. The use ofof specialistspecialist terms has been avoided where simplersimpler alternativesalternatives areare available.available. Field guidesguides containcontain usefuluseful glossariesglossaries andand there areare an increasingincreasing number of Web sites thatthat help in understanding technicaltechnical terms (Chapter 6).6). The DictionaryDictionary ofof the the fungi isis aa regularlyregularly updated texttext withwith detailsdetails aboutabout all fungal genera and other information onon mycologymycology (Kirk(Kirk et et al., al., 2001).2001).

WHAT AREARE FUNGI?FUNGI? Fungi are a distinct groupgroup ofof organismsorganisms moremore closelyclosely related to animalsanimals than plants. At present fungi are divided into threethree separateseparate and distinct kingdoms based onon an expanded knowledge of their biochemistrybiochemistry andand geneticgenetic makeupmakeup establishedestablished especiallyespecially over the last 30 or so years.years. It isis wrongwrong andand misleadingmisleading to refer to fungi as "plants without chlorophyll"chlorophyll" (FAO, (FAO, 1998a). 1998a). Despite fundamentalfundamental differences,differences, fungi are often classified asas plants.plants. UnderstandingUnderstanding the taxonomic status ofof fungifungi hashas littlelittle apparentapparent significancesignificance to peoplepeople collectingcollecting and selling wildwild edible fungi,fungi, but it isis ofof criticalcritical importanceimportance inin establishingestablishing a soundsound andand robust classificationclassification system. This ensures that when twotwo peoplepeople useuse thethe samesame speciesspecies name they know thatthat theythey areare referringreferring toto thethe samesame (edible)(edible) fungus. The classificationclassification ofof fungi withwith plantsplants hashas inadvertentinadvertent practicalpractical consequences.consequences. ItIt isis not always clear whetherwhether ethnobotanical studies studies include include wild wild fungi, fungi, asas isis thethe casecase with a study from Turkey (Ertrug, 2000). EthnomycologyEthnomycology isis thethe correctcorrect termterm thatthat indicatesindicates fungifungi are involved. On aa similarsimilar track, flora refersrefers only toto plants.plants. TheThe equivalentequivalent termterm forfor fungifungi isis mycota. TheseThese fungalfungal terms maymay bebe unfamiliarunfamiliar but theirtheir useuse helpshelps to identifyidentify published information onon wildwild edibleedible fungifungi clearlyclearly that may otherwiseotherwise bebe ignoredignored oror missed.missed. 8 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their use and importanceimportance toto people ------

Structure and feeding Fungi comecome inin manymany shapes,shapes, sizessizes andand colourscolours (Plate(Plate 1). MacrofungusMacrofungus (plural:(plural: macrofungi) is a generalgeneral category used for speciesspecies that havehave aa visiblevisible (to thethe unaidedunaided eye) structure that producesproduces spores,spores, suchsuch asas aa mushroommushroom oror truffle. truffle. TheseThese visiblevisible structures are generically referredreferred toto as "fruiting bodies". Fungi consist of fine threads known asas hyphae,hyphae, which togethertogether formform aa mycelium,mycelium, asas in thethe mould growinggrowing onon aa piecepiece of fruit or bread.bread. The cap of a mushroom or aa bracket fungus also consists of hyphae, densely packed togethertogether toto form thethe fruitingfruiting body.body. Specialized hyphaehyphae produceproduce sporesspores thatthat are dispersed in a number of ways. They cancan be viewed en masse byby placing thethe capcap of a mushroom on a piece of white paper and covering it with aa glassglass (Plate 3). The colour, form and way inin whichwhich sporesspores developdevelop help to identify the fungus.fungus. Wild edible fungifungi areare oftenoften referredreferred toto generically asas wild wild edible edible "mushrooms". "mushrooms". ThisThis can be confusing for aa numbernumber ofof reasons: reasons: edibleedible speciesspecies have different forms, some with gillsgills and some with pores, some with stems and some withoutwithout (Plate 1). ThisThis bookbook prefers the broaderbroader termterm wildwild edibleedible fungifungi to reflectreflect the diversity of forms and also to distinguish them clearly from cultivated mushrooms (Box(Box 1).1).

How fungi feedfeed Fungi areare dependent dependent on ondead dead and andliving living material material for their for growth.their growth. They obtainThey obtaintheir their nutrients inin threethree basicbasic ways:ways: • SAPROBIC3SAPROBld - growing on dead organic matter; • SYMBIOTIC - growing in association with other organisms;organisms; • PATHOGENICPATHOGENIC or PARASITItPARASITI'C - causing harm to another organism.organism. The majority ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi species are symbioticsymbiotic and form mycorrhizas with trees (see below). Saprobic edibleedible fungifungi areare alsoalso collectedcollected from from the the wildwild butbut theythey are best known andand mostmost widelywidely valuedvalued inin theirtheir cultivatedcultivated forms.forms. PlantPlant pathogenicpathogenic fungifungi cause diseases ofof plantsplants andand a small numbernumber of these microfungi are eaten in the form of infected host materialmaterial (Plate(Plate 2).2). The different modesmodes ofof feedingfeeding areare shownshown inin PlatePlate 22 and described brieflybriefly below.below.

Saprobic fungi fungi Fungi colonize rotting wood andand organicorganic mattermatter foundfound inin soil.soil. ManyMany speciesspecies cannotcannot be seen with thethe nakednaked eyeeye (microfungi)(microfungi) but therethere areare (edible)(edible) macrofungimacrofungi that fruit on fallen logs and bracket fungi that grow from dead or dying parts of standing trees. Agaricus arvensis is a commonly collectedcollected wild edibleedible species that occursoccurs inin pasturespastures and grassygrassy areas.areas. EdibleEdible speciesspecies of FavolusFavolus areare collectedcollected from deaddead woodwood insideinside tropical rain forests.forests. The wildwild edibleedible fungifungi used byby thethe YanomamYanomam IndiansIndians inin BrazilBrazil are all saprobic and occurred in slash and burn areas where rotting wood was present (Prance, 1984).1984). In thethe wild,wild, thethe volumevolume andand valuevalue ofof saprobicsaprobic speciesspecies used as food are smallsmall by comparison with thethe symbioticsymbiotic edibleedible fungi,fungi, thoughthough moremore edibleedible saprobicsaprobic speciesspecies are collected. Their overalloverall value is much higher becausebecause they areare widelywidely cultivated:cultivated: a recent figure ofof US$18US$18 billion was quoted forfor thethe annual,annual, globalglobal tradetrade inin cultivated, cultivated, saprobic speciesspecies (Chang,(Chang, 1999;1999; seesee alsoalso TableTable 19).19). Saprobic speciesspecies need need aa constant supply of suitablesuitable organic matter to sustainsustain production in thethe wildwild andand thisthis cancan bebe a alimiting limiting factorfactor inin production. production. Shi'itakeShi'itake (Lentinula(Lentinula edodes) mushroommushroom cultivationcultivation in in oneone areaarea ofof ChinaChina is threatened by thethe supply ofof suitablesuitable treetree branchesbranches fromfrom nearbynearby forests forests (Pauli,(Pauli, 1998).1998). Saprobic macrofungimacrofungi areare alsoalso highly valued forfor their medicinalmedicinal properties. Most are cultivated, though GanoderrnaGanoderma spp.spp. (Plate(Plate 9)9) areare alsoalso collectedcollected from thethe wild.wild. TheThe

3 Saprophyte describes a plant that feedsfeeds by external digestion of dead organic matter. Characteristics: biology,biology, ecology,ecology, uses, cultivation 9

list of symbioticsymbiotic macrofungimacrofungi with medicinalmedicinal properties isis a short one,one, thoughthough therethere is some indication thatthat theythey havehave beenbeen studiedstudied lessless becausebecause theythey cannotcannot bebe cultivatedcultivated (Reshetnikov, WasserWasser andand Tan,Tan, 2001).2001).

Symbiotic fungi The most commoncommon formform ofof symbiosis symbiosis associatedassociated with wildwild edibleedible fungi is that known as a mycorrhiza (Plate(Plate 2).2). Many plants dependdepend onon thesethese fungus-rootfungus-root associationsassociations forfor healthy growth. AA specialspecial type known asas an ectomycorrhiza (ECM) is found on treestrees growing in thethe TaigaTaiga in the RussianRussian Federation and the rain forest of BorneoBorneo andand includes legumelegume trees as well as conifersconifers (Table(Table 3).3). Ectomycorrhiza Ectomycorrhiza are typicallytypically formed by macrofungimacro fungi andand theythey includeinclude manymany ofof the the keykey edible edible speciesspecies that areare collected in the wild, such as chanterelles (Cantharellus spp.)spp.) andand Amanita species.species. The mycorrhiza helpshelps the treetree toto growgrow inin nutrient-poornutrient-poor soils, soils, suchsuch asas thethe miombomiombo woodland of centralcentral andand southernsouthern AfricaAfrica (Campbell,(Campbell, 1996).1996). A sheathsheath ofof hyphaehyphae wraps around the root. TheyThey penetratepenetrate the root structurestructure butbut notnot thethe actualactual rootroot cellscells themselves, forming a living contactcontact between the fungus and the tree. The fungus helps thethe treetree gathergather waterwater fromfrom aa widerwider catchmentcatchment andand deliversdelivers nutrients from the soilsoil that the tree cannot access.access. The tree provides the fungusfungus with essentialessential carbohydrates. Termitomyces contains contains important important wildwild edibleedible species.species. These These fungifungi onlyonly grow in association withwith termitestermites andand theirtheir nests and are dependent on the organicorganic mattermatter brought byby thethe insectsinsects fromfrom theirtheir feeding feeding onon trees. trees. Although Although Termitomyces Termitomyces areare saprobic, they areare symbioticsymbiotic withwith termites. termites. Twenty Twenty edible edible species species ofof Termitomyces Termitomyces have beenbeen recordedrecorded fromfrom AfricaAfrica andand Asia Asia (Pegler (Pegler and and Vanhaecke, Vanhaecke, 1994).1994). TheyThey areare regularly collected andand alsoalso soldsold (Plate 6). T.T titanicustitanicus isis thethe world'sworld's largestlargest edibleedible fungus, although otherother species species areare muchmuch smaller. smaller. Rural people have long associated the appearance of edible fungifungi withwith particular trees and have incorporated thisthis inin locallocal names.names. In southernsouthern Africa, Africa, chimsukuchimsuku andand kamsukukamsuku both describedescribe LactariusLactarius spp.spp. thatthat grow grow under under masuku masuku trees trees (Piearce, (Piearce, 1981). 1981). SomeSome edible ectomycorrhizal fungifungi produceproduce their fruiting bodies underground. The best known examples areare the truffles (Tuber spp.: Plate 4). Over 400 species ofof edible ECMECM have been recorded (Wang,(Wang, Buchanan and Hall,Hall, 2002).2002). There are also many ectomycorrhizal fungi which produce fruiting bodiesbodies thatthat areare notnot edibleedible oror areare poisonous.poisonous. The production ofof fruitingfruiting bodiesbodies dependsdepends onon aa complexcomplex setset ofof factorsfactors andand inin somesome years production cancan bebe negligible.negligible. In Botswana,Botswana, 1414 tonnes ofof TerfeziaTerfezia pfeilii, one of the "desert"desert truffles",truffles", were bought fromfrom oneone small community in oneone season;season; the nextnext yearyear TABLE 33 only fourfour fruitingfruiting bodiesbodies werewere locatedlocated overover Plant families with edible ectomycorrhizal fungi a muchmuch largerlarger areaarea (Taylor, (Taylor, 2002,2002, personalpersonal FAMILYFAMilY EXAMPLES communication: Edible fungifungi eateneaten andand traded Betulaceae Betula (birches) in Botswana and Namibia). TheThe lacklack of certaintycertainty Caesalpinioideae Afzelia, Brachystegia,Brachystegia, lsoberlinia,Isoberlinia, Julbemardialulbernardia of harvests from one year to thethe nextnext makesmakes it Casuarinaceae Casuarina difficult to planplan commercialcommercial exploitationexploitation and Cupressaceae Cupressus some attempts havehave been made to overcome this Dipterocarpaceae Shorea, Dipterocarpus,Dipterocarpus, MonotesMonotes by "cultivating""cultivating" keykey mycorrhizalmycorrhizal speciesspecies suchsuch Euphorbiaceae Uapaca as TricholomaTricholoma matsutake (Hall etet al.,ai., 1998).1998). Fagaceae Castanea (chestnut), Castanopsis,Castanopsis, Fagus (northern(northern beech), Nothofagus Trees are successfullysuccessfully infected with trufflestruffles (southern beech),beech), QuercusQuercus (oak)(oak) (Hall, ZambonelliZambonelli andand Primavera,Primavera, 1998)1998) andand "Legumes" Acacia managed under controlled conditionsconditions in ItalyItaly Myrtaceae Eucalyptus (Plate 4) andand elsewhere, but the time, effort and Pinaceae Pinus (pines), Picea (spruces), Abies (firs), LarixLarix (larches)(larches) money requiredrequired areare onlyonly justifiedjustified - assuming aa Papilionoideae Pericopsis good knowledgeknowledge of thethe ecologyecology ofof thethe fungusfungus Nyctaginaceae Neea concerned - for the most valuable edible concerned for the most valuable edible For details of ectomycorrhizasectomycorrhizas on tropical trees,trees. seesee AlexanderAlexander mycorrhizal species.species. and HogbergHogberg (1986).(1986). 10 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa global overview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Tree species cancan formform mycorrhizas withwith more than one fungus, and a fungus may associate withwith more than one tree.tree. SomeSome ECM areare "native""native" toto aa region:region: inin MadagascarMadagascar an edible Russula grows on exotic eucalyptus (Buyck, 2001).2001). OtherOther edible ECM have been introduced and Boletus edulis isis now now found found throughoutthroughout southern Africa following the establishment of pine plantations. ECM havehave beenbeen mostmost intensivelyintensively studied inin thethe past onon temperatetemperate treetree speciesspecies butbut therethere havehave alsoalso beenbeen steadysteady advancesadvances on tropicaltropical ECM inin AfricaAfrica (Thoen,(Thoen, 1993;1993; VerbeckenVerbecken andand Buyck,Buyck, 2002).2002). LichensLichcns areare "self-supporting" associations betweenbetween fungifungi andand anan algaalga or cyanobacterium and are the finalfinal exampleexample of a symbiosissymbiosis that hashas edibleedible properties.properties. A lichen is aa biologicalbiological and notnot aa systematicsystematic groupgroup (Kirk(Kirk etet al.,aI., 2001)2001) andand severalseveral valuable species areare eateneaten byby peoplepeople inin Europe,Europc, Asia and North AmericaAmerica andand uscdused forfor other economic purposes. They are not included in this book. Further informationinformation isis available fromfrom a number ofof sourcessources (e.g.(e.g. Richardson,Richardson, 1991; 1991; MarlesMarles etet al.,al., 2000).2000).

Plant pathogens and parasitic fungi In severalseveral countries people eateat plantplant materialmaterial infectedinfected withwith plantplant pathogenicpathogenic fungi.fungi. Maize cobs infected with the smutsmut fungusfungus UstilagoUstilago maydismaydis are consumedconsumed in largelarge quantities in Mexico, both fresh and canned.canned. They areare knownknown locallylocally asas huitlacochehuitlacoche or cuitlacoche (Villanueva,(Villanueva, 1997). 1997). U. U. maydismaydis is is aa mmicrofungus:icrofungus: itit does not formform aa visiblevisible fruiting body andand thethe onlyonly signssigns ofof itsits presencepresence areare aa massmass ofof darkdark sporesspores (Plate(Plate 1).1). The cobs appear toto becomebecome sweetersweeter asas thethe resultresult ofof fungus fungus attackattack (Sommer, (Sommer, 1995),1995), andand similar changes havehave beenbeen notednoted forfor the edible rust fungus Cronartium conigenumconigenum onon pines in Mexico. Other examplesexamples include:include: UstilagoUstilago esculentaesculenta on wildwild rice;rice; SporisoriumSporisorium cruentacruenta onon sorghum in ChinaChina (Guozhong,(Guozhong, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: EatingEating SporisoriumSporisorium cruenta in China);China); wingedwinged beanbean infected infected byby Synchytrium Synchytrium psophocarpipsophocarpi in IndonesiaIndonesia (Rifai, 1989).1989). Hypomyces lactifluorumlactifluorum isis aa parasiteparasite macrofungusmacrofungus thatthat grows on other macrofungimacrofungi (boletes). ItIt is eaten from Canada through toto GuatemalaGuatemala andand completescompletes the rangerange ofof ecological niches occupied by wildwild edible fungi.

IDENTIFICATION Local and scientific namesnames Local names have been well documented in MexicoMexico (Guzmán,(Guzman, 1997),1997), China (Mao,(Mao, 2000) and cancan bebe checkedchecked onlineonline for for Malawi Malawi (www.malawifungi.org)4 (www.malawifungi.org)4 against the equivalent scientific names.names. EachEach ofof these countries has a richrich lexiconlexicon ofof namesnames andand terms (Figure(Figure 1), a sign of the importance of wild edibleedible fungi to ruralrural people.people. SomeSome local names have been adoptedadopted moremore widely,widely, particularlyparticularly forfor valuablevaluable edibleedible fungi.fungi. Boletus edulis isis commonlycommonly referred to byby itsits FrenchFrench (cèpe) (cepe) oror ItalianItalian namename (porcino(porcino­ plural porcini), and TricholomaTricholoma matsutake by itsits Japanese name of matsutake.matsutake. The systemsystem of scientificscientific names aimsaims toto remove doubt about thethe fungusfungus beingbeing described. A person with CantharellusCantharellus cibarius in Nepal knows they havehave the samesame fungus as someone in Mozambique, assuming both have been accurately identified. The scientific name or binomial has two parts.parts. TheThe firstfirst namename isis thethe genusgenus (Cantharellus)(Cantharellus) followed by thethe speciesspecies namename (cibarius).(cibarius). Named varietiesvarieties existexist forfor somesome speciesspecies butbut their scientificscientific validity is often uncertain. Local names for edible fungi are based onon shape,shape, tastetaste andand otherother propertiesproperties that are distinctive or importantimportant toto people.people. TheThe lichen lichen (Umbilicaria(Umbilicaria esculenta)esculenta) and anan edibleedible fungus (Auricularia(Auricularia auricula-judae) have similar commoncommon names inin Hunan - Yan-er (ear of a rock) and Mu-erM u-er (ear(ear ofof wood)wood) respectively.respectively. This identifies where they grow

4 All Web pages have been viewed inin 2003.2003. Characteristics: biology, ecology,ecology, uses, cultivation 11

and cancan bebe collected.collected. MycologistsMycologists FIGURE 11 are sometlmessometimes warywary of local Naming the parts of a mushroom classifications becausebecause theythey areare based onon scientificallyscientifically unreliableunreliable characters (Härkönen,(Harkonen, 2002).2002). Scientific ondand populorpopular namesnomes for Local names provide important the partsports of a0 mushroommushroom clues to the uses and importance of edible fungi to people and therethere isis

much to be gained from their study. Remains of voleevolvo (sac)(soc) Local names allow researchers to RESTOS dede VOLVA,VOLVA- Capa,(apa , Local names allow researchers to pelleiapoll*, ,tela lela learn about collectingcollecting practices,practices, to Cap or pileus PILES:PILEQ , cabeeila,cebolla, corona,carono, analyse marketsmarkets andand to talktalk withwith sombrero forest managersmanagers and othersothers whowho lack formalformal trainingtraining inin science and areare unfamiliarunfamiliar withwith generagenera and speciesspecies names.names. ExamplesExamples of Ring or annulusannulus ANlllO:ANILLO: lela,tela, calzóncalzon ethnographic studies involving Gills or hymenium wild useful fungi areare listedlisted inin TableTable HIMENIO: 10lo de obaio,abajo, tela, barriga, hojas,hoios, libro, pellejo 13. GuidelinesGuidelines forfor conducting such SlemStem or stipeslipe studies are available fromfrom aa numbernumber ESTIPITE: palilapatita,, lailo,toile, of different sourcessources (e.g.(e.g. Alexiades,Alexiades, IrontoFranco

1996). VoIvaVolvo (sac)(soc) Local andand scientificscientific classifi­classifi- VULVA:VOlVA, lela,tela, tronco,Ironeo, cairón,coizon, cations serve two different groups camisita,camisilo, cuento,merilo, tela,lela, troncoIronco Mycelium (basal) of people and neitherneither isis infallible.infallible. MICELI°,MICELlO: raíz,roiz, semilla,semillo, Edible species of BoletasBoletus are Ietelita lila not eateneaten in partsparts ofof thethe UnitedUnited Republic ofof Tanzania,Tanzania, for exampleexample This example is basedbased on on a a fruiting fruiting body of anan Amanita.Amanita. OtherOther generagenera lacklack aa comavalva (the sacsac thatthat enclosesencloses thethe expanding fruiting body)body) andand thethe ring ring may may be be absent. absent. The The English English (Harkonen,(Härkönen, 2002),2002), reflectingreflecting locallocal name is inin bold; Spanish inin capcapitalsitals followed followed by popular names fromfrom Ajusco and Topilejo custom rather thanthan scientificscientific fact.fact. in Mexico. Source:Source : adapted from Reygadas,Reygadas, Zamoni-Martinez andand Cifuentes,Cifuentes, 1995.1995. Field guidesguides oftenoften disagreedisagree onon which speciesspecies are edible,edible, eithereither because theythey are cautiouscautious aboutabout recommending species thatthat require pre-cooking oror becausebecause thcthe authorsauthors areare unawareunaware ofof local customscustoms inin different partsparts of the world. What is clear, however, isis thatthat there are many poorly describeddescribed speciesspecies sold and collected forfor personal use in developingdeveloping countries. TheThe rate of discoverydiscovery is directly related to funding for projects andand thethe abilityability toto drawdraw uponupon mycological mycological expertiseexpertise fromfrom different countries. Work in the United RepublicRepublic ofof Tanzania (Harkonen,(Härkönen, Codjia andand Yorou, 1995),1995), Mozambique and MalawiMalawi (Boa(Boa etet al.,al., 2000),2000), BurundiBurundi (Buyck,(Buyck, 1994b)1994b) and Benin (De Kesel,Kesel, SaarimäkiSaarimaki and Mwasumbi, 2002) emphasizesemphasizes thethe richnessrichness ofof the tropical, edible mycotamycota andand howhow much remains toto be done.done. In thethe absenceabsence of suchsuch mycological expertise local names can provideprovide useful information, particularly ifif drieddried specimens are availableavailable for later examination.examination. An accurately identified specimenspecimen with aa scientific name forfor that species ensuresensures thatthat any newnew knowledgeknowledge cancan bebe reliablyreliably used.used. AA scientificscientific name is the most useful way of findingfinding outout whetherwhether a a species species isis edible or poisonous, oror ifif it has medicinal or other useful properties. AnAn importerimporter does does notnot need need to to know know if if the the pied pied de de moutonmouton fromfrom BulgariaBulgaria isis Hydnum repandumrepandum sincesince thethe genusgenus containscontains onlyonly edible edible species,species, but anan ItalianItalian buyerbuyer will pay lessless for thethe ordinaryordinary TuberTuber sinosumsinosum from China compared with other moremore valuable species. In this instanceinstance aa scientificscientific name reliably and uniquely describesdescribes the fungus inin question,question, forfor whichwhich informationinformation cancan bebe gleanedgleaned fromfrom thethe literature.literature. 12 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople ------

Using thethe currentcurrent oror "correct" scientific name forfor a fungus The scientificscientific names names for for fungi fungi are are constantly constantly changing changing - an indication of how much therethere is still to discover about thethe diversitydiversity of species.species. New names are proposed and genericgeneric boundariesboundaries adjusted,adjusted, both both asas the result ofof newnew discoveriesdiscoveries andand aa revisionrevision ofof the relationshipsrelationships between species. WhenWhen a new species is proposed it isis judgedjudged againstagainst guidelinesguidelines andand rulesrules drawndrawn up and regularlyregularly revisedrevised by scientists.scientists. The correctcorrect publication of aa new namename does not meanmean thatthat scientistsscientists agreeagree on itsits taxonomictaxonomic status.status. The boundaries between genera and species areare openopen to different interpretations and that is why therethere areare "preferred""preferred" ratherrather than than "correct" "correct" scientific scientific names names forfor fungi. fungi. These changes and uncertainties have important practicalpractical consequencesconsequences for peoplepeople using wwildild edible fungi. People have toto be aware that a species waswas previouslypreviously knownknown by aa differentdifferent namename oror synonym synonym when when searching searching for for information: information: Termitomyces Termitomyces albuminosus was once known asas Collybia albuminosa. Other changes changes areare lessless dramatic. Lentinus edodes, or shi'itake now hashas the preferred namename ofof LentinulaLentinula edodes.edodes. The olderolder "non-preferred" namename isis stillstill regularly used in publications. Opinions areare stillstill divided TABLE 4 as to whether CoriolusCoriolus species with medicinal Preferred (current(current or "correct") namesnames of economicallyeconomically properties should bebe renamedrenamed Trametes.Trametes. importantimportant wildwild fungi Auricularia auricula-judae, the "preferred"preferred As PUBLISHEDPUBLISHED PREFERRED NAMENAME name", appearsappea:rs variously as Hirneola Armillariella meneamellea Armillaria me/leamellea auricula-judae and Auricularia auricula. Auricularia auricula Auricularia auricula-judae Table 4 lists the preferred namesnames ofof wildwild Xerocomus badius Boletus badius edible fungi that are still commonly referred Boletus granulatus Suillus grangranulatus ulatus to by otherother names. CommonCommon spellingspelling Boletus luteus Suillus luteus Suillus luteus mistakes also appearappear inin publications;publications; eveneven Calvatia gigantea, Langermannia gigantea Lycoperdon gigantea minor differences can can castcast doubtdoubt on thethe _CollybiaC_o~IIY,-b_ia_a albuminosa_lb_u_m_i_n_os_a_ ____TermitomycesTe_ r_m_it_o_m~y_c_es_a_l_b_um albuminosus_in_o_sus_ identity of aa fungus.fungus. TheThe DictionaryDictionary of thethe Coriolus hirsutus Trametes hirsuta fungifungi isis aa standardstandard referencereference thatthat isis regularlyregularly Coriolus versicolor Trametes versicolor revised to list all genera of fungi (Kirk etet al.al. DendropolyporusOendropolyporus umbellaumbellatus tus Polyporus umbellatus 2001). IndexIndex Fungorum,Fungorum, anan InternetInternet resource, Fomitopsis officinalis LaricifomesLaricifomes officinalis Grifola umbellatus Polyporus umbellatus allows users toto check the preferred or non-non­ Hericium erinaceum + Hericium erinaceus preferred status for speciesspecies names and to HimeolaHirneola auricula-judae Auricularia auricula-judae find synonymssynonyms (www.indexfungorum.org).(www.indexfungorum.org). Hydnum imbricatus Sarcodon imbricaimbricatus tus This is of considerableconsiderable practicalpractical benefit,benefit, Hypsizygus ulmarium LyophyllumLyophyllum ulmarium although Index Fungorum lackslacks thethe backingbacking Lentinus edodes LentinulaLentinula edodesedodes required to answeranswer fully queries about which Lepiota proceraprocera Macrolepiota procera scientific namename toto use for wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. Lepiota rhacodesrhacodes Macrolepiota rhacodesrhacodes Panus rudis Lentinus strigosus This practical need has still to bebe addressedaddressed Pleurotus comucopiaecornucopiae var.var. Pleurotus citrinopileatus by thethe scientificscientific community. citrinopileatus Pleurotus ferulae Pleurotus eryngii var.var. Identifying speciesspecies ferulaeferulae Pleurotus olearius Omphalotus olearius The generagenera of wildwild edibleedible fungifungi foundfound inin Pleurotus opuntiae Pleurotus ostreatus tropical and subtropicalsubtropical climatesclimates are broadly Pleurotus porrigens Pleurocybella porrigens similar toto those found in thethe mycotamycota ofof Pleurotus tuber-regium Lentinus tuber-regium temperate regionsregions (Lincoff, 2002). TheThe Poria cocos; Wolfiporia cocoscocos Wolfiporia extensaextensa species diversity is, however,however, much greatergreater Rozites caperata + Rozites caperatus in developingdeveloping countries andand care must bebe Sparassis radicataradicata Sparassis crispacrisp a taken when comparing specimens with the Strobilomyces costatispora Afroboletus costatisporus costatisporus taken when comparing specimens with the Termitomyces eurrhizus ++ Termitomyces eurhizus narrower range ofof speciesspecies illustrated in thethe Tricholoma gambosagambosa Calocybe gambosa many field guides published in Europe andand Tricholoma lobayensis;lobayensis; Macrocybe lobayensis North America.America. TT. lobayenselobayense Edible fungi occur in1ll two majmaJor or Verpa bohemica Ptychoverpa bohemica taxonomic groups. The basidiomycetes See www.indexfungorum.orgwww.indexfungorum.org forfor further adviceadvice andand information.information. + indicates a common misspelling.misspelling. contain the mushrooms,mushrooms, bracketbracket fungifungi andand Characteristics: biology,biology, ecology,ecology, uses, cultivation 13

boletes (Plate 1); the ascomycetes include truffles (Plate 4) and morels (Plate(Plate 9).9). There isis nono simple test for determining edibility.edibility. The scientific literatureliterature is the best objective source of advice, but locallocal practices andand preferencespreferences cancan alsoalso revealreveal useful information. Empirical evidence isis thethe ultimateultimate indication of whether or notnot aa speciesspecies is edible. The classicalclassical method forfor identifyingidentifying aa macrofungusmacrofungus involvesinvolves aa microscopicmicroscopic examination of tissues, sporesspores andand sporingsporing structures. This will atat leastleast ensureensure thatthat the genus is identified.identified. IdentificationIdentification of the lesser knownknown tropical species maymay also requirerequire examination ofof reference collections (Plate(Plate 3).3). UsefulUseful visualvisual cluesclues cancan be obtained from photographs inin fieldfield guidesguides andand therethere areare increasingincreasing numbers ofof 'WebWeb sitessites withwith photographs andand writtenwritten descriptions descriptions of of species species (Chapter(Chapter 6). 6). InformationInformation on on Mexican Mexican NWFP providedprovided byby the the Secretaría Secretaria dede MedioMedio AmbienteAmbiente yy RecursosRecursos NaturalesNaturales (2002)(2002) on the Internet includesincludes wildwild edibleedible fungifungi andand isis anan excellent excellent exampleexample ofof anan onlineonline guideguide thatthat could bebe developeddeveloped forfor otherother regions regions (see(see www.semarnat.gob.mx).www.semarnat.gob.mx). Expert identifications cancan be costly,costly, although paying for anan identificationidentification doesdoes provide a guaranteeguarantee ofof gettinggetting aa responseresponse toto a aquery query (Meijer, (Meijer, 2001). 2001). PreservingPreserving specimens is always useful and at its simplest provides a local reference for comparing specimens. MostMost macrofungi are easily preserved by drying (Halling,(Halling, 1996).1996). There are special dryingdrying racks for fungi (Plate(Plate 3), but thesethese cancan alsoalso bebe locallylocally improvised,improvised, adopting methods used for drying fruits and otherother foodfood produce.produce. DriedDried specimensspecimens can, if necessary, bebe sentsent at a laterlater datedate forfor scientificscientific identificationidentification and should be accompanied byby fieldfield notesnotes and/orand/or colour photographs. Molecular tools are commonly used to identify plant pathogenicpathogenic fungifungi and have also been applied to truffle speciesspecies in order toto detectdetect whichwhich speciesspecies areare usedused inin preparedprepared foods. The practical application of these tools for identifying and characterizing edible macromacrofungi fungi has still to be explored. Sources of technical adviceadvice andand supportsupport are discussed inin Chapter 6.

MAJOR GROUPSGROUPS OF WILD FUNGIFUNGI There areare moremore thanthan 200200 generagenera ofof macrofungimacrofungi which containcontain speciesspecies of use to people, mostly becausebecause of their edibleedible properties.properties. A clearclear distinction is made in thisthis bookbook between those recordedrecorded asas simplysimply "edible""edible" andand thosethose thatthat areare actuallyactually eateneaten ("food").("food"). To include all edible species asas "food""food" would greatlygreatly overstate the number ofof speciesspecies consumed by people aroundaround thethe -world.world. Wild fungi with medicinal propertiesproperties are also valued by rural peoplepeople inin severalseveral countries, though this is of secondary importance. The major genera of wild edible fungi are described in Table 5,5, withwith brief notes on medicinal species. The genera of wild edibleedible fungi cancan bebe divideddivided intointo twotwo categories: categories: those containingcontaining speciesspecies that areare widely consumedconsumed and oftenoften exportedexported inin significantsignificant quantities, such as Boletus and Cantharellus; and those with speciesspecies that areare eateneaten widely, usually in small amounts,amounts, and rarely if ever tradedtraded beyond national boundaries. Annex 11 summarizessummarizes the generalgeneral importance of wild edibleedible fungi by countrycountry whilewhile Annexes 22 andand 44 listlist individualindividual species. species.

Medicinal mushroomsmushrooms Medicinal mushrooms are attractingattracting greatergreater scientificscientific andand commercialcommercial interest,interest, prompted byby aa renewedrenewed awarenessawareness of thethe useuse ofof suchsuch materialmaterial in traditionaltraditional ChineseChinese medicine (Table 17). The InternationalInternational JournalJournal ofof Medicinal Medicinal MushroomsMushrooms beganbegan publication inin 19991999 and is an important sourcesource ofof informationinformation forfor thisthis expandingexpanding fieldfield of research (Wasser and Weis, 1999b).1999b). See See Chapter Chapter 44 forfor furtherfurther discussions aboutabout the health benefitsbenefits ofof medicinalmedicinal mushrooms.mushrooms.

Ceremonial aspectsaspects The ceremonialceremonial and religious roles played by wild fungifungi inin differentdifferent culturescultures areare closely associated with hallucinogenic properties. This hashas attractedattracted muchmuch scientificscientific 14 Wild ededibleible ffungi:ungi: a ggloballobal overviewoverview of theirtheir useuse andand importanceimportance toto peoplepeople ------

TABLE 55 Important generagenera of wild fungifungi withwith notes notes on on uses uses andand tradetrade Information obtainedobtained mostlymostly fromfrom developingdeveloping countries.countries. See wwwwww.wildusefulfungi.org.wildusefulfungi.org forfor more details of individualindividual recordsrecords for species and and countries. countries. "Food" "Food" signifiessignifies confirmedconfirmed useuse ofof species;species; "edible" "edible" isis a a notednoted propertyproperty without confirmedconfirmed consumption.consumption. TheThe totaltotal numbernumber of of edible edible species species is thethe sumsum of of the the two.two. Use refers refers to to country country of of origin origin and and not not countries countries of of export. export. "Medicinal" "Medicinal" ('med.')('med.') isis aa notednoted property andand doesdoes not confirmconfirm use use ofof species species forfor health reasons.rea sons. Edible speciesspecies may may have have medicinal medicinal properties properties and and therefore therefore thethe totaltotal number number of of species species inin boldbold may may be be lessless thanthan thethe sumsum ofof individual individual uses. uses. See LincoffLincoff (2002)(2002) for for distributiondistribution of majormajor groupsgroups of edible fungi aroundaround the world.

GENUS No. OFOF COUNTRY USE AND GENERALGENERAL NOTES SPECIES USE ANDANO PROPERTIES Agaricus 60 Edible species reported reported from from 2929 countries,countries, asas food food inin 1313 (under-reported,(under-reported, thoughthough note possible confusionconfusion between wild andand cultivatedcultivated sources). sources) . food 4343 Agaricus speciesspecies are are regularly regularly collected collected from from the the wildwild but only cultivatedcultivated formsforms areare edible 1717 exported. SomeSome species areare poisonous.poisonous. A.A. bisporusbisporus isis the the mostly commonly cultivated med.6med. 6 edible fungus. The medicinal A. blazei is exported from BrazilBrazil to JapanJapan and cultivated and sold in China. Amanita 83 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 31 countries; as foodfood in 1515 (under-reported).(under-reported). food 4242 A. caesarea is highlyhighly valued in countriescountries suchsuch asas Mexico, Turkey and Nepal. FewFew species are are traded traded acrossacross national national bordersborders.. There There are are a a notable notable numbernumber of poisonous edible 39 edible 39 species. A. A. phal/oides phalloides is is a a major major c causeause of of deaths deaths around around the the world world from from consumptionconsumption medmed.. 7 of wild fungi. Auricularia 13 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 24 countries, as foodfood in 1010 (under-reported).(under-reported). food 1010 A global genus with aa relativelyrelatively smallsmall numbernumber ofof species. species. Known generically as edible 3 "ear fungi",fungi", they they are are distinctive, distinctive ,easily easily recognized recognized andand consumed consumed byby forestforest dwellersdwellers edible 3 in Kalimantan asas well asas ruralrural communitiescommunities inin allall continents. continents. Some Some speciesspecies have med.4med. 4 medicinal properties. There is a major tradetrade in cultivated speciesspecies thoughthough few datadata have been seen. Key speciesspecies:: A.A. auricula-judaeauricula-judae Boletus 72 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 30 countries; as foodfood in 1515 (under-reported) foodfood 3939 B. edulis is thethe best known species, regularlyregularly collected and sold and major exports from outsideoutside andand withinwithin Europe. Europe. ThereThere areare aa somesome poisonous species but but fewfew edible 33 edible 33 incidents. "Bolete" isis a general description of a macrofungus with aa stalkstalk and pores med.7med. 7 on the underside of the cap.cap. Apprehension exists about about eatingeating ""boletes"boletes" inin easteast and southern Africa. Cantharellus 42 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 45 countries; as foodfood in 2222 (under-reported).(under-reported). foodfood 2222 A diverse and cosmopolitan genusgenus containingcontaining widespread widespread species species suchsuch asas C. cibariuscibarius.. Sold in markets inin many countries,countries, sometimes sometimes in in functional functional mi mixturesxtures of of differentdifferent edible 20 species. Major Major quantitiesquantities areare collectedcollected andand exportedexported around the world. NoNo poisonouspoisonous med.3med. 3 species. Cordyceps 37 Useful species (mostly (mostly medicinal) medicinal) reportedreported from three countries.countries. edible? 35 The only reason forfor ''eating'eating' speciesspecies is forfor health benefits. Collected intensively in parts of China and less so in Nepal. Many species described from Japan, but local med. 9 parts of China and less so in Nepal. Many species described from Japan, but local med. 9 use uncertainuncertain.. WidelyWidely valuedvalued forfor its medicinal propertiesproperties andand anan importantimportant source ofof income forfor collectors. collectors. KeyKey species: species: probablyprobably C. C. sinensissinensis andand C.C. militamilitaris ris CortinariusCortina rius 50 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 11 countries; as foodfood in three. foodfood 3030 Widely disregarded in Europe and North America because ofof concern aboutabout poisonous species. Most records of local use are restricted to a few countries e.g. edible 20 poisonous species. Most records of local use are restricted to a few countries e.g. China,China, Japan, thethe RuRussianssian Federation Federation and and Ukraine. Ukraine. No No knownknown eexportxport tradetrade.. med.10med. 10 LaccariaLaccaria 14 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 17 countries;countries; asas food food inin fourfour (under reported) food 99 Regularly collected and eaten, also soldsold widelywidely in marketsmarkets.. No reports of export trade, which is unsurprising given their generallygenerally smallsmall size and unremarkable taste. Key edible 55 species is L. laccata. med.4med. 4 Lactarius 94 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 39 countries; as food in 1717 (under reported).reported). food 5656 Many different species species areare regularlyregularly collected collected and and eaten. eaten Key. Key species species suchsuch asas L. deliciosus areare highly esteemed and there isis aa valuablevaluable tradetrade in in Europe. Europe. Several Several edible 38 key species frequently frequently soldsold inin lolocalcal markets.markets. LittleLittle reported export activityactivity despitedespite med.7med. 7 widespread popularitypopularity,, perhapsperhaps reflecting thethe diversitydiversity ofof species species on offer.offer. LeccinumLeccinum 2222 Edible species reported reported fromfrom eight countries; as foodfood in two.two. food 4 Widely eaten and collected but littlelittle trade trade beyond beyond national national boundaries. boundaries. Key Key species species L. scabrum.scabrum. PossiblePossible exports exports from from pine pine plantations plantations inin tropics,tropics, butbut poorly understood.understood. edible 9 Lentinula 3 Edible species reportedreported from six countries; as foodfood in four. food 22 Lentinula edodesedodes isis the keykey speciesspecies (= Lentinus edodes). Known asas shi'itake itit is is cultivated in many countries and is an important commercial species (nearing 30% edible 1 cultivated in many countries and is an important commercial species (nearing 30% 1 cultivated amount).amount). CultivatedCultivated shi'itake isis exported. med.1 Lentinus 28 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 24 countries;countries; asas food food inin eight (under-reported).(under-reported). food 1616 Although manymany differentdifferent species species are collected and used locallylocally only only two two oror three are of anyany significance.significance. KeyKey species probablyprobably L.L. tuber-regium,tuber-regium, valued for itsits medicinalmedicinal edible 1212 properties.properties. Little oror no export trade.trade. med. 55 Characteristics: biology,biology, ecology,ecology, uses, cultivationcultivation 15 -----

GENUS No. OFOF COUNTRY USEUSE ANDAND GENERALGENERAL NOTESNOTES SPECIES USE AND PROPERTIES Lycoperdon 22 Edible species reportedreported from 1919 countries; as food in sevenseven (under-reported). food 99 There are many records of species beingbeing eateneaten but typically reportsreports areare ofof small-scale small-scale collecting andand use.use. Only market salessales known areare inin Mexico.Mexico. KeyKey speciesspecies are edible 1010 L. pyriformepyriforme and L. perlatum. med.med.10 10 Macrolepiota 13 Edible species reported reported from from 3333 countries;countries; asas food food inin ninenine (under-reported).(under-reported). food 77 M. procera is thethe key species and and most most recorded, recorded, from from around around 1515 countries countries on on all all majormajor continents. LocallyLocally consumed;consumed; trade isis essentiallyessentially small-scalesmall-scale and local. edible 6 med.med.1 1 Morchella 18 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 28 countries; as foodfood in 1010 (under recorded).recorded). food 1414 Highly valued genus vvithwith several speciesspecies that that fruit fruit in abundance inin certaincertain yearsyears andand are a major source of (export) revenuerevenue inin severalseveral countries. Species areare notnot alwaysalways edible 4 edible 4 eaten in countries where theythey areare collected.co llected. KeyKey speciesspecies M. escu/enta.esculenta. med.med.5 5 Pleurotus 40 Edible species reported reported from from 3535 countries;countries; asas food food inin 19 (under(under reported).reported). food 2222 Key speciesspecies is is P. Postreatus ostreatus in in terms terms of of amounts amounts eaten, eaten, predominantly predominantly from from cultivation.cultivation. Other species saidsaid toto be more tasty. Species occur occur widely widely and are regularly pickedpicked edible 1818 thoughthough seldomseldom traded from thethe vvild.wild. med.med.7 7 Polyporus 30 Edible and medicinal species reportedreported from 2020 countries; asas food oror medicinemedicine inin seven.seven. food 1515 Many species are are regularly regularly usedused and and eaten eaten but but ofof relatively minor importance. Some areare cultivated.cultivated. OnlyOnly oneone record known, from Nepal,Nepal, of sellingselling inin markets.markets. NoNo edible 9 international tradetrade isis knownknown toto occur. occur. med.12med. 12 Ramaria 44 Edible species reportedreported from 1818 countries;countries; usedused asas food inin seven. seven. food 3333 Many records of local use. Regularly sold in markets in Nepal and MexicoMexico andand elsewhere. Several majormajor species butbut perhaps R.R. botrytisbotrytis is the most commonly edible 1111 collected and used.used. Some species are are poisonous, poisonous, others others areare reportedreported to havehave med.5med. 5 medicinal properties. Russula 128 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 28 countries; as foodfood in 1212 (under-reported). foodfood 7171 One of the mostmost widespread and commonly eaten genera containing manymany edibleedible species. Also Also poisonous poisonous varieties varieties though though mostmost cancan bebe eateneaten afterafter cookcooking.ing. RegularlyRegularly edible 5454 sold in markets but speciesspecies names notnot always recorded.recorded. GenusGenus is is of of tropical tropical origin. med.25med. 25 Notable speciesspecies include R.R. delicadelica andand R. R .virescens. virescens. Suillus 27 Edible species reported reported from 25 countries; as foodfood in 1010 (under-recorded).(under-recorded). food 2626 Key species isis S. S. luteus, luteus, exported exported fromfrom Chile. S. granulatusgranulatus is moremore widely recordedrecorded though itsits useuse as a foodfood isis limited. ManyMany otherother speciesspecies are regularlyregularly collected and edible 11 eaten and several are sold in Mexican markets. med.2med. 2 Terfezia 7 Edible species reported reported fromfrom eight countries; as foodfood in four. food 55 Desert trufflestruffles occur widely in NorthNorth AfricaAfrica andand partsparts of of Asia. Asia. TheyThey areare saidsaid to bebe important butbut few few details details were were found found concerning concerning trade trade or or market market sales. sales. edible 2 Termitomyces 27 Edible species reported reported fromfrom 35 countries;countries; asas food food inin 16 (under-reported).(under-reported). food 2323 Highly esteemed genus. ManyMany speciesspecies are are widely vvidely eaten eaten with with often often high high nutritionalnutritional value. Collected notably throughout Africa. Africa. Used Used widelywidely in in Asia Asia butbut less less vvellwell edible 4 documented. NotableNotable speciesspecies include TT. clypeatus,ciypeatus, TT. microporus andand TT. striatus.striatus. SoldSold med.med.3 3 in markets andand alongalong roadsides,roadsides, and goodgood sourcesource of income.income. Tricholoma 52 Edible species reportedreported from 30 countries; as food in 1111 (under-reported).(under-reported). food 3939 The most important speciesspecies is T.T matsutake, inin termsterms of volume collected and financial value.value. China,China, bothboth KoreasKoreas andand thethe RussianRussian Federation are major exportersexporters toto edible 1313 Japan. TheThe PacificPacific northwest northwest ofof North America, Morocco and Mexico export related med.17med. 17 species, but but onlyonly inin significant quantities fromfrom thethe first. first. Some Some speciesspecies are poisonous ifif eaten raw; othersothers remainremain soso even after cooking.cooking. IgnoredIgnored oror lowly lowly esteemed esteemed inin severalseveral countries prior toto exportexport opportunities opportunities e.g. e.g. Bhutan, Bhutan, Mexico Mexico (Oaxaca). (Oaxaca). Tuber (truffles) 18 Edible species reported reported fromfrom eight countries; as foodfood in four (under-reported).(under-reported). food 88 Contains species of of extremelyextremely high value and much esteemed in gourmet cooking,cooking, but only of veryvery minorminor significance significance toto poor poor communities communities in in the the South. South. There There is is somesome edible 1010 interestinterest from TurkeyTurkey inin management ofof truffles.truffles. Scientific Scientific principlesprinciples havehave beenbeen applied toto truffletruffle management management and and successful successfu lschemes schemes initiatedinitiated in in Italy, Italy, France, France, Spain and New Zealand. TheThe "false"false truffles"truffles" comprisecomprise other generagenera e.g.e.g. Tirmania,Tirmania, Rhizopogon, Terfezia.Terfezia. Volvariella 12 Edible speciesspecies reported reported from from 2727 countries;countries; asas food food inin 77 (under-reported,(under-reported, thoughthough note possible confusion betweenbetvveen wildwild and cultivated origins).origins). foodfood 55 Key speciesspecies is is V. V volvacea. volvacea. Widely Widely cultivated cultivated andand soldsold inin local markets but also edible 77 collected from the wild. med.med.1 1 16 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa global overview of their use and importance to people

TABLE 6 Fungi withwith conflicting reports onon edibilityedibility

BINOMIAL NOTES ' Agaricus arvensisarvensis Reported mostly as edible and eaten in Mexico;Mexico; alsoalso said to bebe a gastrointestinal irritant (Lincoff(Lincoff andand Mitchel,Mitchel, 1977).1977). Agaricus semotus Said toto be edible from HongHong KongKong (Chang(Chang andand Mao,Mao, 1995);1995); othersothers saysay itit isis poisonous (Rammeloo andand Walleyn,W_a_I_le.:.,y_n,--, 1993). _1_9_93-')_. ______Amanita spissa spissa Several reportsreports indicate indicate this this can can be be eaten eaten (although (although none none state state "food"); "food"); an equal number saysay it isis poisonous,poisonous, e.g.e.g. ChangChang andand Mao,Mao, 1995.1995. Amanita flavoconiaflavoconia Conflicting accounts fromfrom Mexico: oneone reportreport says it it isis edible, edible, the the otherother thatthat it isis poisonous. Amanita gemmata Reported as edibleedible from MexicoMexico andand CostaCosta Rica butbut implicated inin aa poisoning case fromfrom Guatemala (Logemann etal.,et al. ,1987). 1987). BoletusBo/etus ca/opuscalopus Edible in the RussianRussian far east (Vasil'eva, 1978); saidsaid toto be poisonous in Slovenia (www.matkurja.com)(www.matkurja.com) and by other field guides.guides. Chlorophyllum molybdites Many reports confirm thatthat this this is is a a poisonous poisonous species species but itit is is alsoalso saidsaid to bebe edible in MexicoMexico (Villarreal(Villarreal andand Perez-Moreno,Perez-Moreno, 1989)1989) andand BeninBenin (De(De Kesel,Kesel, Codjia and Yorou, 2002). Easily confused confused with with MacrolepiotaMacrolepiota procera, a well known edibleedible species. species. Coprinus africanus Eaten in Nigeria (Oso, 1975); otherother reports suggest it is poisonous in Africa (Walleyn and Rammeloo,Rammeloo, 1994).1994). Coprinus atramentarius Edible if eaten in the absenceabsence of alcohol; this producesproduces an unpleasant effect if imbibedimbibed atat thethe samesame time, hencehence remarks thatthat it isis potentially poisonouspoisonous (Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977).1977). GyromitraGyromrtra esculentaesculenta In Finland itit isis aa delicacydelicacy (1-lärkönen,(Hark6nen, 1998)1998) andand itit is also widelywidely eaten inin thethe Russian Federation Federation and and neighbouring neighbouring regions. InIn otherother countries it is said toto be poisonous and can kill when ravvraw (Hall et a/.,al., 1998a).1998a). TheThe toxictoxic properties are mitigated by suitable preparation prior to eating.eating. Gyromitra infula Eaten in Mexico (www.semarnat.gob.mx) butbut also also reportedreported as as poisonouspoisonous (Lincoff andand Mitchel,Mitchel, 1977).1977). Helvella lacunosa Widely eaten but also reported as toxictoxic if eaten raw (Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977). Lactarius piperatus Many reports saysay it isis edible andand confirmedconfirmed asas foodfood in in Turkey Turkey (Caglarirmak, (Caglarirmak, Unal and Otles,Otles, 2002) but alsoalso reportedreported as as poisonouspoisonous inin China China (Liu(Liu andand Yang, Yang, 1982). Lactarius torminosus Several reports say itit is edible (e.g.(e.g . Malyi, 1987);1987); others saysay it isis poisonouspoisonous (Hall et al.,al., 1998a).1998a). Lampteromyces japonicus A common cause of poisoning inin JapanJapan (Hall et a/.,al., 1998a)1998a) but alsoalso has medicinal propertiesproperties (Hobbs, (Hobbs, 1995).1995). Lenzites elegans Edible in the UnitedUnited RepublicRepublic ofof Tanzania Tanzania (Rammeloo(Rammeloo andand Walleyn,Walleyn, 1993)1993) but maybemaybe poisonous in the DemocraticDemocratic Republic of the Congo (Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994).1994). Lepiota clypeolaria Edible in Mexico and HongHong KongKong SpecialSpecial Administrative Region,Region, China,China, butbut also said to bebe poisonous.poisonous. Morchella esculentaesculenta Like other morelsmorels said to be poisonous if eaten rawraw (Lincoff(Lincoff andand Mitchel,Mitchel, 1977). EdibleEdible andand goodgood when cooked. Paxillus involutus Widely reported as poisonous butbut saidsaid to to be edibleedible afterafter suitable cooking and preparationpreparation in in the the Russian Russian farfar east east (Vasil'eva, (Vasil'eva, 1978).1978). Phallus indusiatus Reported as edible (Bouriquet, 1970)1970) and poisonous (Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994): both reportsreports areare fromfrom Madagascar. Madagascar. Podaxis pistillarispistillaris Reported as edible from IndiaIndia andand PakistanPakistan (Batra,(Batra, 1983).1983). Said toto be poisonous in Nigeria (Walleyn(Walleyn andand Rammeloo,Rammeloo, 1994);1994); medicinal properties (Hobbs, 1995).1995). Ramaria formosa Edible in Nepal (Adhikari andand Durrieu,Durrieu, 1996)1996) but saidsaid to bebe poisonouspoisonous inin several otherother countries, including BulgariaBulgaria (lordanov,(Iordanov, VanevVanev andand Fakirova,Fakirova, 1978). Russula emetica Undoubtedly poisonouspoisonous if eaten raw but saidsaid to bebe edibleedible inin MexicoMexico (Zamora-Martinez, AlvardoAlvardo andand Dominuez,Dominuez , 2000)2000) andand thethe Russian Russian far easteast (Vasil'eva, 1978).1978). Stropharia coronilla Conflicting reportsreports within Mexico:Mexico: saidsaid to bebe edibleedible (Villarreal(Villarreal andand Perez-Perez­ Moreno, 1989)1989) andand poisonouspoisonous (Aroche(Aroche etet al., al., 1984).1984). Suillus placidus Said to be edibleedible (Vasil'eva,(Vasil'eva, 1978)1978) and poisonous (Chang and Mao,Mao, 1995).1995). Tricholoma pessundatum Edible in HongHong KongKong (Chang(Chang andand Mao,Mao, 1995)1995) butbut TT. pessundatumpessundatum var.var. montanum reportedreported as as poisonouspoisonous elsewhereelsewhere (Lincoff(Lincoff and and Mitchel,Mitchel, 1977). 1977). Tricholoma sulphureum All recordsrecords say itit is poisonous apartapart fromfrom an account from India that sayssays it isis edible (Purkayastha(Purkayastha andand Chandra,Chandra, 1985).1985). Characteristics: biology,biology, ecology,ecology, uses, cultivationcultivat on 17

and personal interest,interest, particularlyparticularly inin Mexico Mexico (Davis,(Davis, 1996;1996; Riedlinger, 1990). GloballyGlobally this use of wild fungi is of minor or nono relevancerelevance to most countries.

EDIBILITY AND POISONOUSPOISONOUS FUNGIFUNGI Many macrofungi are not worth eatingeating oror areare simplysimply inedible.inedible. This worthless group of species - as defined by their edibilityedibility - significantly dwarfsdwarfs thethe very small numbernumber of toxic or poisonouspoisonous species,species, ofof whichwhich therethere areare onlyonly a a veryvery few few thatthat can can kill.kill. YetYet itit isis also true that thisthis veryvery smallsmall groupgroup ofof lethal lethal speciesspecies has significantly shaped attitudes toto eating wild fungi, creating potential barriersbarriers toto widerwider marketingmarketing inin many many places. places. Knowing thethe scientificscientific namename ofof aa fungusfungus providesprovides aa goodgood indicationindication ofof its its edibility.edibility. In somesome casescases thethe genusgenus alonealone willwill suffice;suffice; allall known CantharellusCantharellus speciesspecies areare edibleedible (though notnot equallyequally tasty).tasty). OnOn the the otherother hand, hand, Amanita Amanita contains contains both both exquisite exquisite edible edible and deadly poisonous species.species. The only reliable guide to edibility is thethe knowledgeknowledge thatthat someone has eaten aa particularparticular typetype - and survived. Local practices and preferences are therefore anotheranother usefuluseful sourcesource ofof information.information. There areare conflictingconflicting reportsreports inin fieldfield guidesguides aboutabout edibility. edibility. SomeSome recommendrecommend eating species thatthat others rejectreject asas poisonous.poisonous. PeoplePeople fromfrom easterneastern FinlandFinland regardregard the false morel, Gyromitra esculenta,esculenta, asas aa culinaryculinary delicacydelicacy once itit hashas beenbeen carefullycarefully pre-cooked.pre-cooked. Guides in thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates andand elsewhereelsewhere statestate emphaticallyemphatically that the fungus isis poisonous andand shouldshould notnot bebe eaten.eaten. OtherOther examples examples ofof conflictingconflicting adviceadvice are summarized inin TableTable 6.

What speciesspecies are eaten?

Reports of edible and poisonous poisonous speciesspecies areare based on named sources.sources. The accuracy of this information lieslies withwith thesethese originaloriginal sourccs. sources.

A total ofof 11 154 edible and food species have been recorded from 8585 countries (Table(Table 1).1). The species eaten inin one country or regionregion oftenoften differdiffer from nearbynearby areasareas and in some cases there are dramaticdramatic changeschanges in tradition.tradition. TheThe MesoamericanMesoamerican tradition ofof eatingeating wild edible fungifungi continues from MexicoMexico to west GuatemalaGuatemala then isis absent from muchmuch of HondurasHonduras andand Nicaragua,Nicaragua, even though both containcontain forest areas thatthat in theory support productionproduction of of edible edible fungi.fungi. The numbernumber ofof speciesspecies eateneaten isis sometimessometimes only aa fractionfraction ofof thosethose available.available. Only 15 ofof thethe 284 edibleedible speciesspecies inin ArmeniaArmenia areare regularlyregularly eaten (Nanaguylan, 2002, personal communication: EdibleEdible fungi fungi inin Armenia).Armenia). InIn twotwo districts of Turkey, 12 out ofof aa possible 29 edible species were collected and eateneaten (Yilmaz,(Yilmaz, Oder andand Isiloglu,Isiloglu, 1997).1997). The reasons for thesethese different patterns ofof useuse areare not alwaysalways clear but there isis a trend of less frequent use as people move away from the land. Rural people in Guatemala have a positive yet informed approach to eatingeating wild fungi which people living in cities lack (Lowy, 1974). EducatedEducated peoplepeople livingliving inin townstowns in Malawi lose the strong local traditions thatthat ruralrural communitiescommunities maintainmaintain andand eveneven acquire a suspicious attitudeattitude towards wild fungifungi (Lowore(Lowore andand Boa,Boa, 2001).2001). In partsparts ofof thethe UnitedUnited Republic Republic ofof Tanzania Tanzania boletesboletes areare thoughtthought toto bebe poisonouspoisonous (Hirkonen,(Härkönen, SaarimakiSaarimiiki andand Mwasumbi, 1994a).1994a). In In ColombiaColombia therethere is nono apparentapparent tradition ofof eatingeating wildwild fungifungi inin thethe AndeanAndean regions, regions, thoughthough they they occur occur -widely widely (Franco-(Franco­ Molano, Aldana-Gomez andand Halling,Halling, 2000).2000). TricholomaTricholoma matsutake was ofof littlelittle locallocal interest in Sichuan,Sichuan, China (Winkler,(Winkler, 2002) priorprior to Japanese demand that stimulated an export trade inin the latelate 1980s andand appearsappears toto havehave promptedprompted wider local consumption.consumption. A similar event took placeplace in thethe PacificPacific northwest, thoughthough with with Tricholoma Tricholoma magnivelaremagnivelare (Redhead, 1997). This was collected and eaten by Japanese settlers in thethe 1930s1930s (Zeller(Zeller and Togashi, 1934) butbut at the time thisthis diddid notnot arouse arouse much, much, if if any, any, locallocal interest.interest. 18 Wild edibleedible fungi:fungi: aa global overviewoverv ew of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Poisonous speciesspecies A review of poisoning incidents in officialofficial and informal publications shows that thethe frequencyfrequency of such events and the effecteffect on humans areare overalloverall less than that suggestedsuggested by attendant publicity (Logemann(Logemann et al., 1987). DuringDuring the search for information on wild edible fungi,fungi, aboutabout 170 poisonouspoisonous species werewere noted.noted. MostMost areare eithereither relatedrelated toto edible species oror confused with them. There are,are, ofof course,course, realreal dangersdangers inin collectingcollecting and consuming poisonous fungi, but thesethese should bebe seen against the wider background of millions of people collecting and eating wild fungi safely on aa regular basis.basis. Several popularpopular and highly esteemed edible species areare poisonouspoisonous when raw. Few people eat them in this condition andand risksrisks ofof poisoningpoisoning areare in realityreality small.small. Poisonous mushrooms varyvary in their effectseffects from mild stomachstomach and digestivedigestive upsets to moremore serious problems such as liver damage. The solutions to thesethese potentialpotential risksrisks includeinclude providing locallocal adviceadvice on which speciesspecies to collectcollect andand whichwhich onesones toto avoidavoid (Plate(Plate 3) 3) andand publicity campaigns thatthat highlight potentially poisonous species onon posters. Mr Sabiti Fides, aa tradertrader in Malawi, tooktook a more direct route by eating mushrooms in front of his customers (Box(Box 3). In southern AfricaAfrica roadsideroadside sellerssellers onlyonly offeroffer "safc "safe species"species" (Ryvarden,(Ryvarden, PiearcePiearce andand Masuka, 1994) andand mostmost market places areare aa reliablereliable meansmeans ofof obtainingobtaining known,known, edible wild fungi. Problems can occur with"with "contamination" contamination" inin marketsmarkets butbut such such incidentsincidents areare most uncommon (see (see TableTable 8).8). Finland has trainedtrained mushroommushroom advisersadvisers coveringcovering all ruralrural areasareas (Härkönen,(Harkonen, 1998;1998; HarkonenHärkönen and and Järyinen,Jarvinen, 1993).1993). The svamp "police" based in somesome towntown centres in NorwayNorway help collectors identify edible species, andand therethere areare similarsimilar schemesschemes in in otherother countries.countries. Poisonings arcare associated with a number ofof events:events: • young children collecting indiscriminately and eating raw mushrooms; • immigrants arriving inin a newnew countrycountry and wrongly identifyingidentifying aa locallocal species thatthat turns out toto bebe poisonous; • food shortages and economic hardship force people to hunt forfor food;food; • different physiological responses to an "edible" fungus. Mexicans livingliving inin California have eaten Amanita pballoidesphalloides - a poisonouspoisonous speciesspecies not found atat homehome - thinking itit waswas thethe edibleedible VolvariellaVolvariella volvaceavolvacea (Plate(Plate 2).2). TheThe guide for edibleedible mushroomsmushrooms in IsraelIsrael isis writtenwritten inin Hebrew Hebrew and and Russian Russian (Wasser, (Wasser, 1995), followingfollowing thethe arrivalarrival ofof overover one million Russians in the 1990s andand their strong tradition of collectingcollecting wild edible fungi.fungi. One Russian was poisoned when he tootoo

BOXBOX3 3 "If I eat thisthis bowabowa it is OK to buy"buy" -- MrMr Sabiti Sabiti Fides,Fides, trader fromfrom MalawiMalawi "We asked around for a typical bowa*bowa':' 'middleman' or 'wholesaler''wholesaler' and metmet with SabitiSabiti Fides. As it turned out hehe waswas notnot typicaltypical atat allall butbut reallyreally ratherrather exceptionalexceptional - the KINGKING OF OF THE THE BOWA BOWA TRADERS. TRADERS. Fides started buyingbuying bowabowa fromfrom MachingaMachinga andand takingtaking themthem toto Zomba Zomba for for sale sale in in the the 1998-99 1998-99 season. season. He was trying toto thinkthink ofof ways ways ofof earningearning somesome moneymoney toto supportsupport his his family.family. He observedobserved thatthat atat thethe end of a day on the roadsideroadside stall a good deal of bowa remained unsold.unsold. HeHe decideddecided toto buybuy them up and take them to Zomba. In order toto findfind customerscustomers hehe wouldwould walk walk around around residential residential areas areas suchsuch asas thethe policepolice trainingtraining college,college, the barracks, Chancellor College and also the suburbs suchsuch asas Mponda BwinoBwino andand Chikanda,Chikanda, sellingselling from house to house. At first he found the householders reluctant - 'maybe'maybe they are poisonous', 'maybe'maybe they are not good'. PatientlyPatiently hehe wouldwould persuadepersuade thethe buyersbuyers (mainly(mainly women) to try themthem - tastingtasting somesome himself in order to demonstrate lack of poison. One might buy. Then the next time others would have observed that the one whowho boughtbought enjoyedenjoyed theirtheir purchasepurchase andand theythey wouldwould followfollow suit.suit. GraduallyGradually hehe would buildbuild up his regular customers who eventually wouldwould buy without fail." ". bowa - edibleedible fungus Source: Lowore andand Boa,Boa, (2001).(2001). Characteristics: biology,biology, ecology,ecology, uses, cultivation 19 ------

TABLE 7 IncidentsIncidents of large-scale poisoningpoisoning causedcaused by by consumption consumption of of wildwild fungifungi

CHINA NUMBER NUMBER NOTES DEAD POISONED

1962-82 108 444 Ninghua county, Fujiang province (Liu and Yang, 1982): 8888 incidentsincidents werewere reported.reported. Of thethe 1616 poisonouspoisonous speciesspecies knownknown to occur,occur, 11 belong toto RussulaRussula ______oro_r Amanita._A_m_a_n_it_a. PopulationPopulation ofof FujiangFujiang inin 20002000 was 34 million. ______2001 6 1 700 People boughtbought "poisonous mushrooms" from aa market.market. ReportReport byby YongkiuYongkiu county health bureau;bureau; via www.hclinfinet.com. ------~- Total 113 22037 037

POLAND NUMBER NUMBER NOTES DEAD POISONED

1931 31 ns All childrenchildren andand associatedassociated mainly with eatingeating AmanitaAmanita phalloides. phalloides. OccurredOccurred inin Poznan (Lincoff(Lincoff and Mitchel, 1977) -fromfrom an an account account by by Simons Simons (1971). (1971).

1952 11 ______91 __C_oConsumption _n_s_umption of Cortinarius orellanusorellanus (Lampe(Lampe and Ammirati,Ammirati ,1990). 1990). 1953-62 64 708 From aa surveysurvey ofof incidents over a ten-year period. FurtherFurther deathsdeaths andand poisonings occurred from eating CortinariusCortinarius orellanus,orellanus, GyromitraGyromitra esculenta esculenta (dead - 6;6; poisonedpoisoned - 132) and and principally principally Amanita Amanita phalloides phalloides (dead (dead - 54;54; poisoned -553).553). Lincoff Lincoff and and Mitchel, Mitchel, (1977) (1977) based based on on Grzymala Grzymala (1965).(1965). Total 106 799

RUSSIAN NUMBER NUMBER NOTES FEDERATION DEAD POISONED

1992 23 170 Report in the LosLos Angeles Times, 8 August 1992. Occurred about 350 miles ___ __fromf_ro_m_M Moscow._o_s_cow. Species of of fungifungi involved_ notno_t_ mentioned.m_e_n_ti_o_n_e_d_. ______1999 ns 22402 240 From Pravda, 3030 May,May, 20012001.. This This short short reportreport says that that thethe incidents occurred ______m_o_smostly _tl ___y _inin CentralCentral Russia. Russia. 2000a ns 24702 470 Also from Pravda, 30 May 2001, andand againagain notes that the incidentsincidents occurredoccurred mostly inin CentralCentral Russia. Russia. 200062000b ca. 30 ca. 300 Report from thethe LosAnge/esLos Angeles Times,Times, 16 July 2001, sayssays that that anan "unusually"unusually high number of deaths" were reported byby the locallocal authorities in Belgorod,Belgorod, Voronezh and Volgogad Oblasts. They They were were linked linked toto consumption of Amanita phalloidesphalloides but but other other species species maymay have have beenbeen involved.involved. PolicePo lice patrolled forestsforests toto discourage discourage collectioncollection and and checked checked basketsbaskets ofof collectors. collectors. Total 53 55180 180

UKRAINE NUMBER NUMBER NOTES DEAD POISONED

1992 40 400 Report from thethe Los Los AngelesAngeles Times,Times, 8 August 1992.1992. Species responsibleresponsible forfor these incidentsincidents werewere notnot mentioned. 1998 74 _____ns ___AssociatedA _ssociated Press, date date unknown unknown (www(www.geocities.comNosemite/Trails/7331)..geocities.com/YosemitefTrails/7331). 1999 42 ns As above. 2000 112 ns As above. Total 268 400 (4(4000*) 000*) ns -- not stated.stated. * Sum calculated using anan estimatedestimated ratio of tenten poisonedpoisoned toto eacheach personperson vvhowho dies,dies, to to accountaccount forfor thosethose yearsyears where where people people dieddied butbut the number of peoplepeople poisonedpoisoned and who recoveredrecovered were not stated.

mistook a poisonouspoisonous speciesspecies for an edibleedible speciesspecies known from hishis homehome countrycountry (Hazani, Taitelman and Sasha,Sasha, 1983). Other reportsreports suggestsuggest aa certaincertain recklessness recklessness amongst Russians in choosingchoosing whichwhich speciesspecies toto collectcollect andand eateat (Matsuk,(Matsuk, 2000).2000). Some people eat LaettPorusLaetiporus sulphureus withoutwithout any ill-effectsill-effects while others feelfeel ill.ill. The suggested reason is that physiological responses byby people diffdifferer but there could also be different strains of thethe fungus,fungus, whichwhich differdiffer in chemicalchemical composition. Little is known aboutabout thisthis particularparticular featurefeature forfor poisonouspoisonous oror potentially potentially poisonous poisonous species. species. A summary ofof well-publicizedw ell-publicized incidents incidents of of widespread widespread poisoning poisoning is is given given in in Table Table 7.7. There has been a spectacular rise in poisonings and deaths in Ukraine in the last decade. Various reasons have been given, includingincluding aa drdramaticamatic economic downturndownturn and thethe desperate search for foodSfood' oror produceproduce toto trade trade in in local local markets.markets.

5 "I had had nevernever seenseen peoplepeople (in(in centralcentral Lviv)Lviv) not onlyonly rummaging rummaging inin dustbins,dustbins, butbut putting putting valuable valuable scraps scraps ofof food fromfrom them them directly directly into into their their mouth mouth - even- even in in the the collapsed collapsed societies societies suchsuch asas GeGeorgiaorgia aandnd Moldova." Moldova." (Almond,(Almond, 2002).2002). _202_0 ______Wild edible funfungi:gi: aa ggloballobal overvieovervieww of theirtheir uusese andand importanceimportance to people

Regular reports ofof poisoningspoisonings inin thethe UnitedUnited States States appearappear in in thethe journal journal Mc! McIlvainea lvainea (e.g. Cochran, 1987).1987). These incidents are insignificantinsignificant byby comparisoncomparison with thethe thousands of peoplepeople who collectcollect andand consumeconsume wild fungifungi withoutwithout anyany reportedreported problems. Millions of other peoplepeople aroundaround thethe vvorldworld also regularly eat wild edible fungi without anyany ill-healthill-health effects,effects, and it isis importantimportant toto keepkeep aa sensesense ofof perspectiveperspective when reviewing the reported incidents of poisoning.

Contamination ofof wild edibleedible fungi The Chernobyl accident accident inin UkraineUkraine inin thethe 1980s1980s prompted investigations of radioactive materials in sources of wild food and particularly wild edible fungi. Broader concerns about thethe accumulationaccumulation ofof heavyheavy metals and pollutants byby macrofungimacrofungi have also been expressed. A studystudy ofof radiocaesiumradiocaesium intake via consumption ofof wildwild fungi in the UnitedUnited Kingdom concluded thatthat intake depended moremore onon the speciesspecies eateneaten thanthan thethe weight consumed (Barnett(Barnett etet al.,at., 2001).2001). Mycorrhizal fungi had a significantlysignificantly greater radioactivity compared to saprobic or parasiticparasitic species. ConsumptionConsumption of wild edible fungi in thethe UnitedUnited KingdomKingdom isis smallsmall byby comparisoncomparison with otherother countriescountries butbut thethe study givesgives a general indication of the potential healthhealth risks.risks. One reported casecase ofof contaminationcontamination concernedconcerned thethe accidentalaccidental mixing of potentially poisonous wild speciesspecies with wild edible fungi imported by thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates (Gecan(Gecan and Cichowicz, 1993).1993). Such events are rare, however, andand there are no known instancesinstances of this causing any damage to human health in Europe.

CULTIVATION OF EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGI There are nearlynearly aa hundredhundred speciesspecies ofof fungifungi thatthat cancan bebe cultivatedcultivated (Annex(Annex 4).4). AllAll are saprobic.saprobic. CommercialCommercial marketsmarkets areare dominateddominated byby Agaricus Agaricus bisporus,bisporus, LentinulaLentinula edodes andand PleurotusPleurotus spp.spp. (Table 18)18) and and these these account account for for nearly nearly threethree quartersquarters ofof thethe cultivated mushrooms grown around thethe worldworld (Chang,(Chang, 1999).1999). The majormajor cultivatedcultivated species areare growngrown on a variety of organic substrates, including waste fromfrom producing cotton andand coffee.coffee. TheThe technologiestechnologies areare xvellwell established established andand successfulsuccessful mushroommushroom industries have been established in many countries. There has been a huge increase in production inin the the last last tenten years, years, mostlymostly as as aa resultresult ofof increasedincreased capacitycapacity in China. Reports from AfricaAfrica (Mshigeni(Mshigeni and Chang,Chang, 2000),2000), Mexico (Martinez-Carrera(Martínez-Carrera et al.,at., 2001) and Amazonia in BrazilBrazil (Pauli, 1999) suggest thatthat mushroom cultivationcultivation offersoffers economic opportunities as as wellwell asas nutritional andand healthhealth benefits.benefits. Small-scaleSmall-scale cultivation takes place throughout China andand couldcould provideprovide aa suitablesuitable modelmodel forfor technology technology transfer. The cultivation ofof thethe paddypaddy strawstraw fungus fungus (Volvariella(Volvariella volvacea)volvacea) isis integratedintegrated with rice production inin VietViet Nam. WhereverWherever saprobic species are cultivatedcultivated theythey requirerequire a steady supply of rawraw materials.materials. The expansion ofof shi'itakeshi'itake productionproduction in Qingyuan, China ("the("the mushroommushroom capital capital ofof thethe world")world") led led toto a a serious serious depletiondepletion of of local local forestsforests that suppliedsupplied thethe woodwood onon which which to to grow grow this this edible edible fungus fungus (Pauli, (Pauli, 1998).1998). The numbernumber ofof saprobicsaprobic speciesspecies beingbeing cultivatedcultivated isis steadilysteadily increasingincreasing andand information andand practical practical adviceadvice areare readilyreadily availableavailable (Stamets,(Stamets, 2000). EctomycorrhizalEctomycorrhizal fungi can alsoalso bebe "cultivated"."cultivated". TreesTrees are inoculatedinoculated with truffletruffle fungusfungus thatthat mustmust then infectinfect the rootsroots andand formform thethe ectomycorrhizae.ectomycorrhizae. TheThe treestrees areare carefully tended to encourage production of thethe trufflestruffles (Plate(Plate 4). Methods forfor" "cultivating" cultivating" truffles are constantly beingbeing refinedrefined andand improvedimproved (Hall(Hall etet al.,ai., 1998a).1998a). 21 PLATE 11 TYPES OFOF MACROFUNGIMACROFUNGI

Edible fungi come in many shapes and sizes. ThereThere are nono consistent features (or(or tests) thatthat distinguish them from poisonous varieties. Examples are from Malawi and photos byby EricEric Boa,Boa, unless stated otherwise.

1.1 LactaronLactarius sp.sp. White fluidfluid appearsappears 11.2.2 Amanita loso,loosii, edible.edible .The The sacsac isis a 1.3 Common earear fungus,fungus, Auricularia after breaking thethe gills.gills. Many speciesspecies are distinctive feature of Amanita, a genus auricula-judae. Edible. France.France. AlsoAlso edible and allall are mycorrhizal. that includesincludes poisonouspoisonous species. species. (photo:(photo: vvidelywidely cultivated. Paul Kirie)Kirk)

1.4 Ramaria sp.sp. There areare aa number ofof similarsimilar varietiesvarieties cateneaten 1.5 This Afroboletus has aa densedense networknetwork of tiny pores on the around thethe worldworld underside ofof thethe cap.cap.

1.61.6 (left) Lycoperdon sp., Norway. Puffballs are widespread and eaten regularly, thoughthough in relatively small quantities.

1.71.7 (right) Cantharellus sp.sp. The gills continue along part ufof the stem and the fmitingfruiting bodies havehave aa distinctivedistinctive appearance. 22 PLATE 2 HOW FUNGI GROW:GROW: mycorrhizas, mycorrhizas, saprobes saprobes and and pathogenspathogens

Fungi obtain theirtheir foodfood symbiotically,symbiotically, asas saprobessaprobes oror parasitesparasites (pathogens).(pathogens). There areare edibleedible macrofungi in each category. TheThe most valuable wildwild speciesspecies areare ectomycorrhizal, ectomycorrhizal, aa form form ofof symbiosis.symbiosis. Ectomycorrhizal Ectomycorrhizal rootsroots have aa distinct though variedvaried appearance.appearance. It isis unusualunusual toto seesee themthem clearlyclearly inin sitie.situ. Many saprobic macrofungi are edible. Few pathogens are eaten. All examples are fromfrom Malawi unlessunless statedstated otherwise.otherwise. AllAll photosphotos by Eric Boa.

2.1 Ectomycorrhiza.Ectomycorrhiza. The whitewhite 2.2 This veryvery distinctivedistinctive yellowyellow 2.3 TheseThese ectomycorrhizasectomycorrhizas areare smallsmall and covering on the rootsroots indicatesindicates thethe ectomycorrhiza isis associated with a fluffy. Mycelium in thethe soilsoil cancan havehave aa fungal sheath Cantharellus sp.sp. similar appearance.appearance.

2.4 TracingTracing a fungus back to thethe hosthost treetree isis possiblepossible when aa 2.5 AgrocybeAgrocybe aegerita, an edible saprobicsaprobic speciesspecies growinggrowing physicalphysical connection to thethe rootsroots cancan bebe seen,seen. here on a tree stump inin Bologna,Bologna, Italy.Italy. AlsoAlso cultivated.cultivated.

2.6 PaddyPaddy strawstraw oror VolvariellaVolvariella volvacea. 2.72.7 MaMaize ze cobcob infectedinfected byby UstilagoUstilago 2.8 Armillaria mellea, a tree pathogen, Commonly cultivated,cultivated, it isis a saprobic maydis, Bolivia. Earlier stage infections at the base of a dead laburnum tree.tree. fungus. Indonesia. Edible,Edible. are eaten as huitlacoche in Mexico. London. Edible 23 PLATE 3 WHICH FUNGIFUNGI AREARE EDIBLE?EDIBLE? IDENTIFYINGIDENTIFYING SPECIES SPECIES

Edible species can be identified using local and scientific knowledge. Neither system isis infallible: local practicespractices areare based on empiricalempirical evidenceevidence ofof edibility,edibility, thoughthough locallocal beliefsbeliefs maymay falselyfalsely excludeexclude edible species. A scientific name provides access to published information onon properties,properties, butbut conflicting conflicting advice advice maymay exist.exist. Used together,together, locallocal and scientific knowledgeknowledge are a powerfulpowerful guide to properties ofof wild fungi.fungi. All photos byby EricEric BoaBoa unlessunless stated.stated.

3.1 (left) This French pharmacy offersoffers locallocal assistance in identifying edible speciesspecies

3.2 (right) The second oldest publication on wild edible fungi from China. ItIt includes descriptions of 'species' and would havehave been a useful referencereference book. (photo:(photo: WarrenWarren Priest)l'riest)

3.3 (left) Paul Kirk documents aa field collection from Malawi. Each specimen is given a reference number and described before being dried, and thus preservedpreserved for further examination.examination.

3.4 (right) Spore print of Hypholoma fasciculare, a poisonous species.species. The upper printprint isis afterafter leavingleaving the cap for severalseveral hours; the one belowbelow forfor lessless than an hour. Spore colour helps to distinguish similarsimilar genera but not toto species.species.

3.5 (right) Alessandra Zambonelli of the University of Bologna with a unique collection of truffle specimens from around the world. Collections are vital reference sources for identifying fungi and namingnammg new species.

3.6 (left)(left) Dried examplesexamples of truffles are carefully labelledlabelled andand storedstored in the collection. 25

3 Management:Management: wild wild edible edible fungi, fung i,trees, trees, forest usersusers

MMULTIPLEULTIPLE USEUS E OF FORESTS:FORESTS: ISSUISSUESES ANDAND CONFLICTSCONFLICTS The managementmanagement of wild edibleedible fungi andand theirtheir sustainablesustainable production mustmust addressaddress two keykey topics:topics: first,first, forestsforests andand theirtheir management management and and second, second, forestforest users.users. SuccessfulSuccessful management of wild edibleedible fungifungi balancesbalances the impactimpact andand effectseffects ofof collectioncollection andand harvesting against thethe wider aimsaims ofof forestforest management.management. TheseThese widerwider aimsaims areare determined byby thethe relativerelative importanceimportance ofof differentdifferent forestforest uses.uses. AreAre wildwild edibleedible fungifungi more valuable than other NWFP, for example,example, and how do theythey comparecompare inin financialfinancial benefits with wood production?production? SomeSome forestsforests havehave aa strategicstrategic asas wellwell asas economiceconomic importance: theythey protect water catchmentscatchments and fragile slopingsloping land;land; theythey help to conserve biodiversity. The challenge for planners and policy-makerspolicy-makers is to balance the competing demands on forestsforests andand provideprovide aa frameworkframework withinwithin whichwhich forestforest managersmanagers cancan operateoperate effectively. ForFor wild edible fungi this means minimizing the impact ofof harvestingharvesting whilewhile allowing collectors fair and equitableequitable accessaccess to forests; it means addressing the concerns of biologists who believebelieve thatthat commercialcommercial extractionextraction isis unsustainableunsustainable whilewhile allowingallowing local enterprises to develop. The sustainablesustainable production ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi thereforetherefore has social, economic and even political dimensions. Forest is used here in the generalgeneral sense of areas wherewhere treestrees eithereither occuroccur naturallynaturally or are planted. The bulkbulk ofof wild wild edibleedible fungifungi harvestsharvests inin terms terms ofof volume volume and and value value comes comes from speciesspecies that form mycorrhizalmycorrhizal associationsassociations with trees.trees. Without thethe mycorrhizasmycorrhizas the treestrees would growgrow poorlypoorly andand thethe ecologicalecological integrityintegrity of forestsforests around thethe worldworld would bebe threatened.threatened. TheThe impactimpact ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi harvestingharvesting should notnot disturbdisturb the mutualmutual dependencydependency of fungusfungus andand tree.tree. TheThe biologybiology andand ecologyecology ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi are therefore important,important, asas isis aa fundamentalfundamental knowledgeknowledge ofof whichwhich speciesspecies grow with particularparticular trees.trees. ThereThere areare stillstill manymany gapsgaps inin knowledge knowledge concerningconcerning edibleedible ectomycorrhizal fungifungi andand tropicaltropical treetree species.species. Forestry users include thosethose whowho obtain wood products and NWFP (of(of whichwhich wild edibleedible fungi areare onlyonly oneone example).example). ForestsForests alsoalso provideprovide aa rangerange ofof services, services, some specificspecific to particularparticular usersusers andand othersothers more more generally generally valued. valued. EcologicalEcological functions include protection ofof waterwater catchments,catchments, erosionerosion controlcontrol andand conservationconservation of biodiversity. Forests provide socialsocial benefits,benefits, a place for leisure, sports and enjoying nature. The relationshiprelationship betweenbetween harvesting wiwildld edible fungifungi andand otherother productsproducts and services derivedderived from forests needs to be understood andand adjustmentsadjustments mademade toto practicespractices and management guidelines.guidelines. Decisions such as these depend on good data.data. ThereThere isis widespreadwidespread concern about unsustainable forest practices, including harvesting ofof wild edible fungi. This needs to bebe carefullycarefully examinedexamined using available datadata on yields, amounts harvested and other information aboutabout production.production. These These topics topics areare discusseddiscussed laterlater inin thisthis chapter.chapter. Management ofof wildwild edible fungifungi hashas tendedtended to concentrate on their biologybiology andand ecology, particularlyparticularly those of high economic value.value. There is aa considerableconsiderable literatureliterature on truffles, forfor exampleexample (Federation-Franqaise-des-Trufficulteurs,(Federation-Fran<;aise-des-Trufficulteurs, 2001), but fewfew studiesstudies of edible species of Russula or Lactarius, many ofof whichwhich areare collectedcollected andand consumedconsumed locally inin developing countries. Researchers are paying more attention toto thethe complexcomplex 26 WildWild edibleedible fungi:fungi: aa ggloballobal ooverviewverview of theitheirr useuse aandnd importance toto peoplepeople

BOXBOX4 4 Matsutake andand exportsexports toto Japan InIn Jap~p.,Japan, TricbolomaTricholoma matsutakernatsutake ishighlyis highly regarded and eatingeating ceremoniesceremonies are culturally importantimportant (Hall eteta!', al., 1998a). OriginallyOriginally collected fromfrom japan'sJapan's forests,forests, productionproduction declined steeply in the 1980s. The search forfor newnew sourcessources identifiedidentified AmericanAmerican matsutakematsutake as as anan acceptable acceptable substitute substitute (Tricholoma (Tricholoma magnivelare) and itit waswas quickly-quickly realizedrealized thatthat substantial amounts could bebe harvested from thethe PacificPacific northwestnorthwest of of North North America, America, where where local local use use waswas minimal.minimal. The burgeoningburgeoning tradetrade withwith Japan Japan coincidedcoincided with a downturn inin jobsjobs inin logging logging andand timbertimber extraction.extraction. ExportExport businessesbusinesses basedbased on TT matsutakematsutake have also been established in Sichuan,Sichuan, ChinaChina (Winkler,(Winkler, 2002;2002; Yeh, 2000), BhutanBhutan (Namg(Namgyel,yel, 2000) and notably thethe DemocraticDemocratic People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof Korea.Korea. ExportsE~i?ftsof of TT rnagnivelaremagnivelare andand otherot~.er closely. dosely relatedrelated species oscuroccur fromfrom North Africa, Turkey and MexicoMe:l(;ico. bu~but . details are sketchy. The amountsa';ll0unts earnedearned byby thesethese countriescountries areare smallsmall comparedcompared withwith AsiaAsia and North America. America. TheThe pricesprices paidpaid byby the· the Japanese Japanese varyvary considerably considerably dependingdepending onon the the available available supply each year and the qualityquality ofof mushroomsmushrooms whenwhen theythey arrivearrive atat market.market. Matsutake is particularlyparticularly valuable at an earlyearly stagestage ofof developmentdevelopment andand thisthis requiresrequires carefulcareful searching inin the upper humushumus layerslayers ofof forests.forests. SomeSome collectorscollectors are not soso careful:careful: theythey rakerake thethe ground to uncoveruncover emergingemerging fruit bodies,bodies, damaging the humus layer and affecting futurefuture harvests. Matsutake isis aa mycorrhizal fungusfungus andand effortsefforts havehave beenbeen mademade toto "manage""manage" naturalnatural ecosystemsecosystems inin the RepublicRe{?ublic of Korea and North America A';llerica inin anan attemptattempt to to maximize maximize production.production. AnnualAnnual yields yields areare still heavily influenced by available rainfall andand ambient temperature at key timestimes during thethe year.year. (SeegilZ(See Pilz andand Molina (2002) forfor a generalgeneral reviewreview of activities inin North America.)America.)

relationships betweenbetween biological,biological, socialsocial andand economiceconomic issues,issues, aa welcome move towardstowards establishing a sound basis for sustainable production ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. Much has beenbeen written, relativelyrelatively speaking, about matsutake (Bo(Boxx 4). This is an important exportexport fromfrom severalseveral developingdeveloping countries and therethere havehave beenbeen severalseveral accounts that examineexamine the commercial harvesting inin thethe widerwider context of forests and forest usersusers (Winkler,(Winkler, 2002; Yeh,Yeh, 2000)2000).. The The PacificPacific northwest northwest ofof north AmericaAmerica isis another areaarea wherewhere managementmanagement issuesissues havehave beenbeen examinedexamined in detail (Pilz and Molina,Molina, 2002; Tedder,Tedder, MitchellMitchell andand Farran, 2002).2002). These studies are particularlyparticularly usefuluseful inin describing collectors and collecting practicespractices andand theythey provideprovide aa usefuluseful contrastcontrast toto the few studies carried out forfor subsistencesubsistence collectionscollections inin developing countries (Lowore(Lowore and and Boa, 2001). Concerns havehave beenbeen expressedexpressed about decliningdeclining productivitproductivityy and disappearancedisappearance of certain species of macromacrofungi fungi (Arnolds, 1995). AttentionAttention has focused on EuropeEurope andand one of thethe identifiedidentified issuesissues waswas thethe impactimpact ofof increasedincreased commercialcommercial pickingpicking inin easterneastern Europe (Perini,(Perini, 1998).1998). Conservation of fungi is now anan establishedestablished topictopic ofof debatedebate among mycologists. The debate has only justjust begunbegun andand itit isis important thatthat it it addresses addresses the wider socialsocial and economiceconomic issuesissues concerning harvestingharvesting ifif progress isis toto bebe mademade inin halting the declinedecline ofof anyany threatenedthreatened edibleedible species.species. The following sectionssections examineexamine accessaccess to collecting sites, collectors andand thethe impactsimpacts of harvesting.harvesting. The chapter proceeds to anan examinationexamination of published data onon yieldsyields and production beforebefore attemptingattempting to to provide provide practical practical advice advice onon managing managing wildwild edibleedible fungi for sustainable productionproduction..

REGULATING COLLECTIONCOLLECTION There areare widelywidely differingdiffering rulesrules andand policiespolicies onon the the collection collection of of wild wild edible edible fungi fungi (see (see also Box 8, ChapterChapter 4). Scandinavia has open access: anyoneanyone can pick edible fungi as longlong as they dodo notnot harm harm property property (Saastamoinen, (Saastamoinen, 1999).1999). ThisThis policypolicy hashas beenbeen challenged challenged by economiceconomic migration from neighbouring countries, nono longer ppartart ofof thethe formerformer Soviet Union, and thethe availabilityavailability ofof cheapcheap labourlabour forfor collectingcollecting wildwild edibleedible fungifungi andand Management: wildwild edibleedible fungi, trees,trees, forest usersusers 27

wild berries. Similar changes inin eastern Europe have created new opportunities for commercial harvestingharvesting andand ledled toto concern about unsustainable harvestsharvests andand howhow to regulate collections. Controlling collectorscollectors isis not alwaysalways easy.easy. After the Second World War the Finnish Government encouraged greatergreater harvestingharvesting of of wildwild edibleedible fungifungi andand continues toto promote thethe useuse ofof an an underutilized underutilized resource resource (Flärkönen (Harkonen andand Järvinen, Jarvinen, 1993;1993; Salo,Salo, 1999). OpenOpen accessaccess to to thethe countryside isis a tenet of life in Sweden andand Norway and controlling the collection of wild edible fungi (and other NWFP) wouldwould requirerequire aa fundamental changechange inin nationalnational policies.policies. "Overharvesting" isis a commonlycommonly expressedexpressed concern, both forfor commercialcommercial andand subsistence collections.collections. The The fearfear amongamong forestforest managersmanagers and and othersothers isis that futurefuture production ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi willwill decrease.decrease. These are genuine concerns but there is a danger of taking draconian steps to regulateregulate collectors withoutwithout understanding the impact of harvesting, based on an incompleteincomplete knowledgeknowledge ofof howhow muchmuch isis collectedcollected andand what collectors do. The mainmain impetusimpetus forfor regulatingregulating collectorscollectors isis wherewhere commercial commercial harvestingharvesting occurs.occurs. The introduction ofof regulatory regulatory schemes schemes servesserves a number of different functions: • it attempts (in(in theory)theory) toto limitlimit thethe amount amount harvested; harvested; • it ensuresensures thatthat collectorscollectors areare awareaware ofof bestbest practice practice (least(least harmfulharmful pickingpicking methods); • it provides income.income. In Italy eacheach provinceprovince regulatesregulates who hashas thethe rightright toto collect collect trufflestruffles (Tuber(Tuber spp.).spp.). Collectors have to pass a simple test that confirmsconfirms they areare awareaware of howhow andand wherewhere to harvest.harvest. AroundAround 30 30 000000 licenceslicences (each(each costingcosting aroundaround US$90)US$90) werewere issuedissued inin EmiliaEmilia Romagna inin 20012001 (Zambonelli,(Zambonelli, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: TrufflesTruffles andand collecting collecting porcini in Italy). In WinemaWinema NationalNational Park,Park, Oregon,Oregon, thethe salesale ofof permits permits providesprovides aa substantial substantial income, though thisthis isis highlyhighly variablevariable (Table 8).8). InIn Bhutan, only token amounts areare earned from thethe salesale ofof permitspermits (Namgyel,(Namgyel, 2000).2000). Local communities alsoalso administeradminister permitpermit schemesschemes toto limitlimit accessaccess to valuablevaluable sites. This system appearsappears toto bebe lessless successfulsuccessful at reducingreducing conflicts between neighbouring communities and problems havehave occurredoccurred inin regulatingregulating collectioncollection of trufflestruffles in SpainSpain (de Román,Roman, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: TradeTrade inin niscalosniscalos fromfrom North SpainSpain toto Catalonia and truffletruffle production). This is a reminder of the need to look closely at the fairness of schemes that unfairly excludeexclude people rather thanthan encourageencourage equitableequitable useuse ofof natural resources.resources. Collectors in developingdeveloping countries frequently collectcollect for subsistencesubsistence uses and thethe edible fungi represent an importantimportant foodfood resource.resource. InIn Malawi,Malawi, forestforest officersofficers areare concerned that allowingallowing people to collectcollect wildwild edibleedible fungi in protectedprotected forestforest areasareas will lead to greatergreater extractionextraction of wood products,products, particularlyparticularly firewoodfirewood (Lowore(Lowore andand Boa, 2001). There is no officiallyofficially registered commercialcommercial collectingcollecting inin MalawiMalawi andand therethere have been no attempts toto introduceintroduce aa permitpermit system.system. The success of regulation schemes dependsdepends onon whowho controls or owns forests. It isis a relatively straightforward matter matter to to regulate regulate collections collections of of Boletus Boletus edultsedulis inin commercialcommercial pine plantations ofof SouthSouth AfricaAfrica compared to thethe moremore complexcomplex problemsproblems posed byby multiple use of native forests inin Malawi.Malawi. The pressurepressure toto regulateregulate accessaccess to sitessites comescomes from variousvarious sources,sources, andand notnot allall involvedinvolved inin forestry.forestry. A strongstrong conservationconservation lobbylobby inin the United StatesStates hashas soughtsought toto limitlimit commercialcommercial harvestsharvests (McLain,(McLain, Christensen and Shannon, 1998).1998). The expansionexpansion of commercial harvesting inin EuropeEurope has resultedresulted inin thethe introductionintroduction of regulationsregulations inin PolandPoland (Lawrynowicz,(Lawrynowicz, 1997);1997); formerformer YugoslaviaYugoslavia (now Serbia and Montenegro) (Ivancevic,(Ivancevic, 1997;1997; Zaklina, 1998) andand Romania (Pop, 1997).1997). Information about thethe successsuccess ofof thesethese schemesschemes is sketchy andand highlightshighlights thethe generalgeneral difficultydifficulty ofof 28 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

TABLE 8 Sale of permits forfor collectingcollecting matsutakematsutake in in WinemaWinema National National Forest, Forest, Oregon,Oregon, 1997-2002 1997-2002

YEAR PERMITS SOLDSOLD VALUE US$ END OFOf SEASONSEASON NOTES

1997 33733 733 365939365 939 31 October Biggest crop since 1989 1998 12461 246 138138338 338 7 November 1999 901 122 350 24 October 2000 (512) (61 180)180) (21 September) Data incomplete. No information after thisthis datedate.. 2001 not knownknown 7881078 810 4 November 2002 >1>1200 200 >120000>120 000 (4 October) Interim data source:Source: www.fs.fed.us/r6/winema/specialprojects.www.fs.fed.usIr6/winema/specialprojects. CommercialCommercial permitspermits areare validvalid forfor picking picking inin the Deschutes,Deschutes, Umpqua, Willamette in addition toto WinemaWinema NationalNational Forest.Forest. Only Winema publishes comprehensivecomprehensive accountsaccounts of of the the matsutake season (the(the "mushroom"mushroom chronicles").chronicles").

monitoring thethe conditionsconditions setset byby aa permit.permit. TheyThey oftenoften statestate howhow muchmuch cancan bebe collected in a fixed time but itit isis difficult to checkcheck thisthis andand collectcollect penalties for transgressions.transgressions. Logging bans introduced inin ChinaChina (Winkler, (Winkler, 2002),2002), thethe PhilippinesPhilippines (Novellino,(Novellino, 1999), CanadaCanada (Tedder, MitchellMitchell andand Farran,Farran, 2002) andand elsewhere have opened up new opportunitiesopportunities for collectingcollecting wild edible fungi and promptedprompted concernconcern about overharvesting. In Siberia, the oppositeopposite effecteffect hashas happened:happened: anan increaseincrease inin logginglogging activities by foreign companies has made it more difficultdifficult for locallocal people toto collectcollect wild edibleedible fungifungi (de(de BeerBeer andand Zakharenkov,Zakharenkov, 1999). 1999). Successful control control dependsdepends on on modifying regulationsregulations that that do do not workwork andand maintaining a good dialoguedialogue withwith collectorscollectors (Pilz(Pilz andand Molina,Molina, 2002;2002; seesee alsoalso VanceVance and Thomas, 1995). AA pragmaticpragmatic approachapproach is neededneeded toto protect natural resourcesresources while allowing fair and equitable access to collectors.

COLLECTORS ANDAND LOCALLOCAL PRACTICESPRACTICES A recentrecent studystudy inin MalawiMalawi describesdescribes whatwhat happenedhappened whenwhen MrMr KenasiKenasi AffadAffad wentwent collecting bowa (wild edible fungi) near his home in Machinga. He was accompanied by two researchersresearchers working for the Miombo Edible Fungi Project (Lowore and Boa, 2001). "We set off at 6.00am, laterlater than the normal time for start-offstart-off atat 5.00am.S.OOam. KenasiKenasi is equipped with nothing but the clothes he is wearing andand aa bucket. HeHe is barefoot withwith nono protection fromfrom the rain, which today is persistent but not heavy.heavy. He cannotcannot affordafford toto letlet thethe rainrain putput himhim offoff asas bowabowa collection is a rainy season activity andand hehe must be preparedprepared to get wet. This year the rains are still

frequent and heavy which isis good forfor the kunglokkunglokwetitiwetiti 6and and chzPatwe. chipatwe. He sets off on a well trodden path towards thethe placesplaces he knows where he shall find bobowa.wa. He has observed the rain for the pastpast dayday oror two,two, hehe knowsknows whatwhat species species areare readyready atat thisthis time,time, hehe knowsknows where he went last time and the conditioncondition of thethe cropcrop whenwhen hehe waswas lastlast there.there. HeHe usesuses allall thisthis information toto decidedecide where toto go.go. TheseThese days - the end ofof thethe seasonseason - fewfew bowa are found nearnear to thethe homehome unlikeunlike earlyearly inin thethe seasonseason whenwhen theythey areare foundfound inin abundance. abundance. At this time of year the main species found and the one preferred by customerscustomers is kunglokwetiti. These are found in rocky places and Kenasi has to be sharp to spot them.them. TheyThey appearappear herehere andand there underneath droopydroopy tufts tufts of of grass. grass. ToTo pickpick them them Kenasi Kenasi scoopsscoops thethe bowabowa fromfrom itsits basebase usingusing his finger and gently liftslifts itit fromfrom thethe earth.earth. HeHe thenthen breaks thethe bottombottom part of the stem off andand throwsthrows it away.away. He blows some of the remainingremaining earth away and gently places thethe bobowawa in the bucket.bucket. He continues.continues. Kenasi knows that certaincertain bowa areare foundfound nearnear certaincertain treetree speciesspecies andand thatthat eacheach yearyear thethe samesame type of bowabowa appearappear inin thethe samesame places.places. He alsoalso knowsknows thatthat somesome speciesspecies need aa fewfew daysdays of rainrain followed by sunshine beforebefore appearing whilst others need prolonged rain.rain. Some take a fewfew daysdays toto emerge from a small fruitfruit body to aa harvestableharvestable bowa, others take a few hours. This is important because then he knows when toto gogo backback toto thethe samesame placeplace toto looklook againagain forfor newnew bowa.bowa.

6 Cantharellus species.species. Management: wildwild edibleedible fungi, trees,trees, forest usersusers 29 --~------

Kenasi showsshows usus the path to Naiswe where he will go tomorrow. It will take about 3-4 hours solid walking to reach the placeplace - then he can spendspend one hour collectingcollecting thethe bowabowa andand comecome backback within another twotwo hours.hours. ItIt is is normalnormal for for a a collection collection triptrip toto last last upup to to six six hours. hours. Kenasi Kenasi aimsaims toto fill a whole bucket (about(about 1515 plates)plates) before setting off for home. He alwaysalways goes alone but may meet other collectors whilst in the forest. Passing on information about the whereabouts of bowa is sometimes done but therethere isis not muchmuch pointpoint becausebecause itit isis simply a matter of chance - one might have missed what others will find.find . KenasiKenasi will go collecting bowa from between 2 to 5 times a week,week, depending on thethe availabilityavailability of bowabowa andand customers.customers. In the past the eucalyptuseucalyptus were not therethere butbut therethere waswas indigenousindigenous woodland.woodland. Bowa were found in abundance justjust closeclose toto thethe village.village. Another reasonreason whywhy wewe havehave toto traveltravel soso farfar thesethese daysdays isis thethe number of people collecting. People simply want money so more and moremore people thinkthink ofof sellingselling bowa.bowa. I cancan alwaysalways find bowa, ifif the weatherweather hashas beenbeen right,right, butbut it it cancan taketake aa longlong timetime toto reach reach the the place andand a long time to fill a whole bucket." This short accountaccount graphicallygraphically describesdescribes the type of problems that aa collector has to cope with. Kenasi knows where to look though hehe alsoalso knows that hehe has to bebe lucky to makemake aa goodgood collection.collection. HeHe commentscomments onon thethe lossloss ofof nativenative woodland,woodland, wherewhere thethe fungi are most abundant, andand hehe sayssays thatthat hehe mustmust traveltravel furtherfurther to to collect collect wild wild edible edible fungi because now therethere areare moremore collectors.collectors. Kenasi liveslives closeclose to to thethe forestforest andand isis partpart of a community that depends onon the miombo woodland forfor food,food, incomeincome andand shelter.shelter. CollectingCollecting bowabowa isis anan importantimportant source of incomeincome for himhim butbut itit isis onlyonly one one way way of of earning earning aa livingliving fromfrom thethe miombo.miombo. Increasing numbers ofof peoplepeople havehave takentaken thethe opportunityopportunity to to collect, collect, as as KenasiKenasi observes,observes, because in the area where he lives there is a good selling pointpoint on a major road nearnear toto thethe forest.forest. Kenasi is unusual because the collectors in Malawi are mostly women, asas is the case inin thethe UnitedUnited RepubiblicRepubiblic of of Tanzania Tanzania (Flärkönen,(Harkonen, 2002)2002) andand BurundiBurundi (Buyck,(Buyck, 1994b).1994b). Table 9 describesdescribes collectors and their practicespractices in aa numbernumber ofof different different countries.countries. In ChinaChina mostmost collectorscollectors areare men.men. BothBoth menmen andand women women are are involved involved inin Mexico, Mexico, where therethere isis extensiveextensive harvestingharvesting each year. In MalawiMalawi the maximummaximum time taken for collecting wild edible fungi and getting them toto marketmarket isis lessless thanthan 2424 hours.hours. AnyAny longer and thethe mushroomsmushrooms forfor salesale deterioratedeteriorate andand areare worthworth muchmuch less.less. WomenWomen inin Mzimba district in northern MalawiMalawi walk up to 10-15 km to get to the nearest market in Mzuzu. ThisThis limitslimits collectingcollecting to a sixsix hourhour collectingcollecting trip (there(there andand back)back) fromfrom their homeshomes (Lowore,(Lowore, MunthaliMunthali andand Boa,Boa, 2002).2002). Distances fromfrom house to forestforest toto selling pointspoints are shorter inin Liwonde,Liwonde, nearnear ZombaZomba (Lowore(Lowore and and Boa,Boa, 2001)2001) becausebecause of the proximity ofof aa mainmain road,road, aa commoncommon sellingselling point forfor wildwild edibleedible fungifungi inin severalseveral African countries (Plate(Plate 6).6). In thethe RussianRussian FederationFederation andand UkraineUkraine wholewhole familiesfamilies go on collectingcollecting trips and these appear toto bebe moremore ofof a a socialsocial eventevent thanthan collectingcollecting inin orderorder toto sell.sell. TheThe distancesdistances travelled to thethe bestbest sitessites cancan bebe substantialsubstantial (Table(Table 9).9). ImmigrantsImmigrants collectcollect wild edibleedible fungi in the KlamathKlamath bioregion (northern California),California), manymany of southeastsoutheast Asian origin (Richards and Creasy, 1996), attractedattracted byby job opportunities. They soonsoon realizerealize thatthat competition is fierce and thatthat incomesincomes areare notnot guaranteed.guaranteed. ThereThere havehave beenbeen somesome clashes between collectors and a generalgeneral suspicionsuspicion ofof peoplepeople fromfrom southeastsoutheast Asia,Asia, partly becausebecause of theirtheir poorpoor EnglishEnglish andand aa failurefailure toto observeobserve regulationsregulations aboutabout wherewhere to pick.pick. AnAn accountaccount byby an an American American picker picker of of matsutake matsutake (Moore, (Moore, 1996) 1996) providesprovides a personalpersonal accountaccount of somesome ofof thethe antagonismantagonism thatthat migrantmigrant labourlabour maymay havehave toto overcome - successfully overcome in this particularparticular case.case. Where money is involvedinvolved in collectingcollecting wild edibleedible fungifungi problemsproblems maymay arise,arise, sometimes fuelled byby exaggeratedexaggerated storiesstories ofof potentialpotential earnings.earnings. VillagesVillages inin SichuanSichuan engaged inin sustained battles toto determine local rights to matsutake sites culminating in the sabotage of water supplies - they were without water forfor 45 days - and destruction of a key bridge. One village threatenedthreatened notnot only to continue their disruption ofof lifelife in 30 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa global overview of their use and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

TABLE 9 Collecting wild fungifungi in in the the United United Republic Republic of of Tanzania, Tanzania, Mexico,Mexico, thethe Russian Russian Federation,Federation, Bhutan, Finland, India and ChinaChina

ACTIVITY/ISSUE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA

Who collects? Mainly women and children thoughthough men bring them home if they happen upon them. Collecting Travel by foot toto sites. sites. OpenOpen access.access . No special harvestingharvesting methods are used and official regulationregulation of of collectors collectors is is absent. absent. PeoplePeople gogo outout early early to to collect collect because because ofof competition for edibleedible fungi - hinting atat thethe importance importance of of selling selling in in local local markets. markets. Local traditions,traditions, Elderly country people whose families hadhad livedlived inin thethe same same placeplace forfor several several choice of speciesspecies generations knew most about wild fungi.fungi. ManyMany more more species species eaten in miombo areas thanthan hills.hills. Boletes eschewedeschewed by by all: all: "even"even monkeysmonkeys won't won't eateat them"them" (monkeys(monkeys eat B. edulis in Malawi, however).however). PeoplePeople were well awareaware ofof poisonouspoisonous varieties.varieties. Some groupsgroups ofof people willwill not eateat anyany wild edibleedible fungi.fungi. EducatedEducated peoplepeople havehave forgotten almostalmost everythingeverything aboutabout wildwild fungi. fungi. A A similar similar diminishing diminishing of of local local tradition cancan bebe foundfound inin MalawiMalawi andand Zimbabwe.Zimbabwe.

ACTIVITY//SSUE MEXICO

Who collects?collects? Families andand individualsindividuals of both sexes.sexes . Photos ofof market places show only women selling. Collecting Collectors walkwalk 4-5 km a day, carryingcarrying aroundaround 4-5 kg to bebe soldsold inin 5-75-7 hours.hours. Collections transportedtransported upup toto 55 km; not clear if this is done by traderstraders and/orand/or collectors. Open access to to sites. sites. There There are are government government regulations regulations forfor picking sevenseven major species.species. Local traditions, All types of macrofungimacrofungi are collected. Long traditiontradition of wild fungifungi use.use. KnowledgeKnowledge choice ofof species species lost as peoplepeople move fromfrom rural to urbanurban areas;areas; acceptance ofof wwildild fungi maymay dwindle especiallyespecially as availability of cultivatedcultivated species species increases.increases. GenerallyGenerally lowlow frequencyfrequency ofof poisoning poisoning cases. cases.

ACTIVITY/1SSUE RUSSIAN FEDERATIONFECIE/!!UlCIN [SIBERIA]

Who collects?collects? Families. Collecting 5-6 km from boundariesboundaries of villagevillage oror publicpublic transporttransport stops. stops. SomeSome drive 40-6040-60 km. No restrictions onon accessaccess toto sites, exceptexcept naturenature reserves andand nationalnational parks. Daily harvest could be from 15 to 100100 kg per personperson in good years.years. Local traditions, Long history of collecting which has intensified with worseningworsening economiceconomic situation. choice ofof species species More people unableunable to to affordafford importedimported foodfood whilewhile foodfood distributiondistribution within the Russian Federation Federation hashas declined. declined. Also, Also, reduced reduced employment employment opportunitiesopportunities in miningmining and forestry industries.industries. 18-2518-25 species species are regularlyregularly collected;collected; Lactarius Lactarius deliciosusde/iciosus and Boletus edulis most important. PoisoningPoisoning incidents not notednoted separatelyseparately forfor thisthis regionregion butbut see see TableTable 5 for reportsreports fromfrom otherother parts parts of of the the Russian Russian Federation.Federation.

ACTIVITY/ISSUE BHUTAN

Who collects?collects? Families. Collecting On foot. SomeSome camp outout and begin collecting with torches very early in the morning becausebecause ofof competition. Local farmersfarmers dodo notnot allow farmers from other geogs toto visit their area.area. The National MushroomMushroom CentreCentre has provided training on sustainable harvesting to 11 525525 farmers. Concern expressed about about damagedamage toto matsutake mycelium in soilsoil becausebecause of harvesting methods.methods. Local traditions,traditions, Little known aboutabout traditiontradition ofof wild edible fungifungi butbut thoughtthought toto be well choice ofof species species established. AttentionAttention now focusedfocused on matsutake which had a low, local value until exports to JapanJapan began.began.

ACTIVITY/1SSUE FINLAND

Who collects? No gender or age differences noted. Collecting Collectors travel by public andand privateprivate transport transport to to sites. sites. Open Open access access except peoples' back yardsyards.. Collection Collection is is actively actively encouraged encouraged following following inventoryinventory which shows thatthat only a small proportion ofof the the wild wild edible edible fungus fungus resource resource is is used used eacheach year. Local traditions,traditions, Official advice provided on best fungi to collect,collect, originallyoriginally becausebecause of famine choice of speciesspecies conditions and laterlater seekingseeking to encourageencourage bestbest use of wild foodfood resources. resources. Western Finland favoursfavours differentdifferent speciesspecies toto Karelians inin East,East, whose whose tradition tradition ofof collecting and eating isis muchmuch stronger.stronger.

ACTIVITY/6SUE INDIA [MADHYA PRADESH]

Who collects?collects? Whole families involved but women moremore active.active. Collecting Tribal people well acquainted withwith habitat and period of fruiting.fruiting. No No restrictionsrestrictions onon access to to collecting collecting sitessites areare mentionedmentioned.. Local traditions, Several species areare collected.collected. choice of speciesspecies Management: wild edible fungi, trees, forest users 31

ACTIVITYflSSUEACTIVITY/ISSUE Cf\INACHINA IYvNNANj[YUNNAN]

Who collects?collects? Men are more interested inin collecting.collecting. Collecting People do not gogo collectingcollecting on on a a regular regular basis basis becausebecause cultivated speciesspecies are available throughoutthroughout thethe year.year. Local traditions,traditions, Only mountain areasareas are visited; highest number recounted by one man was 33 choice of speciesspecies edible species.species. People well awareaware ofof poisonous poisonous species. species.

ACTIVITYAcrivrrdissuE tisSUE CttlNACHINA [SICHUAN[SICf\t)ANiAND ANO ALLIEDAlliED AREAS]AREAS]

Who collects?collects? Not stated. Collecting Most concern about declines in matsutake production isis for DegenDegen TibetanTibet an Autonomous Prefecture in northwestnorthwest Yunnan.Yunnan. HasHas the highest extraction ratesrates with clearclear declinedecline inin productivity.productivity. ThisThis isis linkedlinked toto bad bad harvestingharvesting techniquestechniques (raking).(raking). When soldsold byby sizesize encourages damagingdamaging harvest methodsmethods.. No declindeclinee in productivity inin Litong'sLitong's JumbaJumba valleyvalley wherewhere soldsold byby weight. CollectorsCollectors ofof CordycepsCordyceps sinensis in in LitangLitang CountyCounty areare confinedconfined toto legal grazing grounds or to forestsforests where they havehave rightright of of access. access. Outsiders must pay a fee to locallocal communitycommunity for collectingcollecting andand clashesclashes have occurred. Collection of otherother edible edible species species isis widespread (Rijsoort andand Pikun,Pikun, 2000).2000). Local traditions,traditions, Long tradition ofof collecting collecting edible edible and and medicinal medicinal species. species. choice of species species Matsutake not commonlycommonly collectedcollected beforebefore 1988.1988.

Sources: UNITEDUN ITED REPUBLIC REPUBLIC Of TANZANIA OF TANZANIA - Hark6nen, - Härkönen, 2002; 2002; MEX ICOMEXICO - Bandala, - Bandala, Montoya Montoya and and Chapela, Chapela, 1997; 1997; Montoya Montoya-Esquivel-E squ ive l et al.,al., 20012001 andand www.semarnat.gob.mx. www.semarnat.gob.mx.RussIANFEDERAT RUSSIAN FEDERATIONION-Vladyshevskiy.Laletin - Vladyshevskiy, Laletin andand Vladyshevskiy, 2000;2000; BHUTANBHUTAN - - Namgyel, 2000.2000 .FINLAND FIN LAND - - Hark6nen,Härkönen, 1998;1998; PekkarinenPekkarinen and and Maliranta, Maliranta, 1978; 1978; INDIA INDIA (MADHYA (MADHYA PRADESH) PRADESH) - - Harsh,Harsh, RaiRai and Soni, 1999.1999. CHINA CH INA (YUNNAN)(YUNNAN) - -Hark6nen, Härkönen, 2002;2002; CHINA CHINA (SICHUAN and and allied allied areas) - Winkler, 2002;2002; Yeh,Yeh, 2000.2000.

the rival village butbut toto "hide the pieces of thethe water pipes inin thethe forestforest soso thatthat theythey could not bebe repaired"repaired" (Yeh,(Yeh, 2000). Such conflictsconflicts areare unusualunusual butbut whenwhen money becomes the main motive for collecting,collecting, managementmanagement ofof collectorscollectors (and(and accessaccess to sites) needs careful adjudication.adjudication. Most collectorscollectors work alongsidealongside each other without anyany obviousobvious problems.problems. ThisThis does not meanmean thatthat theythey necessarily necessarily cooperatecooperate inin harvesting.harvesting. In northernnorthern Spain,Spain, Lactarius deliciosus (nfscalos)(Mscalos) are are sold sold to to buyersbuyers from Catalonia,Catalonia, earningearning smallsmall butbut useful amounts ofof money.money. Even close friends refuse to reveal the location of favourite sites (de Roman, 2002,2002, personal communication:communication: TradeTrade inin niscalosniscalos from North SpainSpain toto Catalonia and truffletruffle production). Commercial collectioncollection ofof wildwild fungifungi isis aa recentrecent andand small-scalesmall-scale activityactivity inin Scotland.Scotland. Previously there was sporadic and minor pickingpicking for personal use. Landowners ofof thethe mostly private forest areasareas involved expressed aa numbernumber of concerns about the influx of collectors (Dyke andand Newton,Newton, 1999): 1999): • unauthorized accessaccess by collectorscollectors to theirtheir land;land; • lost revenue:revenue: the owners did not benefitbenefit fromfrom thethe collectionscollections onon theirtheir land;land; theythey were also unable to earnearn moneymoney fromfrom organizedorganized fungalfungal foraysforays ifif thethe mushroomsmushrooms had alreadyalready beenbeen picked;picked; • damage to resource (wild(wild edibleedible fungi and the forest);forest); • conflicts withwith hunting (an important sourcesource ofof revenuerevenue for some landowners). A totaltotal ofof 53S3 percentpercent ofof collectors collectors interviewedinterviewed in ScotlandScotland did notnot knowknow whowho owned the landland theythey collectedcollected from. This studystudy isis aa goodgood exampleexample of how toto collectcollect information forfor developingdeveloping managementmanagement plans.plans. Collectors comecome from from a a wide wide range range of of social social classesclasses but thethe overalloverall impressionimpression is is thatthat the majoritymajority areare poorpoor ruralrural peoplepeople whowho have have traditionallytraditionally livedlived closeclose toto thethe landland andand for whom wildwild edibleedible fungi are a common and often unrecorded source of food (De Kesel, Codjia andand Yorou,Yorou, 2002).2002).

HARVESTING METHODS ANDAND APPROACHESAPPROACHES Harvesting The impactimpact ofof harvestingharvesting wild edibleedible fungifungi isis frequentlyfrequently raisedraised andand aa recentrecent reviewreview provides a helpful summary ofof key issues that are explored in further detail below (Pilz and Molina,Molina, 2002).2002). 32 Wild edibleedible funfungi:gi: aa ggloballobal overvieovervieww of their useuse andand importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Collecting wildwild edible fungifungi isis often compared withwith picking fruitfruit from a tree.tree. Removing all the fruit does notnot affectaffect future harvestsharvests unless the tree is damaged, but might have an impactimpact on regeneration.regeneration. This appears to bebe truetrue forfor wildwild edibleedible fungifungi but with somesome reservations:reservations: removing unopened fruiting bodiesbodies prevents dispersal of spores. In some areas of Italy regulations prevent the collection of firfirstst flush of some edible species (Zambonelli,(Zambonelli, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: Truffles,Truffles, andand collecting collecting porcinzporcini inin Italy). (This makesmakes practical sense too, since the earlyearly fruitingfruiting bodiesbodies areare often damaged bbyy insects.) Some collectorscollectors spread spread parts parts ofof thethe mushroom cap to encourage dispersal of spores. A study in Switzerland showed thatthat harvestingharvesting allall the fruiting bodiesbodies ofof 1515 species of macrofungi over a ten-year period hadhad nono significantsignificant effect on production (Egli,(Egli, Ayer and Chatelain, 1990).1990). If soils areare compactedcompacted oror leaf litterlitter layerslayers areare disturbed,disturbed, this can affect production. IndiscriminateIndiscriminate digging for truffles,truffles, for example,example, is harmful. Crude raking to revealreveal young and immature matsutake damagesdamages the mycelium present in the upper layers of the soil. (The young fruiting bodies can be sold for a higher price.) ThisThis can be avoided bbyy first identifying potential areas of matsutakematsutake,, then usingusing youryour handhand to locatelocate the tell-taletell-tale bumpsbumps whilewhile generallygenerally looking for signssigns of emerging fruit bodies (Arora, 1999).1999). Most speciesspecies of edible fungi are picked without causingcausing any damagedamage since their fruiting bodies and edibleedible parts areare allall aboveabove ground.ground. TheThe searchsearch forfor trufflestruffles (Tuber(Tuber spp.) is often undertaken byby trainedtrained dogsdogs (Plate(Plate 4)4) (Hall(Hall etet al.,al., 1998a).1998a). The traditional use of pigs is now banned in ItalyItaly becausebecause they areare difficult to controlcontrol andand sometimessometimes eat the truffles. Truffle dogs are not used in China andand randomrandom diggingdigging usedused toto locatelocate fruiting bodies will affect futurefuture production. The Swiss study also showed the effect of trampling on the productionproduction ofof oneone chanterelle species.species. However,However, "normal""normal" yieldsyields werewere restored onceonce thethe tramplingtrampling stopped (Egli,(Egli, Ayer and Chatelain, 1990). TramplingTrampling is is not not thoughtthought to be a commoncommon source of damage. TheThe number of collectors perper unit area of forest isis usuallyusually low and therethere isis nono evidence evidence thatthat trampling trampling has has affected affected yieldsyields inin Malawi, Malawi, forfor example. example. Commercial harvesting doesdoes increase thethe pressurepressure onon sites though wild edibleedible fungi usually occur overover aa wide area and collectors keep apart in theirtheir searches.searches.

EEnhancingnhanci ng pproductivityroductivity The declinedecline in matsutakematsutake production in JapanJapan inin thethe 1980s1980s promptedprompted researchresearch onon how toto maximizemaximize yieldsyields inin situ.situ. SomeSome successsuccess waswas achieved,achieved, althoughalthough thethe increasesincreases in productionproduction failedfailed toto stemstem thethe overalloverall decline.decline. In thethe RepublicRepublic ofof KoreaKorea methodsmethods included watering and vegetation control (Koo andand Bilek,Bilek, 1998).1998). In Finland,Finland, soilsoil surface treatments were examinedexamined for enhancementenhancement of thethe productionproduction of of Gyro Gyromitr mitraa esculenta Galkanen(Jalkanen and Jalkanen,Jalkanen, 1978)1978).. TheseThese approachesapproaches areare potentiallpotentiallyy costly and it is not knownknown howhow successful successful theythey havehave beenbeen inin increasingincreasing financialfinancial returns. An alternative is to manage forests in a -wayway that that increasesincreases production production of wild edible fungi. Attempts havehave been made in the Pacific northwest of North America America toto balance balance the productionproduction ofof wood wood and and -wild wild edible edible fungi fungi (Weigand, (Weigand, 1998).1998). TheThe conclusionsconclusions of a study ofof managementmanagement of native stands of conifers in the United StatesStates and the production ofof wild wild edible edible fungi, fungi, includingincluding TricholomaTricholoma matsutakematsutake andand chanterelles,chanterelles, areare summarized below (Pilz(Pilz andand Molina,Molina, 2002):2002): • Clear-cut harvesting disruptsdisrupts the production ofof mostmost edibleedible ectomycorrhizalectomycorrhizal fungi for ten or more years.years. ItIt onlyonly recoversrecovers onceonce thethe fungifungi havehave re-establishedre-established onon trees that are old enough toto provideprovide necessarynecessary nutrients.nutrients . • A thinned standstand (one(one wherewhere treestrees areare selectivelyselectively removed to encourageencourage growth of remainingremaining trees and toto removeremove weakweak specimens)specimens) introduces more rain andand sunshine and more rapid wetting and drying of the forest floor. HeavyHeavy thinning at one site of Douglas fir reduced chanterelle fruiting by 90 percentpercent in the following Management: wild edibleedible fungi, trees,trees, forest users 33

year. Less frequentfrequent thinning might help to maintain fungal productivityproductivity butbut the loss of wood production mightmight outweighoutweigh thethe benefits.benefits . • Compaction of soilsoil fromfrom logginglogging operationsoperations reducesreduces productivity while the removal of large branches makes itit easier and safer to findfind wildwild fungifungi withoutwithout necessarily increasing base productivity. The criticalcritical issue in enhancingenhancing production ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi isis theirtheir economiceconomic importance compared toto the value of wood production and other forestforest uses.uses. This is often poorly understoodunderstood because because accurate accurate data data are are missing missing onon the the value value ofof harvests. harvests.

MEASURING PRODUCTIONPRODUCTION Yields Data fromfrom experimentalexperimental studies in fivefive countriescountries areare summarizedsummarized in TableTable 10.10. Comparisons areare difficultdifficult toto makemake becausebecause somesome studiesstudies includeinclude allall edible species whilewhile others measure the productivity of of individual individual species. species. SamplingSampling methodsmethods alsoalso vary,vary, with plot sizesize and totaltotal areaarea monitoredmonitored oftenoften tootoo small small toto drawdraw any any major major conclusions. conclusions. The results from MexicoMexico suggest that up toto 11 759759 kgkg perper haha ofof wild wild edible edible fungifungi can be produced in aa goodgood year.year. YieldsYields from other countriescountries areare usuallyusually muchmuch lower,lower, around 100100 kg per ha and less. Natural fluctuationsfluctuations occuroccur fromfrom yearyear toto yearyear (Villarreal (Villarreal and Guzmán,Guzman, 1985;1985; Villarreal and Guzmán,Guzman, 1986a;1986a; 1986b) andand withoutwithout historical data itit is difficult to draw anyany useful conclusions from a single year'syear's productionproduction.. There is a clear need to improve the qualityquality andand rangerange ofof datadata onon yields.yields. ConcernsConcerns havehave beenbeen expressed aboutabout "declining yields" yet there is also a lack ofof publishedpublished datadata thatthat allow a closer examinationexamination of thethe impactimpact ofof commercial commercial collectingcollecting inin PortugalPortugal (Baptista-(Baptista­ Ferreira, 1997) and the Russian Federation (Kovalenko,(Kovalenko, 1997),1997), for example.example.

TABLE 10 Yields ofof wildwild fungi from differentdifferent countriescountries

COUNTRY DETAILS OFOF ANNUALANNUAL YIELDS YIELDS AMOUNT (KG/HAl(KG/HA) SOURCE

Russian FederationFederation "Most popularpopular (edible)(edible) mushrooms"mushrooms" 65-170 Vladyshevskiy, LLaletinaletin and (central Siberia)Siberia) Vladyshevskiy, 2000

Russian Federation (a) Lactarius torminosus,torminosus, (b)(b) "red-headed"red-headed (a) 2-14 Chibisov and Demidova, (Arkhangelsk) mushroom" - -?Russula?Russula sp.sp . (b) 9 1998

Finland All edibleedible mushroomsmushrooms atat Sotkamo Sotkamo (a) (a) 19761976 andand (a) 30 Koistinen, 19781978 (north) (b) 19771977 (b) 85

Finland Gyromitra esculenta (note fluctuations; 19731973 and 50-100 Jalkanen and Jalkanen,Jalkanen, 19781978 1974 good; 19751975 and 19761976 poor; 19771977 mediocre)

Estonia Average forfor all edible fungi at three sites, fromfrom 124, 499,143 Kalamees and Silver,Silver, 19881988 (northwest) 1978to1978 to 81 *"

Estonia Average for (a)(a) suillusSuillus variegatus - one site and (a) 4141 Kalamees and Silver,Silver, 19881988 (northwest) (b) Lactarius rufusrufus -- three sitessites * (b) 20; 24;24; 405405

Mexico All edible speciesspecies fromfrom two sitessites 85 Lopez, Cruz and Zamora-Zamora­ Martinez, 19921992

Mexico All edible species,species, twotwo sites (a) and (b) for 19831983 (a) 11 759; 234234 Villarreal andand Guzmán,Guzman, 1985;1985; (Veracruz) and 19851985 respectively (b) 747; 180180 1986a

Mexico (a) Suillus granu/atus;granulatus; (b)(b) Cantharellus cibarius (a) 246; 7575 Villarreal andand Guzmán,Guzman, 1985;1985; (Veracruz)(Veracruz) (c) Amanita caesarea;caesarea; (d) BoletosBoletus edulisedulis (b)(b) 4; 8 1986a For 1983 and 1985 respectively (c)(c) nd; 38 (d)(d) 150; 9

United StatesStates (a) Tricholoma magnivelare; (b)(b) Morchella sppspp.;.; (a)(a) 3-15 Pilz and Molina, 2002 (Pacific northwest)northwest) (c) Cantharellus spp. (b)(b) 1-6 (c)(c) 2-2- 0

Amounts are fresh weight or presumedpresumed to be so. Villarreal and GuzmanGuzmán datadata basedbased on on extrapolation extrapolation from from twotwo permanent plots of 100100m2 m' at each site. * InsectInsect damage reduces availableavailable harvestharvest ofof non-L. rufusrufus edible species byby aroundaround 7070 percentpercent.. ndnd -- no data. 34 Wild edibleedible fungi:fungi: aa global overview of their use and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

TABLETABLE 11 NationalNational productionproduction ofof wildwild edible fungi

COUNTRY ITEMITEM (WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGI) AMOUNT SOURCE (TONNES)(TONNES)

BelarusBela rus "Resour"Resources"ces" fromfrom 1981 to 19851985 5300053 000 Malyi, 19871987

Canada Estimated annualannual export 220-450 de Geus, 19951995

Canada Chanterelles, boletesboletes andand morelsmorels "exported"exported in a 10001 000 Wills and Lipsey,Lipsey, 19991999 good year"

China ProductiProductionon of boletes,boletes, LactariusLactarius deliciosusdeliciosus andand 308308000 000 Sun and Xu, 19991999 "other"others"s" (?wild(?wild edibleedible fungi):fungi): 19981998

Estonia Average annual export 1929-381929-38 22200 200 Peal,Paal, 19991999

Finland Yields in (a)(a) 1988,1988, (b)(b) 19921992 andand (c)(c) 19961996 (a) 1 050 Härkönen,Harkbnen, 19981998 (b) 670 (c) 360

Poland Production ofof (wild) edible fungi inin 19581958 35003 500 Bukowski, 19601960

Russian Collected annually by locallocal people inin 193051930s 20402 040 Chibisov and Demidova,Demidova, 19981998 Federation (Arkhangelsk)

United StatesStates All wild edibleedible fungifungi collected collected forfor trade: trade: 1992 1992 11776 776 Schlosser and Blatner, 19951995 (WA(WA,, OR,OR, ID)ID)

Amounts are fresh weight or presumedpresumed to bebe so in the absence of of otherother information. ProductionProduction datadata fromfrom borealboreal andand coldcold temperatetemperate countries, e.g. Lithuania, vverewere seenseen too too llateate to bebe includedincluded inin thisthis table table (Lund, (Lund, Pajari Pajari andand Korhonen, Korhonen, 1998). 1998). SeeSee ChapterChapter 4, section: National and international trade, for relatedrelated informationinformation on on thethe value va lue ofof wild wild useful useful fungifungi (edible (edible and and medicinal).medicinal).

Table 11 summarizessummarizes nationalnational datadata onon thethe amounts harvested of mostly commercial species. TotalTotal productionproduction in anyany givengiven periodperiod willwill bebe higher.higher. DataData forfor developing developing countries are poorly representedrepresented andand anan attemptattempt has has beenbeen mademade to estimateestimate the potential production for for Tlaxcala Tlaxcala statestate inin Mexico,Mexico, wherewhere wildwild edibleedible fungifungi areare widelywidely collected.collected. Tlaxcala has 83 000 haha of forest of which 6565 000000 ha are conifers and broadleaves.broadleaves. The remaining area has only broadleaf species. A potentialpotential yield of 10 kgkg perper haha perper yearyear forfor all wild edible fungi in the 65 000 ha would provide aa potential harvestharvest ofof 650650 tonnes.tonnes. One ofof thethe main,main, if not principal,principal, limiting factors in how much is harvested and sold is the time taken to collectcollect and bring thethe fungifungi toto aa potential buyer.buyer. The important question ofof howhow muchmuch ofof thethe totaltotal productionproduction is is actuallyactually harvestedharvested in anyoneany one year remainsremains largelylargely unanswered, eveneven forfor commercialcommercial speciesspecies ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi.

Inventory Concerted effortsefforts havehave beenbeen mademade to estimateestimate productivity ofof commercialcommercial species of wild edibleedible fungi in NorthNorth America America (Pilz (Pilz andand Molina, Molina, 2002).2002). SimilarSimilar approaches were used in Malawi to monitor productionproduction of of edible edible species species (Meke(Meke inin BoaBoa etet al.,at., 2000).2000). AA total of 25025050 50 m x 22 mm plotsplots werewere assessedassessed at at five five native native (miombo) (miombo) woodland woodland sitessites fromfrom 1999 to 20022002 andand initialinitial resultsresults areare availableavailable atat www.malawifungi.org. www.malawifungi.org. Information collected includedincluded thethe number and weight of fruiting bodies and their proximity toto trees (to examineexamine mycorrhizal associations).associations). Fruiting bodies of macrofungimacrofungi appear over a potentiallypotentially largelarge areaarea andand oneone recommendation forfor collectingcollecting yieldyield data isis toto useuse long,long, narrownarrow plots,plots, asas notednoted above. above. This alsoalso minimizesminimizes tramplingtrampling damagedamage by fieldfield staff.staff. The frequencyfrequency ofof observationsobservations depends on whenwhen particularparticular speciesspecies appear.appear. LocalLocal collectorscollectors havehave proved aa helpfulhelpful source of information inin Malawi.Malawi. More and better data are needed on yields and productivity to assist in drawing up management plans. Further advice on methods for assessing productionproduction of NWFPNWFP have been published byby FAOFAO (2001a). (2001a). Management: wildwild edible edible fungi,fungi, trees,trees, forestforest usersusers 35

Market surveys provide a guide to generalgeneral productivity and are a simpler and less costly way of collecting data, provided that significant amountsamounts areare soldsold toto the public.

PRACTICAL PLANNING: TO1NARDSTOWARDS SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION The ultimateultimate aimaim ofof managingmanaging wildwild edibleedible fungifungi isis toto achieveachieve sustainablesustainable production. The importanceimportance of goodgood qualityquality datadata hashas beenbeen emphasizedemphasized and attentionattention drawndrawn toto general issues of forest management and forest users. The firstfirst stepssteps inin formulatingformulating a management planplan are to describe and then analyseanalyse the features of each production systemsystem.. Table 12 suggestssuggests aa generalgeneral approach approach toto adoptadopt withwith key questions to ask.ask. Finland is a rarerare exampleexample of a countrycountry thatthat hashas activelyactively attemptedattempted to managemanage its wild edibleedible fungi resources.resources. They havehave actively supported wild edible fungi (together with wild berries)berries) sincesince thethe SecondSecond WorldWorld WarWar and theirtheir widelywidely publishedpublished experiences experiences provide helpful pointers for otherother countries.countries. MexicoMexico has also shown a sustainedsustained interestinterest in managing wild edible fungi. Coordinated effortsefforts havehave beenbeen mademade byby researchersresearchers andand local and regional government to understand thethe importanceimportance ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi and manage them for the benefit of people and the environment. Much of thethe informationinformation requiredrequired toto beginbegin thethe management management planningplanning processprocess isis already available in countries suchsuch asas ChinaChina (Mao, (Mao, 1998) 1998) andand TurkeyTurkey (e.g. (e.g. Gurer,Gurer, 2002, 2002, personal communication: Unpublished datadata on wildwild edibleedible fungifungi forfor Turkey).Turkey). TheThe former SovietSoviet Union devoteddevoted muchmuch efforteffort toto investigating investigating wildwild edibleedible fungifungi (Paal,(Paal, 1998), althoughalthough perhapsperhaps moremore fromfrom the viewpoint of the fungifungi thanthan theirtheir socialsocial andand economic related features. This is a generalgeneral weakness inin many countries and an areaarea where particular efforts are needed to improveimprove knowledge. Fair and equitableequitable accessaccess to forests and forestforest resourcesresources isis aa critical issue. If people believe theythey are unfairlyunfairly excluded theythey may continue to collectcollect butbut notnot observe observe

TABLE 12 Preparing managementmanagement guidelinesguidelines for for wildwild edible fungi

ToPICTOPIC QUESTIONS TO ASK/KEY POINTS

Ownership of forestsforests Public or private? State/region controlledcontrolled oror underunder jointjoint management withwith rural people? As thethe number of stakeholdersstakeholders increasesincreases soso thethe tasktask ofof resolving who hashas user rights and how thesethese areare moderated becomesbecomes more complex.complex. Private owners may be unaware of the valuevalue of WEFWEF and this should be carefully explained so thatthat theythey havehave realisticrealistic expectations aboutabout financialfinancial returns fromfrom potential commercialcommercial operations.

Relative importanceimportance ofof wild Commercial or personal? FirstiFirstl consider the valuevalue ofof WEF WEF byby themselves and then edible fungi compare this with otherother forest forest products products and and services. services. ReviewReview allall WEFWEF species together together forfor preliminarypreliminary assessments assessments and and later later look look more more carefully carefully at at the the valuevalue ofof differentdifferent typestypes (which(which maymay varyvary significantly).significantly). Personal Personal collectionscollections include include subsistence subsistence andand recreational usesuses (e.g.(e.g. amateuramateur mycologists, fieldfield biologists). Good and reliable data on productionproduction andand amountsamounts harvested harvested areare essentialessential for effective planning.planning. IfIf these these datadata do do not not exist exist or or are are patchy, patchy, consult consult collectors collectors to to assess assess patterns of previousprevious useuse and considerconsider an inventory basedbased on aa systemsystem of sample plots.

Collectors and their practicespractices People profilesprofiles and harvesting methods. Who areare the collectors:collectors: are they locallocal oror hired labour broughtbrought in in from from other other places? places? Examine Examine thethe harvesting harvesting practicespractices andand assess their their impactimpact onon WEFWEF resources resources and and the the forest forest andand trees.trees. ReviewReview thethe need toto changechange practicespractices and how collectorscollectors could bebe encouragedencouraged toto useuse lessless harmful methods.methods. Look carefully at the otherother featuresfeatures ofof collector collector livelihoods livelihoods so so thatthat WEF WEF cancan be put inin widerwider contexts.contexts.

Legislation and regulations Collecting permits andand right right of of access. access. HowHow are are collectionscollections ofof WEF WEF regulatedregulated andand do the currentcurrent lawslaws supportsupport sustainablesustainable use? TheThe keykey principleprinciple isis fair fair andand equitableequitable access to to forest forest resources which which maintainsmaintains a healthy balance between useuse ofof WEF WEF andand other forestforest uses.uses. Examine currentcurrent legislationlegislation toto see whetherwhether it isis enforceable and reflects current needs of users.users. TheThe guiding guiding principalprincipal is pragmatism:pragmatism: regulationsregulations thatthat work.work.

Production and financial valuevalue Volume and value. Assess this this on on a a national national scale since since data data will will bebe usedused to to develop government policies.policies. Weak data leadlead toto weak weak policies policies andand management management of of WEF WEF hashas been hampered by wrong perceptionsperceptions and knowledgeknowledge ofof collecting collecting practices practices andand their importance,importance, particularly to ruralrural communities.communities. 36 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa ggloballobal overview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

BOXSBOX 5 PractiCalPractical .inventory:irtyentory: experiencesexperiences fromfrom MalawiMalawi An extensiveive review ofof inventorysf~diesinventory studies forfor NWFP has revealedrevealed the poor qualityquality datadata thatthat oftenoften emerge atat the end of studies,studies, andand highlightedhighlighted thethe generalgeneral paucity paucity of of information information on on productivity productivity (FAO(FAO 200la).2001a). ThisThis isis aa criticalcritical issueissue ifif forestersforesters areare toto understandunderstand the impact of harvesting practices on wild edible fungi and to resolveresolve the competingcompeting claims of commercial interestsinterests andand otherother groups that havehave an instinctive suspicion of collectors (which(which oftenoften includesincludes thethe forestersforesters themselves).themselves). In Malawi,:tV1~lawi, enumerators were hired inin toto collectcollect data from four majormajor sites.sites. There were few major problemsproi?lems apart fromfrom thethe failurefailure ofofd::a data collectioncollection atat oneone sitesite whichwhich was.was resolved the nextnext year when aa loca!local0 ngn-governmentalnon-governmental organiza~iq~organization. (NGO)(NGO) helped. It tooktook atat leastleast one seasonseason for all concerned to becomebe~gBS$J~miliar familiar withwith protoc~lsa~dprotocols and j;techniques.f;$thniques. The rains werepoorwere poor, inthein the second and third yearye~r and prod~~tivityproductivity consequentlyconsequently low. low. AAgo9d good knowledge knowledge of of local local and and scientific·scientific namesnames ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi was a major benefit in interpreting the data.data. The cost ofof travellingtravelling to thethe fourfour sitessites waswas high;high; fuelfuel isis expensiveexpensive in Malawi andand budgets should be calculated before finalizing the location of plots. There maymay bebe little advantageadvantage in travellingtravelling afar unless these sites are significantly differentdifferent fromfrom those closer at hand. A computer datadata entryentry system system was created at the very beginningbeginning and was invaluable in allowing yieldyield datadata toto be entered swiftly and accurately. It soon becamebecame clear if wrongwrong data had been entered or ififthere there were unexplained gaps.gaps. The supervisorssupervisqrsused used this information to suggest improvementsimprovements in how enumeratorse.numerators collectedcollected data and reportedreI)Qrt~atheresults, the results. Analysis of the data and drawing conclusions havehave provedprovedmore more Idifficult~~~iCtllt toto achieve,achieve, partly becausebecause thethef'~~ple people involvedinvolved in the work worked'; farfar apartapart andand datadata collectioncollectio~was was continued up to thethe endend ofof the project.p~~ject.It It wouldwould havehave beenbeen better,bett~~?in in retrospect,retrospect, toto stopstop data data collection collection earlierearlier andand toto givegive aa longerlonger periodperio~ottime of time (six(six months) for datadataan~lysis. analysis. More could bebe donedone toto provide provide practical practical adviceadvice onon howhow to to taketake inventoriesinventories ofof wild wild edibleedible fungi.fungi. There is a lot ofof usefuluseful informationinformati0Il availableavailable on NWFP (FAO,(FAO, 2001a),200la), but therethere isis asas yet nono simple,simple, practical guide that would encourageencourage more people to measuremeasure productivity and show them howhow toto performnp,rt""rn simplesimple analysesanalyses of thethe data..

regulationsregulatians .oror paypay permitspermits or.or taxes.taxes. PeoplePeaple routinelyrautinely avoid avaid payingpaying official .official taxestaxes inin ItalyItaly when harvestingharvesting Boletus edulis andand trufflestruffles (Hall(Hall et al., I998b).1998b). ExclusionExclusian cancan alsoalsa turn toto resentment.resentment. InIn northwestnarthwest Spain Spain inin 2001,2001, aa truffletruffle sitesite waswas crudelycrudely rakedraked .overnightovernight and "spoiled""spailed" forfar collectioncallectian because a previausprevious resident .ofof an area was nona longerlanger allowedall awed to obtain.obtain aa collector'scollector's permitpermit forfar his his formerfarmer village village (de(de Román,Raman, 2002,2002, personalpersanal communication:cammunicatian: TradeTrade in niscalos fromfrom NorthNorth Spain to Catalonia and truffletruffle production).production) . The ScottishScattish Wild MushraamMushroom Code'Cadel providesprovides thethe followingfallawing guidelinesguidelines tota collectorscallectors .ofof edible and non-ediblenan-edible species:species: • .onlyonly pick what youyau willwill use;use; wildlife need mushroomsmushraams too;toa; • dado notnat pick until thethe capcap hashas opened.opened out,aut, andand leaveleave thosethase that areare past their best;best; • take care natnot to damage the main part of.of the mushraammushroom belowbelaw thethe surfacesurface andand notnat tota damagedamage its surroundings;surraundings; • scatter trimmings discreetly in the same area the mushraammushroom camecame from; • .onlyonly pick what youyau knowknaw andand take a field guideguide tato identifyidentify mushraamsmushrooms where yyouau find them;them; somesame mushroomsmushraams are poisonouspaisanaus and rarerare ones.ones shouldshauld notnat bebe picked;picked; • please .observeobserve special canditiansconditions that may apply tota naturenature reserves.reserves. CadesCodes of.of practice are useful but againagain must be realistic if they are tato be adopted.adapted. The losslass of.of nativenative forestsfarests reducesreduces thethe potentialpatential productionpraductian of.of wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. Planting exoticexatic trees opens.opens up newnew possibilities,passibilities, somesame of.of whichwhich havehave alreadyalready beenbeen

'7 AvailableAvailable at:at: wwwsbge.org.uk/researchkeltica/fungi/sustainability.htm.www.rbge.org.uk/research/celtica/fungi/sustainability.htm. Management: wildwild edibleedible fungi,fungi, trees,trees, forest usersusers 37 ------~ ------

exploited. Boletus edulisedulis hashas beenbeen introducedintroduced to South Africa and a small export trade has been establishedestablished (Pott,(Pott, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: ExportExport ofof Boletus Boletus edulisedulis from SouthSouth Africa).Africa). This fungusfungus isis not eateneaten locally.locally. A eucalypt species from Australia, planted in Madagascar,Madagascar, hashas formed mycorrhizal associations wllhwith a "native" edibleedible Russula (Buyck, 2001). SimilarSimilar interactionsinteractions involvinginvolving otherother wild edible fungi have beenbeen observed in West Africa (Ducousso, BaBa and Thoen,Thoen, 2002).2002). Planting exotic species does not, therefore, necessarilynecessarily impoverish the local mycota (Ryvarden, Pierce and Masuka, 1994) andand may significantly increaseincrease opportunitiesopportunities for collecting WEF,WEF, asas hashas happenedhappened withwith the planting of Pinus nigra in northwest SpainSpain and the commercialcommercial markets forfor LactariusLactarius deliciosusdeliciosus thatthat have developed overover the last thirty yearsyears (de(de Roman,Roman, 2002, 2002, personalpersonal communication: communication: TradeTrade inin néscalos niscalos from North Spain toto Catalonia and truffle production). NewNew Zealand hashas seizedseized the the opportunity opportunity toto introduce edibleedible mycorrhizalmycorrhizal fungi, fungi, andand thethe lack lack of of competing competing native native species species ofof fungi fungi isis seen as a positivepositive opportunityopportunity inin supportsupport of of commercialization commercialization (Hall (Hall and and Wang, Wang, 2002).2002). 38 PLATE 4 TRUFFLE COLLECTINGCOLLECTING IN ITALYITALY

The collection and cultivation of Tuber spp. is of commercial importance.importance. Truffle Truffle photographs photographs are are from from Urbino, Urbino, Marche in Italy, and are of Tuber aestivum unless otherwise stated. All photos byby EricEric Boa.Boa.

4i4.1 Luna uncovers the trufflestruffles andand awaitsawaits 4.2 Pierluigi displays thcthe truffles afterafter 4.3 The clearing is a truffle "orchard", a reward. Dogs areare easier to handle and digging themthem upup with the long-handled tartufaia (It.)(It.) oror truffière truffiere (Fr.).(Fr.). TreesTrees are cause less damage than pigs tool. It hashas aa curvedcurved bladeblade atat thethe end.end. infectedinfected artificially with the fungus.fungus.

4.4 Marking the test takentaken byby titruffle uffle 4.5 Tuber aestivum, cut open roto showshow 4.6 The suppressed vegetation (brulée),(brutee), collectors in Bologna toto confirm they distinctive flesh.flesh. suggests Tuber aestivum is present. know how and where to harvest.

4.7 Tuber excavatum, largely worth­worth- 4.8 Some truffle collectors raise and train 4.9 Tuber magnatum forfor salesale as a luxuryluxury less.less. Not all truffles are equally prized. their own dogs. Elvisio also sells toto other food, costing around US$35US$35 per jar.jar. Present at the samesame sitesite as T aestzvum.aestivum. collectors. 39 PLATE 5 THE TRADE IN BOLETUSBOLETUS EDULIS

These valuable and sought after wild fungi grow around thethe worldworld yetyet areare notnot eaten eaten inin countriescountries such such as as Malawi.Malawi. The trade isis dominated byby Italians,Italians, bothboth at at home home (factories) (factories) andand overseasoverseas (as(as traders). Huge volumes are imported from China, eastern Europe andand southernsouthern Africa.Africa. KnownKnown inin ItalianItalian asas porcini, they are dried and sold presenpreserved,Te d, sometimes in mixtures with other BoletosBoletus species and other cultivated mushrooms.mushrooms. All photographs fromfrom BorgoBorgo Val de Toro, Parma, Italy, unless stated otherwise, and taken by Eric Boa.Boa.

5.1 B. edulis: producedproduced in abundance yet 5.2 FreshFresh porciniporcini beingbeing prepared for 5.3 PorciniPorcini cooked and ready for not eaten or collected.collected. Pine plantation, cooking and preservation in brine, prior bottling..bottling .. Zomba plateau,plateau, Malawi.Malawi. toto being sold.

5.4 PreparingPreparing jarsjars ofof porcini and other 5.5 A range of mushroom products, 5.6 DriedDried and and preserved preserved porcini porcini on on sale. sale. mushrooms. including chanterelles and paddpaddyy straw.

5.7 PermitsPermits areare requiredrequired toto collectcollect wild 5.8 DriedDried porciniporcini fromfrom severalseveral countries 5.9 PorciniPorcini and other mushrooms inin fungi in this valley. ResidentsResidents and and property property areare carefullycarefully graded.graded. brine, as imported from overseas.overseas. owners pay lessless compared to "outsiders"."outsiders".

5.10 Other species species ofof BoletosBoletus areare some-some­ 5.11 Pholiota nameko from China, alsoalso 5.125.12 Young specimens of porcini in times mixed with porciniporcini andand sold,sold. sold in mixtures with porcini.porcini. brine. 41

4 Importance toto people: people: food, food, income, tradetrade

WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGI AND LIVELIHOODSLIVELIHOODS This chapter lookslooks atat thethe -waysways in which wild edible fungi are important to people,people, particularly thosethose in developing countries, and attempts to relate this information to the wawayy in which peoplepeople live.live. Development supportsupport isis adoptingadopting newnew approachesapproaches towards helping poor peoplepeople inin devlopingdevloping countries.countries. PragmaticPragmatic and practicalpractical approaches to reducing poverty seek seek improvementsimprovements sooner sooner rather rather than than later. later. Wild Wild edible edible fungifungi alreadyalready play an important role role inin the the lives lives ofof manymany peoplepeople andand moremore benefits benefits couldcould bebe achieved.achieved. A knowledge of the fungifungi themselvesthemselves is important but willwill notnot ofof itselfitself lead to changes unless the choiceschoices andand optionsoptions defined defined by by livelihoods livelihoods are are closely closely examined examined (Box (Box 6)8.6)8. Wild edible fungi provide two mainmain benefitsbenefits to people:people: they areare aa sourcesource ofof foodfood and income.income. AroundAround six six percentpercent of of edible edible species species alsoalso havehave medicinalmedicinal propertiesproperties (next(next section; TableTable 14).14). ThisThis contributioncontribution to humanhuman welfarewelfare isis difficultdifficult toto assessassess andand hashas rreceivedeceived littlelittle attention.attention. The medicinal propertiesproperties of mycorrhizal fungi have notnot been well investigated (Reshetnikov,(Reshetnikov, WasserWasser andand Tan, Tan, 2001).2001). The aw-arenessawareness of of wild wild edibleedible fungifungi andand theirtheir importance to people are generallygenerally poor. SubsistenceSubsistence uses in developing countries have often been ignored and it is only in recent years that initiativesinitiatives on NWFPNWFP havehave begunbegun toto explainexplain theirtheir widespreadwidespread useuse and roles in livelihoods.livelihoods. There has been much interest in the last years surrounding commercial harvestingharvesting of of matsutakematsutake inin the PacificPacific northwest ofof NorthNorth America, America, supported byby aa substantialsubstantial literature.literature. However,However, matsutakematsutake andand thethe continuedcontinued interestinterest in truffles and truffletruffle cultivationcultivation (Hall,(Hall, ZambonelliZambonelli andand Primavera,Primavera, 1998)1998) reflect aa veryvery different pattern ofof use,use, wherewhere wildwild edibleedible fungifungi areare seenseen asas a luxury food. Beyond thethe glare of publicity of commercial harvests, information from development projects and nationalnational initiativesinitiatives - for exampleexample China, MexicoMexico and Turkey -has slowly been emerging.emerging. Commercial harvestingharvesting alsoalso benefits rural peoplepeople inin severalseveral countriescountries but thethe sumsum ofof thethe moneymoney earnedearned isis lessless than the totaltotal benefitsbenefits gained from widespread subsistence uses. Substantial benefits are derived by people inin developingdeveloping countries,countries, and in particular thethe mostmost vulnerablevulnerable communitiescommunities livingliving in rural locations - the "poor of the poor".poor". Global statistics are not availableavailable and the evidenceevidence to supportsupport statementsstatements about widespread benefits isis based first onon casecase studies,studies, discusseddiscussed in moremore detaildetail below,below, and secondsecond onon moremore anecdotalanecdotal accounts.accounts. InformationInformation has beenbeen poorly documenteddocumented in thethe pastpast becausebecause of fewerfewer opportunitiesopportunities forfor scientistsscientists toto studystudy wildwild edibleedible fungifungi inin developing countries. There havehave alsoalso beenbeen culturalcultural biasesbiases againstagainst wildwild edibleedible fungifungi and an oftenoften unjustifiedunjustified assumptionassumption thatthat theythey are are ofof minor minor importance importance (Piearce, (Piearce, 1985;1985; Wasson and Wasson, 1957). TheThe latterlatter publicationpublication has done much to stimulatestimulate wider interest andand moremore researchresearch (Table (Table 13).13). Donor-funded projectsprojects on wildwild edibleedible fungifungi inin thethe UnitedUnited RepublicRepublic ofof TanzaniaTanzania (Harkonen(Flärkönen etet al.,aI., 1993),1993), MalawiMalawi (Boa(Boa et al.,al., 2000) and Benin (De Kesel,Kesel, 2002, personalpersonal

8 SeeSee www.livelihwww.livelihoods.orgoods.org forfor furtherfurther information and explanations of what is known asas the sustainable livelihoodslivelihoods approapproach.ach. Throughout this this chapterchapter livelihoods livelihoods isis usedused inin thethe broadbroad sense sense ofof thethe meansmeans byby which people live.live. 42 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa globalglobal overview of theirtheir use andand importance to people

BOX 66 Development projects andand wildwild edibleedihlefungi fungi Two different approaches to wild edible fungi are compared. In the first hypothetical project, allall the species of wild edible fungi in aa region areare described andand nutritionalnutritional characteristics characteristics areare analysed.analysed. LocalLocal names are gathered and generalgeneral observationsobservations mademade aboutabout locallocal marketing.marketing. In thethe secondsecond project,project, researchersresearchers assessassess sources of food and income for locallocal communities. They compare their relative importance and examine thethe opportunitiesopportunities and constraints to improved nutrition and income, which includeinclude edibleedible fungi.fungi. New schemes schemes andand initiativesinitiatives areare agreedagreed andand piloted. The twotwo approachesapproaches are complementarycomplementary butbut the first projectproject doesdoes notnot leadlead toto changechange inin locallocal practices. The second project seeksseeks to makemake improvementsimprovements toto thethe wayway peoplepeople livelive basedbased onon available available information.;\ More improvementsimprovements mightmight bebe achievedachieved ifif betterbetter technical technical knowledgeknowledg~ waswas available,avai~ap l e, yet locallocal communitiescommunities cancan stillstill planplan newnew initiativesinitiatives usingusing locallocal namesnames for wildwild edibleedible fungifungi oror seekseek efficiencies inin local marketing based on a clear understanding of local practices and opportunities.

communication: Wild edibleedible fungifungi fromfrom Benin) havehave takentaken aa broader view of socialsocial and economiceconomic issues related to wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. NationalNational programmesprogrammes inin MexicoMexico have established aa sound knowledge of the manymany speciesspecies of wildwild edibleedible fungifungi usedused throughout thethe countrycountry (Villarreal (Villarreal andand Perez-Moreno,Perez-Moreno, 1989).1989). ResearchResearch attentionattention isis now being turned onon socialsocial and economiceconomic factors, encouraged by a wider awareness ofof the importance of NWFP toto ruralrural economies economies andand people.people. The importance ofof wild edibleedible fungi to people in developing countries may also have gone unremarked for thethe simplesimple reasonreason that manymany ofof thethe collectionscollections areare forfor personalpersonal use (Yorou and DeDe Kesel,Kesel, 2002).2002). The limitedlimited mycologicalmycological expertiseexpertise inin WestWest AfricaAfrica isis said to be responsible for the mistaken belief thatthat itit isis aa "mushroom "mushroom desert"desert" (D(Ducousso,ucousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002). Reports from GhanaGhana (Obodai(Obodai and and Apetorgbor, Apetorgbor, 2001) 2001) andand Sierra Sierra Leone (Down, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: WildWild edibleedible fungi from SierraSierra Leone)Leone) indicate that locallocal use is widespread. The regular use of wild edibleedible fungi in tropicaltropical rain forests was revealed when careful observations of local practicespractices werewere undertakenundertaken in Brazil (Prance, 1984), nownow supported byby evidenceevidence fromfrom KalimantanKalimantan (Leluyani,(Leluyani, 2002,2002, personal communication: EdibleEdible fungifungi ofof Kalimantan) Kalimantan) andand Sarawak Sarawak (Chin,(Chin, 1988; 1988; Jones, 2002, personal communication: WildWild edible fungi use in Sarawak). Information isis published inin aa numbernumber ofof different different placesplaces oror disciplinesdisciplines (Table(Table 2) and is sometimes presented inin broaderbroader studiesstudies ofof communities communities (e.g. (e.g. ShackletonShackleton etet al.,a!., 2002:2002: South Africa; Ertrug, 2000: Turkey; Gunatilleke, Gunatilleke and Abeygunawardena, 1993: SriSri Lanka). Lanka). These These and and manymany otherother reportsreports listed in the reference section emphasize thatthat the contributions ofof wild edibleedible fungi toto diet and income of rural people should not bebe underestimated.underestimated. The following sections taketake a closer look at the typestypes ofof benefitsbenefits obtainedobtained fromfrom wild edibleedible fungi. Their relativerelative contributions toto livelihoodslivelihoods varyvary greatly.greatly. AA mealmeal ofof wild mushrooms is aa delicacydelicacy in Switzerland or the UnitedUnited StatesStates butbut aa necessitynecessity inin MalawiMalawi.. TheThe money earnedearned fromfrom sellingselling LactariusLactarius deliciosusdeliciosus provides a small financial fillipfillip in northernnorthern SpainSpain (de(de Roman,Roman, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: TradeTrade inin niscalosniscalos from NorthNorth SpainSpain toto CataloniaCatalonia and and truffle truffle production) production) whilewhile collectingcollecting morelsmorels inin IndiaIndia allows peoplepeople to pay for sending their childrenchildren toto schoolschool (Singh(Singh andand Rawat,Rawat, 2000).2000). The importance ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi fromfrom aa developmentdevelopment perspectiveperspective isis defineddefined byby comparison with other sourcessources of food and income. Alternatives do exist andand proposalsproposals to increaseincrease the use and benefitsbenefits of wild edibleedible fungi will always be compared withwith available options.options. TheThe lurelure ofof jobsjobs inin thethe tourist trade in Hunan, China,China, isis anan attractiveattractive alternative toto climbing upup and down mountains, with no guaranteeguarantee of finding wild edible fungi toto sell (Härkönen,(Harkonen, 2002). TheThe contractioncontraction ofof jobjob opportunities inin the Importance toto people:people: food, income, trade 43

TABLE 1313 Ethnoscientific studiesstudies ofof wildwild fungi withwith edible edible and and medicinalmedicinal propertiesproperties

COUNTRY WILD FUNGIFUNGI EMPHASISEMPHASIS SOURCE Australia Useful (includes edible) species in in aboriginalaboriginal culture Kalotas, 1997 Balkan region Medicinal species:species: study of easterneastern SlaysSlavs Didukh, 20012001 Brazil Study of SanamaSanama Indians (includes(includes edibleedible species) species) Fidalgo and Prance,Prance, 19761976 Canada Aboriginal plantplant use,use, including edible and medicinal wildwild fungi MariesMarles etetal., al., 20002000 China Comparison of HunanHunan andand ChinaChina (mostly(mostly edible edible species) species) Hark6nen,Härkönen, 2002 Guatemala Folklore concerning Amanita muscariamuscaria Lowy, 1974 General Fungi in folk medicinemedicine Birks, 1991 General The origins of ethnomycology,ethnomycology, asas a discipline Davis, 2000 General (Mexico) Personal stories of ethnomycology, mythsmyths andand ceremoniesceremonies Riedlinger, 1990 Himalaya, eastern Edible fungi of medicinalmedicinal valuevalue Boruah and Singh,Singh, 20012001 India Fungi inin folkfolk medicine Vaidya and Rabba,Rabba, 19931993 India, central Ethno-myco-medicinals Rai, AyachiAyachi and Rai,Rai, 19931993 Japan Uses of of fungi fungi and lichens by Ainu Yokoyama, 19751975 Malawi Edible, medicinal and species used forfor ceremonial purposes Morris, 19921992 Mexico Medicinal mushrooms: traditions,traditions, myths and knowledge Guzman,Guzmán, 20012001 Nepal General observations (mainly edibleedible species) species) Adhikari andand Durrieu,Durrieu, 19961996 Nigeria Medicinal practices in Yoruba culture Oso, 1977 Papua New Guinea Mainly concerned with edibleedible species species Sillitoe, 19951995 Peru Fungi, mostlymostly edible,edible, partpart of ethnobotanical study Franquemont etet at.,al., 19901990 Poland Polish folkfolk medicine Grzywnowicz, 20012001 Russian Federation Khanty folk medicinemedicine Saar, 1991 Russian Federation, Medicinal mushrooms in nature Bulakh, 20012001 far easteast Tanzania (United Compares use use of of wild wild edibleedible fungifungi with customscustoms in HunanHunan inin Hark6nen,Härkönen, 2002; Republic of) China Hark6nen,Härkönen, NiemeläNiemela and Mwasumbi, 20032003 Turkey Edible fungi,fungi, part of an ethnobotanical study Ertrug, 20002000 Zambia Customs andand folklorefolklore about mostlymostly edibleedible speciesspecies Piearce, 19811981

NoteNote:: See alsoalso Volume Volume 3 3 (1-2) (1-2) of of thethe International Journal of MedicinalMedicinal MushroomsMushrooms for abstractsabstracts from aa conferenceconference on medicinal mushroomsmushrooms,, manymany ofof wwhichhich have a ethnoscientific slant.slant.

forestry businessbusiness doesdoes notnot meanmean thatthat collecting collecting wildwild edibleedible fungifungi isis eithereither anan attractiveattractive or economiceconomlC proposition,proposltlon, even to peoplepeople desperatedesperate for workwork (Tedder,(Tedder, Mitchell and Farran, 2002).2002).

NUTRITION ANDAND HEALTH HEALTH BENEFITS BENEFITS 9 Useful macrofungi consist of those withwith edibleedible andand medicinalmedicinal properties'.properties • ThereThere isis no easy distinction betweenbetween thethe twotwo categories.categories. ManyMany ofof thethe commoncommon edibleedible speciesspecies have therapeutic properties; severalseveral medicinal mushrooms are alsoalso eateneaten (Table(Table 14).14). Ganoderma species (ling zhi oror reishi)reishi) areare thethe mostmost valuable valuable medicinalmedicinal mushroomsmushrooms (Plate 9): thethe global value ofof ganoderma-basedganoderma-based dietary supplements has been estimated to be US$1.6 billion (Chang andand Buswell,Buswell, 1999).1999). Lentinula edodesedodes and VolvariellaVolvariella volvacea areare -widelywidely cultivatedcultivated edibleedible fungifungi withwith medicinal properties. Only InonotusInonotus obliquus,obliquus, outout of of the the 25 25 medicinalmedicinal speciesspecies listed in Table 14, appearsappears notnot to be cultivated. Of thethe 182182 medicinal fungi reported in Annex 3 only 55 percentpercent areare ectomycorrhizalectomycorrhizal (see(see Reshetnikov,Reshetnikov, WasserWasser and Tan,Tan, 2001).2001). This is probably anan underestimateunderestimate (Mao,(Mao, 2000)2000) sincesince researchresearch effortsefforts havehave concentratedconcentrated on saprobicsaprobic species that can bebe cultivated,cultivated, thus providingproviding a guaranteedguaranteed supply and uniformity of product. There has been a spectacular increase of interest andand commercialcommercial activity concerned with dietary supplements, functional foodsfoods andand other products that are "more"more thanthan

9 Ceremonial, relreligiousigious and other nonnon-practical-practical uses of of wildwild fungi are ofof relative minorminor importance and areare not discusseddiscussed here (see(see Davis, Davis, 19961996 and and Riedlinger, Riedlinger, 1990, 1990, for for moremore information)information).. 44 Wild edible fungifungi:: a ggloballobal overview of their useuse andand importanceimportance toto peoplepeople ------

TABLE 14 Nutritional composition of somesome wild edible fungi

CONIPOSITION,COMPOSITION, PERCENTAGEPERCENTAGE DRY WEIGHT

BINOMIAL COUNTRY PROTEIN CARBOHYDRATE FAT MINERAL MATTERMAUER (ASH)

Amanita caesareacaesarea France?France? (1) 15 nk 14 10 Amanita loosii Democratic RepublicRepublic ofof 20 nk nk nk thethe Congo (2)(2) Amanita rubescensrubescens Mexico (3) 18 nk nk nk

Boletus edulis Turkey (7)(7) 38 47 9 1 Boletus edulis Finland (8) 23 nk 2 7

Boletus erythropus Jordan (5)(5) 15 57 1 8 Boletus frostii Mexico (3) 16 nk nk nk

Boletus loyo Chile (12) 22 50 1 6 Cantharellus cibarius Turkey (6) 21 62 5 2 Cantharellus cibarius Democratic Republic of 15 64 5 13 the CongoCongo (10)(10)

Lactarius phlebophyllum United Republic of 30 51 9 5 Tanzania (7) Lactarius deliciosus France? (1) 23 nk 7 6 Lactarius deliciosus Chile (4) 27 28 7 6 Lactarius indigoindigo Mexico (3) 13 nk nk nk Lactarius torminosus Finland (8) 21 nk 2 7

Lactarius piperatuspiperatus Turkey (6)(6) 27 65 2 1 Ramaria flava Mexico (3) 14 nk nk nk Ramaria flava Finland (8) 24 nk 2 6 Russula cyanoxantha France? (1) 17 nk 8 8 Russula delica IndiaIndia (9)(9) 17 nk nk nk Russula sp. Democratic Republic of 29 55 6 6 the CongoCongo (10)(10)

Suillus luteus Chile (4)(4) 20 57 4 6 Suillus granulatus Chile (4)(4) 14 70 2 6 Terfezia c/averyiclaveryi IraqIraq (11)(11) 8 17 nk 10 Termitomyces microcarpus 11 United Republic of 49 29 10 11 Tanzania (7)(7) Termitomyces microcarpus 22 United Republic of 3535 37 6 23 Tanzania (7)(7)

Termitomyces microcarpus Democratic Republic of 3333 38 5 14 the CongoCongo (10)(10) Tricholoma populinumpopulinum Canada (13)(13) 13 70 9 7 Tricholoma saponaceum France? (1) 5 nk 7 8 Tirmania níveanivea IraqIraq (11)(11) 14 21 nk 5 nk - notnot known. known. Figures Figures roundedrounded toto nearest nearest wholewhole number.number. Sources: (1) Kiger, 19591959 - assumed toto have tested specimens fromfrom France butbut not stated; (2)(2) Degreef etet al., al., 1997;1997; (3)(3) Leon-Guzman,Leon-Guzman, Silva and Lopez, 1997; (4) FAO, 1998b;1998b; (5)(5) EreifejEreifej and AI-Raddad,Al-Raddad, 2000; (6) Caglarirmak, UnalUna I and Otles.,Otles., 2002;2002; (7) Härkönen,Harkbnen, SaarimäkiSaarimaki and Mwasumbi,Mwasumbi, 1994a; 1994a; (8) (8) Kreula,Kreula, Saarivirta Saarivirta and and Karando, Karando, 1976; 1976; (9) (9) Purkayastha Purkayastha and and Chandra, Chandra, 1985; 1985; (10) (10) Parent Parent and and Thoen, Thoen, 1977; 1977; (11) (11) Al-Naama,AI-Naama, Ewaze and Nema, 1988; (12) Schmeda-Hirschmann et etal., a/., 1999b; (13) Turner, Kuhnlein and Egger,Egger, 1987.

just food"food" (Etkin(Etkin and and Johns, Johns, 1998; 1998; WasserWasser etet al.,aI., 2000).2000). Although thesethese newnew productsproducts have clear economic potential, their relevancerelevance to developing countries isis at present stillstill marginal. Medicinal wildwild fungi are collected in China. There is aa substantialsubstantial tradetrade ofof Cordyceps sinensissinensis in in SichuanSichuan (Plate(Plate 9)9) (Priest,(Priest, 2002, personalpersonal communication: Edible and medicinalmedicinal fungi inin ChinaChina andand general general information; information; Winkler,Winkler, 2002)2002) and inin otherother countries such asas Nepal.Nepal. RuralRural peoplepeople earnearn substantial substantial amountsamounts fromfrom commercial commercial harvesting. The mainmain benefitsbenefits ofof wildwild usefuluseful fungifungi are,are, however,however, asas food.food. TheyThey are are collected, collected, consumed and soldsold inin overover 8585 countriescountries (Annexes(Annexes 1 and 2) and their contributioncontribution toto diets isis discusseddiscussed below.below. Importance toto people:people: foodfood,, income,income, trade 45

Nutritional valuevalue The constituentsconstituents ofof anan edibleedible fungusfungus areare notnot necessarilynecessarily a good guide to nutritionalnutritional value (Breene, 1990). TheThe digestibility of different components varies,varies, whilewhile analyticalanalytical methods areare notnot alwaysalways reliablyreliably usedused inin testing testing (Crisan (Crisan and and Sands, Sands, 1978; 1978; Lau,Lau, 1982).1982). The use of different techniquestechniques forfor analysinganalysing nutritionalnutritional value value alsoalso limitslimits aa comparisoncomparison of resultsresults fromfrom differentdifferent studiesstudies (Degreef(Degreef etet al.,aI., 1997).1997). EstimatesEstimates of (usable)(usable) protein content shouldshould excludeexclude chitinchitin presentpresent inin fungalfungal cellcell walls,walls, for example.example. This is not always observed inin studies.studies. A summary of nutritional analysesanalyses is presented inin Table 1414.. Note Note thethe goodgood proteinprotein and mineralmineral content ofof keykey wildwild edibleedible speciesspecies in theirtheir drydry state.state. (Moisture(Moisture contentcontent varies between about 8585 and 9595 percnet for thethe fleshyfleshy mushroomsmushrooms andand similarsimilar types.)types.) Edible speciesspecies are low inin fat,fat, containcontain essential essential aminoamino acidsacids andand usefuluseful mineralsminerals and,and, though theythey areare notnot energy-providing energy-providing foodsfoods (Table(Table 16),16), they are a substantially better source of nutrition thanthan is is oftenoften assumed assumed oror inferred inferred (Richards, (Richards, 1939).1939).

Contribution toto diet Tables 15 and 16 compare the nutritional valuevalue of edibleedible fungi with otherother foodstuffs.foodstuffs. These data confirm that wildwild edibleedible fungifungi areare nutritious andand aa suitablesuitable alternativealternative for well-known foodstuffs.foodstuffs. TheyThey compare compare favourably favourably using using standard standard measures measures that that assess assess thethe nutritionalnutritional valuevalue of foods.foods. The contribution to dietdiet willwill depend on thethe amountsamounts eaten by people, the speciesspecies involved and the frequency of consumptionconsumption (see(see below).below). People regularly eat wild edibleedible fungifungi in manymany countriescountries andand theythey make make a a valuable valuable and often essentialessential contributioncontribution toto diets, as shown by aa studystudy inin MalawiMalawi (Abbott,(Abbott, 1999). ThisThis detailed study ofof eatingeating habitshabits inin villagesvillages revealedrevealed that 1.31.3 kgkg ofof drieddried leafyleafy vegetables andlorand/or wildwild edibleedible fungi was enough (when rehydrated) to feedfeed aa family of four for twotwo weeksweeks (Abbott,(Abbott, 1999).1999).

BOX 77 AminoArnino acids, proteirt~pdprotein and the nutritional value valueo!wild of wild edibleedible fungi Various measures (scores, indexes,indexes, values)values) basedbased on on aminoamino acidacid compositioncomposition areare usedused toto compare the nutritional valuevalue of wild edible fungi withwith other foods. Fat and carbohydrate contentcontent are are ofof lessless interest because they are rarelyrarely limiting factors in diets. FeedingFeeding studiesstudies ofof edibleedible fungifungi would would provideprovide thethe mostmost direct evidence of nutritional value but until now havehave not beenbeen carriedcarried out. The AMINOAMINO ACIDACID SCORE SCORE is basedis based on on the the amount amount of of the the most most limiting limiting amino amino acid acid present present inin aa foodfood item inin comparisoncomparison with with a referencea reference protein protein (e.g. (e hens'.g. hens eggs).' eggs). The ESSENTIALThe ESSENTIAL AMINO AMINO ACID ACID INDEX INDEX measures the presence of amino acids that people cannot synthesizesynthesize andand givesgives a stronger indicationindication ofof potential nutritivenutritive value.value. However,However, thisthis indexindex doesdoes notnot indicateindicate howhow wellwell thesethese essentialessential aminoamino acidsacids are retained andand used used by by the the body, body, which which is theis the reason reason for forcomputing computing the BIOLOGICALthe BIOLOGICAL VALUE, VALUE, itselfiFself derivedfromderived from the the ESSENTIAL ESSENTIAL AMINO AMINO ACIDACIDTND INDEX.EX. TheTh~ ESSENTIALESSENTIAL AMINO AMINO ACID ACID INDEXES INDEXES for wildfor wild edible edible fungi fungi compare compare favourably favourably with with other other foods (Table 16)16).. Given Given that that therethere areare restrictedrestricted sourcessources ofof protein protein forfor ruralrural peoplepeople inin thethe developingdeveloping countries,countries, the contribution of of wild wild edible edible fungi fungi is is more more important important than than widely widely recognized. recognized The. The NUTRITIONAL NUTRITIONAL INDEX allows allows comparisons comparisons to to be be made made between between wild wild ededibleible fung fungii with with smallsmall amountsamounts of high quality protein and thosethose thatthat havehave largelarge amountsamounts ofof aa lowerlower nutritionalnutritional value. value. TheThe datadata inin TableTable 15 show the greatest range of values for the limited number ofof speciesspecies tested.tested. The ultimateultimate contribution mademade byby wildwild edibleedible fungifungi toto diets dependsdepends not only onon theirtheir intrinsicintrinsic value as calculated byby these measures,measures, butbut the amountamountss (and species) eateneaten inin ccomparisonomparison withwith other foods. ,lheThe nutritional analysesanalyses show that wild edibleedible fungifungi arearea a. valuablevaluable ssourceource of proproteintein in thethe developing counries andand havehave thethe potentialpotential toto contcontributeribute mmoreore tohumanto human diets iinn many countrcountries.ies. After Crisan andand SandsSands (1978).(1978). 4646 WildWild edibleedible fungi:fungi: aa globalglobal overview of their use and importance toto peoplepeople

TABLE 15 Estimated nutritionalnutritional values of some edibleedible fungifungi

SPECIES ESSENTIAL AMINO AMINO AODACID INDEX BIOLOGICALBIOLOGICAL VALUE AMINO ACIDACID SCORESCORE NUTRITIONAL INDEX

Agaricus bisporus *" 8686.8.8 83.0 65.0 2222.0.0 CantharellusCantharellus cibarius 94.294.2 91.0 68.0 3.313.31 Macrolepiota procerapro cera 98.798.7 95.995.9 90.0 7.4 Suillus granulatus 8989.7.7 86.1 73.6 13.5 TermitomycesTermitomyces spp.spp. 86.3 82.4 - 23.9 World speciesspecies 87.6 83.8 61.6 16.0

*" cultivated.cultivated. BasedBased onon FAOFAO referencereference patternspatterns andand meanmean valuesva lues forfor species species fromfrom severalseveral sources.sources. Unpublished data prepared by Graham PiearcePiearce.. See See Box Box 6 6for for a a discus discussionsion of of nutritional nutritional indicators.indicators.

TABLE 16 A general comparison of nutritional values values ofof various various foodsfoods compared compared toto mushrooms mushrooms r------, ESSENTIALESSENTIAL AMINO AMINO ACID INDEX M AMINOAM/NO ACIDACID SCORESCORE M NUTRITIONAL INDEXINDEX M 100 Pork, beef, chicken 100 Pork 59 Chicken , 99 MilkMilk 98 Beef, chicken 43 Beef 91 Potatoes, beans 91 Milk 35 Pork 88 Maize 63 Cabbage 31 Soybeans 86 Cucumbers 59 Potatoes 26 Spinach 79 Groundnuts 53 Groundnuts 25 Milk 76 Spinach, soybeans i) . . /:: 50 Maize 21 Beans 72 Cabbage •.f!I!j~ 46 Beans 20 Groundnuts 69 Turnips 42 Cucumbers 17 Cabbage 53 Carrots 33 Turnips 14 Cucumbers 44 Tomatoes 31 Carrots 11 Maize 28 Spinach 10 Turnips 23 Soybeans 9 Potatoes 18 Tomatoes 8 Tomatoes 6 Carrots M - shaded shaded column showsshows the rangerange ofof valuesva lues forfo rmushrooms. mushrooms. IndexesIndexes and scoresscores calculated against reference patterns published byby FFAO;AO; biologicalbiological values ccloselylose ly follfollowow essentialessential aminoamino acidacid indexes.indexes. DataData afterafter Crisan Crisan andand SandsSands (1978).(1978).

The shelf-lifeshelf-life of wild edible fungi can be shortshort butbut harvestsharvests areare alsoalso preservedpreserved in aa numbernumber ofof ways.ways. InIn the the Russian Russian Federation Federation andand ChinaChina wild wild edibleedible fungifungi areare commonly preservedpreserved inin brinebrine (Plate(Plate 8).8). RussiansRussians also freeze wild edible fungi for later use (Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy, 2000). In southern Africa,Africa, edibleedible fungifungi are eaten fresh aandnd lelessss commonlycommonly dried.dried. ThroughoutThroughout the miombo region of southern Africa wild edible fungi are an important source of nutrition atat aa timetime ofof yearyear whenwhen other foodfood suppliessupplies areare lowlow - the so-calledso-called "famine months". Here thethe normalnormal dietdiet consists of nsimansima (a(a maizemaize oror cassava-based cassava-based porridge) to whichwhich relishesrelishes areare addedadded (Plate 6). The relishes provide key nutrients andand addadd piquancypiquancy toto thethe bland bland nsima. nsima. Information onon thethe amountsamounts of of wild wild edible edible fungi fungi consumedconsumed includes: includes: • Mozambique: inin thethe north,north, closeclose toto thethe borderborder with with Malawi, Malawi, peoplepeople collectcollect from 6 to 1010 kilogramskilograms of wildwild edibleedible fungi during a seasonseason (December to March). It was estimated that eacheach householdhousehold ateate 7272 toto 160160 kg per year. Average consumptionconsumption of TermitomycesTermitomyces schimperischimperi was was reckoned reckoned to to bebe 30-3530-35 kg per household per year.year. Similar eating habitshabits might be reasonably expected toto occur in Malawi andand other miombo regions.regions. (Masuka(Masuka in in Boa Boa et et al., al., 2000). 2000). • Zimbabwe:Zimbabwe: households eat up to 20 kg in a productive year but only 5-10 kg inin deforesteddeforested areasareas (Masuka,(Masuka, 2002,2002, personal communication:communication: Collection Collection of of mushrooms mushrooms inin Zinbabwe).Zinbabwe). • Russian FederationFederation - Siberia:Siberia: people collect 1515-100- 100 kg in a year andand eateat 80-9080-90 percent directly.directly. The populationpopulation ofof KrasnoyarskKrasnoyarsk regionregion isis threethree millionmillion overover anan 2 area ofof 2.32.3 millionmillion km2;km ; it isis estimatedestimated thatthat 4040 percentpercent of of families families collectcollect wildwild edible fungi, for personalpersonal use,use, recreationrecreation oror salesale (based(based onon interviewsinterviews withwith 500500 Importance toto people: food, income, trade 47

respondents).respondents). UseUse ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi hashas increasedincreased by 200-300 percent inin recentrecent years andand nownow providesprovides 30-4030-40 percent percent of of household household income. income. (Vladyshevskiy, (Vladyshevskiy, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy,Vladyshevskiy, 2000).2000). As a general rule, the poorer thethe peoplepeople thethe moremore likelylikely theythey areare toto collectcollect andand useuse wild edible fungi. Some traditions are lost asas peoplepeople becomebecome better educatededucated andand livelive away from the landland andand theythey showshow anan increasingincreasing reluctance toto eat all but the most common speciesspecies (Box 3) (Lowy, 1974).1974). InIn the Republic of Korea, China, thethe RussianRussian Federation and Japan the traditiontradition ofof eatingeating wildwild edibleedible fungifungi is much strongerstronger andand appears to havehave withstood thethe changes changes experiencedexperienced elsewhere.elsewhere. Rural people eat wild edible fungi both as a matter of choice and as a food of lastlast resort. LittleLittle reliablereliable informationinformation isis available,available, however, onon the use ofof wildwild fungifungi asas famine foods. InIn thethe RussianRussian Federation,Federation, foodfood distributiondistribution systems systems havehave collapsedcollapsed and statestate subsidiessubsidies for food havehave disappeared,disappeared, forcing peoplepeople "back"back toto the land". AA renewed dependency on naturalnatural productsproducts hashas developeddeveloped andand traditionstraditions ofof collecting collecting and eatingeating wildwild edibleedible fungifungi havehave beenbeen reinforced.reinforced. The extentextent ofof thesethese changeschanges is not well understood butbut emphasizesemphasizes againagain that closenesscloseness to thethe landland isis associatedassociated withwith eating wild edibleedible fungi.fungi.

Contribution to healthhealth Medicinal fungifungi are routinelyroutinely usedused inin traditionaltraditional ChineseChinese medicinemedicine (TCM)(TCM) andand awareness of their usesuses isis increasingincreasing (Ying(Ying et al.,at., 1987;1987; Hobbs,Hobbs, 1995).1995). WildWild medicinalmedicinal fungi are alsoalso collected and used inin MexicoMexico and severalseveral other countries (Table(Table 13) but widespread and regularregular useuse isis mostmost closelyclosely associatedassociated with ChinaChina andand AsianAsian people.people. Medicinal fungi are often sold in Chinese markets though the contribution fromfrom wildwild harvests isis still unclear (Chamberlain,(Chamberlain, 1996).1996). Worldwide, the majority of salessales are from cultivated sources though many speciesspecies are also collected from thethe wildwild (Table(Table 17).17). The incentive for collectingcollecting wild CordycepsCordyceps sinsinensis ensis in in TibetTibet AutonomousAutonomous Region, Sichuan (Winkler, 2002)2002) andand otherother parts ofof China (see distribution mapmap inin Mao,Mao, 2000)2000) is to earnearn moneymoney (Plate(Plate 9).9). BeyondBeyond ChinaChina there is no discernable internationalinternational tradetrade inin medicinalmedicinal fungi.fungi. The therapeutic benefitsbenefits ofof wildwild fungifungi areare summarized belowbelow (Table(Table 17), notingnoting that many are also consumed as food.

LOCAL MARKETING ANDAND INCOME There are two distinctdistinct patternspatterns of of wild wild edible edible fungifungi use:use: forfor subsistencesubsistence oror personalpersonal useuse and commercial harvesting. InformationInformation about personal collections is scarce, butbut the extent of this practice is global and there are increasing reportsreports that help to demonstrate the importance ofof WEFWEF toto ruralrural peoplepeople inin developingdeveloping countries.countries. ManyMany moremore speciesspecies are eaten locally compared to thethe smallsmall numbernumber involvedinvolved inin commercialcommercial harvesting. Finland has the most detaileddetailed information on on personal personal collections collections ofof wild wild edibleedible fungi. Wild edible fungi are a less importantimportant part ofof thethe dietdiet inin FinlandFinland today,today, inin timestimes ofof relative relative affluence, butbut there is still government support forfor collectingcollecting them. There is a stronger tradition ofof collectingcollecting and consumingconsuming wild edibleedible fungi in thethe easteast of Finland,Finland, aa regionregion where Karelian people originally from the Russian Federation have settled. Around 25 percent of KarelianKarelian families collect toto sell in markets, though the amountsamounts varyvary fromfrom year to yearyear becausebecause of fluctuating harvests. 1976 waswas aa poorpoor yearyear andand about 45 percent of families interviewedinterviewed diddid notnot collect anyany wildwild edible fungifungi duringduring thisthis period.period. Poorer communities collected more often toto sellsell inin locallocal markets (Härkönen,(Harkonen, 1998). 1998). The totaltotal amountsamounts soldsold in in local local markets markets can can be be considerable considerable (Table (Table 18).18). AnecdotalAnecdotal evidence fromfrom ChinaChina points to huge quantities collected and taken to markets in small towns and fromfrom therethere toto largerlarger citiescities (Plate(Plate 9).9). Preserving wild edible fungi inin brine is an important feature of this tradetrade andand itit allowsallows muchmuch largerlarger quantitiesquantities to bebe offeredoffered for sale. The financial contributionscontributions toto rural livelihoodslivelihoods areare not known thoughthough thethe 4848 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa global overview of their use and importance to people

TABLE 17 PropertiesProperties andand featuresfeatures of 25 major medicinal macrofungi

BINOMIAL MEDICINAL USED AS FOOD? WILD COLLECTION'COLLECTION' CULTIVATED COMMERCIAL PROPERTIES PRODUCT

Agaricus blazeiblazei 11 "edible" + yesyes no AgrocybeAgro cybe aegeritaaegerita 4 yes + yesyes yes Armillaria me//eamellea 4 yes ++ yes yes Auricularia auricula-judaeauricula-judae 5 yes ++ yes yes OendropolyporusDendropolyporus umbellatus 4 no + yes no Flammulina velutipes 5 yes ++ yes yes Fomes fomentariusfomentarius 2 no + yes yes Ganoderma applanatum 4 no + yes yes Ganoderma lucidum 11 "edible" + yes no Grifola frondosa 7 yes + yes yes Hericium erinaceus 4 yes + yes yes

Hypsizygus marmoreus 1 yes + yes no Inonotuslnonotus obliquus 4 no ++ no no Laetiporus sulphureus 2 yes ++ yes yes Lentinula edodes 11 yes + yes no Lenzites betulina 2 no 7? 7no?no yes Marasmius androsaceus 2 7yes?yes 7? 7yes?yes no

Oudemansiella mucida 1 "edible" ++ yes no Piptoporus betulmusbetulinus 2 no ++ yes yes Pleurotus ostreatus 5 yes + yes yes Pleurotus pulmonarius 3 yes + yes yes Schizophyllum commune 5 yes ++ yes no Trametes versicolor 5 "edible" + yes no TremellaTreme//a fuciformisfuciformis 5 "edible" + yes yes Volvariella volvaceavolvacea 4 yes + yes yesyes

'1 ++ minor importance;importance; ++ ++ significantsignificant amounts amounts collected. collected. Both Both assessments assessments areare inin relationrelation to the totaltotal amountsamounts used used globally,globally, includingincluding cultivated production.production. Note:Note: The 14 differentdifferent medicinal properties consistcons ist of:of: 1 -Antibiotic -Antibiotic (includes (includes antifungal, antibacterial,antibacterial, antiparasitic antiparasitic but but not not antiviral); antiviral); 2-2 - Anti-inflammatory;Anti-inflammatory; 3 3 -Antitumour; - Antitumour; 4- 4 Antiviral; - Antiviral; 5 -Blood5 - Blood pressure pressure regulation; regulation; 6- 6 Cardiovascular - Cardiovascular disorders; disorders; 77 -- HypercholesterolaHypercholesterola emia, hyperlipidaemia [high cholesterol, highhigh fats]; fats]; 8 8 -Antidiabetic; - Antidiabetic; 9 9- -Immune-modulat Immune-modulating;ing; 1010- - Kidney tonic;tonic; 1111 - -Hepatoprotective;Hepatoprotective; 12 -- Nerve tonic (?(7 antidepressant; vague);vague); 1313 - - SexualSexual potentiator; potentiator; 1414- - ChronicChronic bronchitisbronchitis (against).(against). Source: Wasser and Weis, 1999a.

widespread sale of wild edible fungi within China andand thethe substantialsubstantial exportexport businessbusiness (over 60 percent of Boletus edulisedulis importedimported by Italy comes fromfrom China - Borghi [2002,[2002, personal communication: Porcini andand other commercial wildwild edibleedible fungifungi in Italy]) clearly demonstrates that substantial amounts of money are earned. Experiences inin Malawi showedshowed that money earned byby locallocal collectorscollectors isis smallsmall butbut substantial, and that therethere isis anan expandingexpanding locallocal market for wildwild edibleedible fungifungi (Boa(Boa etet al.,aI., 2000). WomenWomen frequentlyfrequently go on collecting trips in many parts ofof southernsouthern AfricaAfrica and a number ofof reportsreports confirmconfirm thethe importanceimportance ofof thisthis activityactivity duringduring thethe three-three- toto four-month seasonseason eacheach yearyear (Richards, (Richards, 1939;1939; Thomson,Thomson, 1954).1954). The distancedistance from collectingcollecting sites to potential marketsmarkets isis aa crucialcrucial factorfactor inin sellingselling wild edible fungi. The roadside markets at LiwondeLiwonde inin MalawiMalawi are close to thethe forestforest areas where wild edible fungi are collected. The road is thethe mainmain thoroughfarethoroughfare fromfrom Blantyre to LilongweLilongwe andand thethe makeshiftmakeshift stallsstalls sell round 55 tonnes ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi during aa four-month season. season. ThereThere is is nono shortage shortage of of people people wanting wanting to to collect collect and and sell, sell, and this has led to increased competition forfor fungalfungal resources:resources: peoplepeople nownow havehave toto walkwalk further toto collectcollect (Lowore(Lowore and and Boa, Boa, 2001).2001). The marketmarket structurestructure inin MalawiMalawi isis typicaltypical ofof manymany AfricanAfrican countriescountries (e.g.(e.g. SierraSierra Leone: Down,Down, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: Wild Wild edibleedible fungifungi SierraSierra Leone):Leone): small-small­ scale and local. Sales atat LiwondeLiwonde and elsewhere depend on thethe flowflow ofof traffictraffic andand somesome days few buyers stop. Some traders wait until the end of the dayday andand buybuy thethe unsoldunsold Importance toto people:people: food, income, trade 49

BOX 8 Permits and regulating the collectors One of the inevitable consequences of commercial harvesting is the introduction of pernaits. From Bhutan to Serbia these are ostensibly introduced to regulate the impact of collectors and collecting on future production of wild edible fungi, yet there is little evidence that the money paid to local authorities is invested in the resources needed to police activities. In Castilla León, northwest Spain, the permit system for collecting Lactarius deliciosus collapsed in Buenavista de Valdavia when only four people bought permits in 2002, at a cost of US$30 for a six-week season. The other collectors decided this was no longer necessary, mainly because the guards from the Servicio de Protección de la Naturaleza proved to be increasingly ineffective in checking permits. Local collectors were concerned about the influx of outsiders to collect the niscalos and were insulted when asked to show their permits. There is no obvious friction between the local people and visiting collectors from nearby villages, but several people said the permit system should be reinstated since they were worried about the long-term prospects for mushroom production. Around Borgo Val de Taro, Parma, in northern Italy, the permit system appears to work more effectively. The local authority publishes the regulations each year, stating the conditions and costs of collecting WEF. The rates vary from around US$5 for a one-day permit for local residents with slight increases for non-residents. The differences are more marked for the six-month permits, with non- residents paying up to twice as much (up to US$100) as local people. Collecting is restricted to three or four days a week and a daily harvest of between 3 and 5 kg. This area is noticeably better off than Buenavista de Valdavia, where the need to earn money from niscalos is more urgent. In France, the increase in people collecting wild edible fungi has prompted the introduction of more formal rules regarding when and how much can be collected. Daily limits of 5 kg are stated with no collecting allowed on Tuesdays and Thursdays. A yearly permit costs around US$120. Source,: Spainde Román (2002, personal communication: Trade in nz'scalos from North Spain to Catalonia and truffle production), Italy, author's observations and Zambonelli (2002, personal communication: Truffles, and collecting porcini in Ital)); FranceBérelle (2002).

produce, movingmoving it quicklyquickly toto moremore central central markets markets inin the the bigger bigger cities. cities. TheThe prices prices they offer are low but thethe alternativesalternatives areare either toto drydry thethe fungifungi oror discard discard them.them. LocalLocal markets in Madhya Pradesh,Pradesh, India,India, areare alsoalso small-scalesmall-scale (Harsh, RaiRai andand Soni,Soni, 1999)1999) and appear to operate in a similar manner, butbut withinwithin townstowns ratherrather than by the roads. In thethe RussianRussian FederationFederation thethe collapsecollapse ofof statestate organizationsorganizations andand statestate buyingbuying hashas significantly affectedaffected thethe amountsamounts ofof money people can earn from wild edibleedible fungi (Table 18).18). PreviousPrevious displeasuredispleasure about about the the lowlow pricesprices offeredoffered byby thethe state are,are, inin hindsight, viewedviewed lessless harshlyharshly followingfollowing thethe collapse collapse ofof local local markets markets (Vladyshevskiy, (Vladyshevskiy, Laletin andand Vladyshevskiy,Vladyshevskiy, 2000).2000). The removal of statestate controlcontrol inin ChinaChina hashas unleashedunleashed aa greatergreater entrepreneurship,entrepreneurship, though itit hashas notnot been been without without its its failures. failures . FactoriesFactories forfor processingprocessing matsutakematsutake inin Sichuan are barely survivingsurviving (Winkler,(Winkler, 2002); similar facilities forfor producingproducing ganbajum (Thelephora ganbajum) never operated effectivelyeffectively andand were eventually shut downdown (Rijsoort and Pikun,Pikun, 2000).2000). The locallocal tradetrade inin ganbajumganbajum hashas continued,continued, thoughthough collectors spendspend longerlonger inin cleaning theirtheir harvestharvest for for marketmarket (up(up toto two hourshours perper kilogram). Consumers pay aa higherhigher price for betterbetter qualityquality produce.produce.

NATIONAL ANDAND INTERNATIONALINTERNATIONAL TRADETRADE The internationalinternational trade inin wildwild edibleedible fungifungi hashas takentaken placeplace forfor manymany years.years. InIn thethe 1880s NewNew Zealand exported earear fungusfungus (Auricularia(Auricularia polytricha) to ChinaChina (Colenso,(Colenso, 1884-85;1884- 85; Hall,Hall, Zambonelli and Primavera,Primavera, 1998).1998). InIn 1868,1868, FranceFrance exportedexported aa staggering 11 500 tonnestonnes of truffles (Tuber sppspp.).) to ItalyItaly (Ainsworth,(Ainsworth, 1976).1976). ItalyItaly hashas longlong importedimported BoletusBoletus edulisedulis and trufflestruffles fromfrom differentdifferent countriescountries (Plates(Plates 44 andand 5):5): 50 WildWild edible fungi:fungi: aa globagloball overview of ththeireir use and importance to people

TABLE 18 Local collection,collection, marketingmarketing andand useuse of of wild wild edibleedible fungifungi

COUNTRY COLLECTIONS ANDAND USE AMOUNT SOURCE Bhutan People regularlyregularly collect for personalpersonal consumption not known Namgyel, 2000 and sell in markets. SomeSome matsutake were soldsold for personalpersonal previously in markets but mostlymostly byby accident.accident. PeoplePeople collections sell toto agents who sell to exporters. Chile Cyttaria spp., totaltotal collection inin oneone season,season, for local 500-700500-700 kg Schmeda-Hirschmann sale andand consumptionconsumption.. et al.,al., 1999a1999a China (Sichuan) Many species collectedcollected and eateneaten.. Matsutake not knownknown Winkler, 2002;2002; Yeh,Yeh, "discovered" byby JapaneseJapanese in 1988. Exported throughthrough for personalpersonal 2000 Kunming and ?Chengdu.?Chengdu. Matsutake are bought byby collections traderstraders with accessaccess to to suitablesuitable transport,transport, takentaken to aa towntown 6565 km away and soldsold onon atat aa profitprofit of 75%.75%. China (Yunnan) Daily collection of edibleedible speciesspecies in Guilong, Deqing 60-100 kgkg Rijsoort and Pikun,Pikun, over an eight-month season. season. SoldSold locally.locally. 2000 Congo Annual consumption inin ShabaShaba region from locallocal 20 000 tonnes Degreef et al.,al., 19971997 (Democratic collection. Republic ofof the) Estonia Self-picked mushrooms, averageaverage annualannual amountamount per 2.4 kg Paal and capita Saastamoinen, 19981998 Finland 1. Gyromitra esculenta bought byby tradetrade in in (a) (a) 1988,1988, (a)(a) 109 tonnestonnes 1. Hark6nen,Härkönen, 19981998 (b) 1996. The Russian FederationFederation is another possiblepossible (b) 26 tonnestonnes 2. Pekkarinen and source. Maliranta, 19781978 2. About two millionmillion peoplepeople involvedinvolved in collecting WEF andand berriesberries forfor personal use oror for sale. An average of 8% of collectorscollectors sold their harvestharvest inin 1212 districts, 25%25% inin NorthNorth Karelia andand notnot atat all forfor two districts (1976 survey). ExportExport activityactivity limited. Germany For sale during summersummer of of 1902, 1902, all all species. species. Source(s) Source(s) 400 tonnes ArnoIds,Arnolds, 19951995 (Munich) of wild edibleedible fungi notnot known.known. India Daily harvest of morelsmorels byby experienced collectors, all Up to 1 kg Singh and Rawat,Rawat, (Himalaya) for export.export. 2000 India Termitomyces heimiiheimii sold in 15 markets during oneone 2.52.5 tonnes Harsh, Rai and Soni,Soni, (Madhya year for locallocal consumption.consumption. 1999 Pradesh) Cannot be stored for moremore than than a a day; day; some some areare dried and eateneaten later.later. T.T. heimii does not get priceprice premium itit deserves. deserves. Medicinal polyporespolypores areare collected but bought atat lowlow prices prices comparedcompared to retail priceprice inin NewNew Delhi.Delhi. Italy Tuber spp. collected in average year, including 50%50% 160 tonnes Hall et al.,al., 1998a1998a hike for blackblack marketmarket activity. activity. SoldSold locally.locally. Malawi All edible species,species, sold in 2000 over two months,months, 5 tonnes Boa etetal., al., 20002000 (Liwonde) from approx.approx. 1010 smallsmall stalls.stalls. Mexico Huitlacoche (maize infected with UstilagoUstilago maydis)maydis) 300-400 Villanueva, 19971997 (Mexico City)City) sold in markets tonnes Mexico Harvest from oneone day'sday's collecting,collecting, allall species species 4-5 kgkg Montoya-Esquivel et (Tlaxcala) al.,al., 20012001 Russian Individual collectioncollection ofof all all species species inin favourablefavourable 15-100 kg Vladyshevskiy, Laletin Federation years. 80-90%80-90% are forfor personal consumption, the and Vladysheyskiy,Vladyshevskiy, (central Siberia)Siberia) rest are sold. More familiesfamilies areare freezingfreezing harvests.harvests. 2000 In north Taiga Taiga peoplepeople eat eat WEF WEF almostalmost everyevery day.day. Marketing hashas collapsedcollapsed as state organizations havehave declined:declined: previouslypreviously GOSPROMKHOVGOSPROMKHOV bought bought up to 1 000000 tonnestonnes atat fixed prices when harvest was good and purchasepurchase prices were lower. TanzaniaTanzania Sold by thethe road (often close toto the spot where not knownknown Härkönen,Hark6nen, 20022002 (United Termitomyces grow) andand inin markets.markets. ThereThere areare Republic of) no known exportsexports from thethe UnitedUnited Republic Republic ofof TanzaniaTanzania.. Turkey Collections from 1313 villages of (a)(a) CantharellusCantharellus (a) 7.6 tonnes Cavalcaselle, 19971997 cibarius; (b) Boletus edulis; (c)(c) Morchella sp.;sp .; (d)(d) (b) 2.5 tonnes LactariusLactarius spsp..- totaltotal value value of of US$107 US$1 07 000.000. Most for (c) 2.3 tonnes locallocal sale. Total volume 2626 tonnes.tonnes. DataData forfor 1990. 1990. (d) 11.1 tonnes Zimbabwe Collection of BoletusBoletus edulis per person per day, for 15-20 kg Masuka, 2002,2002, pers.pers. export only.only. comm.: Collection of mushrooms mushrooms inin ZimbabweZimbabwe

NoteNote:: Amounts are fresh weight or presumed to be so inin thethe absence of of other other information.information. Importance toto people:people: food, income, trade 51

the formerformer YugoslaviaYugoslavia began exports ofof B.B. edulisedulis inin thethe 1970s1970s (Borghi,(Borghi, 2002,2002, personal communication: PorciniPorcini and otherother commercialcommercial wild edible fungifungi in Italy). The exportsexports ofof matsutake,matsutake, chanterelles,chanterelles, morelsmorels andand otherother "exotic""exotic" wild wild edible edible fungifungi are a more recent event,event, and where France once exported truffles to Italy, China now exports TuberTuber sinosum. TheThe last 20 or 3030 yearsyears hashas seenseen anan increasingincreasing movement of chanterelles, morels and Boletus edulisedulis fromfrom thethe southernsouthern to the northern hemisphere.hemisphere. Within Europe, thethe locallocal supplysupply ofof wild wild edibleedible fungifungi hashas failedfailed toto meetmeet anan expandingexpanding demand for "exotic"exotic mushrooms"mushrooms" (Plate(Plate 9).9). The increasedincreased demand hashas providedprovided commercialcommercial opportunities for countries in eastern Europe, Turkey,Turkey, andand MexicoMexico - to namename aa few.few. The United StatesStates and CanadaCanada have increased exportsexports of of aa number of wild edibleedible fungi, though they are mostmost associated withwith matsutake sent toto JapanJapan (Box(Box 4).4). The Japanese demand for matsutake has had an important effecteffect on thethe livelihoodslivelihoods of people in Asia and North America.America. Tables 21,21,22 22 andand 2323 provideprovide anan overviewoverview ofof thethe globalglobal tradetrade inin matsutake.matsutake. The price paidpaid forfor matsutakematsutake variesvaries considerably,considerably, dependingdepending onon annualannual harvestsharvests around AsiaAsia and in thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates andand Canada.Canada. TheThe financialfinancial benefits to collectors are difficult to quantify,quantify, althoughalthough thethe signs signs ofof increased increased -wealthwealth are clear toto see in parts of Sichuan. In Kyanbga the moneymoney earnedearned fromfrom selling selling rnatsutakematsutake andand CordycepsCordyceps spp.spp. provides 60 percentpercent ofof cashcash incomeincome (Winkler,(Winkler, 2002).2002). TheThe enthusiasmenthusiasm forfor collecting,collecting, clandestine planningplanning of trips (rising early in the morning and hunting with torchestorches inin Bhutan: NamgyelNamgyel2000) 2000) andand sometimessometimes violentviolent clashesclashes betweenbetween collectorscollectors (Yeh,(Yeh, 2000)2000) indicates the perceived attraction ofof thethe potentialpotential financialfinancial rewards.rewards. The qualityquality ofof matsutakematsutake significantlysignificantly affectsaffects prices obtained by collectors. Exports from thethe RepublicRepublic of KoreaKorea areare worthworth aa similarsimilar amountamount toto the the Democratic Democratic People'sPeople's Republic of KoreaKorea whenwhen averagedaveraged overover aa five-yearfive-year periodperiod (Table(Table 23) even though thethe average volumevolume exportedexported overover thethe samesame periodperiod waswas onlyonly aboutabout 2525 percentpercent ofof that for the Democratic People'sPeople's Republic of Korea.Korea. The ItalianItalian traderstraders havehave provided technicaltechnical support toto improveimprove andand maintain maintain the the quality quality of of Boletus Boletus edulis edulis exportsexports fromfrom Serbia,Serbia, andand there has been a steady increase in the amounts ofof moneymoney earned earned at at aa nationalnational levellevel (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: PorciniPorcini and otherother commercial commercial wildwild edibleedible fungi inin Italy).Italy). The amountsamounts paidpaid perper kilogramkilogram forfor trufflestruffles (Tuber(Tuber spp.)spp.) andand matsutakematsutake generategenerate much interest butbut thisthis isis notnot necessarily necessarily reflectedreflected in the amountsamounts earnedearned byby collectors.collectors. It isis possible to make a good living fromfrom truffle collecting butbut the numbers who benefit are relatively small (Plate(Plate 4).4). RuralRural peoplepeople earnearn usefuluseful amountsamounts inin aa shortshort period of time from collectingcollecting morelsmorels (Morchella(Morchella spp.)spp.) inin IndiaIndia (Prasad (Prasad et et al.,al., 2002)2002) andand PakistanPakistan (Pakistan Economist, 2001),2001), but but tradetrade inin Nepal andand AfghanistanAfghanistan appearsappears to bebe lessless lucrative. The morels are collected in thethe HimalayaHimalaya andand collectorscollectors cancan earnearn US$US$ 6-76- 7 per day.day. The total moneymoney earnedearned inin aa seasonseason provides 20-30 percent ofof thethe annualannual cashcash income inin 140140 villages (Singh and Rawat, 2000) and an annual income ofof US$150US$150 from another surveysurvey of of 1 1 600 600 familiesfamilies inin 4040 villagesvillages (Prasad(Prasad etet al.,a!., 2002)2002) In Turkey, around 1111 tonnestonnes ofof freshfresh LactariusLactarius deliciousdelicious were soldsold inin 1313 villagesvillages (Table 18). 18). The The total total annualannual valuevalue ofof four keykey wildwild edibleedible speciesspecies waswas aroundaround US$100 000,000, a a substantialsubstantial sourcesource ofof locallocal income.income. TheThe rolerole ofof traders is important inin facilitating locallocal marketsmarkets andand the international trade. They provide transport, creditcredit and even technical support. More importantly,importantly, theythey provideprovide somesome guaranteeguarantee ofof aa sale.sale. They alsoalso benefitbenefit financially from the higher prices when produce isis sold on,on, andand thisthis has attracted some criticism (Harsh, RaiRai andand Ayachi,Ayachi, 1993). ButBut withoutwithout traders therethere would bebe nono exportexport marketsmarkets andand thisthis wouldwould reduce reduce thethe substantial substantial benefitsbenefits earnedearned locally and nationally from thethe commercialcommercial harvesting of wild edible fungi. The salesale ofof harvestingharvesting permitspermits (Chapter(Chapter 3, 3, section section Regulating Regulating collection) collection) andand locallocal taxes are other sourcessources of potentialpotential revenue.revenue. It hashas beenbeen estimatedestimated thatthat twicetwice thethe officially recordedrecorded harvests of Tuber spp. take place in a year (Hall,(Hall, ZambonelliZambonelli and Primavera, 1998). Similar estimates and higher have been mademade forfor formerformer Yugoslavia Yugoslavia 52 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their use and importance to people ------~

TABLE 1919 World productionproduction ofof cultivated cultivated mushrooms mushrooms

ITEM 1986 1989/90 1994 1997 20012001"."

World productionproduction (tonnes)(tonnes) 21820002 182 000 33763000 763 000 49090004 909 000 66202000 202 000 77500000 500 000 China productionproduction (cYo) (%) 54 70 Value world productionproduction (US$(US$ billion) 7.5 16 22.5 Agaricus bisporus (%) 56 38 38 32 nd LenLentinula tinula edodesedodes (shi'itake)(shi'itake)(%) (%) 14 10 17 25 nd Pleurotus spp.spp. (%)(%) 8 24 16 14 nd

*" 20012001 figures areare estimatesestimates basedbased on 5 percent annual increaseincrease in volume andand 55 percentpercent increaseincrease in value at 19941994 prices. Sources: Chang,Chang, 1991; Chang and Miles, 1991.1991.

TABLE 20 Value ofof wildwild useful fungi collectedcollected by country of origin

COUNTRY COLLECTIONCOllECTION AND EXPORTEXPORT VALUE US$ SOURCE (MILLIONS)(MILUONS)

Canada Before tax revenue of 1616 companies involved inin 15-27 Wills andand Lipsey,Lipsey, 19991999 harvesting, buyingbuying oror sellingselling allall wildwild edible fungi. Around 66 000000 collectorscollectors areare involved.involved. RangeRange isis for "bad" andand "good""good" years. years.

China (a) Cordyceps annual harvestharvest 19491949 toto mid-1980s.mid-1980s. (a)(a) 5-20 Winkler, 20022002 (Sichuan)(Sichuan) (b) Cordyceps sinensis harvest in Litang (b)(b) 1.2-1.81.2-1.8 China Tricholoma matsutake, income for farmers.farmers. 5-6 Winkler, 20022002 (west Sichuan) Chile Salted (salmuerados) and dried (deshidratados) wild (a) 1.8 FAO, 1993a edible fungi exported,exported, 1980-1980 -1990.1990. Annual Annual value: value: (a)(a) (b) 1.3-2.8 average (b) range Mexico Tricholoma magnivelare for export:export: (a)(a) 1996;1996; (b)(b) 1997.1997. (a) 1.11.1 www.semarnat.gob.mx (in sixsix states)states) Involves 3 000 families.families. (b) 0.6 Turkey Terfezia boudieri, Boletus sp.,sp., Morchella sp., (a) 14.4 Sabra and Walter, 20012001 Cantharellus cibarius for exportexport inin (a) (a) 19911991 (b)(b) 19991999 (b) 9.5 United StatesStates (a) morels; (b) chanterelles; (c) matsutake; (d)(d) boletes. (a) 5.2 Schlosser andand Blatner, 1995 Data for 1992.1992. (b) 3.7 (c) 8 (d) 2.3

Zimbabwe Boletus edulis forfor export inin oneone year.year. Said toto involve 1.5 Boa et a/.,al., 20002000 2 000-5 000 collectors.

and a range of commercially important species species (Ivancevic,(Ivancevic, 1997). RevenueRevenue fromfrom permits and taxes does not alwaysalways reflect the amounts ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi collected.collected. The incomeincome fromfrom commercialcommercial harvestingharvesting is uncertain.uncertain. FluctuatingFluctuating harvests and competing supplies fromfrom other countries can resultresult inin widewide fluctuationsfluctuations inin pricesprices offered, particularly with truffles and matsutake. The qualityquality ofof thethe collectedcollected produceproduce is also important andand attentionattention toto thisthis detaildetail isis aa simple simple wayway ofof maximizing maximizing incomeincome for collectors.collectors. The increasedincreased supply of chanterelles toto the United KingdomKingdom duringduring the 1990s1990s has depresseddepressed thethe wholesalewholesale priceprice byby two-thirdstwo-thirds (Livesey, (Livesey, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication: ImportImport of wild edible fungi to thethe UK),UK), thoughthough increasedincreased volumesvolumes exported byby PolandPoland (Table (Table 20)20) havehave increasedincreased totaltotal revenues.revenues. The overalloverall effect is that there areare fewfew whowho makemake theirtheir solesole livingliving fromfrom collectingcollecting wild edible fungi. There is no evidence fromfrom commercialcommercial collectingcollecting (Dyke(Dyke andand Newton,Newton, 1999) toto support a quoted incomeincome ofof aroundaround US$3US$3 000000 fromfrom aa week'sweek's endeavoursendeavours inin the UnitedUnited KingdomKingdom (Rotheroe,(Rotheroe, 1998).1998). TheThe commercialcommercial trade inin wildwild edibleedible fungifungi has, however, earned many countries substantial amounts of money. The Democratic People's Republic of KoreaKorea earnedearned US$150US$150 million from matsutake exportsexports toto JapanJapan over a five-yearfive-year period (Table(Table 23). More detailed studies are needed to examineexamine how collectors benefit from thisthis trade.trade. The patchypatchy datadata onon volumesvolumes ofof exportsexports forfor keykey commercial commercial speciesspecies suggest that relatively small amounts are involvedinvolved (Table(Table 24). Poland exportedexported justjust overover 99000 000 Importance toto people: food, incorne,income, tradetrade 53

tonnes ofof chanterelleschanterelles in 1984,1984, thethe former Soviet UnionUnion around 3 000000 tonnes. Turkey exported 730730 tonnes ofof Boletus Boletus edulisedulis in 1990 while India, Pakistan, Nepal, Afghanistan and possibly IranIran collectcollect aroundaround 22 000000 tonnestonnes freshfresh weightweight ofof morelsmorels inin aa year.year. TheThe benefits to rural livelihoodslivelihoods areare significantsignificant and widespread andand largelarge numbers ofof people earn significant amounts ofof money.money.

World trade inin cultivatedcultivated mushroomsmushrooms There hashas beenbeen aa spectacularspectacular increaseincrease in -worldworld productionproduction over the last tenten yearsyears (Table 19).19). InIn 1997 shi'itakeshi'itake (Lentinula edodes) and Pleurotus spp.spp. togethertogether exceededexceeded the value ofof salessales of Agaricus bisporus, aa mushroommushroom celebrated more for itsits shapeshape thanthan its taste.taste. An estimateestimate of world production for for 2001, 2001, basedbased onon figuresfigures for 1997,1997, puts the

TABLE 21 Matsutake 1:1: domestic production and importsimports inin tonnestonnes toto Japan,Japan, 1950-991950-99

YEAR DOMESTIC PROD. IMPORTS %IMPORT DOMESTIC AND IMPORTS CONSUMPTION AS A%OF 1950

1950 64486 448 0 0o 66448 448 1955 35693 569 0 0o 33139 139 49 1960 35093 509 0 0o 33509 509 54 1965 1 291291 0 o0 12911 291 20 1970 11974 974 0 o0 19741 974 31 1975 774 0 o0 774 12 19801980 457 362* 44 819 13 1982 484 551 53 10351 035 16 1984 180 10821 082 86 12621 262 20 1986 199 980 83 1 179 18 1988 406 14301 430 78 18361 836 28 1989/90 199 22102 210 92 22409 409 37 1993 na 1 943 [1[1943] 943] 1994 na 36223 622 [3622] 1995 na 35153 515 [3[3515] 515] 1996 na 27032 703 [2[2703] 703] 1997 na 30593 059 [3059][3 059] 1998 257 32483 248 93 35053 505 54 1999 147 26742 674 95 28212 821 44 * first yearyear that importsimports areare noted.noted. nana - data not available. Domestic productionproduction from 1993 toto 1997 thoughtthought to bebe aroundaround 200200 tonnes per year.year. Source: Data have been collected from variousvarious authors.authors. The The originaloriginal source source appears appears to to be be Japanese Japanese trade statistics.statistics. SeeSee wwwwww.fintrac.com.fintrac.com for datadata fromfrom 19931993 toto 1997.1997.

TABLE 22 Matsutake 2: exports toto JapanJapan inin tonnestonnes byby variousvarious countries,countries, 1993-971993-97

COUNTRY 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 AVERAGE FIVE-YEAR VALUE TONNES/YEAR US$ MILLIONS

Bhutan* 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 Canada**Canada"* 279 447 340 510 618 439 95 China* 10641 064 1 127 1 192 1 152152 10761 076 1 122 270 Korea (Democratic 888 156 People's Republic of)*of)* 383 11760 760 1 141141 541 615 Korea (Republic of)*of)" 131131 139 633 170 249 264 169 Mexico** 2 22 36 23 9 18 6 see below (26) (35) (56) (42) (14)

Morocco""*Morocco*** 20 73 1 86 125 61 12 Turkey***Turkey**" 0 2 4 44 80 26 4 United States**5tates** 51 47 164 172 284 144 33 * TricholomaTricholoma matsutake. ** TT. magnivelare.magnive/are. ""**** probably probably T T.caligatum. caligatum. Includes Includes fresh fresh andand chilled. chilled. Note: The export tonnage from aa "Mexican"Mexican Government Government database" database" (Martínez-Carrera (Martinez-Carrera etal.,et al., 2002) 2002) is is shownshown inin italicsitalics and includesincludes data for 19981998 (24(24 tonnes);tonnes); 19991999 (14(14 tonnes)tonnes) andand 20002000 (4(4 tonnes).tonnes). Source: www.fintrac.comwww.fintrac.com.. 54 Wild edibleedible fungi:fungi: aa globalglobal overview of their use and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

TABLE 23 Matsutake 3: value of exportsexports to to Japan Japan byby various various countries, countries. 1993-971993-97

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 TOTAL TOTAL COUNTRY YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION YEN, MILLION LAS, MILLION

Bhutan 5 4 9 17 16 51 0.5 Canada 18401 840 18911 891 11 506 22690 690 22559 559 1048610 486 9595 China 54945 494 57465 746 52495 249 66631 631 66579 579 2969929 699 270 Korea (Democratic People's Republic of) 22291 291 69286 928 40744 074 10601 060 27942 794 1714717 147 156 Korea (Republic of) 22321 321 22653 653 67196 719 33076 076 33815 815 1858418 584 169 Mexico 78 100 206 156 73 613 6 Morocco 117 340 6 368 449 12801 280 12 Turkey 0o 4 1212 140 256 412 4 United StatesStates 491 253 782 931 1 153 36103 610 33 Total 1263712 637 1791917 919 1856318 563 1515069 069 1769417 694 8188281 882 745 Grand totaltotal (US$, million)million) 115 163 169 137 161 745 US$1 = = 110 110 Yen. Yen. Grand Grand total total includesincludes several several countries countries that that werewere minorminor and irregular exporters.exporters. DataData includeinclude freshfresh andand chilledchilled matsutake.matsutake. Source: www.fintrac.com.www.fintrac.com.

TABLE 24 Volume of exports of namednamed wild edibleedible fungifungi fromfrom selected selected countriescountries (in tonnes)

COUNTRY YEAR BOLETUS EDULIS CHANTERELLES MORELS. Baltic states (86% Lithuania) 1998 nd 33500 500 nd India annual none? nd 50-60 Pakistan 1999 none none 79 Poland 1984 nd 99179 179 nd South Africa annual 100-200 none none Turkey 1989 22 11 47 1990 730 160 nd 1996 nd 13 152 1997 nd 18 100 1998 nd 375 4646 1999 nd 94 104 2000 nd 15 4444 Yugoslavia (former(former - nownow Serbia Serbia 1993 51865 186 22605 605 37 and Montenegro) Montenegro) 1994 12121 212 631631 2 1995 33792 792 1 502 3 Zimbabwe annual 100 20-30 none nd - no data. none - no evidence ofof exports.exports.* * drydry weight.weight. AllAll otherother data data are are assumed assumed to bebe fresh weight.weight. Sources: PakistanPakistan Economist. Economist, 2001; 2001; Boa Boa et et a/., al., 2000;2000; Gurer,Gurer, 2002, 2002, personal personal communication: communication: Unpublished Unpublished tradetrade data on wildwild edible edible fungi forfor Turkey; Turkey; Kaul,Kaul, 1993;1993; Kroeger,Kroeger, 1985;1985; Pott,Pott, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: ExportExport ofof Boletus Boletus edulisedulis fromfrom South South Africa; Africa; Sabra Sabra and Walter,Walter, 20012001

global value of cultivated mushrooms at around US$23US$23 billion. This exceedsexceeds the value of many other commodities.commodities. The trade in wild edible fungi and the business of cultivated mushroomsmushrooms have bothboth steadily expanded.expanded. Packets of wildwild andand cultivatedcultivated speciesspecies areare soldsold inin shopsshops (Plate(Plate 9).9). Sales of wild edibleedible fungifungi havehave risenrisen steadilysteadily asas thethe rangerange ofof commercial commercial speciesspecies onon sale in the United KingdomKingdom hashas increased.increased. InIn China,China, customerscustomers havehave beenbeen observedobserved toto prefer thethe wildwild species,species, when in season, to the cultivated mushrooms thatthat areare availableavailable all year roundround (Priest,(Priest, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: Edible and medicinalmedicinal fungi in China and generalgeneral information).information). Cultivated mushrooms are now China's biggestbiggest "vegetable" exportexport and there are significant numbers ofof relativelyrelatively small-scalesmall-scale producersproducers in countries suchsuch asas Viet Nam and IndonesiaIndonesia (Gunawan,(Gunawan, 2000). Both ChinaChina andand VietViet NamNam export export cultivated cultivated mushrooms toto EuropeEurope (Plate (Plate 5).5). 55 PLATE 6 EDIBLE FUNGI IN AFRICA

Photos from from t hthee Un Unitedited Republic Republic of Tanzaniaof Tanzania by Marja by Marja Harkonen; Härkönen; Harry Harry Evans Evansfor Ghana for. Ghana. All otothershers by EricEric Boa.Boa.

66.1.1 (right) Roadsides areare a common selling point inin Malawi.Malawi. TradersTraders , rarely ventureventure beyond markets and collectorscollectors must come to ththemem if theythey chose nonott to sell ~ themselves.themselves.

6.2 (left)(left) Made from drieddried Uapaca leaves,leaves, this basket is used to store dried mushrooms (and leafyleafy vegetabvegetables)les) cocollectedllected from the forest. Malawi.Malawi,

6.3 (left)(left) AA cocollectorllector returnsreturns witwithh a mornings'mornings' harvest.harvest .Malawi. Malawi.

6.6.44 (above) CleaningCleaning aa successfulsuccessful harvesharvestt (Termitomyces). United RepRepublicublic of Tanzania.

6.5 (right)(right) CookingCooking chanterelles. chanterelles. ThisThis mushroom stew isis usuallyusually eateneaten with maize or cassava porriporridge.dge. United RepRepublicublic of Tanzania.

6.6 (left) Termitomyces onon their way toto aa locallocal market inin Ghana.Ghana.

6.76.7 (above) Wild edible fungifungi areare alsoalso sold dried. United Republic of Tanzania.Tanzania.

6.8 (right)(right) CarefullyCarefull y excavatingexcavating Termitomyces inin thethe UUnitednited RepublicRepublic ofof Tanzania.Tanzania, Compare thethe sizesize withwith thethe speciesspecies from Ghana. 56 PLATE 7 EDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI ININ LATIN AMERICAAMERICA AND THETHE CARIBBEANCARIBBEAN

The strong traditiontradition of of collecting collecting andand eatingeating wildwild edibleedible fungi extends from Mexico to Guatemala and then appears toto stopstop abruptly.abruptly. OnlyOnly one one record record (shown (shown here) here) from from Bolivia Bolivia isis known.known. TheThe CaribbeanCaribbean alsoalso lackslacks aa traditiontradition ofof eating wild edible fungi yet, once more, HaitiansHaitians regularlyregularly eat djondjon djondjon whereverwherever theythey migrate.migrate. PhotosPhotos fromfrom Guatemala by Roberto Flores;Flores; NewNew YorkYork byby Gene Gene Yener; Yetter; mushroommushroom fair, fair, OaxacaOaxaca byby FabriceFabrice Eduard,Eduard, sellerseller byby Elaine Marshall; Bolivia by Eric Boa.

7.1 Mushroom fair fair toto raise raise awareness awareness ofof edible edible species.species. 7.2 Local market inin Oaxaca,Oaxaca, Mexico; wildwild edible fungi shown Oaxaca, Mexico. on right (?Amanita) and in front of vendor.

77.3.3 PatznnPatzun market,market, Guatemala. Lactarius 7.47.4 RoadsideRoadside vendor,vendor, Guatemala,Guatemala, with 7.57.5 GregoriaGregoria was thethe onlvonly vendor deliciosus andand L.L. indigoindigo for sale (hand in Lactarius deliciosus andand Amanita calip-calip- of k'allampa (Quechua (Quechua na.' name me for basket). troderma. Leucoagaricus hortensis) in CocCochabambahabamba market, Bolivia.Bolivia.

7.6 Haitian communitiescommunities around the world regularly buy 7.77.7 FreshFresh djondjon djon are cultivated in Haiti and exported toto djon djon, a Psathyrella sp. Brooklyn, New York. the United States,States, Canada and other countries.countries. Brooklyn, New York. 57 PLATE 8 EDIBLE FUNGI IN ASIA

Photos fromfrom BhutanBhutan byby Alessandra Alessandra Zambonelli;Zambonelli; Viet NNamam andand Kunming byby MarMaria a Chamberlain; southern ChinaChina by Marja Härkönen,Hirkonen, allall otherother ChinaChina photosphotos byby WarrenWarren Priest.Priest.

88.1.1 (left) /14atsutakeMatsutake (Tricholoma(Tricholoma matsutake)rnatsutake) Bhutan.

8.2 (above)(above) PreparingPreparing matsutake for exporexportt to JJapanapan from Bhutan.Bhutan. Quality has aann important bearingbearing onon thethe pricesprices obtaobtained.ined.

8.3 (right)(right) SellingSelling chanterelleschanterelles and Ramaria sp.sp . (in(in hand),hand), Thimpu,Thimpu, Bhutan.Bhutan.

8.4 CultivatingCultivating Agartcus Agaricus bisporus,bisporus, 8.5 Collector'sCollector's basket,basket, nnorthernorthern 8.6 Huge amountsamounts ofof wild wild edibleedible fungifungi Pohkara, Nepal.Nepal. SponsoredSponsored byby JapaneseJapanese Viet Nam. are sold in brine. Chengdu, China. aid project.

8.7 (left)(left) TermitomycesTermitomyces areare goodgood baby food inin Hanyuan county,county, Sichuan,Sichuan, China.

8.8 (above)(above) LyophyllumLyophyllum decastes,decastes, for sale iinn Kunming, China.China.

8.98.9 (right)(right) A collectorcollector inin southernsouthern 1 China.China. 59

5 Realizing thethe potential: potential: prospects, prospects, actions, opportunitiesopportunities

KEY FACTSFACTS The major featuresfeatures ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi basedbased onon this this first first global global assessment assessment are: are: • 22327 327 recorded wildwild usefuluseful species;species; 2 166 are edible and this book hashas notednoted 11 069069 used as food, with atat leastleast 100100 other "known"known food"food" speciesspecies stillstill lackinglacking published evidence; • 470 species have medicinalmedicinal properties,properties, of which 133 are neither eaten or said to bebe edibleedible;; a furtherfurther 181 species havehave otherother propertiesproperties and used valued by people, e.g.e.g. religious, as tinder; • they are collected, consumed and soldsold inin overover 8080 countries worldwide; • global amount collectedcollected eacheach year is several million tonnes with aa minimumminimum valuevalue of US$2 billion. The major benefitsbenefits and featuresfeatures of wildwild edibleedible fungi,fungi, asas discusseddiscussed in ChaptersChapters 22 and 4, are:are: • they are a valuable source of nutrition, oftenoften withwith associatedassociated healthhealth benefits;benefits; • they areare anan importantimportant sourcesource ofof income income forfor communitiescommunities andand nationalnational economies;economies; • key speciesspecies are ectomycorrhizalectomycorrhizal andand help to sustainsustain treetree growthgrowth andand healthyhealthy forests; • they areare especiallyespecially valuable to rural people inin developingdeveloping countries.countries.

GENERAL CONSTRAINTS Much ofof thethe originaloriginal workwork onon edible edible fungifungi hashas concentratedconcentrated onon thethe mycologicalmycological or scientific aspects and,and, although much still remains to bebe done,done, thethe most most significant significant gaps in informationinformation andand knowledgeknowledge concernconcern socialsocial andand economiceconomic aspectsaspects ofof use.use. Little is known aboutabout collectors collectors andand collecting collecting practices,practices, forfor example,example, oror thethe relative relative importanceimportance ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi compared with alternativealternative sources of food or income.income. Sustainable production ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi is not onlyonly aboutabout howhow to to maximize maximize yieldsyields but howhow toto balance balance thisthis resourceresource withwith other other uses uses andand users users ofof forests. forests. Despite significant gapsgaps inin knowledge itit is alsoalso importantimportant toto emphasizeemphasize thatthat significant advances have been made in describing the features of commercial harvesting inin different countries. There isis a considerable body of published information from thethe United StatesStates andand Canada,Canada, forfor example,example, andand ChineseChinese researchersresearchers havehave alsoalso providedprovided new insights concerning thethe useuse ofof wild edibleedible fungi that demonstrate theirtheir widespreadwidespread importance.importance. In central,central, southernsouthern andand nownow west west Africa, Africa, developmentdevelopment projectsprojects havehave explored local use of wildwild edibleedible fungifungi whilewhile nationalnational programmesprogrammes inin MexicoMexico andand Turkey havehave sustained local research programmes over a long period ofof time.time. Now isis anan appropriateappropriate timetime toto identifyidentify thethe mostmost importantimportant topicstopics thatthat needneed further investigation.investigation. TheThe following following sectionsection discusses discusses researchresearch prioritiespriorities in in mycology, mycology, diet, fungal ecology (mycorrhizas)(mycorrhizas) andand storagestorage - how to makemake betterbetter useuse ofof annualannual production. TheseThese areare keykey areasareas wherewhere moremore informationinformation isis needed.needed. There are manymany questions about how bestbest toto managemanage wildwild edibleedible fungifungi andand toto achieve achieve sustainablesustainable production andand thisthis topictopic is is examinedexamined inin moremore detail detail inin the the subsequent subsequent section. section .Table Table 25 summarizes the keykey issuesissues involvedinvolved andand discussesdiscusses themthem inin relationrelation toto commercial commercial harvesting and subsistence uses.uses. 60 Wild ediblediblee ffungi:ungi: a globglobalal overviewoverview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Table 2525 andand TableTable 1212 attemptattempt toto develop a practicalpractical approachapproach toto management that will be of use to forestforest managers.managers. The two commoncommon constraintsconstraints forfor exploringexploring thethe fullfull potential of wild edibleedible fungi are a poor knowledgeknowledge of current activitiesactivities and a lack of reliable data.

RESEARCH PRIORITIES:PRIORITIES: WILD WILD EDIBLE FUNGI Identification ofof species species The tropical mycotamycota isis poorlypoorly knownknown andand concernconcern has has beenbeen expressed expressed byby scientistsscientists about thethe incompleteincomplete statestate of of taxonomic taxonomic knowledge knowledge (Meijer, (Meijer, 2001).2001). SteadySteady progress has been mademade inin namingnaming newnew speciesspecies ofof macrofungimacrofungi (e.g.(e.g. VerbeckenVerbecken etet al.,al., 2000;2000; Afyon, 1997) andand whilewhile therethere isis stillstill much to do therethere isis nono obviousobvious evidenceevidence that gapsgaps inin taxonomic knowledge are limitinglimiting thethe useuse ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. LocalLocal classificationsclassifications provide a useful guide to edible and "not eaten"eaten" speciesspecies (these may be poisonous or not). ScientificScientific identifications cancan helphelp toto clarify the edibility of speciesspecies and further information about thethe identificationidentification ofof macrofungi macrofungi isis alwaysalways helpful.helpful. The resistanceresistance to eating wild fungi is often basedbased on aa fearfear ofof eatingeating poisonouspoisonous mushrooms andand this does limit the useuse ofof edibleedible speciesspecies and attemptsattempts to expandexpand local markets (Lowore(Lowore andand Boa,Boa, 2001).2001). ThroughoutThroughout southern southern Africa Africa Boletus Boletus edulisedulis isis produced inin pinepine plantationsplantations butbut is is notnot eaten eaten locally. locally. SuitableSuitable publicity and reassurancereassurance from recognized authorities will help toto overcomeovercome suspicionsuspicion but concertedconcerted effortsefforts areare needed to change deep-seated suspicionsuspicion ofof wildwild fungi.fungi. EffortsEfforts toto promotepromote wild edible fungi locally are best concentrated in areas where they are already eaten.eaten. Simple locallocal guidesguides thatthat illustrate useful edibleedible speciesspecies for for aa region are moremore widely needed. Comprehensive fieldfield guidesguides areare ofof greatest useuse but are moremore costlycostly and complicated to produce.produce. GuidesGuides toto edibleedible speciesspecies are not inin themselvesthemselves sufficient: they must be supported byby publicpublic campaignscampaigns that seekseek to reassure people about which species areare safe toto eat.eat. TheThe "recognized"recognized authorities" refers to bothboth scientistsscientists whowho can identify macrofungi and local people with similarsimilar skills acquired from personalpersonal experience of what is safe toto eat and with a knowledge of local traditionstraditions..

Nutritional statusstatus The nutritionalnutritional benefitsbenefits of wildwild edibleedible fungifungi havehave notnot beenbeen fullyfully explored.explored. TheThe published information is of variablevariable quality and analyticalanalytical procedures needneed to bebe standardized (Breene,(Breene, 1990).1990). The range of wild speciesspecies that havehave been analysedanalysed is still small and littlelittle isis knownknown about variation within species thatthat occur in differentdifferent countries, e.g. chanterelles and Boletus edulisedulis.. ResearchResearch isis neededneeded onon species that havehave greatestgreatest market potential and efforts should be made toto highlighthighlight thethe nutritionalnutritional propertiesproperties and advantages. ManyMany peoplepeople judgejudge thethe dietarydietary value ofof mushroomsmushrooms withwith little knowledge of theirtheir truetrue propertiesproperties (see (see ChapterChapter 2, 2, section section on on Edibility Edibility and and poisonous poisonous fungi and Chapter 4,4, sectionsection onon Nutrition Nutrition andand healthhealth benefits forfor furtherfurther information).

Mycorrhizas The links betweenbetween wild edibleedible fungi and tree hosts areare wellwell knownknown forfor economicallyeconomically important speciesspecies suchsuch asas BoletusBoletus edulisedulis andand TuberTuber spp.spp. CantharellusCantharellus spp. formform mycorrhizae with manymany treetree speciesspecies in tropical countries. There is an expanding body of information about many other edibleedible fungus-treefungustree associations associations butbut this this hashas notnot been been assembled inin the form ofof aa database,database, forfor example,example, that wouldwould allowallow forfor predictivepredictive searches. TheThe search forfor matsutake in Asia was assisted byby a knowledge of its tree hosts (Namgyel,(Namgyel, 2000) and this approach would assist in prospecting for other wildwild edible fungi.fungi. Knowledge aboutabout thethe mycorrhizalmycorrhizal partners partners of of edible edible species species of of Amanita, Amanita, LactariusLactarius and RussulaRussula is steadily increasingincreasing (e.g.(e.g. VerbeckenVerbecken andand Buyck,Buyck, 2002).2002). There areare potentiallypotentially large areas of miombo woodland in Malawi whichwhich are not accessible to local collectors workingworking on foot, andand aa betterbetter knowledgeknowledge ofof which which edible edible Realizing thethe potential:potential: prospects, prospects, actions,actions, opportunitiesopportunities 61

mycorrhizal species grow with which trees would helphelp toto identifyidentify productiveproductive areas.areas. In generalgeneral terms, a database of mycorrhizalmycorrhizal associations,associations, linking edible species toto tree hosts would helphelp plannersplanners andand forestforest managers.managers. TheThe databasedatabase wouldwould needneed toto indicateindicate how well the associationassociation had beenbeen established.established. Physical links between macrofungi and trees were relatively simple to tracetrace during oneone shortshort exerciseexercise inin MalawiMalawi (Plate(Plate 2) and published work hashas alreadyalready confirmedconfirmed associations.associations. Even statements such as "found growing in association with" wouldwould assistassist attemptsattempts toto identifyidentify areas areas wherewhere wildwild edibleedible fungi might occur.occur.

Storage Wild edible fungi often have a shortshort period during which theythey cancan bebe eaten.eaten. They then either rot oror shrivelshrivel up.up. TheyThey cancan bebe preservedpreserved inin aa variety of ways and used at a later date. Some species are readily dried and thethe flavourflavour ofof Boletus Boletus edulis isis enhancedenhanced byby this process (Plate 5). Chanterelles have a longer viable periodperiod than many otherother wildwild edibleedible species and this enhancesenhances their marketability.marketability. Truffles also store well, but many otherother edible fungi are highly perishable.perishable. In China,China, edibleedible fungifungi areare commonlycommonly preservedpreserved inin brine andand soldsold inin casketscaskets (Plate(Plate 8).8). They areare alsoalso exported inin thisthis formform toto Italy.Italy. The technologytechnology forfor preservingpreserving wildwild edibleedible fungifungi is simple but maymay requirerequire capitalcapital investment. Drying mushroomsmushrooms is is moremore suitedsuited toto subsistencesubsistence usersusers and simple methods used in Malawi - dried fungi are stored in natural containers made with dried leaves of Uapaca kirkiana, a native tree - have wider applicationsapplications (Plate(Plate 6).6). Preserving edible fungi in brine also hashas widerwider applicationsapplications andand substantiallysubstantially increases the use and value of wild edible fungi in China. The success of this approach depends on having the equipment and raw materialsmaterials to carry outout thethe preservationpreservation process,process, but it is important toto determinedetermine firstfirst whetherwhether edibleedible fungifungi inin brinebrine areare acceptableacceptable to thethe intended market. ThereThere isis nono experienceexperience of this method inin AfricaAfrica inin ruralrural communities,communities, for example, and market research is neededneeded beforebefore contemplatingcontemplating preservationpreservation inin brinebrine on a wide scale.scale. Although some wild fungi are dried in southernsouthern AfricaAfrica (Plate(Plate 6), there is scope for expanding this approach. If suitable drying methods are not already used, others could be adapted from otherother areasareas ofof agricultureagriculture (e.g. drying seeds). ItIt is important in all these efforts to increase thethe supply of wild edible fungifungi thatthat they first concentrate on regions where they areare already popular and,and, second,second, thatthat anyany newnew storagestorage methodsmethods areare developed jointly with locallocal communities.communities.

EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT MANAGEMENT The main objective of managing wild edible fungi is to ensure sustainable production. This is achieved by examining their biology, ecology and patterns of use in relation toto other usesuses ofof forestsforests andand thethe groupsgroups ofof people people involved involved (Chapter(Chapter 3). 3). TableTable 1212 outlinesoutlines the key topicstopics thatthat needneed toto bebe addressed.addressed. TableTable 25 offers a structuredstructured approach towardstowards achieving sustainable productionproduction ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi and forests. The key toto successsuccess is having a sound knowledge of what people do inin thethe forestforest andand why, and assessing thethe relativerelative importanceimportance andand prioritypriority of benefits obtained (products and services)services) and relatedrelated activities.activities. When planningplanning projectsprojects oror initiatives initiatives specificallyspecifically on wild edibleedible fungi,fungi, thethe objectivesobjectives of forestforest managementmanagement need to bebe clearlyclearly stated:stated: production forestsforests areare managedmanaged forfor differentdifferent purposespurposes comparedcompared toto protectedprotected forests.forests. The startingstarting pointpoint forfor anyany management management planplan is,is, however,however, thethe wildwild edibleedible fungifungi themselves. ReliableReliable data data areare neededneeded onon yields and productivity.productivity. Recent advice on NWFP inventoryinventory methodsmethods suggestssuggests how thisthis informationinformation mightmight bebe obtainedobtained (FAO,(FAO, 2001a). ListsLists ofof species are neededneeded togethertogether with informationinformation onon theirtheir relativerelative importance to locallocal people. Sustainable use of wildwild edible fungifungi dependsdepends on minimizing the impact of harvesting procedures onon thethe fungusfungus resource and the forest.forest. At thethe samesame time,time, informationinformation aboutabout 62 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their useuse and importance importance toto people people

TABLE 25 InformationInformation needsneeds and issuesissues concerningconcerning sustainablesustainable use use of of wild wild edibleedible fungifungi

KEYKey ISSUESISSUE.S COMME~CII'1LCOMMERCIAL COLLECTIONSCOLLECTIONS PERSONALPeRSONA,l USE/LOCALUse/LoCP.l SALES sA,les

Species: which onesones The range is smallsmall andand well known. BuyersBuyers The rangerange of species isis much much greater greater thoughthough are collected may require confirmation ofof species: species: there not allall are are ofof equal equal importance. importance .Local Local namesnames are many more tropical speciesspecies of chanterelles can bebe helpfulhelpful inin overcoming difficultiesdifficulties than existexist inin Europe. Boletus edulis fromfrom in naming species.species. NoteNote thethe importanceimportance of China hashas a a very very different different flavour to those confirming that edible fungi are actually from Europe.Europe. eaten ("food").

Hall et a/.,al., 2003:2003: general introduction De Kesel, CodjiaCodjia and Yorou, 2002: Benin

Collectors: who areare These maymay bebe locallocal oror from outside.outside. ConflictsConflicts Mostly for subsistencesubsistence uses though though note they occur within andand betweenbetween groupsgroups dependingdepending collecting for aa hobby in thethe North.North. on the valuevalue ofof species species being collected.collected. TheThe Subsistence usersusers vary vary greatly greatly inin social and importance of income income earnedearned byby collectorscollectors economic characteristics andand thisthis willwill require should bebe established.established. careful study.study.

Härkönen,Hark6nen, 1998:1998: ethnic groups inin FinlandFinland McLain, Christensen and Shannon,Shannon, 1998:1998: USAUSA Lowore andand Boa,Boa, 2001:2001: Malawi

Harvests: how much The lurelure of high prices may lead to the useuse Harvests areare usually small-scale andand according and impact of harmfulharmful methodsmethods (both(both deliberatelydeliberately andand to dede factofacto rulesrules establishedestablished byby communities.communities. unknowingly). CompulsoryCompulsory trainingtraining exists exists inin Data are needed toto determine the relative thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates and truffletruffle collectorscollectors must value of collections to ruralrural people.people. pass anan examexam in in ItalyItaly beforebefore being allowed toto Information onon thisthis topictopic is is generallygenerally weak.weak. buy a permitpermit.. Malyi, 1987:1987: BelarusBelarus Ivancevic,lvancevic, 1997:1997: Yugoslavia

RegulationRegulation:: use of Permits are sold in several countries but may The concernsconcerns are are lessless about about thethe amountsamounts permits prove difficult to to monitor. monitor. Schemes Schemes maymay needneed collected than thethe generalgeneral presencepresence of modification andand a a reviewreview ofof experiences experiences in collectors in protected forests,forests, leading toto other countriescountries could be helpful.helpful. concerns aboutabout damage to forestsforests and increasedincreased risk of fires fires inin some some places places (USA). (USA). Pilz et al., 1999: wild edible fungi,fungi, USAUSA Villarreal andand Perez-Moreno,Perez-Moreno, 1989:1989: Mexico

Access: whowho has rights Commercial harvesting often promptsprompts a a closercloser The lowlow intensity useuse associated withwith personal for collectingcollecting inspection of whowho ownsowns or or has has rightsrights of of access access collections is rarely an issue comparedcompared to to sites.sites. State- or community-run forestsforests areare general concerns about extraction ofof NWFP NWFP more difficult toto managemanage comparedcompared to private fromfrom protected forests forests andand conservation conservation areas.areas. plantations.plantations. Singh and Rawat, 2000: morelsmorels fromfrom India Yeh, 2000: matsutakematsutake in China

Trade: who buysbuys and There isis aa strong strong imperativeimperative forfor trading Markets in southern Africa are small and by sells systems toto developdevelop inin a fair and effective thethe road and thisthis limitslimits thethe amountsamounts sold.sold. manner. Intermediaries are frequently Local tradingtrading is oftenoften low-key and relatively thought toto exploitexploit collectors collectors butbut theythey also also straightforward. provide credit,credit, aa dependabledependable chain for selling and ensure thatthat products get to the market.market. Lowore and Boa,Boa, 2001:2001 : Malawi Namgyel, 2000:2000: Bhutan

Yields and The potentialpotential threatthreat posed posed byby unsustainable unsustainable Yields helphelp to assess the the potential potential for productivity: amountsamounts harvests mustmust bebe determineddetermined from an commercialization inin locallocal markets.markets. accurate knowledgeknowledge of yields and productivityproductivity data overover several several years. years. VladyshevskiyVladyshevskiy,, Laletin and Vladyshevskiy,Vladyshevskiy, 2000:2000: Russian Federation Kujala, 1988:1988: FinlandFinland

Markets: amounts China has aa substantial substantial "internal" "internal" export Market surveys areare aa usefuluseful methodmethod for traded, exportsexports market with largelarge amounts flowing from estimating howhow much much isis co//ectedcollected locally.locally. TheyThey forest toto majormajor cities. cities. ElsewhereElsewhere exportsexports areare also helphelp toto demonstratedemonstrate the the potential potential forfor to EuropeEurope andand NorthNorth America. America. AnAn awareness awareness expanding locallocal sales. sales. of relativerelative labourlabour costs costs determines market opportunities. Montoya-Esquivel et a/.,al., 2001:2001 : Mexico; Boa et al.,al., 2000: Malawi www.fintrac.com:www.fintrac.com: exportexport datadata fromfrom severalseveral countries

Forest users: who areare The collectioncollection of highhigh valuevalue speciesspecies may be Rapid appraisal methods have greatly theythey andand the relativerelative the main output fromfrom aa forestforest andand thereforetherefore increased knowledgeknowledge of forest forest users.users. Careful importance ofof WEF WEF management objectivesobjectives should bebe set analysis ofof wild edible fungi useuse isis neededneeded­ collections accordingly. general reports of forest users maymay notnot reportreport such practices. Tedder, Mitchell andand Farran,Farran ,2000: 2000 :Canada Canada Campbell, 1996: miombomiombo,, southern Africa Realizing thethe potential: potential: prospects, prospects, actions,actions, opportunitiesopportunities 63

Forest management: A careful examinationexamination ofof forestry forestry objectives objectives Low intensity useuse presents fewfew immediate relative importanceimportance with anan analysisanalysis ofof major products and threats toto production forestsforests thoughthough a wider of woodwood versusversus non-non­ services isis needed needed to to plan plan effectivelyeffectively for knowledge of WEF WEF collecting may alter this wood forestforest productsproducts multiple use.use. current perception. and specifically wild edible fungi Alexander etet a/., al., 2002:2002: USAUSA Lund, Pajari and Korhonen, 1998: boreal and cold temperate forestsforests

Biodiversity: Conservation concerns must address the A major concernconcern in tropicaltropical countriescountries isis thethe conservation status of needs of all forest users,users, including commercialcommercial poorly describeddescribed mycota.mycota. Studies are currently wild edible fungi andand collections. TheseThese cause particularparticular concernconcern hampered byby aa lacklack ofof suitablysuitably trainedtrained other plantsplants because ofof perceived losseslosses andand damage taxonomists. AA knowledge of ectomycorrhizal ectomycorrhizal causes. IssuesIssues can can only only be be resolved resolved with with good associations would would help help inin identifyingidentifying and reliable data and a sound understanding production ofof wild wild edible edible fungi fungi - -asas happens happens of what peop/epeople dodo andand why.why. with TuberTuber spp.spp. inin Europe.Europe. Perini, 1998: Europe Tibiletti andand Zambonelli,Zambonelli, 1999:1999: Italy

other forestforest usesuses shouldshould bebe gathered.gathered. SomeSome uses of a forest may be incompatible and adjustments to theirtheir managementmanagement might bebe required.required. Balancing thethe needs of forest usersusers inin developingdeveloping countriescountries isis oftenoften complicatedcomplicated because the pressures on forest resourcesresources are greatgreat and usersusers havehave aa weakweak voicevoice inin deciding management objectives. UserUser groupsgroups must be able to express their needs and feel thatthat their opinions havehave been taken into account.account.

COMMERCIALIZATION AND CULTIVATIONCULTIVATION Commercialization There areare sometimes sometimes unrealistic unrealistic expectations expectations about about money money to be earned to be fromearned exporting from exporting wild edible fungi. Much depends on the costcost ofof labourlabour andand accessaccess to markets. Exports from NorthNorth America America have have suffered suffered becausebecause harvestingharvesting wildwild edibleedible fungifungi isis cheapercheaper inin eastern Europe andand transporttransport costs costs are are less. less. TheThe timing timing of of fruiting fruiting seasons seasons willwill affectaffect the pricesprices thatthat cancan bebe achieved.achieved. WhenWhen fruitingfruiting seasonsseasons overlapoverlap inin differentdifferent countries,countries, supplies of commoncommon edibleedible speciesspecies (e.g.(e.g. chanterelles)chanterelles) will increaseincrease and pricesprices willwill drop. ThereThere areare yearlyyearly fluctuationsfluctuations inin production,production, whichwhich areare difficultdifficult toto predict,predict, and fluctuatingfluctuating prices paid for speciesspecies creates uncertainty and a potentially unstable marketplace. This is notnot toto say say that that successful successful exportexport businessesbusinesses cannotcannot bebe sustained,sustained, but itit requires carefulcareful planning, the ability to withstand thethe ebbebb andand flowflow ofof thethe marketmarket placeplace and timely deliverydelivery of a goodgood qualityquality product.product. ThatThat isis whywhy initiatives initiatives toto expandexpand locallocal markets are aa betterbetter wayway toto commercialize commercialize wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. TheyThey willwill stillstill requirerequire attention to detaildetail (getting(getting produce toto marketmarket quickly)quickly) butbut the the potentialpotential challenges challenges areare smaller and more manageable,manageable, thus increasingincreasing thethe chanceschances of success.success. Evidence of this comes from local markets in southern AfricaAfrica andand MexicoMexico thatthat havehave developed out ofof locallocal initiatives,initiatives, often with littlelittle oror nono assistanceassistance fromfrom governmentsgovernments or development projects. The role of researchersresearchers and NGOs inin thesethese circumstancescircumstances is to buildbuild onon existingexisting tradingtrading systemssystems andand identifyidentify wherewhere minorminor changes changes mightmight leadlead to major improvements.improvements. TheThe followingfollowing exampleexample illustrates the potential of thisthis simplesimple approach. In Mzimba region in thethe northnorth ofof Malawi,Malawi, women walk longlong distances inin order to meet traders, who buy enthusiasticallyenthusiastically when the opportunity arises.arises. The strong local demand for wild edible fungi guarantees good market prices yet only a small number of collectors sell their produce directly. More commonly, theythey sellsell toto thethe traders who sell in the market atat twicetwice thethe price.price. EffortsEfforts areare nownow beingbeing mademade toto encourageencourage moremore collectors to sell directly and to arrange trading points closer to thethe collectors'collectors' homes,homes, thus increasingincreasing the amounts theythey cancan supplysupply toto locallocal marketsmarkets (Lowore,(Lowore, MunthaliMunthali andand Boa, 2002). 64 Wild edible ffungi:ungi: aa ggloballobal overvieovervieww of theirtheir use aandnd importance to people

BOX 99 ProductProductq~~lityand quality and itsits importance .forf9ttrade trade The roadsideroadside sellerssellers of WEF in MalawiMa1ilWi are aware that customers will pay more for speciesspecies that areare fresh andand presentedpresented inin anan attractiveattractive manner..manner. TheyThey cleanclean fruitingfruiting bodiesbodies andand selectselect whichwhich onesones areare placed at the topstops ofof pilespiles onon theirtheir stalls,stalls, butbut onon thethe whole whole theythey spend spend relatively relatively littlelittle timetime inin these these actions. The differences in money earned are small. TheThe most important thing isis toto getget thethe WEFWEF asas quickly as theythey cancan from forestforest toto stall.stall. As the valuevalue of thethe speciesspecies increases soso too does the increasedincreased priceprice that collectors and traders cancan expect to bebe paid.paid. TheThe differencesdifferences in qualityquality betweenbetween matsutake arriving fromfrom China and the Republic. of Korea in Japan is i~we~iatelyimmediately apparent to anyone comparingcort1p~ring boxes. The specimens from the RepublicRepu?lic .ofof KoreaKorea areare lessless damaged,d~~ll~gesh1(eatl neatlyy displayed andand inin. p.ri~eprime condition, thus satisfyingsatisfying.the the discerning needs of the JapaneseJapanese cusBpmerscustomers whowho willwill bebe preparedprepared toto pay top prices.prices. Getting fresh specimensspecimens to marketmarket isis aa considerableconsiderable challenge.challenge. The. physical appearance of fruiting bodies is obviously important andand customercustomer preferencespreferences mustmust bebe observed.observed. SomeSome speciesspecies discolour if the gills oror cap are damaged and they must be handledhandled with care. The buyers have to make sure that fruiting bodies are notnot infestedinfested with insectsinsects - some collectors trytry to hide these at the bottom of trays but suchsuch trickstricks rarelyrarely gogo undetectedundetected forfor long.long. DependingDepending on thethe soilsoil wherewhere thethe fungifungi grow,grow, somesome preliminary cleaning of gills anandd gaps maymay be needed toto removeremove particles.particles. SpurassisSparassis crispa and other species withwith honeycombhoneycomb capscaps readilyreadily accumulateaccumulate grit,grit, which isis difficultdifficlllt to remove.remove. PickingPic~ing fruiting bodies at theth? correctCP~~~%t stagestage ofof developmentdevelopment is · important.~~f0rtant . AsAs theythey maturemature somes~me species< becomebecome woody and muchmuch}essdesirable less desirable whilewhile others,others, suchs~chas as CoprinusCoprinus comatus,comatus, quickly dissolve or rot away. The simple consequence forfor collectors is thatthat inferior specimens areare gradedgraded lowerlower and areare worthworth less.less. AllAll thingsthings beingbeing equal, equal, some some provenances provenances of of Boletus Boletus edulisedt/lis havehave differentdifferent tastetaste characteristics. Knowledgeable buyers in ItalyItaly can identify the country of origin by smelling the dried fruiting bodies. This in turn determines thethe price thathatt the buyers will pay for a particular mmarket.arket. The mostmost spectacularspectacular difference inin the financial outcomesoutcomes ofof productproduct quality is shown byby thethe dramaticallydramatically differentdifferent amoamountsunts of money earnedearned byby thethe DemocraticDemocratic People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof KoreaKorea andand the Republic of KoreaKorea onon exportsexports ofof matsutake. matsutake .Despite Despite exportingexporting onlyonly 264 264 tonnestonnes overover five five years,years, compared to 888888 tonnestonnes fromfrom thethe /DemocraticDemocratic People'sPeople's Republic ofof Korea,Korea, thethe RepublicRepublic ofof KoreaKorea earned nearly 1515 percentpercent moremore (Tables (Tables22and23). 22 and 23). Sources: LoworeLowore and Boa (2001), author's observationsobservations andand Zambonelli Zambonelli (2002, (2002, personal communication:communication: Truffles, Truffles. ·andand collecting porcini in Italy)Italy )

Cultivation There areare possibilitiespossibilities for expandingexpanding thethe cultivationcultivation ofof edibleedible fungi.fungi. Larger-scaleLarger-scale methodsmethods are unsuited to locallocal communitiescommunities that lacklack thethe moneymoney toto establishestablish suchsuch businesses.businesses. Smaller-scale approachesapproaches ("backyard("backyard ccultivation")ultivation") are described in Stamets (2000) andand widelywidely usedused throughout China. These have a greatergreater potential for ruralrural people who cultivate paddy-straw as part ofof integratedintegrated farmingfarming systems in Viet Nam, for example.example.

THE FUTURE FOR WILDWILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGI The increased interest and importance of NWFP have helped to raiseraise the profileprofile ofof wild edible fungi worldwideworldwide.. Well-publicized commercial harvesting in North AmericaAmerica since the 1990s1990s and the expansionexpansion of exports from eastern Europe and ChinaChina havehave raised awareness of wild edible fungi and there is now a substantial and significant trade from developingdeveloping to developeddeveloped countries.countries. AA growinggrowing interestinterest inin medicinalmedicinal mushroomsmushrooms has attracted commercial interests, thoughthough there has always been aa strongstrong demand in Asia for GanodermaGanoderma and other keykey species.species. The expansion in commercial harvesting anandd internationalinternational trade has ledled toto widespreadwidespread concern aboutabout overharvestingoverharvesting andand damagedamage toto fungalfungal resourcesresources and toto forests.forests. ThereThere isis RealiRealizingzing the potential:potential: prospects,prospects, actions,actions, opportunities 65

a danger ofof restrictingrestricting commercialcommercial harvestingharvesting without examiningexamllllllg available datadata or identifyingidentifying thethe need to collect data to answeranswer importantimportant questionsquestions aboutabout impactimpact andand sustainability. AA recentrecent attemptattempt to restrict collections of matsutake in thethe United States was rejected followingfollowing aa closercloser looklook atat this resource and its current pattern ofof useuse (Mushroom(Mushroom,, ththee Journal ofof Wild Wild Mushrooming, 2002). The concerns regarding subsistence uses in developing countries are more generallygenerally about sustainable use of natural resources.resources. The key toto developingdeveloping wild edibleedible fungi as either a local food or sourcesource ofof incomeincome isis toto examineexamine the different aspects of use and harvesting and to learnlearn moremore aboutabout locallocal practicespractices andand communitycommunity needs. needs. There has beenbeen muchmuch enthusiasmenthusiasm forfor NWFP-basedNWFP-based development,development, particularlyparticularly inin protected forests.forests. SomeSome cautioncaution isis neededneeded inin assessingassessing the potentialpotential benefitsbenefits ofof thisthis strategy and threethree commonlycommonly held held beliefs beliefs requirerequire closer closer investigation investigation (Belcher, (Belcher, 2002):2002): 1.1.NWFP NWFP contribute more than timbertimber toto thethe livelihoodslivelihoods andand welfarewelfare ofof peoplepeople living inin or near forests, particularly inin hardhard times.times. 2. Exploitation causescauses less damage comparedcompared with timber harvesting and is a sounder basis for sustainable forest management.management. 3. IncreasedIncreased commercialcommercial harvestsharvests addadd toto the value of (tropical) forests and therebythereby increasesincreases thethe incentiveincentive to to maintainmaintain them them ratherrather thanthan convertconvert themthem toto other land uses. There is better thanthan expectedexpected evidence toto supportsupport the first two pointspoints forfor wildwild edible fungi while noting the need for more data and betterbetter information.information. ItIt is is lessless clearclear whether commercial harvests help to protect forests.forests. The mycorrhizalmycorrhizal associationsassociations of kekeyy wild edible fungi do, however, emphasizeemphasize thethe uniqueunique rolerole theythey play inin maintaining tree health. The globalglobal tradetrade inin wildwild edibleedible (ectomycorrhizal)(ectomycorrhizal) fungifungi hashas beenbeen estimatedestimated atat US$2 billion (Hall(Hall etet al.,al., 2003).2003). TheThe truetrue value,value, however,however, includesincludes thethe valuevalue ofof wildwild edible fungi to the millions of rural people around thethe worldworld whowho gaingain benefitsbenefits from eating them (food they would otherwiseotherwise havehave to buy oror gogo without)without) andand moneymoney fromfrom collecting. There are compellingcompelling reasons for expectingexpecting a brighter futurefuture forfor wildwild edible edible fungi: fungi: they maintain thethe healthhealth ofof forests;forests; theythey areare aa valuable source of nutrition andand income.income. New initiativesinitiatives should concentrateconcentrate onon expandedexpanded useuse andand benefitsbenefits inin areasareas thatthat alreadyalready have a strong tradition ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi. Export opportunities also exist but are inherently moremore risky.risky. During thethe preparationpreparation ofof thisthis bookbook information information onon wild wild edible edible andand wildwild useful useful fungi was stored inin aa simplesimple database.database. This hashas beenbeen extensivelyextensively updated andand modifiedmodified with the assistanceassistance of Dr PaulPaul KirkKirk ofof CABICAB! BioscienceBioscience and can be queried over the Internet (www.wildusefulfungi.org).(www.wildusefulfungi.org). Summary information on overover 22600 600 speciesspecies isis available andand the original records from overover 11 000 references andand listslists publishedpublished around the world cancan bebe viewed.viewed. ThisThis newnew Web Web sitesite alsoalso providesprovides aa simplesimple meansmeans forfor checkingchecking valid and preferred namesnames ofof WEFWEF species.species. 66 PLATE 99 EDIBLE ANDAND MEDICINAL FUNGIFUNGI IN ASIAASI A

All photosphotos byby EricEric Boa Boa except except Cordyceps Cordyceps sinensissinensis pphotoshotos byby WarrenWarren Priest.Priest.

9.1 PPackagingackaging for Phallus 99.2.2 Dried Phallus impudicus.impudicus. 99.3.3 Dried mores,morels, boughtbought inin impudicus. Belgium.

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forip1m.no.Gernbitsx , 744,-302 .0 Saal, , , ow,thi 174,1.1a., lx,lar,a4, Ianswgrht.no...0.162gai potztYa, ,mIw é.. iwompek kiegesz., mrd.rntele,,ektalne4 kDitinas 99.4.4 (left)(left) DriedDried CantbayellusCantharellus .11,,sd. fan,. .61, 1.14. adanmeel cibarius for sale in Hungary. toVnaskpiri megbr. & 9.S9.5 (above) Fresh Hydnum repandumrepandum (left - note spines,spines, sanssans ggills)ills) and Hypsizygus tessulatus for sale inin aa UKUK supermarkesupermarket.t.

99.6.6 (right) Ganoderma, dried,dried, soldsold forfor medicinamedicinall ppurposes.urposes. Singapore.Singapore.

* 4 1,

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9.7 SShopshops advertadvertiseise chongcao (Cordyceps (Cordyceps sinensis) sinensis) - thethe 9.89.8 Cleaning chongcao inin Kangding, China in ororangeange "s"sticks"ticks" on thethe leftleft - inin Xining, CChina,hina. prepapreparationration for selling.selling. 67

6 Sources ofof advice andand informationinformation

MYCOLOGICAL EXPERTISE EXPERTISE One ofof thethe mostmost commoncommon areasareas wherewhere technicaltechnical adviceadvice is sought is inin identifyingidentifying specimens and obtaining aa scientific name. There are mycologists in all major countries, both developed andand developing,developing, thoughthough theirtheir experience experience ofof macrofungimacrofungi maymay bebe limitedlimited to particular groups.groups. ManyMany mycologistsmycologists work with microfungimicrofungi and inin otherother appliedapplied areas such as plant pathology. Experts on edibleedible fungi are likely to bebe mostmost knowledgeableknowledgeable about thethe cultivatedcultivated speciesspecies.. WildWild edibleedible fungifungi havehave notnot been the focus of concertedconcerted researchresearch until thethe last ten or twentytwenty yearsyears andand professionalprofessional expertiseexpertise isis subjectsubject toto thethe vagariesvagaries ofof short-short­ term funding, particularly when it comescomes to thethe studystudy ofof subsistencesubsistence uses.uses. Individual researchers maintain a close professional interestinterest inin wild edible fungi, though thisthis isis often broad-based andand notnot specialized specialized inin thethe identificationidentification ofof species. species. There are, however, various professional groupsgroups withwith aa shared interest in edible fungi which meet on aa regularregular basis.basis. IndividualIndividual membersmembers are dispersed around the world. The best knownknown exampleexample is the Edible Ectomycorrhizal Group, whichwhich cancan bebe contacted viavia aa Web site listed inin TableTable 28.28 . There areare a number ofof institutes basedbased in Europe and North America America whichwhich havehave an international outreachoutreach andand thesethese areare listedlisted below.below. TheThe majormajor herbariaherbaria wherewhere referencereference collections of macrofungi are stored are based in developed countries,countries, although efforts are being made to establishestablish collectionscollections elsewhere.elsewhere. Mycological expertise in identifying specimens isis available inin majormajor countriescountries such as Mexico andand China. It isis notnot alwaysalways clear which institute or individualindividual mightmight bebe ableable toto assistassist withwith identificationsidentifications andand thethe best general adviceadvice is to look viavia generalgeneral Web sites or Internet searchsearch engines.engines. On thethe -widerwider issuesissues ofof NWFP, NWFP, ethnoscience, ethnoscience, participatoryparticipatory approachesapproaches toto development and other disciplinesdisciplines relevant to the useuse ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi,fungi, FAO isis aa good starting pointpoint forfor assistance.assistance. Mycological societiessocieties existexist inin many different countries and areare aa usefuluseful startingstarting point forfor enquiriesenquiries (see(see TableTable 2828 for detailsdetails ofof WebWeb sites).sites).

FIELD GUIDES TOTO WILD (EDIBLE)(EDIBLE) FUNGIFUNGI There are many fieldfield guidesguides to macrofungi,macrofungi, which include information onon edibleedible andand poisonous species.species. They are intended for naturalistsnaturalists andand peoplepeople whowho gogo collectingcollecting forfor the occasional mushroom toto eat.eat. DetailedDetailed fieldfield guidesguides containcontain scientificscientific descriptions ofof species, expressed inin aa conciseconcise andand unambiguousunambiguous language thatthat is often difficult for the non-specialist to understand.understand. ShorterShorter pocketbookspocketbooks areare availableavailable which rely more onon photographs andand havehave onlyonly shortshort written written descriptions descriptions of of species. species. BothBoth types types ofof guide guide are useful for identifidentifyingying species but they are mostly written forfor audiencesaudiences in developed countries andand have,have, therefore,therefore, aa limitedlimited useuse in developingdeveloping countries. There are few booksbooks thatthat addressaddress thethe topictopic of of wild wild edible edible fungi fungi specifically specifically fromfrom a people perspective and most of thethe relevantrelevant informationinformation isis scatteredscattered across a wide range of disciplines (see TableTable 22 forfor moremore information).information). TheThe best general introductionintroduction on wild edibleedible fungi,fungi, including helpful details about uses, is a book first published inin New ZealandZealand (Hall(Hall etet al.,at., 1998a).1998a). A newnew editionedition waswas publishedpublished inin 20032003 (Hall(Hall etet al.,at., 68 WildWild eedibledible fungi:fungi: aa ggloballobal overvioverviewew of ttheirheir use anandd importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

TABLETAB LE 26 Sources o off te technicalchnical advice advice and and in informationformation onon wildwild edible fungi

ORGANORGANIZATIONIZATION CONTACT DETAILSDElAILS NOTES CACABIBI BBioscienceioscience Bakeham Lane Incorporates thethe InternationalInternational Mycological Institute; herbarium; Egham publications; reference librarylibrary;; taxonomic expertise; broad Surrey TVV20TW20 9TY development experience;experience; databasesdatabases and IndexIndex Fungorum.Fungorum. United Kingdom www.wildusefulfungi.org;w ww.wildusefulfungi.org; www.cabi-bioscience.org www.cabi-bioscience.org RRoyaloyal BBotanicot anic GarGardens,dens, The Herbarium HerbariumHerbarium;; tataxonomicxonomic expertiexpertisese inin macrofungi;macrofungi; centrecentre forfor KKewew Surrey TVV9TW9 3AB Economic BotanyBotany (including (including edibleedible fungi)fungi);; reference librarylibrary.. United Kingdom www.rbgkew.org.uk/scihort/mycolexp.htmwww.rbgkew.org.uklscihortlmycolexp.htm NaNationalt ional MuseumMuseum BelgiumBelgium Domein van Bouchot TaTaxonomicxonomic eexpertise;xpertise; wild wild edibleedible fungifungi;; herbarium, B-1860 Meise internatinternationalional links;links; publications.publications. Belgium wwwwww.br.fgov.be.br.fgov.be CCropro p and FoodFood Research Research PB 470 TTechnologyechnology development. development. Growing Growing truffles truffles andand otherother wild InInstitutest itute ChristchurchChristchurch edible fungi in "managed""managed" conditions.conditions. New Zealand www.crop.cri.nzipsp/em-mushrooms/index.htmwww.crop.cri.nzlpsp/em-mushrooms/index. htm

TABLE 27 Field guideguidess andand WebWeb ssitesit es for for iidentifyingdentifying macrofungimacrofungi andand edibleedible varietiesvarieties

COUNTRYCOUNTRY IINFORMATIONNFORMATION ANOAND SOURCE SOURCE Argentina Gamundi and Horak, 1995:1995: macrofungimacrofungi,, popocketbookcketbook wwithith colourco lour photos. photos .In In Spanish.Spanish. Benin De Kesel, CodjiaCodjia aandnd Yorou.,Yorou., 2002:2002: selected photographs, speciesspecies descriptions.descriptions. InIn French.French . Bulgaria llordanov,ordanov, Vanev andand Fakirova,Fakirova, 1978:1978: edible andand poisonouspoisonous species,species, inin Bulgarian. Drawings.Drawings. Burundi BBuyck,uyck, 1994b: annoannotatedt ated guide toto edible edible species species InIn French.French. Photographs.Photographs. China TThehe most cinocinorehensiverehensive and and bestbest illustrated illustrated guideguide is Mao,Mao, 2000,2000, a a stunning stunning compendiumcompendium ofof field mycology wiwitht h extensiveextensive colourcolour photographs.photographs .Ying Ying et et al., aI., 7988: 1988: edible edible species, species, inin ChineseChinese [not seeseen].nl. MaoMao,, 1998:1998: EdibleEdible species,species, inin Chinese. YYinging et al.,aI., 1987:1987: medicinal species,species, in ChineseCh inese [not seen]. wwwwww.im.ac.cn:.im.ac.cn: has photographs ofof major major economic economic species. species. Colombia FrancoFranco-Molano,-Molano, AAldana-Gomezldana-Gomez andand HallingHailing,, 20002000:: guide guide to to macrofungimacrofungi,, photographsphotographs.. Costa RicaRica Two excellentexcellent guides wwithith goodgood colourcolour photographsphotographs and and Spanish Spanish and EnglishEnglish tetextxt areare available (Mata(Mata,, 2003; HaHallinglling andand Mueller,Mueller, 2003).2003). IndiaIndia PurkayasthaPurkayastha and Chandra,Chandra, 1985:1985: usefuluseful summarysummary ofof edibediblele species, nutrition nutrition data.data. NoNo photophotographsgraphs or drawings.drawings. Israel Wasser, 19951995:: edib ediblele anandd poisonous species,species, inin Russian and and HebrewHebrew [not seen].seen] . Italy TestTesti,i, 19991999 isis a a popular popular guide,guide, one of many published.published. EdibleEdible fungi fromfrom Basilicate Basi licate areare describeddescribed in TagliaviniTag liavini and Tagliavini, 20012001.. BothBoth guidesguides havehave photographsphotographs andand areare inin ItalianItalian.. Japan lmazekiImazeki etet al.,aI., 1988:1988: fungifungi of of Japan, Japan ,in in Japanese Japanese butbut species species names inin English andand many finefine photosphotos.. Korea (Republic of)ofl PParkark and Lee, 1999: guideguide to KoreanKorean mushrooms.mushrooms. NotNot seenseen - inin Korean.Korean. Kyrgyzstan El'chibaev,E/'chibaev, 1964:1964: edibleedible mushrooms,mushrooms, drawings,drawings ,in in Russian. Russian . laoLao PeoplePeople's's httphttp://giechgroup.hp.infoseek.co.jp/kinokoleng.html:://giechgroup. hp.infoseek.co.jp/kinoko/eng.htm/: mostlymostly photographs,photographs, limitedlimited text.text. Democratic RepublicRepublic Malawi wwwwww.malawifungiorg:.ma lawifungi.org: edible edible species, species, withw ith photographs, photographs, reportsreports andand databasedatabase ofof locallocal names.names. MMorris,orris, 1987:1987: edible species.species. DrawingDrawings.s. Mexico wwwwww.semamatgob.mx:.semarnat.gob.mx: edible, edible, poisonous poisonous and and medicinal medicinal species, species, in Spanish.Spanish . TTextext aandnd photographsphotographs.. Poland www.grzybywww. grzyby.pl:.pl: brief guideguide to to commercial commercial species,species, with photographs,photographs, inin PolishPolish andand English.English. Russian Federation Vasil'eva, 1978:1978: edible,edible, popoisonousisonous and medicinal species,species, in Russian,Russian, seen seen only only in in translationtranslation.. (far east)east) There are many popular guides toto field mushrooms, andand thethe followingfollowing isis a usefuluseful and readily available example.example. ItIt is is inin Russian Rus sian andand hashas drawings: drawings :Sergeeva, Sergeeva, 2000.2000 .. . Southern AfricaAfrica RRyvarden,yvarden, Piearce andand MasukaMasuka.,., 19941994:: describes describes macrofungi macrofungi inin generalgeneral,, including edibleed ible species. species. PPhotographs.hotographs. van -der -Westhuizen and Eicker, 19941994:: generalgeneral guideguide toto macrofungi,macrofungi, photographsphotographs and and species species descripdescriptionst ions of most relevancerelevance to SouthSouth Africa.Africa. Spain Rodriguez et al. (1999)(1999) macrofungi with notesnotes onon edibility,edibility, colour colour photos, photos ,in in Spanish. Spanish. Tanzania (Un(Unitedited Hárktinen,Harkonen, NiemeläNiemela andand Mwasumbi, Mwasumbi, 2003.2003 . Republic of) Tibet AutonomousAutonomous Mao andand Jiang, Jiang, 1992:1992: EconomicEconomic macrofungi,macrofungi ,in in Chinese Chinese [not[not seen]. seen] . Region,China Turkey wwwwww.ogm.gov.tr/:.ogm.gov.tr/: edibleedible species, species, in English.English. Photographs and short text.text. Uganda Katende,Katende, Segawa and Birnie,Bimie, 1999:1999: limited rangerange ofof edible edible species, species, drawings. Ukraine Zerova andand Rozhenko,Rozhenko, 1988:1988: edibleedible and and poisonous poisonous species, species, inin Russian. Russian . Drawings.Drawings. Wasser, 1990:1990: guide guide ttoo edibleedible andand poisonouspoisonous species species ofof Carpathians. Carpathians. United KingdomKingdom PhillipsPhillips etet al.,aI., 1983:1983: edibleedible and and poisonous poisonou sspecies, species, excellent photographs.photographs. United StatesStates Arora,Arora, 1986:1986: poppopularula r gguideuide to all macrofungi with manymany photographs.photographs. www.mykoweb.com:www.mykoweb.com: edibleedible species, species, photographs, descriptions.descriptions. Molina etet al.,aI., 1993:1993: majormajor edibleedible speciesspecies in Pacific northwest,northwest, phphotographs.otographs. Sources ofof adviceadvice andand information 69

TABLE 28 General Web sitessites onon wildwild edible fungi andand relatedrelated topicstopics

ADDRESS COMMENTS http://mycology.cornell.eduhttp://mycology.comell.edu Virtual LibraryLibrary on Mycology.Mycology. MainMain portalportal forfor information on fungi, includingincluding useful species. Good Good starting starting point point forfor general enquiries. www.mushworld.com One of thethe mostmost usefuluseful ofof many many "commercial" "commercial" sites sites investigated. investigated .Access Access is freefree once you have registered. Has reportsreports onon mushroommushroom productionproduction (cultivated) and has aa goodgood global coverage.coverage. http://.mycorrhiza.ag.utk.eduhttp://.mycorrh iza. ag . utk. ed u International DirectoryDirectory ofof Mycorrhizologists. Mycorrhizologists. Links Links toto sites sites onon edibleedible ectomycorrhizal mushrooms,mushrooms, listslists scientistsscientists and hashas many other useful useful background information. GoodGood generalgeneral referencereference point.point. www.indexfungorum.orgwww.indexfungorum.org Essential referencereference tool. tool. Check speciesspecies names names of of all all fungi, fungi, includingincluding macrofungi, and also thethe correct authorities. http://gmr.landfood.unimelb.edu.au/ Multilingual guide guide to to fungus fungus names, names, includingincluding Chinese. Chinese. DoesDoes not havehave aa special -plants/-plantsl emphasis onon wildwild fungi. www.malawifungi.org Wild usefuluseful fungifungi ofof Malawi Malawi with with a asearchable searchable database database ofof locallocal namesnames and scientific equivalents. Project reportsreports cancan bebe downloaded;downloaded; photographs of manymany ______sspecies ~p_e_ci_e_s _ aare __rea available._v_a_ila_b_l_e_. ______www.im.ac.cnwww.im.ac.cn Economic fungifungi of China.China. ManyMany photographs;photographs; wayvvardwayward spellingsspellings of scientificscientific names. wvvw.semarnat.gob.mxwww.semarnat.gob.mx Excellent sitesite (in(in Spanish)Spanish) giving giving details details of of major major wild wild edibleedible fungifungi from Mexico, including fullfull descriptionsdescriptions andand photos.photos. ------~------~------__wvvw.grzyby.plw_w_w~ . g,--r_zY,--b___ y", p'_I ______EdibleE_ d_i_b_1e _ ffungi_u_n~g'_i of_o_f Poland_Pol a nd (some(som e texttext in in English). Eng I ish) . http://fungimap.rgb.vic.gov.au General information onon edibleedible and and poisonouspoisonous speciesspecies of AustraliaAustralia.. www.fintrac.com Contains usefuluseful trade trade datadata from from 1993-1993-9797 for "mushroom" exportsexports to selectedselected countries and specifically for matsutakematsutake exportsexports toto Japan. Japan . www.fungi.com Fungi Perfecti, a commercial companycompany specializing specializing in in the the cultivationcultivation of gourmet and medicinal mushrooms. GoodGood generalgeneral informationinformation andand manymany links.links. wwvv.mycopat.slu.se/mycorrhiza/www.mycopat.slu.se/mycorrhiza/ Edible mycorrhizal mushrooms. Two international conferencesconferences havehave beenbeen heldheld edible/home.phtmledible/home.phtml and the site gives informationinformation onon talkstalks and other mattersmatters ofof generalgeneral relevancerelevance toto WEF. WEF. www.mushroomthejournal.com The journal ofof wildwild mushrooming, mushrooming, publishedpublished inin thethe United United States States withwith articles articles available online. PresentsPresents a veryvery practicalpractical approach and analysis ofof mushroom collecting and although slantedslanted towards the amateuramateur inin thethe UnitedUnited States, States, it explores universal issues (regulation (regulation ofof collectors) of broader relevance.relevance. vvww.fs.fed.uswww.fs.fed.us lnforrnationInformation onon commercialcommercial harvestingharvesting inin thethe PacificPacific northwest of thethe UnitedUnited States, includingincluding detailed accountsaccounts from WinemaWinema NationalNational Forest. Forest. www.vvildusefulfungi.orgwww.wildusefulfungi.org

2003). A dictionary ofof edibleedible fungifungi containscontains listslists ofof species species fromfrom severalseveral developeddeveloped and developingdeveloping countries and local namesnames.. It is aa usefuluseful butbut notnot essential essential referencereference (Chandra, 1989).1989).

Country guidesguides Most field guides are based on species foundfound in temperate regions. There is a plethoraplethora of such guides from the United StatesStates whilewhile countries in western EuropeEurope areare alsoalso well served. Key examples areare listed in Table 2727 but the emphasisemphasis is on lessless well knownknown books from developingdeveloping countries. MostMost areare out of printprint andand onlyonly available available fromfrom specialist libraries. Guides published inin thethe UnitedUnited States States (e.g.(e.g. Arora, 1986)1986) and EuropEuropee (e(e.g..g. PhillipsPhillips etet al., 1983) cancan stillstill bebe purchasedpurchased or readily consulted inin libraries.libraries.

INFORMATIONINFORMATION ON MEDICINALMEDICINAL ANDAND POISONOUSPOISONOUS MUSHROOMSMUSHROOMS Many edibleedible fungifungi alsoalso havehave medicinalmedicinal properties.properties. ThcThe InternationalInternational Journal ofof Medicinal Mushrooms began publication inin 19991999 and containscontains reviewreview articlesarticles asas wellw ell as original contrcontributions.ibutions. ForFor aa generalgeneral overviewoverview scesee Hobbs (1995).(1995). All guidesguides toto macrofungimacrofungi includeinclude descriptionsdescriptions of poisonouspoisonous species.species. ThereThere is a colour atlas devoted to poisonous speciesspecies though thethe examplesexamples are of species foundfound inin developed countrcountries,ies, some of which will also occur in developingdeveloping countries (Bresinsky(Bresinsky and Besl, 1990).1990). 70 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their useuse andand importance importance to to peoplepeople

WEB SITESSITES The Internet isis aa usefuluseful sourcesource ofof informationinformation but thethe qualityquality andand accuracyaccuracy ofof thisthis information cancan bebe difficultdifficult to assess.assess. Type thethe wordword "mushroom" oror "edible"edible fungus"fungus" into aa searchsearch engineengine suchsuch asas GoogleGoogle (www.google.com)(www.google.com) andand aa barragebarrage ofof Web Web addressesaddresses will appear.appear. The sites listed in Table 28 areare aa startingstarting pointpoint for investigations and notes have been provided to indicate how useful they were during the preparationpreparation ofof thisthis book. MostMost sitessites listedlisted inin TableTable 28 emphasize fungfungii first and uses by people second - if at all.all. Table 28 is only aa selectionselection ofof availableavailable WebWeb sitessites thatthat includeinclude wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. For moremore detaileddetailed searchessearches of reliably published information there is no substitute forfor thorough literatureliterature reviewsreviews ofof journalsjournals andand otherother professionally professionally publishedpublished sources.sources. Table 28 includes examples ofof country-specificcountry-specific Web sites, andand attention is drawn toto thethe excellent information availableavailable for Mexico.Mexico. 71

7 References

Aaronson, S.S. 2000.2000. Fungi.Fungi. InIn K.F.K.F. KipleKiple & K.C. Ornelas, eds. TheThe CarnbridgeCambridge world history of food,food, pppp 313313-336.-336. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press. 11 958 pp. Abate, D.D. 1999.1999. AgaricusAgaricus campestriscampestris in upland Ethiopia.Ethiopia. Mycologist,Mycologist, 13:13: 28. Abbott, P.P. 1999.1999. Non-timberNon-timber forest forest products products harvesting: harvesting: lessonslessons forfor seasonally-sensitive seasonally-sensitive management in miombo. In M.R.M.R. Ngulube,N gulube, L.L. MwabumbaM wabumba && P. Chirwa,Chirwa, eds. Community­Community- based management of of miombo miombo woodlandswoodlands inin Malawi, pp.pp. 70-89.70-89. ProceedingsProceedings ofof aa national workshop, SunSun andand SandSand HolidayHoliday Resort, Resort, Mangochi, Mangochi, Malawi, Malawi, 2727 toto 29 29 SeptemberSeptember 1999.1999. Zomba, Malawi,Malawi, Forestry ResearchResearch InstituteInstitute ofof Malawi. Malawi. 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ANNEX 11 Summary ofof thethe importance ofof wild edibleedible fungifungi byby regionregion and country

GROUPS Countries areare arrangedarranged inin sixsix regions.regions. • Africa • AsAsiaia • EEuropeurope • North andand CentralCentral America America [includes[includes CaribbeanCaribbean region]region] • OceaniOceaniaa • South America

SOURCES OFOF INFORMATIONINFORMATION The country summariessummaries highlighthighlight keykey informationinformation onon wildwild edibleedible fungifungi thoughthough detailsdetails are often sparse, particularly onon thethe broaderbroader social social andand economiceconomic contextscontexts ofof use.use. ListsLists of "edible" speciesspecies published inin thethe mycologicalmycological literatureliterature areare ofof veryvery limitedlimited useuse unless it isis made clearclear which onesones areare actuallyactually eaten.eaten. Two comprehensive reviewsreviews on on wildwild fungifungi inin Africa south of thethe SaharaSahara havehave been particularly useful:useful: RammelooRammeloo andand WalleynWalleyn (1993)(1993) for edibleedible fungifungi andand WalleynWalleyn and Rammeloo (1994) forfor poisonous and usefuluseful fungi.fungi. KeyKey referencesreferences are notednoted separately. For many countries littlelittle or no published information on on wild wild edibleedible fungi was found.found. There areare somesome clues to suggest that local use does occur but has yet toto bebe described.described. No detailsdetails of wild edibleedible fungi use in Rwanda were foundfound yet neighbouring Burundi has regular collecting, salesale andand consumption.consumption. Few details werewere foundfound forfor Viet NamNam and none for Myanmar yet there are cultural links toto China, the country with the strongest tradition ofof wildwild edibleedible fungi.fungi. LittleLittle informationinformation isis availableavailable on Angola though itit hashas large tractstracts of miombo woodland thatthat areare productiveproductive inin neighbouringneighbouring countries.countries.

TRADE AND EXPORTSEXPORTS Information is oftenoften incompleteincomplete and widelywidely dispersed and trade datadata areare missingmlsslllg for importantimportant exportingexporting countries.countries. Overall,Overall, thethe bestbest informationinformation availableavailable is at www.fintrac.com but onlyonly coverscovers 1993-97.1993-97.

FUNGI THAT APPEAR ON STAMPSSTAMPS A comprehensivecomprehensive description of allall fungalfungal speciesspecies (mostly(mostly macrofungi)macrofungi) thatthat havehave appeared on stampsstamps sincesince RomaniaRomania producedproduced thethe first first examples examples in in 1958 1958 is is available available (McKenzie, 1997). MostMost of thethe 11 400400 examplesexamples areare edibleedible species.species. MedicinalMedicinal andand poisonous varieties also appear. TheThe list of speciesspecies appearing on stampsstamps is usefuluseful for countriescountries wherewhere fewfew othcrother sources sources ofof information information are are available, available, forfor exampleexample thethe Democratic People'sPeople's RepublicRepublic ofof Korea.Korea. SmallSmall island nations exploitexploit colourfulcolourful speciesspecies to increaseincrease revenuerevenue from stampstamp salessales and thethe examplesexamples used are thereforetherefore aa poorpoor indicationindication of locallocal importance. 90 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa globalglobal overviewoverview ofof theirtheir use andand importance to people ------

Africa

No informationinformation waswas found onon wildwild edibleedible fungifungi andand otherother usefuluseful speciesspeCles for thethe following countries: Cape Verde; Chad; Comoros; Djibouti;Djibouti; EquatorialEquatorial Guinea;Guinea; Eritrea;Eritrea; Gambia;Gambia; Liberia; Mali; Mauritania; Niger; SaoSao Tome and Principe;Principe; Seychelles;Seychelles; St Helena; Sudan; Togo; Western SaharaSahara Two frequently citedcited reviewsreviews appearappear as:as: R+WR+W (Rammeloo(Rammeloo andand Walleyn,Walleyn, 1993)1993) andand WW+ + R (Walleyn(Walleyn andand Rammeloo,Rammeloo, 1994).1994). For generalgeneral information onon NWFPNWFP in in Africa Africa seesee FAO (2001b).(2001b). The only information found onon fungifungi asas emergencyemergency (famine)(famine) foodfood concernedconcerned refugeesrefugees from MozambiqueMozambique who fledfled toto MalawiMalawi inin thethe 1980s 1980s (Wilson(Wilson etet al., al., 1989).1989).

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

ALGERIA Has exportedexported matsutakematsutake inin minor quantities to Japan,Japan, most likely TricholomaTricholoma caligatum. Desert trufflestruffles occur but few detailsdetails areare givengiven (Alsheikh(Alsheikh andand Trappe,Trappe, 1983). ThereThere areare possiblypossibly exportsexports toto Spain (Borghi, 2002, personal communication: Porcini andand otherother commercial wildwild edible fungi in Italy).Italy).

ANGOLA There is limited information that that edible edible species species areare collectedcollected andand usedused locallylocally (FAO, 20012001a). a). Isolated Isolated examplesexamples of of wildwild edible speciesspecies areare givengiven in R+W. Angola has miombomiombo woodland similar to neighbouringneighbouring countries countries where where edible edible species species areare regularly collected and consumed. FurtherFurther investigationinvestigation isis required.

BENIN Recent workwork reveals an extensive range of speciesspecies that areare consumedconsumed locallylocally (De(De Kesel, CodjiaCodjia and and Yorou, Yorou, 2002) 2002) and and a along long tradition tradition of of eatingeating wildwild edible fungi. FewFew are openly sold.sold.

BOTSWANA R+W lists aa fewfew species. Desert Desert truffles truffles areare eateneaten andand exportedexported but harvests are very variable (Taylor(Taylor etet a/.,al., 1995).1995).

BURKINA FASO R+W lists aa fewfew species. A A studystudy ofof ectomycorrhizal fungifungi (Sanon, (Sanon, BaBa andand Dexheimer,Dexheimer, 1997) confirmsconfirms that edibleedible species species occur, though useuse asas food isis notnot discussed. discussed.

BURUNDI Many different species species occur and are collected and sold each year by rural peoplepeople (Buyck, 1994b). ThereThere areare distinctdistinct preferences for speciesspecies among Africans and European expatriates.

CAMEROON Several reportsreports and records have appeared and are summarized inin R+W.R+W. NoNo suggestion ofof major use ofof wwildild edible fungi butbut commonly commonly collectedcollected andand eaten.eaten.

CENTRAL AFRICAN R+W list species from from several sources.sources. Forest Forest dwellers dwellers appear appear to to makemake thethe REPUBLIC greatest use ofof wild fungi thoughthough thisthis could could reflectreflect more more detailed detailed studies studies ofof these these communities.

CONGO [REPUBLIC[REPUBLIC OF] R+W hashas little little information. AA poorlypoorly studiedstudied countrycountry wherewhere widerw ider use use mightmight be be expected.

CONGO, DEMOCRATICDEMOCRATIC Many publications andand muchmuch researchresearch interest revealreveal widespreadwidespread andand significantsignificant use use REPUBLIC OF THE of wild edibleedible species. species. Most reports concentrate on the ShabaShaba region (e.g. Degreef, (FORMER(FORMER ZAIRE) 1992). InformationInformation alsoalso inin R+W.R+W.

COTE D'IVOIRED'lvOIRE R+W listlist onlyonly a fewfew records, butbut therethere are suggestionssuggestions that that useuse of of wi wildld edibleedible fungifungi has been under-recorded andand thatthat several several speciesspecies are consumedcons umed and traded.

EGYPT Only one short accountaccount hashas been found (Zakhary(Zakhary etet a/., al., 1983).1983). No evidence to suggest thatthat wild edible fungi areare either abundantabundant oror routinelyroutinely used.used.

ETHIOPIA Only two shortshort reports reports are are known known (Abate, (Abate, 1999; 1999; Tuno, Tuno, 2001). 2001). NoNo evidence evidence toto suggest suggest widespread use oror importanceimportance ofof wild edible fungi.fungi. Annex 1: Summary of ththee importanceimportance of wildwild edible ffungiungi by regionregion andand countrycountry 91

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

GABON R+W containscontains two two recordsrecords gleaned gleaned from from earlier earlier report report whichwhich namednamed 2323 different different types of WEF but using locallocal names forfor mostmost (Walker,(Walker, 1931), suggesting commoncommon consumption.

GHANA R+W containscontains few few recordsrecords.. Information Information from the ForestryForestry Research Institute Institute ofof Ghana confirmsconfirms thatthat several species are are collected collected and and used used (Obodai (Obodai and and Apetorgbor Apetorgbor,, 2001).2001).

GUINEA W+R has oneone rerecord.cord. Much wider use use isis expectedexpected andand maymay havehave escapedescaped detection because collectioncollection is essentiallyessentially local andand seasonal.seasonal.

GUINEA-BISSAU No information on wild edibleedible foundfound thoughthough a a study study ofof mycorrhizal mycorrhizal fungifungi confirmsconfirms the presencepresence of edibleedible varieties varieties (Thoen (Th oen and and Ba, Ba, 1989).1989).

KENYA R+W andand W+RW+R containcontain severalseveral recordrecordss but but there there is nono evidenceevidence toto support widespread collecting or trading.

LESOTHO R+W hashas one one record record of of a a termite termite fungusfungus.. NoNo other other informationinformation available but note the presencepresence of forestforest treetree species species (pines) associated with with edible mycorrhizal fungi.fungi.

LIBYAN ARAB Only one passing referencereference toto desert truffles (Alsheikh(Alsheikh andand Trappe,Trappe, 1983).1983). JAMAHIRIYA

MADAGASCAR R+W andand W+R notenote several edible species though though precise details of collection,collection, consumption and salesale are obscure (Bouriquet(Bouriquet,, 1970).1970). No exportsexports are kknown.nown. More detailed studies are needed given the clearclear signssigns of majormajor activitiesactivities (Buyck,(B uyck, 2001).2001).

MALAWI A small countrycountry withwith a well-established tradition tradition of using wild edible fungi. ItIt hashas been well studiedstudied byby comparisoncomparison withwith similar similar countries countries (R+W; (R+W; W-FR; W+R; Morris,Morris, 1987;1987; Boa etet aI.,al., 2000). SeeSee also also www www.malawifungi.org..malawifungi.org.

MAURITIUS A few recordsrecords existexist (R+W;(R+W; W+R;W+R; Peerally,Peerally, 1979) butbut no details areare available.available.

MOROCCO Macrofungi areare well-describedwell-described andand aa rangerange ofof edible edible species species occuroccur (Malencon(Malencon and Bertault, 1975).1975). Their significancesignificance toto local people is notnot well known. ItIt is is aa small-scale exporterexporter of mushrooms (sic) toto Japan, includingincluding a matsutake relative (Tricholoma caligatum - see Kytovuori, 1989).1989).

MOZAMBIQUE A country richrich inin edibleedible species. species. TheseThese are routinelroutinelyy collected,collected, consumedconsumed and soldsold internally butbut details details areare sketchysketchy (Uaciquete,(Uaciquete, Dai and Motta, 1996;1996; Boa etetal., al. , 2000).2000) . Further study is required. There are also suggestions ofof B. edulis exports toto Italy via companies basedbased inin SouthSouth AfricaAfrica (Borghi(Borghi,, 20022002,, personal communication:communication: Porcini and other commercial wildwild edible fungi in Italy).Italy).

NAMIBIA A few isolatedisolated recordsrecords (R+W(R+W and W+R).W+R). No major use of wild edibleedible species species is indicated but therethere areare regularregular exports exports ofof desert desert truffles truffles (Taylor, (Taylor, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communicationcommunication:: Edible fungi eateneaten andand tradedtraded in in Botswana Botswana andand Namibia). Namibia) . UsefulUseful macrofungi occuroccur inin thethe Namib Namib desert desert (Jacobson (Jacobson 1996).1996).

NIGERIA Brief lists of edible species areare noted,noted, momostlystly iinn connection wwithith the YorubaYoruba peoplepeople (R+W andand W+R). SeveralSeveral others others reportsreports eexistxist (e(e.g..g. OsoOso,, 1975)1975) but but thetheyy often repeatrepeat details published previously.previously.

RWANDA No records inin R+W oror W+RW+R but but informationinformation from BurundiBurundi (Buyck,(Buyck, 1994b)1994b) is relevant.

SENEGAL Accounts of ectomycorrhizal speciesspecies confirmconfirm that edibleedible speciesspecies are present (Thoen and Ba, 1989) butbut little isis knownknown about about their their use use by by local local people people (Ducousso, (Ducousso, BaBa andand Thoen,Thoen, 2002).2002).

SIERRA LEONELEONE Only one passing reference (to Termitomyces)Termitomyces) was found (Pegler(Pegler andand Vanhaecke,Vanhaecke, 1994)1994).. MendeMende womenwomen collect and sell edible fungi inin SegbwemaSegbwema andand presumablypresumably this occursoccurs inin other locallocal marketsmarkets (Down,(Down, 2002, personal communicationcommunication:: Wild edible fungi SierraSierra Leone).Leone). Further studystudy isis required.required.

SOMALIA No information waswas found andand therethere isis nono indicationindication of of widespread widespread oror regular regular use use (R+W)(R+W)..

SOUTH AFRICA Much mycological information butbut details details on on local local non-European non-European preferences preferences andand practices are only slowly beingbeing revealedrevealed (Shackleton(Shackleton etal.,et al., 2002). 2002). See See R+W R+W and and W+R for furtherfurther discussions. discussions. Termitomyces collectedcollected and sold in KwaZulu (van der Westhuizen andand Eicker,Eicker, 1994). ThereThere areare regularregular exports of Boletus edulis from pinepine plantations (Marais,(Marais, 2002,2002, personal communication:communication: CollectingCollecting B.B. edulisedulis inin SouthSouth Africa) whichwhich beganbegan inin thethe 1970s 1970s (Pott,(Pott, 2002,2002, personal communication: Export of B. edulis from South Africa). 92 Wild eedibledible fufungi:ngi: aa ggloballobal overvoverviewiew ooff ttheirheir ususee andand impimportanceortance toto peoplpeoplee

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

SWAZILAND Few details available about local use. IrregularIrregular exports ofof boletes in small quantities to EuropeEurope during thethe 1990s1990s have occurred andand appearappear toto still take placeplace (Borghi, 2002, personalpersonal communication communication:: Porcini Porcini and and other other commercial commercial wild wild edible edible fungi fungi inin Italy).

TANZANIA [UNITED R+W and W+R listlist many species.species. Good Good descriptions descriptions available available of of a a w wideide rangerange ofof REPUBLIC OF] edible fungi thatthat are are regularlyregularly collected, collected, consumedconsumed and sold locallylocally.. DifferentDifferent species eaten eaten inin MiomboMiombo woodland and mountainousmountainous areas.areas. An excellent and well illustratedillustrated guide toto wildwild mushrooms mushrooms hashas beenbeen publishedpublished (Härkönen,(Hark6nen, NiemeläNiemela and Mwasumbi, 2003).2003).

TUNISIA Only one short report onon desertdesert truffletruffle was was found found (Alsheikh (Alsheikh and and Trappe, Trappe, 1983). 1983). A minor andand irregularirregular exporterexporter ofof "mushrooms", "mushrooms", possibly possibly toto Spain Spain (Borghi,(Borghi, 2002,2002, personal communication: Porcini andand otherother commercialcommercial wildwild edibleedible fungi in Italy).Italy).

UGANDA R+W containscontains only only aa few few records.records. A A wider wider andand strongerstronger traditiontradition isis indicatedindicated (see(see Katende et ala/.,., 1999). InformationInformation from BurundiBurundi isis relevantrelevant (Buyck,(Buyck, 1994b).

ZAMBIA Widespread, common and significant useuse of wildwild edible edible species species hashas beenbeen well describeddescribed (e.g.(e .g .(Pegler (Pegler and and Piearce, Piearce 1980;, 1980; Piearce, Piearce, 1981). 1981). R+W R+W and and W-1-1:2 W+R summarizesummarize records.records.

ZIMBABWE Wild edibleedible fungifungi are are commonly commonly collected, collected, soldsold andand consumed.consumed. BoletusBoletus edulis is exported toto Europe Europe (Boa (Boa etet a/., al., 2000). 2000) .See See alsoalso Ryvarden,Ryvarden, PiearcePiearce and MasukaMasuka (1994)(1994) and W+RW+R.. LocalLocal traditions traditions havehave beenbeen investigatedinvestigated inin somesome detail detail onlonlyy in the last 10 to 1515 yearsyears and are lessless wellwell described comparedcompared toto Malawi andand Zambia.Zambia. FurtherFurther attention isis warranted.warranted. Annex 1:I: Summary ofof the importanceimportance ofof wild edible fungi by region anandd country 93

Asia

No informationinformation waswas foundfound onon wildwild edibleedible fungifungi andand otherother usefuluseful speciesspecIes forfor thethe following countriescountries oror regions:regions: AAzerbaijan;zerbaijan; Bahrain; Brunei; Cambodia; Cyprus; Gaza Strip; Georgia; KazakhstKazakhstan;an; Maldives;Maldives; Oman; Qatar; SyrianSyrian ArabArab Republic;Republic; Tajikistan;Tajikistan; Timor-LestTimor-Leste;e; United ArabArab Emirates;Emirates; Uzbekistan;WestUzbekistan;West Bank;Bank; YemenYemen The proproximityximity of AzerbaijanAzerbaijan and Georgia toto countries withwith a known tradition of wildwild edibleedible fungifungi (e.g.(e.g. Armenia and Turkey) suggests a wider use of wild edible fungi ththanan hashas beenbeen reported.reported. AnecdotalAnecdotal informationinformation indicatesindicates that Kazakhstan has "little or no" traditiontradition ofof wild wild edibleedible fungi.fungi. TheThe useuse ofof wild wild edibleedible fungifungi inin TajikistanTajikistan and UzbekistanUzbekistan isis expected but hashas yetyet toto bebe confirmed.confirmed. SoSo too forfor Cambodia:Cambodia: therethere isis aa ttraditionradition amongamong tribaltribal peoplepeople inin thethe regionregion ofof using using wildwild edibleedible fungifungi (Hosaka,(Hosaka, 2002,2002, personal communication: LaosLaos edibleedible fungi) SeeSee Plates 8 and 9.9.

COUNTRY USEUSE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

AFGHANISTAN A few vvildwild edibleedible species species are describeddescribed (Batra, 1983).1983). Morels are exported (Sabra(Sabra and Walter, 2001).2001).

ARMENIA A range ofof availableavailable edibleedible species species are collected, consumed and traded locally.locally. Exports havehave notnot been reported (Nanaguylan,(Nanaguylan, 2002,2002, personal communication:communication: EdibleEdible fungi inin Armenia).Armenia).

BANGLADESH Small-scaleSmall-scale useuse byby ChakmaChakma peoplepeople in HillHill TractsTracts has been noted (Siddiqi,(Siddiqi, 1998).1998).

BHUTAN A small-scalesmall-scale exporterexporter ofof matsutake to Japan but important to to the the local local economy. economy. Wild edibleedible speciesspecies are regularly soldsold inin marketsmarkets thoughthough species species and amountsamounts areare not known (Namgyel,(Namgyel, 2000).2000).

CHINA The leading producer, useruser and and exporter exporter of of wild wild edibleedible fungifungi inin thethe world with a long andand notablenotable traditiontradition of of using using medicinal medicinal species. species. ThereThere areare significantsignificant exports of matsutakematsutake toto JapanJapan though harvestingharvesting practicespractices areare causing concern forfor sustainable production inin somesome areasareas (Winkler, 2000).2000). Truffles and Boletus edulis exported moremore recentlyrecently inin significantsignificant quantities quantities to to Europe Europe (Borghi, (Borghi, 2002, 2002, personalpersonal communication: Porcini and other commercial wild edible fungi inin Italy).Italy). GeneralGeneral lists of speciesspecies in regular useuse have been publishedpublished outsideoutside China China (e.g.(e.g. Hall et alal.,., 1998a) butbut should be consulted together with anan expandingexpanding Chinese Chinese LiLiterature.terature. SeeSee Mao and Jiang, 1992 forfor Tibet Autonomous Region;Region; YingYing etet a/., a/., 1987;1987; YingYi ng et al.,al ., 1988.1988. Zhongguo ShiyongjunShiyongjun [Edible[Edible FungiFungi ofof China] China] regularlyregularly publishes publishes informationinformation butbut in in Chinese. Chinese . FewFew accountsaccounts of fungi soldsold inin marketsmarkets havehave beenbeen published (Chamberlain, 1996) though though this is aa widespreadwidespread andand importantimportant activity. For medmedicinalicinal speciesspecies generally see see HobbsHobbs (1995).(1995). TheThe bestbest guide and source ofof informationinformation onon fieldfield mycology mycology and and species species ofof WEFWEF is MaoMao,, 2000).2000).

HONG KONGKONG SPECIAL SPECIAL Chang and Mao (1995) is aa comprehensivecomprehensive account account of of macrofungimacrofungi and their usefuluseful ADMINISTRATIVE characteristics (in Chinese).Chinese). This hashas a wider relevancerelevance toto China.China. REGION, CHINA 94 Wild edibleedible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople ------

INDIA Lists ofof edible species from from thethe exteextensivensive mycological records areare difficultdifficult toto interpret andand socialsocial andand economiceconomic aspectsaspects are poorly studied. ForFor general information see see PurkayasthaPurkayastha andand Chandra,Chandra, 1985.1985. StudiesStudies of locallocal useuse include:include: Harsh,Harsh, Rai and Ayachi, 1993; Harsh, RaiRai and and Soni,Soni, 1999; 1999; Adhikary Adhikary etal.,et al., 1999. MorelsMorels are collected for exportexport in in HimalayanHimalayan regions regions (FAO, (FAa, 1993b)1993b) andand areare ofof economic economic importance. Further studies areare needed,needed, particularly particularly inin hillhill areasareas where where tribal tribal peoplepeople live, e.g. Tripura and Mizoram.

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLE EDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

INDONESIAINDONESIA Very little informationinformation has has beenbeen publishedpublished though therethere isis clearclear evidenceevidence of widespread useuse and market sellingselling (Burkhill,(Burkhill, 1935; 1935; Heyne, Heyne, 1927; 1927; Rifai,Rifai, 1989).1989). ThereThere is much interestinterest in cultivating fungifungi (e.g. (e.g. Gunawan,Gunawan, 2000)2000) andand thesethese are widely available. The extensive literatureliterature on NWFP has has few few details details of of wildwild edible fungi though locallocal sourcessources inin Kalimantan (Leluyani,(Leluyani, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication: Edible fungi of Kalimantan) Kalimantan) listedlisted overover ten differentdifferent types types regularlyregularly collected collected andand consumed in forestforest areas, areas, mostlymostly saprobic saprobic species. species. CannedCanned SclerodermaScleroderma spp.spp. areare sold (Ducousso, Ba andand Thoen, 2002). Published records of agaricsagarics and boletesboletes areare available atat www.mycena.sfsu.eduwww.mycena.sfsu.edu andand includeinclude several several commoncommon edible edible species. species.

IRAN Truffles occur but their significancesignificance to locallocal peoplepeople isis notnot knownknown (Saremi, (Saremi, Ammarellou andand Mohammadi,Mohammadi, 2002). 2002). OtherOther edible edible and and medicinal medicinal species species havehave been recorded (see NiemelaNiemelä andand Uotila,Uotila, 1977; IsilogluIsiloglu and Watling, 1992)1992) in the mycological literature.

IRAQ Only one passing reference [to desertdesert truffles] is is knownknown (Al-Naama, (AI-Naama ,Ewaze Ewaze andand Nema, 1988).

ISRAEL The recent arrival ofof manymany RussiansRussians hashas introduced introduced a stronglystrongly mycophilic influence (Wasser, 1995), 1995), though though there there is isstill still little little available available information information onon howhow collection and consumption of wild edibleedible fungi fungi has has changed. changed. PreviouslyPreviously there waswas only limited interestinterest inin aa few few key key species. species.

JAPAN It has aa notablenotable and significantsignificant traditiontradition ofof collecting, collecting, consumingconsu ming andand sellingse lling wild useful fungi (e.g.(e.g. Kawagoe,Kawagoe, 1924;1924; Stamets, 2000). ThereThere isis an an extensive extensive literature literature on macrofungi (e.g.(e.g. Imazeki et al., 1988) andand research onon wild edibleedible species, species, particularly matsutake. Japan is aa majormajor importerimporter of matsutakematsutake andand relatedrelated speciesspecies from around the worldworld..

JORDAN Several species areare consumedconsumed locally (Cavalcaselle, 1997; SabraSabra andand Walter, 2001).

KOREA [DEMOCRATIC There is undoubtedlyundoubtedly a strong local tradition ofof collecting collecting andand consumingconsuming wildwild PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF)OF] edible fungi butbut informationinformation is is scarce. scarce. There are significantsignificant exports ofof matsutake toto Japan (www.fintrac.com).(www.fintrac.com).

KOREA [REPUBLIC OF]OF) It has aa strongstrong locallocal tradition tradition of using wild edible fungi andand isis a major exporter of matsutake to Japan. For furtherfurther information,information, see see KimKim andand KimKim (1990).(1990).

KUWAIT Only one account with aa passingpassing reference to desert truffles isis known (Alsheikh(Alsheikh andand Trappe, 1983).1983).

KYRGYZSTAN A comprehensive list of edibleedible species species hashas been published (El'chibaev,(EI'chibaev, 1964)1964) which suggests widespreadwidespread if not necessarilynecessarily significant useuse ofof wild wild species. species.

LAO PEOPLE'SPEOPLE'S A list of edibleedible speciesspecies wwithith photosphotos isis available at http://giechgroup.hp.infoseek. DEMOCRATIC REPUBLICREPUBLIC co.jp/kinoko/eng.html. NWFPNWFP studiesstudies includeinclude referencesreferences to to wiwildld edible fungi (Rijsoort(Rijsoort and Pikun, 2000). Local use is widespreadwidespread (Hosaka, 2002,2002, personal personal communication:communication: Laos edibleedible fungI)fungi) but poorlypoorly described.described. Further studies are needed to reveal more details about the use ofof wild edible fungi byby hillhill peoplepeople generallygenerally inin the region.region .

LEBANON Several species are are locally locally collected collected thoughthough apparently useuse isis small scale and may not be widespread (Sabra(Sabra and Walter, 2001).2001).

MALAYSIA Termite fungi areare regularlyregularly collected collected and and sold sold (Pegler (Pegler and and Vanhaecke, Vanhaecke, 1994).1994). Mycological reports from SarawakSarawak (Chin,(Chin, 1988; Chin, 1998) hinthint at regular useuse of wildwild edible edible species, species, confirmedconfirmed by by anecdotal anecdotal accounts accounts (Jones, (Jones, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: WildWild edibleedible fungifungi use use inin Sarawak).Sarawak) .

MONGOLIA No information was found but similar traditions to neighbouringneighbouring countriescountries (e.g.(e .g. China) are expected.expected.

MYANMAR Termite fungi areare recordedrecorded inin thethe mycologicalmycological literatureliterature (Pegler (Pegler and and Vanhaecke, Vanhaecke, 1994) andand areare undoubtedlyundoubtedly eaten, but nono otherother details details havehave beenbeen found.found. However,However, similar patterns of useuse are expected inin thethe hill regionsregions basedbased on traditions inin neighbouring countries.countries. AnnexA nnex 1:1: SummarySummary ofof the importanceimportance ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi byby regionregion andand country country 95

NEPAL Widespread collection, sale and consumption occur (e.g. AdhikariAdhikari and Adhikari, 1996), withwith most activity in the hill regions.regions.

PAKISTAN Only limited informationinformation was was found.found .Morels Morels are are collected collected andand exportedexported (FAO,(FAa, 1993b). Mycological reportsreports dodo notnot describe describe local local practices practices or or preferences preferences for for species species (Batra, 1983; Syed-Riaz andand Mahmood-Khan, 1999).1999).

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGI

PHILIPPINES A comprehensivecomprehensive mycologicalmycological paperpaper (Mendoza, (Mendoza, 1938) 1938) lists lists overover 50 50 species,species, many with locallocal namesnames andand suggestingsuggesting widespread use. This informationinformation is not includedincluded inin thethe annexes.annexes. Forest dwellersdwellers inin Palawan alsoalso eat eat wild wild edibleedible fungifungi (Novellino,(Novellino, 1999).1999).

SAUDI ARABIA Limited information onon desert desert trufflestruffles (Tirmania) (Tirmania) onlyonly waswas foundfound (Bokhary(Bokhary andand Parvez, 1993).1993).

SINGAPORE A significant importer andand useruser of edibleedible fungifungi though though mostly, mostly, itit is is suspected, suspected, of thethe cultivatedcultivated speciesspecies (Jones andand Lim,Lim, 1990).1990). A A strong strong cultural cultural influenceinfluence fromfrom thethe Chinese traditiontradition isis expected.expected .

SRI LANKA Local collectionscollections occuroccur but but limitedlimited information waswas found (Gunatilleke,(Gunatilleke, GunatillekeGunatilleke and Abeygunawardena, 1993).1993). Termite fungi occuroccur andand areare presumablypresumably eateneaten (Pegler and Vanhaecke,Vanhaecke, 1994).1994).

TAIWAN PROVINCEPROVINCE OFOF Similar traditiontradition to mainlandmainland ChinaChina though informationinformation not not actively actively gathered.gathered. LongLong CHINA tradition of of mycological mycological research research onon thethe higher higher fungi fungi (see (see Chen, Chen, 1987).1987).

THAILAND There is aa notablenotable traditiontradition of collection, selling and consumption butbut ononlyly oneone detailed reportreport was was found found (Jones, (Jones , WhalleyWhalley and and Hywel-Jones, Hywel-Jones, 1994).1994).

TURKEY There is a strongstrong but perhaps still relatively smallsmall export industryindustry toto Europe,Europe, based predominantly on the collection ofof wildwild edible edible fungi fungi (Gurer, (Gurer, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication: Unpublished trade data on wild edibleedible fungifungi in in Turkey). Turkey). MycologicalMycological reportsreports suggest wwidespreadidespread use andand significancesignificance (e(e.g..g. Afyon,Afyon, 1997; KasKasikik andand Ozturk,Ozturk, 1995). SeeSee also also www.ogm.gov www.ogm.gov.tr/.tr/ and Sabra and Walter (2001).(2001).

TURKMENISTAN Has exportedexported ""mushrooms"mushrooms" to Germany,Germany, most probably wild edibleedible speciesspecies (www.fintrac.com).(www.fintrac. com).

VIETVIET NAMNAM There are clear indications of widespreadwidespread local use and collecting in the uplandupland areaareass (Chamberlain(Chamberlain,, 2002, 2002, p personalers onal communication communication:: Wild Wild edible edible fungifungi in Viet Nam) but this is poorlpoorlyy documented.documented. NWFP investigations investigations frequently frequently mentionmention wildwild edible fungi (e.g.(e .g .Rijsoort Rijsoort andand Pikun,Pikun, 2000).2000). PaddyPaddy straw (Volvariella(Vo/variella spp.)spp .) occursoccurs naturally in lowlandlowland areasareas andand isis also cultivated. OtherOther cultivated cultivated species species suchsuch as shiitakeshiitake and ear fungi (Auricularia(Auricularia spp.)spp.) areare sold fresh and dried inin marketsmarkets inin HoHo ChiChi MinhMinh city.city. 96 Wild edible fungi:fungi: aa global overview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Europe

The macrofungi ofof Europe, as defined byby the present boundaries ofof the European Union and contiguous countries,countries, are well known and described. Finland has thethe most comprehensive literature on collection and use of edibleedible fungi and hashas paidpaid particularparticular attention to theirtheir importanceimportance forfor people.people. Information onon edibleedible fungifungi from Liechtenstein,Liechtenstein, Malta and Iceland was not found. Countries fall in toto twotwo broadbroad groups: groups: first,first, nationsnations withwith weak weak economies, economies, usuallyusually with aa significantsignificant local tradition of usingusing wild edibleedible fungi andand somesome whichwhich alsoalso export; second, wealthierwealthier countriescountries thatthat importimport but may not have a strongstrong traditiontradition of collecting. RomaniaRomania isis anan example ofof thethe firstfirst group and the NetherlandsNetherlands anan exampleexample of the second. (The Netherlands is the largest global exporterexporter ofof buttonbutton mushrooms­mushrooms Agaricus bisporus - and third exporter afterafter ChinaChina andand thethe UnitedUnited States States ofof allall cultivated species.) The easingeasing of economiceconomic andand politicalpolitical barriersbarriers inin thethe earlyearly 1990s 1990s hashas stimulatedstimulated exports from formerformer SovietSoviet countries,countries, BalkanBalkan statesstates andand YugoslaviaYugoslavia specifically (Perini, 1998). WithinWithin thethe richer countries of Europe collectingcollecting wild edible fungi is mostlymostly for small-scalesmall-scale personalpersonal useuse and is of minorminor economiceconomic importanceimportance toto thethe collectors,collectors, though therethere isis aa growinggrowing individualindividual interestinterest inin collectingcollecting truffles and porcini inin Italy (Zambonelli,(Zambonelli, 2002, personalpersonal communication: Truffles,Truffles, andand collecting porciniporcini inin Italy). See Plates 3 and 4.4. For accountsaccounts ofof wildwild edibleedible fungifungi collectedcollected from borealboreal andand coldcold temperatetemperate forestsforests see Lund, Pajari andand KorhonenKorhonen (1998). (1998).

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

ALBANIA It has exportedexported limitedlimited quantities of edibleedible fungifungi to to Italy, Italy, probably probably Boletus Boletus edulis edulis (Borghi, 2002, personal communication:communication: Porcini andand otherother commercial wild edible fungifungi inin Italy)Italy) and a few other types,types, but there isis no regular trade.

BELARUS Wild edibleedible speciesspecies are describeddescribed brieflybriefly (Malyi,(Malyi, 1987) butbut withoutwithout detailsdetails ofof local local practices. AlsoAlso exportsexports wildwild species in in smallsmall quantities quantities toto Italy (Borghi,(Borghi, 2002,2002, personal communication: Porcini and other commercial wildwild edible fungi inin Italy)Italy) andand otherother unspecified countriescountries (011ikainen, (Ollikainen, 1998).1998).

BOSNIA AND Exports "mushrooms","mushrooms", including Boletus edulis to Italy (Borghi,(Borghi, 2002,2002, personal HERZEGOVINA communication: Porcini and other commercial wildwild edible fungi inin lta/y).Italy). NoNo otherother information oror reports reports have have beenbeen seen.seen.

BULGARIA Major exporter ofof "wild"wild mushrooms". mushrooms". Edible Edible and and poisonous poisonous species species havehave been described in the mycological literatureliterature (lordanov, (Iordanov, Vanev Vanev andand Fakirova,Fakirova, 1978)1978) thoughthough llocalocal traditionstraditions are not well known.

CZECH REPUBLICREPUBLIC A minor exporterexporter toto neighbouring neighbouring Germany, Germany, assumedassumed toto be mostly from the wild. Local collectingcollecting and consumption was regulated somesome time agoago (Pilát,(Pilat, 1951)1951) andand appear to bebe mostlymostly forfor internal internal consumption consumption (Sisak, (Sisak, 1998). 1998).

CROATIA Exporter but activities disrupted byby civilcivil strife.strife. ExactExact details are unclear but see commencommentsts for Serbia and Montenegro.

ESTONIA Known to havehave a strong trtraditionad ition ofof local local useuse andand researchresearch onon wildwild edible fungi (Kalamees andand Silver,Silver, 1988). 1988). Production Production data data indicate indicate itit isis aa minorminor exporter (Paal(Paal and Saastamoinen, 1998),1998), at at leastleast from from 1993 toto 1997 (www.fintract.org).(www.fintract.org). Annex 1: Summary of theth e importanceimportance of wildwild edibleedible ffungiungi byby rregionegion and countryco untry 97

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

FINLAND Traditions vary from the mycophilicmycophilic east,east, influenced byby itsits proximityproximity to to the the Russian Russian Federation, to the lessless enthusiastic west,west, takingtaking its influences from Sweden (Härkönen,(Hark6nen, 1998). ThereThere hashas been been official official encouragementencouragement toto collectcollect edibleedible fungi sincesince the Second World War and discussionsdiscussions andand researchresearch on on inventory inventory andand long-termlong-term yieldyield studies (Rautavaara, 1947;1947; Koistinen,Koistinen, 1978);1978); access access to landslands (Saastamoinen,(Saastamoinen ,1999); 1999); local mushroom advisorsadvisors (Mildh,(Mildh, 1978;1978; Härkönen,Hark6nen, 1988).1988).

GREECE Commonly collected and usedused in ruralrural areasareas from forestsforests (Diamandis,(Diamandis, 1997).1997). Few are sold in farmers' markets though therethere have have beenbeen increasesincreases in commercial pickingpicking which areare causingcausing concernconcern (Diamandis,(Diamandis, 2002).2002). Have been eaten since ancient times (Hettula, 1989).1989).

HUNGARY Exports andand hashas a a local local tradition tradition of collection and consumption, but few publishedpublished details are available apartapart fromfrom lists lists of of species species (Grunert(Grunert andand Grunert,Grunert, 1995). 1995).

ITALYITALY Extensive imports imports ofof Boletus edulisedulis (porcini)(porcini) fromfrom a wide range of countries,countries, extendingext ending toto ChinaChina (over(over 60%60% ofof imports imports according according toto Borghi, Borghi, 2002, 2002, personalpersonal communication: Porcini andand other commercial wild edible fungi inin Italy)Italy) andand southern Africa. See (Hall(Hall eteta/., al., 1998b) forfor general information onon porcini.porcini. Recently,Recently, an inferiorinferior TuberTuber fromfrom ChinaChina hashas beenbeen importedimported (Hall,(Hall, ZambonelliZambonelli andand Primavera,Primavera, 1998a; ZangZang andand Pu, 1992)1992).. SeeSee Buller Buller (1914) (1914) for for historicalhistorical perspectiveperspective.. InIn thethe past the collection of wild edibleedible fungifungi waswas importantimportant toto thethe livelihoodslivelihoods ofof manymany people in thethe northernnorthern regions.regions. WhileWhile therethere is is stillstill aa strongstrong interestinterest inin collectingco llecting and and eating,eating, particularlparticularlyy porcini and truffles, theirtheir economic economic importanceimportance toto locallocal peoplepeople hashas declined.declined. Still, there is a strongstrong commercial interestinterest inin bothboth groups of fungi withwith demanddemand outstripping local local supplysupply (Borghi,(Borghi, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication: PorciniPorcini and other commercialcommercial wildwild edible edible fungi fungi in in Italy). Italy). Italy Italy has has an an impressive impressive mycological mycological tradition butbut there there is is aa paucitypaucity ofof information information on on local local traditions traditions and and uses uses ofof WEFWEF by people.

LATVIA Relatively minor exporter at leastleast from 19931993 to 19971997 (www.fintrac.com).(www.fintrac.com). ItIt has has aa similar locallocal tradition of of use use compared compared toto Estonia Estonia andand LithuaniaLithuania (Vilkriste, (Vilkriste, 1998). 1998). ForFor selected list ofof edible edible species species seesee Urbonas,Urbonas, KalameesKalamees andand LukinLukin (1974).(1974).

LITHUANIA Major exporter to GermanyGermany over the period 19931993 to 19971997 but in variable quantities (ww(www.fintrac.com).w.fintrac.com). AroundAround 190 190 edible edible species species areare listedlisted byby ButkusButkus etet al. al. (1987).(1987). Further information available available in in Rutkauskas Rutkauskas (1998).(1998).

MACEDONIA [THE Regular exporter, including BoletusBoletus edulisedulis to ItalyItaly (Borghi, (Borghi, 2002, 2002, personalpersonal FORMER YUGOSLAV communicationcommunication:: PorciniPorcini and and other other commercialcommercial wild wild edible edible fungi fungi inin Italy)Italy) andand withwith a REPUBLIC OF] suggestedsuggested strong tradition of of local local use use (Bauer-Petrovska (Bauer-Petrovska etet a/., al., 2001).2001).

IVIOLDOVAMOLDOVA MMinorinor exportsexports of BoletusBoletus edulisedulis to ItalyItaly (Borghi,(Borghi, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication: Porcini andand otherother commercial wildwild edible fungi inin Italy).Italy). LikelyLikely to havehave aa similar tradition of of collecting collecting and and use use to to the the Russian Russian Federation.Federation.

POLAND Europe's leadingleading exporter of "mushrooms""mushrooms" andand aa majormajor source source ofof revenue. revenue. ItIt isis saidsaid toto be a thethe pioneer in protecting wild edible fungi with legislationlegislation introducedintroduced inin 1983 (Lawrynowicz,(Lawrynowicz, 1997).1997). Also Also has has a astrong strong local local tradition tradition inin thethe poorer regions (Snowarski, 2002,2002, personal personal communication communication:: WildWild edibleedible fungifungi in Poland).Poland) . For general information see see www.www. grzyby.plgrzyby.pl andand KalinowskiKalinowski (1998).(1998).

ROMANIA Major exporter ofof wildwild edible edible fungi fungi (Pop, (Pop, 1997), 1997), withwith Boletus Boletus edulisedulis sentsent to ItalyItaly onon a regular basisbasis (Borghi, 2002, personal communicationcommunication:: Porcini and other commercialcommercial wild edible fungi inin Italy).Italy).

RUSSIAN FEDERATIONFEDERATION A strong and lengthy tradition ofof collecting collecting andand consumingconsuming wild edibleedible fungifungi existsexists (Wasson andand Wasson,Wasson, 1957). 1957). Precise Precise de detailst ails of of current current use use are are difficult difficult to to findfind though there isis an impressiveimpressive mycological literature andand historyhistory of of research research onon species species (e.g.(e .g. Dudka andand Wasser,Wasser, 1987;1987; Vasil'eva,Vasil 'eva, 1978;1978; Wasser, 1990). It isis the secondsecond mostmost important countrycountry oror regionregion forfor wildwild edibleedible fungifungi afterafter China China inin termsterms of amountsamounts collected but trails inin valuevalue of exportsexports - though thesethese havehave occurredoccurred forfor manymany yearsyears (Paal, 1998). There is a certaincertain fearlessness in in picking picking fungifungi as indicatedindicated by regularregular poisoningpoisoning andand even deaths (Chibisov(Chibisov and Demidova,Demidova, 1998;1998; Evans,Evans, 1996).1996). Concern has been expressed about rampant exports in "hundreds of tons",tons", withwith St St PetersburgPetersburg a "much exploited region" (Kovalenko,(Kovalenko, 1997).1997).

SERBIA AND Exports ofof Boletus edulis to Italy beganbegan inin thethe 1970s 1970s (Borghi,(Borghi, 2002,2002, personal MONTENEGRO [FORMER[FORMER communication: Porcini and other commercialco mmercial wild eedibledible fungifungi inin Italy)Italy) andand regularlyregularly YUGOSLAVIA] ever since.since. Exports increased significantlysignificantly in thethe 1990s,1990s, of B.B. edulisedulis andand otherother species, species, with significantsignificant risesrises in the numbersnumbers of peoplepeople earningearning aa livingliving fromfrom commercialcommercial activities (Ivancevic,(Ivancevic, 1997)1997).. InIn sharpsharp contrascontrast,t, therethere are weak local traditions ofof use use (Zaklina,(Zaklina, 1998).1998). 98 Wild eedibledible funfungi:gi: a globalglobal overviewoverview ofof their useuse andand importance importance to to people people

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

SLOVAKIA Unconfirmed reports of widespread collecting are similar toto traditions in neighbouring countries,countries, forfor exampleexample Poland.Poland.

SLOVENIA Moderate amounts are exported, includingincluding BoletusBoletus edulisedulis to Italy.Italy. ItIt hashas aa notablenotable though notnot necessarily necessarily strong local traditiontradition (www.matkurja.com).(www.matkurja.com).

SPAIN (AND ANDORRA) Sharply differingdiffering traditiontraditionss ofof locallocal useuse with thethe strongeststrongest existingexisting amongamong thethe mushroom-loving CatalansCatalans andand alsoalso BasqueBasque people. Their interestsinterests drivedrive muchmuch of the internalinternal trade trade in in WEF. WEF. There is an important tradetrade inin LactariusLactarius deliciosusde/iciosus (niscalos)(níscalos) from from northwestnorthwest Spain (Castilla(Castilla y y Leon) Leon) to to Catalonia Catalonia while while truffles truffles are of increasing importanceimportance toto locallocal peoplepeople inin thethe Pyrenees Pyrenees (de(de Roman,Roman, 2002,2002, personal communication: Trade inin niscalos from from NorthNorth Spain toto Catalonia andand truffletruffle production). ForFor a comprehensive accountaccount ofof wild edible fungi seesee Martínez,Martinez, Oriaaria dede Rueda andand Martinez (1997). Spanish traders traders visitvisit PortugalPortugal for commercial activities while FrenchFrench collectorscollectors crosscross over to SpainSpain forfor truffles. truffles. See See also also (Wasson (Wasson andand Wasson Wasson (1957) forfor historical informationinformation onon locallocal traditions.traditions.

UKRAINE Possesses significant significant resources resources that that are are highl highlyy valued valued byby locallocal people (Zerova and Wasser, 1972;1972; Zhang,Zhang, 1999).1999). ThereThere hashas beenbeen muchmuch concernconcern expressed aboutabout contamination byby radioactiveradioactive materials following thethe Chernobyl Chernobyl accidentaccident butbut thisthis is overshadowed by thethe dramatic riserise inin deathsdeaths fromfrom eatingeating poisonous poisonous species species (Vachuska andand VachuskaVachuska,, 2000), 2000), events events linked linked to to aa wweakeak economy and a desperate search forfor food (Almond,(Almond , 2002).2002).

Collections in thethe followingfollowing countriescountries areare essentiallyessentially forfor occasionaloccasional individualindividual use.use. General commentscoinments concern exportsexports andand imports,imports, dependingdepending on availableavailable inforinformation.mation.

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

BELGIUM AND Exports species but but detailsdetails vaguevague.. ScientistsScientists have have made made major major contributions contributions toto LUXEMBOURG African MycologyMycology (Rammeloo,(Rammeloo, 1994).1994).

DENMARK Small-scale andand infrequentinfrequent locallocal collectionscollections onlyonly (Plum, (Plum, 1998).1998).

FRANCEFRANCE Major importerimporter andand exporterexporter (sometimes(sometimes from third partyparty countries countries e.g.e.g. Portugal,Portugal, Spain). AtAt oneone timetime exported large quantities of truffles toto Italy Italy (Ainsworth, (Ainsw orth, 1976). 1976). There is aa strongstrong tradition ofof collecting collecting and and eating eating WEF WEF in in the the south south (e.g. (e. g Gascony,. Gascony, Provence) but but publishedpublished informationinformation on local traditions hashas not been found

GERMANY Major importer ofof wildwild edible edible fungi, fungi, e.g. e.g. chanterelles.chanterelles.

IRELAND Major exporter butbut mostlymostly (only?)(only?) cultivated speciesspecies toto thethe United Kingdom (www.fintrac.com).(www.fintrac.com).

NETHERLANDS Europe's leading exporter ofof mushrooms,mushrooms, mostlymostly cultivatedcultivated species. species.

NORWAY Common edible speciesspecies susuchch asas chant chanterelleserelles andand boletesboletes areare collectedcollected fforor personalpersonal use.

PORTUGAL Local traditionstraditions are weak (Martins etet al.,al., 2002)2002) and this has been exploited byby traders from Spain and France who who havehave created created a a "flourishing "flourishing andand ununcontrolledcontrolled commercial"commercial " businessbusiness (Baptista-Ferreira, 1997):1997): hundreds hundreds of of tonnestonnes ofof Boletus edulis and relatedrelated speciesspecies are exported.

SWEDEN Chanterelles and other commoncommon edibleedible speciesspecies are sold but there isis nono strongstrong tradition ofof collecting. collecting. There There isis anan increasedincreased interestinterest inin cultivating truffles.truffles.

SWITZERLAND There is fierce competition byby collectorscollectors forfor local local resources resources (see(see Egli, Ayer and Chatelain, 1990). Some information information onon imports ofof wild edible fungi isis presented in Wills andand LipseyLipsey (1999).(1999).

UNITED KINGDOMKINGDOM Major importer ofof mushrooms, mushrooms, particularly from IrelandIreland (see(see www.fintrac.com). Small-scale commercialization commercialization of of wildwild edible fungi hashas begun andand there isis aa usefuluseful study of collectorscollectors andand thethe developingdeveloping trade trade (Dyke (Dyke and and Newton, Newton, 1999). 1999). Concerns Concerns about overpickingoverpicking andand damagedamage causedcaused by collectors has ledled toto thethe introduction of locallocal regulationsregulations at at several several sitessites inin southernsouthern EnglandEngland (e.g.(e .g .New New Forest, Forest, EppingEpping Forest). Annex I:1: SummarySummary ofof the the importanceimportance ofof wild wild edibleedible fungi byby regionregion and countrycountry 99

North andand CentralCentral AmericaAmerica

See PlatePlate 7.7. NoNo information was found on wildwild edibleedible fungifungi and othcrother usefuluseful speciesspecies for thethe followingfollowing countries:countries: Antigua andand Barbuda;Barbuda; Antilles,Antilles, Netherlands;Netherlands; Bahamas; Bahamas; Barbados;Barbados; Belize;Belize; Bermuda;Bermuda; British Virgin Islands; Cayman Islands; Dominica; Dominican Republic; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Martinique; Monserrat;Monserrat; Nicaragua;Nicaragua; Panama;Panama; Puerto Rico;Rico; Saint Kitts and Nevis;Nevis; SaintSaint Lucia;Lucia; Saint Pierre and Miquelon;Miquelon; SaintSaint Vincent andand the Grenadines; TrinidadTrinidad andand Tobago;Tobago; UnitedUnited StatesStates VirginVirgin IslandsIslands

COUNTRY USE OFOF WilD W. EDIBLE EDIBLE FuniGiFUNGI

CANADA Exports to Japan and to Europe.Europe. Several publications described the expansion in collection and trade of wild edibleedible fungi,fungi, principallyprincipally fromfrom British British ColombiaColombia (the(the "Pacific northwest") (see (see Redhead,Redhead, 1997;1997; Tedder,Tedder, Mitchell andand Farran,Farran, 2000).2000). SomeSome United States publications include Canada in their discussionsdiscussions (Pilz(Pilz and and Molina,Molina, 2002). First nationnation people havehave collected andand usedused for manymany yearsyears (Marles(Maries et al.,a/., 2000).

COSTA RICA Studies onon thethe diversity of macrofungi are well advanced, thoughthough without any any clearclear emphasis on edible speciesspecies (Mata-Hidalgo, 1999).1999). Lists of edible andand poisonouspoisonous species (Saenz,(Saenz, LizanoLizano andand Nassar, 1983) 1983) confirm confirm weakweak local traditions.

CUBA There is littlelittle or no apparent tradition ofof using using wildwild edible edible fungi fungi (Minter, (Minter, 2002, 2002, personal communication: Edible fungifungí in Chile, Cuba andand Argentina).Argentina).

ELEl SALVADORSALVADOR Exports toto Germany but irregular and and smallsmall scale.scale. Intensive agriculture andand deforestation suggests fewfew collectionscollections areare made made though though notenote strongstrong traditiontradition inin nearby Guatemala.

GUATEMALA Strong tradition inin thethe Western Western HighlandsHighlands (Flores, (Flores, 2002, personal communication:communication: Guatemala edible fungi; Flores,Flores, Bran and Honrubia,Honrubia, 2002;2002; de Leon,Leon, 2002). An account ofof poisoning (Logemann etet al.,al., 1987) points points to to thethe widerwider significance ofof wild edible fungifungi thoughthough again again mainly mainly in in the the western western highlands. highlands. Local Local edibleedible speciesspecies have been documented (Sommerkamp and Guzmán,Guzman, 1990) andand historicalhistorical accounts ofof use exist (e.g. Lowy,Lowy, 1971).1971).

HAITI Haitian expatriatesexpatriates regularlyregularly buy buy djon djon djon, djon, a Psathyrellaa Psathyrella species species (Nieves-Rivera, (Nieves-Rivera, 2001), whichwhich is cultivated only inin HaitiHaiti (Yetter, (Yetter, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication:communication: Edible fungi from Haiti;Haiti; forfor sale sale inin Brooklyn;Brooklyn; linklink to to eating eating Psathyrella Psathyrella inin Africa)Africa) andand exported around the world.world. LocalLocal detailsdetails of productionproduction areare sketchy.sketchy. A few other wild edibleedible fungifungi areare collectedcollected andand somesome information isis availableavailable inin Alphonse,Alphonse, 1981,1981, but this revealsreveals few details.details.

HONDURAS Extensive areasareas of of naturalnatural pinepine forest are associated with with goodgood wild edible fungi.fungi. There is aa tradition tradition in the west,west, close toto the border with Guatemala,Guatemala, where around threethree oror four four species species areare soldsold inin locallocal marketsmarkets (House, (House, 2002,2002, personal communication: Wild edible fungífungi inin Honduras).Honduras).

JAMAICA Minor andand irregularirregular exportsexports ofof "mushrooms" "mushrooms" to to Germany Germany (www.fintrac.com) (www.fintrac.com) but detailsdetails are sketchy. ThereThere is is no no obvious obvious tradition tradition ofof wildwild edible fungi inin thethe Caribbean withwith the major known exception of Haiti. 100 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their use and importance to people

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLE FUNGI

MEXICO One of the mostmost importantimportant countries countries forfor use use andand significancesignificance of collections to local people. It is unusual in the extent to whichwhich thisthis has has beenbeen describeddescribed by local scientists (see Villarreal Villarreal and Perez-Moreno (1989)(1989) forfor a good summary). For goodgood online access to to keykey informationinformation see see SEMARNATSEMARNAT (2002). Small-scale exportsexports of selectedselected species. Wild Wild fungifungi alsoalso playplaya a strong culturalcultural rolerole (Riedlinger, (Riedlinger, 1990).1990). ThereThere isis a vigorous body of researchersresearchers working vvorking on on wild wild edibleedible fungifungi and regular publications that areare nownow turningturning their their attention attention to to key key social social and and economic economic issues. issues.

UNITED STATESSTATES Major exporter to JapanJapan of matsutake but alsoalso a notable importer fromfrom aa vvide wide range of places.places. Has aa richrich literatureliterature and traditiontradition in in mycological mycological sciences sciences andand isis the academicacademic "home""home" of of ethnomycology ethnomycology (see (see Schultes Schultes 1940;1940; RiedlingerRiedlinger 1990).1990). The tradition of of local local use use andand collections collections isis muchmuch lessless thanthan that suggestedsuggested by the vastvast scientific canon. ThatThat whichwhich does existexist owesowes much much to to the the culturalcultural background of immigrants from EuropeEurope andand JapanJapan (less is is known known aboutabout thethe influence of ChineseChinese immigrants; see also notesnotes aboveabove onon Haiti). However, therethere are also significant accounts by native Americans (e.g. Keewaydinoquay, 1998).1998). Most recent interest has cecentredntred on the export-driven collectionscollections andand subsequentsubsequent huge expansion of commercial activities and tradetrade centering around thethe PacificPacific northwest. This trade has been stimulatedstimulated by a decline in forestry jobs and the demand for matsutakematsutake inin Japan.Japan. There is anan extensiveextensive literature literature on this topic (see Pilz and Molina, 2002 for aa comprehensivecomprehensive review). Annex 1:I: Summary ofof the importanceimportance of wild edible fungi by region and country 101

Oceania

No informationinformation waswas foundfound onon wildwild edibleedible fungifungi andand otherother usefuluseful speciesspeCIes forfor thesethese countnes:countries: Cook Islands;Islands; FrenchFrench Polynesia;Polynesia; Guam;Guam; Kiribati;Kiribati; MarshallMarshall Islands;Islands; Micronesia;Micronesia; Nauru; NewNew Caledonia;Caledonia; Niue;Niue; NorthernNorthern Mariana Mariana Islands; Islands; Palau; Palau; Samoa;Samoa; American Samoa, Solomon Islands; Tonga; Vanuatu

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLEEDIBLE FUNGIFUNGI

AUSTRALIA There is useful account of aboriginalaboriginal use use (Kalotas,(Kalotas, 1997).1997).

FIJIFIJI A brief account (Markham, 1998) describesdescribes a a weak weak tradition tradition of of collectingcollecting fromfrom the wild.

NEW ZEALAND Most notable forfor the the successful successful research andand developmentdevelopment effortsefforts in cultivating Tuber spp. (see(see Hall Hall et et al.a/. (1998a)(1998a) for for generalgeneral information).information). OnceOnce exported relativelyrelatively large amounts ofof AuriculariaAuricularia to to China China (Colenso, (Colenso, 1884-85).1884-85).

PAPUAPAPUA NEW GUINEA An informative ethnomycological study of one group of highland people hints at a more widespread importance (Sillitoe, 1995).1995). An account of wild edibleedible fungifungi used used by the GadsupGadsup peoplepeople also also listslists manymany species species usedused locally (Shaw,(Shaw, 1984),1984), including "Amanitas"Amanitas and Russulas", but but thethe original sources ofof thisthis information (Heim,(Heim, 1964)1964) has not beenbeen seen.seen. 102 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

South AmericaAmerica

There are few comprehensivecomprehensive accountsaccounts ofof wildwild edible fungifungi forfor the region but notenote two paperspapers thatthat presentpresent usefuluseful information:information: first,first, ParanáParana inin BrazilBrazil (Meijer,(Meijer, 2001) and, second, the Mercosur regionregion comprisingcomprising Argentina, Chile and Uruguay (Deschamps,(Deschamps, 2002). See Plate 7.7. No informationinformation waswas foundfound forfor thesethese countries:countries: French Guiana; Guyana;Guyana; Paraguay;Paraguay; Suriname;Suriname; Venezuela

COUNTRY USE OF WILD EDIBLE EDIBLE FUNGtFUNGI

ARGENTINA Morels are collected and sold locally, and there are commercial collections of SuíllusSuillus luteluteus us near Bariloche (Gamundi,(Gamundí, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication: communication: Edible fungifungi collected in Argentina). CyttariaCyttaria speciesspecies areare eateneaten in the south (Minter, Cannon and Peredo, 1987)1987).. A A recent recent overview overview of of wildwild edible fungi inin thethe Mercosur Mercosur regionsregions hashas been published (Deschamps,(Deschamps, 2002).2002).

BOLIVIA No information foundfound on on local local use. use. AnAn IndianIndian lady lady was was sellingselling LeucoagaricusLeucoagaricus hortensis in CochabambaCochabamba market in MarchMarch 20012001 and suggestssuggests thatthat some collection occurs (personal(personal observation)observation).. The The vendor vendor was was the the only only person person offering offering wild fungi for salesale (and(and inin quantitiesquantities ofof less less than aa kilogram).kilogram).

BRAZIL A country with aa richrich mycologicalmycological tradition inin sciencescience butbut weak traditiontradition inin useuse of wild edibleedible fungi. fungi Ethnomycological. Ethnomycological studies studies in in Amazonia Amazonia (Prance, (Prance, 1984) 1984) reveals reveals small-scale but but importantimportant use thatthat hints at wider collectionscollections for otherother forestforest dwellers in Colombia, Bolivia,Bolivia, PeruPeru and Venezuela. Despite significantsignificant Italian migration toto RioRio GrandeGrande dodo SulSui there isis no reported collections,collections, eveneven though pinespines are widely planted (Schifino-Wittmann,(Schifino-Wittmann, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication: EatingEating fungi inin southsouth Brazil).Brazil). TheThe influenceinfluence ofof aa largelarge ethnicethnic Japanese Japanese population isis alsoalso curiously muted though AgaricusAgaricus blazei,blazei, aa medicinalmedicinal species,species, was apparently first discovered by someone of Japanese descent.descent. The The fungus fungus isis exportedexported to Japan. The small-scale use use of of wild wild edibleedible fungifungi among Europeans isis commented commented onon byby MeijerMeijer (2001).

CHILE Suillus luteluteus us is exported from forestforest plantations plantations (see (see FAO, FAO, 1998a).1998a). ThereThere isis aa local IndianIndian traditiontradition [Mapuche][Mapuche] of eatingeating Cyttaria,Cyttaria, a curious golf-ballgolf-ball like fungus parasitic on Nothofagus (Minter,(Minter, CannonCannon andand Peredo,1987).Peredo, 1987). A comprehensive list of fungi eateneaten locallylocally isis available (FAO,(FAO, 1998b) and and earlierearlier informationinformation providesprovides details of harvestingharvesting operationsoperations in in Region Region VII VII (FAO, (FAO, 1993a).1993a).

COLOMBIA A recent guide to macrofungimacrofungi (Franco-Molano,(Franco-Molano, Aldana-GomezAldana-Gomez and Halling, 2000)2000) includes edibleedible species but but hashas no no information information on local practices inin thethe Andean region.

ECUADOR Irregular and small-scale exporter exporter of of pinepine boletes,boletes, principallyprincipally ifif not wholly toto the UnitedUnited StatesStates (Rojas(Rojas and Mansur, 1995). Suillus luteusluteus isis thethe principal speciesspecies involved (Hedger,(Hedger, 1986).1986).

PERU A preliminary listlist of wildwild edible edible fungi fungi does does not not have have details details of of local local practices practices (Remotti andand Colan,Colan, 1990).1990). An ethnoscientific studystudy suggestssuggests widespread collections by rural peoplepeople (Franquemont(Franquemont et et al., al., 1990). 1990).

URUGUAY A recent overview ofof wild wild edible edible fungi fungi has has been been published published (Deschamps, (Deschamps, 2002). 2002). ThisThis listslists several species that that are traded (see(see Annex 2).2). 103

ANNEX 2 Country records ofof wildwild usefuluseful fungi (edible,(edible, medicinalmedicinal andand other uses)uses)

This list includes over 2 800800 records from 8585 countriescountries and was prepared from a preliminary database record of published information.information. Information fromfrom thethe RepublicRepublic of Korea,Korea, Japan and TaiwanTaiwan Province ofof China is not includedincluded andand recordsrecords fromfrom European countries areare limitedlimited (Box(Box 2).2). TheThe mycologicalmycological literatureliterature isis extensiveextensive inin many developed countries but oftenoften therethere isis nono clear clear indicationindication ofof which which speciesspecies areare eaten as "food". The UnitedUnited StatesStates and CanadaCanada records are from the Pacific northwest region or fromfrom reportsreports onon first first nation nation people people (aboriginals). (aboriginals). AustraliaAustralia recordsrecords areare forfor aboriginal use only.only. Unnamed speciesspecies are excluded unless there is no other namednamed speciesspecies for that genusgenus from aa particularparticular country.country. Thus Thus Agaricus Agaricus sp. sp. isis notnot included included if if Agaricus Agaricus campestris campestris hashas been recorded. Only usesuses ofof practicalpractical oror economiceconomic importanceimportance havehave beenbeen included;included; ceremonialceremonial or religious uses are omitted. Square brackets e.g.e.g. [edible], indicateindicate uncertaintuncertaintyy about the useuse in thethe sourcesource ofof thethe information. Taxonomists useuse various ways to qualifyqualify aa speciesspecies names:names: cf.d . andand aff.aff. indicateindicate that thethe specimenspecimen examinedexamined was closeclose toto thethe speciesspecies namename givengiven (e.g.(e.g. AmanitaAmanita aff.aff. rubescens) butbut thetheyy are not 100100 percent certain.certain. The letters s.l. mean sensu latolato oror "in the broad sense".sense". A complete list list of all speciesspecies andand countriescountries can bebe searched searched atwww.wildusefulfungi.orgat ww-w.wildusefulfungi.org.. This contains all details about recordedrecorded usesuses andand propertiesproperties andand includesincludes Japan and Russia (Sergeeva,(Serge eva, 2000) andand a comprehensivecomprehensive list of wild edible fungi from ChinaChina (Mao, (Mao, 2000). ThisThis searchable databasedatabase currentlcurrentlyy holds over 6 000 records from 108 countries and providesprovides validvalid namesnames ofof species. species.

AFGHANISTAN ARGENTINA 1. Batra, 1983; 2. Sabra and Walter, 20012001 1. Deschamps, 2002;2002; 2.2. GamundfGamundi andand Horak, 1995

Morchella edible (2) Cyttaria hariotii food (2)(2) Podaxis pistillaris edible (1)(1) Morchella elatae/ata food (1)(1) Morchella intermedia food (1)(1) Phlebopus bruchii foodfood (1)(1) ALGERIA 1. Alsheikh and Trappe, 1983;1983; 2. Kytovuori, 19891989 Suillus luteus foodfood (2)(2)

ARMENIA Tirmania nivea edible (1)(1) Nanaguylan, 2002, personal communication Tirmania pinoyi edible (1)(1) Tricholoma nauseosum edible (2)(2) Agaricus bisporus foodfood Agaricus campestris foodfood Agaricus silvasilvaticus ticus foodfood ANGOLA Armillaria me//eamellea foodfood Rammeloo and Walleyn, 19931993 Calocybe gambosa foodfood Macrolepiota proceraprocera edible Cantharellus cibarius food Termitomyces sp.sp. edible Lactarius deliciosus foodfood 104 Wild edible fungi: a global overview of theirtheir useuse and importance importance toto peoplepeople

Lepista nuda food Amanita masasiensis masasiensis food (4)(4) Lepista personata food Amanita strobilaceovolvata food (4)(4) Macrolepiota excoriaexcoriata ta food Amanita subviscosa subviscosa food (4)(4) Macrolepiota proceraprocera food Amanita xanthogala food (4)(4) Pleurotus eryngii food Auricularia cornea food (4)(4) Pleurotus ostreatus food Boletus pseudoloosii food (4)(4) Suillus granulagranulatus tus food Boletus sp.sp. food (3)(3) Suillus luteuslute us food Calvatia subtomentosa foodfood (3)(3) Cantharellus congolensiscongolensis foodfood (4)(4) Cantharellus floridulus foodfood (4)(4) AUSTRALIA Kalotas, 1997 Cantharellus platyphyllus foodfood (4)(4) Chlorophyllum cf. molybdites foodfood (4)(4) Battarrea stevenii not known Clitocybe s.l.5.1. sp. food (3)(3) Boletus sp.sp. edible Clitocybula sp.sp. food (3)(3) Choiromyces aboriginumaboriginum food Craterellus beninensis food (4)(4) Cyttaria gunnii food Craterellus cornucopioides food (3)(3) Fistulina hepatica food Daldinia concentrica medicinal (3) Montagnites candollei not known Gerronema sp.sp. food (3)(3) Mycoclelandia bulundari food, medicinalmedicinal Gymnopus luxurians food (6)(6) Phellinus rimosus medicinal Hebeloma termitaria food (4)(4) Phellorinia herculeanaherculeana other - dyedye Inocybe gbadjiigbadjii food (3)(3) Phellorinia strobilina not known Inocybe squamata food (6)(6) Pisolithus tinctorius food,food, medicinalmedicinal Lactarius baliophaeus food (4)(4) Podaxis pistillaris other -- cosmeticcosmetic Lactarius densifolius food (4)(4) Polyporus eucalyptorum food, tinder Lactarius edulis food (4)(4) Polyporus mylittae food Lactarius flammans food (4)(4) Pycnoporus sanguineus medicinal Lactarius gymnocarpoides food (4)(4) Secotium sp.sp. medicinal Lactarius latifoliuslatifolius food (3)(3) Lactarius luteopus food (4)(4) food (6) BELARUSBELARUs Lactarius pseudopseudogymnocarpus gymnocarpus food (6) Malyi,1987Malyi, 1987 Lactarius pumilus food (3)(3) Lactarius saponaceoussaponaceous food (4)(4) Armillaria me/teamellea edible Lactarius speciesspecies 11 food (3)(3) Boletus edulis edible Lactarius speciesspecies 77 food (3)(3) Cantharellus cibarius edible Lactarius tenellus food (4)(4) Gyromitra esculentaesculenta edible Lactarius volemoides food (3)(3) Lactarius deliciosus edible Lentinus sp.sp. food (3)(3) Lactarius necator edible Lentinus tuber-regiumtuber-regium fofoodod (4)(4) Lactarius torminosus edible Lentinus velutinus food (3)(3) Leccinum auraaurantiacum ntiacum edible Lentinus squarrosulus food (4)(4) Leccinum scabrum edible Lepista dinahouna food (3)(3) Morchella esculentaesculenta edible Lepista sp.sp. food (3)(3) Suillus luteluteus us edible Leucoagaricus bresadolae food (4)(4) Tricho/omaTricholoma flavovirens edible Leucoagaricus sp. nov.? food (2)(2) Tricholoma portentosum edible Leucoagaricus sp.sp. food (3)(3) Xerocomus subtomentosus edible Lycoperdon sp.sp. food (3)(3) MacroMacrocybe cybe lobayensis food (4)(4) BENIN Marasmius becolacongoli food (3)(3) 1. Antonin andand Fraiture, Fraiture, 1998;1998; 2.2. DeDe Groote,Groote, 2002;2002; Marasmius heinemannianus edible (1)(1) 3. De Kesel, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communication;communication; 4. De Kesel CodjiaCodjia and Yorou, 2002; 55.. WalJeynWalleyn Marasmius heinemannianus food (4)(4) and Rammeloo, 1994;1994; 6.Yorou6.Yorou andand De De Kesel,Kesel, 2002;2002; Marasmius spp.spp. food (3)(3) 7.7. Yorou et al.,al., 20022002 Nothopanus hygrophanus food (3)(3) Agaricus bisporus food (6)(6) Octaviania ivoryana food (4)(4) Agaricus bulbillosus food (4)(4) Phlebopus sudanicussudanicus food (4)(4) Agaricus goossensiaegoossensiae food (4)(4) Pleurotus cystidiosuscystidiosus food (4)(4) Agaricus vo/vatulusvolvatulus food (4)(4) Pleurotus djamor food (3)(3) Agrocybe howeana food (3)(3) Pleurotus sp.sp. food (3)(3) Amanita aff.aff. rubescensrubescens food (4)(4) Polyporus sp.sp. medicinal (5)(5) Amanita craseodermacraseoderma food (4)(4) Psathyrella sp.sp. food (2)(2) Amanita crassiconus crassiconus food (4)(4) Psathyrella tuberculata food (4)(4) Amanita loosii food (6)(6) Rubinoboletus roseo-albus food (3)(3) Annex 2:2: Country recordsrecords of wild useful fungi (edible,(e dible, medicinal and other uses) 105

Russula aff.aff. virescens foodfood (3) Favolus brunneolusbrunneolus food (1)(1) Russula cellulata ce/tu/ata var.var. nigranigra foodfood (4) Favolus striatulusstriatulus food (1)(1) Russula cellulatace//u/ata foodfood (4) Favolus tesselatus food (1)(1) Russula compressa foodfood (6) Gloeoporus conchoidesconcho ides food (1)(1) Russula congoanacon goana foodfood (4) Gymnopilus earlei food (1)(1) Russula grisegrisea a foodfood 7 Gymnopilus hispidellus foodfood (1)(1) Russula meleagrismeleagris foodfood (4)(4) Hydnopolyporus palmapalmatus tus foodfood (1)(1) Russula oleifera oleifera food (4)(4) Lactocollybia aequatorialis food (1)(1) Russula pseudopurpurea pseudopurpurea food (6)(6) Lentinus crinitus food (1)(1) Russula testatestacea cea food (6)(6) Lentinus glabraglabratus tus food (1)(1) Schizophyllum commune food (4)(4) Lentinus strigosus food (1)(1) Termitomyces aurantiacusaurantiacus foodfood (4)(4) Lentinus velutinus food (1)(1) Termitomyces clypeaclypeatus tus food (4)(4) Leucocoprinus cheimonoceps food (1)(1) Termitomyces fulginosus food (4)(4) Neoclitocybe byssisedabyssiseda food (1)(1) Termitomyces letestuiletestui food (4)(4) Pholiota bicolor food (1)(1) Termitomyces medius food (4)(4) Pleurotus concavus foodfood (1)(1) Termitomyces microcarpus foodfood (4)(4) Polyporus aquosus food (1)(1) Termitomyces robustus food (4)(4) Polyporus indigenus food (1)(1) Termitomyces schimperi food (4)(4) Polyporus sapurema food (1)(1) Termitomyces striastriatus tus food (4)(4) Polyporus stipitariusstipitarius food (1)(1) Tylopilus sp.sp. food (3)(3) Polyporus tricholoma food (1)(1) Volvariella earlei food (4)(4) Pycnoporus sanguineus food (1)(1) Volvariella volvaceavolvacea food (4)(4) Trametes cubensis food (1)(1) Trametes ochracea food (1)(1) Trichaptum trichomallum food (1)(1) BHUTAN Namgyel, 2000

Albatrellus sp. sp. [edible] BULGARIA lordanov, Vanev and Fakirova,Fakirova, 19781978 Calocera viscosaviscosa [edible] Cantharellus cibarius edible Agaricus arvensisarvensis [edible] Coprinus sp.sp. [edible] Agaricus auraaurantius ntius not known Gomphus floccosus edible Agaricus bulbosus not known HygrophoHygrophorus rus russularussula [edible] Agaricus campestriscampestris [edible] Lactarius hatsudake [edible] Agaricus comptulus not known Lactarius piperatus edible Agaricus maculamaculatus tus not known Lycoperdon pyriforme edible Agaricus pseudoaurantiacus not known Lyophyllum fumosumfumosum [edible] Agaricus silvaticus [edible] Ramaria sp.sp. [edible] Albatrellus conconfluens fluens [edible] Suillus pictus [edible] Albatrellus ovinus [edible] Tricholoma matsutake foodfood Amanita argenteaargentea [edible] Amanita caesarea caesarea [edible] Amanita fu/vafulva [edible] BOLIVIABOLIVIA Boa, 2001, personal communication Amanita pustulatapustulata not known Amanita rubensrubens not known LeucoagaricusLeucoagaricus hortensis food Amanita rubescens rubescens edible Amanita spissa spissa [not eaten]eaten]

BOTSWANA Amanita vaginatavaginata [edible] 1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;1993; 2.2. Taylor et al.,al., Amanitopsis vaginatavaginata [edible] 1995 Amanitopsis vaginatavaginata var.var. albaalba [edible] Amanitopsis vaginata var. [edible] MorchMorchella ella conicaconica edible (1)(1) Amanitopsis vaginata var. [edible] plumbea Terfezia boudieri edible (1)(1) Amanitopsis vaginatavaginata va var. r. [edible][edible] Terfezia pfeiliipfeilii foodfood (2)(2) umbrinoluteaumbrinolutea Armillaria me/leamellea edible

BRAZIL Armillaria ostoyae ostoyae notnot knownknown 1. Prance, 1984; 2.2. www.agaricus.netwww.agaricus.net BoletosBoletus aereusaereus [edible][edible] BoletosBoletus bulbosusbulbosus notnot knownknown Agaricus blazei medicinal (2)(2) Bo/etusBoletus caudicinuscaudicinus notnot knownknown Auricularia fuscosuccinea fuscosuccinea foodfood (1)(1) BoletosBoletus communiscommunis notnot knownknown Collybia pseudocalopus foodfood (1)(1) BoletosBoletus crassus crassus notnot knownknown Collybia subpruinosa foodfood (1)(1) BoletosBoletus cyanescens cyanescens notnot knownknown FavolusFavolus brasiliensis foodfood (1)(1) BoletosBoletus edulisedulis edibleedible 106 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Boletus elegans [edible] He/ve/laHelvella mitra not known BoletusBole tus erythropuserythropus [edible] He/ve/laHelvella monacellamona cella not known Boletus esculentus not known He/ve/laHelvella nivea not known Boletus leucophaeus not known He/ve/laHelvella sulcata not known BoletusBole tus luridusluridus [edible][edible] Hydnum repandum edible Boletus miniatoporus not known Hygrocybe punicea [edible][edible] Boletus purpureus not known Hygrophorus ebumeuseburneus [edible][edible] BoletusBole tus regregius ius [edible] Hygrophorus puniceus not known Boletus rhodoxanthus not known Hygrophorus russularussula [edible][edible] Boletus rufus not known lxocomusIxocomus bovinus not known Boletus scaber [edible] Ixocomus eleelegans gans not known Boletus subtomentosus [edible] Ixocomus luteuslute us not known Boletus sulphureus not known Krombholzia aurantiaca not known Boletus tuberosus not known Kuehneromyces mutabilis [edible][edible] Boletus versipellis not known Laccaria amethystinaamethystina edible Bovista gigantea not known Laccaria laccata edible Bovista nigrescens not known Lactarius deliciosus edible Calocybe gambosa edible Lactarius pergamenus not knownknown CalvatiaCalva tia caelatacae/ata [edible] Lactarius piperatus edible CalvatiaCalva tia maximamaxima not known Lactarius torminosus [edible][edible] CalvatiaCalva tia utriformisutriformis [edible] Lactarius vellereus edible Camarophyllus pratensis [edible] Lactarius volemus edible Cantharellus cibarius edible Laetiporus sulphureus [edible][edible] Cantharellus clavatus not known Langermannia gigantea edible Cantharellus infundibuliformisinfundibuliformis [edible] Lasiosphaera giganteagigantea not known Cantharellus tubiformistubiformis edible Leccinum aurantiacumaura ntiacum [edible][edible] Chroogomphus rutilus [edible] Leccinum scabrum edible ClavariaClavaría formosa not known Lepista nuda [edible][edible] Clavaria pallida not known Lepista personata edible ClavariaC/avaria pistillarispistillaris not known Limacium eburneumebumeum not known CiaC/avariadelphus va riadelph us pistillaris edible Lycoperdon caelatum [edible][edible] Clitocybe geotropa [edible] Lycoperdon echinatum not known Clitocybe gibba [edible] Lycoperdon gemmagemmatum tum edible Clitocybe infundibuliformisinfundibuliformis [edible] Lycoperdon perla tum edible Clitocybe laccata not known Lycoperdon pyriformepyriforme edible Clitocybe maxima not known Macrolepiota proceraprocera edible Clitocybe nebularis edible Macrolepiota rhacodesrhacodes edible Clitocybe odora edible Marasmius alliaceus not knownknown Clitocybe olearia not known Marasmius caryophylleus edible Clitocybe phosphorea not known Marasmius oreades edible Clitocybe viridis not known Marasmius scorodonius [edible] Clitopilus prunulus [edible][edible] Morchella conicaconica [edible] Collybia badia not known Morchella esculentaesculenta edible Coprinus atramentarius [edible][edible] Morchella esculentaesculenta var.var. not knownknown vulgaris Coprinus comacomatus tus edible Morchella rimosipesrimosipes not known Coprinus porcelanus not known Nevrophyllum clavatum not known Cortinarius praestans [edible][edible] Phallus crispuscrisp us not knownknown Craterellus clavatus not known Phlegmacium praestans not known Craterellus cornucopioidescomucopioides edible Pholiota caperata not known DentinumDen tinum repandum not known Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus edible Fistulina buglossoidesbuglossoides not knownknown Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus f.f. salignussalignus [edible] Fistulina hepatica edible Pleurotus ostreatusostreatus var.var. [edible] Flammulina velutipes [edible] columbinuscolumbinus Gomphidius glutinosus edible Pleurotus pulmonarius [edible] Gomphidius viscidusviscidus not knownknown Pluteus cervinuscervinus edible Gomphus clavatus edible Polyporus conconfluens fluens not known Gyromitra esculentaesculenta [edible] Polyporus ovinus not known Gyroporus castaneus [edible] Polyporus squamosussquamosus edible Gyroporus cyanescenscyanescens [edible] Pseudohydnum gelatinosum [edible] HelvellaHe/ve//a crispa edible Ptychoverpa bohemicabohemica edible HelvellaHe/ve//a lacunosa edible Annex 2: CountrCountryy recordsrecords of wiwildld usefuluseful ffungiungi (edible,(edible, mmedicinaledicinal anandd other uses)uses) 107

Ramaria aurea edible CantharellusCantharellus splendens edible (1)(1) Ramaria botrytisbotrytis edible CantharellusCantharellus symoensii edible (1)(1) Ramaria flava [edible][edible] ClavariaC/avaria albirameaalbiramea edible (1)(1) Ramaria mairei [edible][edible] CollybiaCollybia aurea edible (1)(1) RhodopaxillusRhodopaxillus personatus not known Lactarius edulis edible (1)(1) Rhodophyllus sinuasinuatus tus not known Lactarius inversus edible (1)(1) Rozites caperatus edible Lactarius kabansus edible (1)(1) Russula alutacea edible Lentinus tuber-regium [edible] (1)(1) Russula cyanoxanthacyanoxantha edible Macrocybe spectabilis edible (1)(1) Russula emetica [edible] Phlebopus colossuscolossus [edible] (2)(2) Russula olivacea [edible] Pleurotus cystidiosuscystidiosus edible (1)(1) Russula vescavesca [edible] Russula cellulatace//u/ata edible (1)(1) Russula virescens [edible] Russula phaeocephalaphaeocephala edible (1)(1) Russula xerampelinaxerampelina edible Suillus luteus edible (1)(1) Sarcodon imbricaimbricatus tus edible Termitomyces letestuiletestui edible (1)(1) Scleroderma citrinumcitrinum [edible] Termitomyces microcarpus edible (1)(1) Scleroderma vulgare not knownknown Termitomyces robustus edible (1)(1) Scutiger confluens not knownknown Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible (1)(1) Scutiger ovinus [edible] Termitomyces titanicustitanicus edible (1)(1) Suillus bovinus [edible] Suillus grangranulatus ulatus [edible][edible] CAMEROONCAMEROON Suillus grevillei [edible][edible] 1. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 2. Rammeloo and Suillus luteus edible Walleyn, 19931993 Tricholoma columbetta not known Cantharellus pseudocibarius edible (2)(2) Tricholoma equestre not known Lepiota discipes edible (2)(2) Tricholoma flavovirens edible Marasmius hungohungo edible (2)(2) Tricholoma georgiigeorgii not known Mycena aschi edible (2)(2) Tricholoma personatum not known Mycena bipindiensis edible (2)(2) Tricholoma portentosumporten tosum edible Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible (1)(1) Tricholoma russularussula not known Tricholoma rutilans not known Tricholoma terreum [edible][edible] CANADA Tricholoma tigrinumtigrinum not known 1. MariesMarles etetal., a/., 2000;2000; 2. Tedder, Mitchell and Farran, 2002; 3. www.forwww.for.gov.bc.ca.gov.bc.ca Tricholomopsis rutilans [edible] Verpa conica [edible] Actinogyra muehlenbergii food, medicinalmedicinal (1)(1) Verpa digitaliformisdigitaliformis not known Agaricus campestriscampestris food (3)(3) Xerocomus badius [edible] Agaricus silvaticus edible (2)(2) Xerocomus chrysenteron edible Amanita muscariamuscaria medicinal (1)(1) Xerocomus subtomentosus edible Armillaria me//eamellea food (3)(3) Armillaria ostoyaeostoyae edible (2)(2) Boletus edulis food (3)(3) BURKINA FASO Rammeloo and Walleyn, 19931993 Cantharellus cibarius food (3)(3) Cantharellus formosus edible (2)(2) Coprinus edible Cantharellus infundibuliformisinfundibuliformis edible (2)(2) Phlebopus sudanicus edible Cantharellus subalbidus edible (2)(2) Cetraria islandica medicinal (1)(1)

BURUNDI CladinaC/adina stellaris food (1)(1) 1. Buyck, 1994b; 2.2. WalleynWalleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Craterellus cornucopioidescomucopioides food (3)(3) Evernia mesomorpha medicinal (1)(1) Afroboletus luteolusluteolus edible (1) Fomes fomentarius other - tindertinder (1)(1) Amanita loosii edible (1)(1) FomitopsisFQmitopsis pinicola medicinal,medicinal, tinder Amanita rubescensrubescens edible (1)(1) (1)(1) C. cibariuscibarius var.var. defibulatusdefibulatus edible (1)(1) Gyromitra esculentaesculenta [edible][edible] (3)(3) Cantharellus congolensis edible (1)(1) Hericium abietis foodfood (3)(3) edible (1)(1) Cantharellus cyanescenscyanescens Hericium erinaceuserinaceus [edible][edible] (3)(3) Cantharellus cyanoxanthus edible (1) Cantharellus cyanoxanthus edible (1) Hydnum repandumrepandum edible (2)(2) Cantharellus densifolius edible (1)(1) Hypomyces lactifluorum foodfood (3)(3) Cantharellus platyphyllus edible (1)(1) lnonotusInonotus obliquusobliquus medicinal (1)(1) Cantharellus pseudocibarius edible (1)(1) lschnodermaIschnoderma resinosumresinosum medicinal (1)(1) Cantharellus ruber edible (1)(1) Laccaria laccatalaccata edible (2)(2) C. rufopunctatus var. edible (1) c. rufopunctatus var. edible (1) Lactarius deliciosusdeliciosus foodfood (3)(3) ochraceus 108108 Wild ediblediblee fungi:fungi: aa ggloballobal overvioverviewew of ththeireir useuse andand importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Laetiporus sulphureus edible (2) Gyromitra esculentaesculenta edible (1)(1) Langermannia gigantea foodfood (3)(3) Lactarius deliciosus edible (1)(1) Lepista nuda foodfood (3)(3) Macrolepiota proceraprocera edible (1)(1) Lycoperdon perlatum foodfood (3)(3) Morchella conicaconica edible, Macrolepiota rhacodesrhacodes edible (2) medicinal (1)(1) Marasmius oreades foodfood (3)(3) Pholiota edulis edible (1)(1) Marche//aMorchella elata foodfood (3)(3) Ramaria subaurantiaca food (1)(1) MyriosclerotiniaMyriosc/erotinia caricis-caricis- medicinal (1)(1) Suillus luteus food (1)(1) ampullaceae Volvariella speciosaspeciosa edible (1)(1) Parmelia su/catasulcata medicinal (1)(1) Pleurocybella porrigens edible (2)(2) CHINA Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus food (3)(3) 1. Birks, 1991; 2. Cao, 1991; 33.. Chamberlain, 1996;1996; Polyozellus multiplex edible (2)(2) 4. Dong andand Shen,Shen, 1993;1993; 5.5. Gong andand Peng,Peng, 1993;1993; Ptychoverpa bohemica food (3)(3) 66.. Hall et a/.,al., 1998a;1998a; 7. Härkönen,Hark6nen, 2002;2002; 8.8. He,He, 1991;1991; 9. Huang, 1989; 10. Li, 1994; 11. Liu, 1990; 12. Liu Russula xerampelinaxerampelina edible (2)(2) 9. Huang, 1989; 10. Li, 1994; 11. Liu, 1990; 12. Liu and Yang, 1982;1982; 13. Guozhong, 2002,2002, personalpersonal Sparassis crispacrisp a edible (2)(2) communication; 14.14. Zang,lang, 1984;1984; 15.15. Pegler and Suillus cavipes food (3)(3) Vanhaecke, 1994; 16. Tu, 1987; 17. Winkler, 2002;2002; Trametes suaveolensuaveolenss medicinal,medicinal, tinder 18. www.zeri.org; 19.19. XiangXiang andand Han, Han, 1987;1987; 20.20. (1) Yang, 1990; 21. Yang, 1992; 22.22. Yang and Yang,Yang, 1992; 23.23. lang,Zang, 1988b; 24. langZang and Petersen,Petersen, 1990;1990; Tricholoma caligatum food (3)(3) 25. langZang and Pu,Pu, 1992; 26. langZang and Yang, 1991;1991; Tricholoma magnivelare edible (2)(2) 2727.. lang,Zang, 1988a; 2828.. lhuang,Zhuang, 1993; 29. lhuangZhuang and Usnea hirtahirta medicinal (1)(1) Wang, 19921992

Agaricus arvensis edible (6)(6) CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLICREPUBLIC Agaricus augustus edible (6)(6) 1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;1993; 2. Walleyn and Agaricus bisporus edible (6)(6) Rammeloo, 1994 Agaricus bitorquis edible (6)(6) Agaricus subedulis edible (1)(1) Agaricus blazei edible (5)(5) Collybia attenuataattenuata edible (2)(2) Agaricus campestris edible (6)(6) Ganoderma curtisii medicinal (2)(2) Agaricus gennadii edible (23)(23) Lentinus araucariae edible (1)(1) AgaricusAgaricus silvaticussilvaticus edible (6)(6) Lentinus brunneofloccosus edible (1)(1) AgaricusAgaricus silvicolasilvicola edible (6)(6) Lignosus sacer medicinal (2)(2) AgroAgrocybe cybe cylindracea edible (6)(6) Macrolepiota africana edible (1)(1) AgroAgrocybe cybe salicacicola edible (26)(26) Phlebopus sudanicus edible (1)(1) AlbatrellusAlbatrellus confluensconfluens edible (6)(6) Polyporus rhizomorphus other - stringstring (2)(2) Aleuria aurantia edible (6)(6) Schizophyllum communecommune edible (1)(1) AmanitaAmanita caesarea caesarea edible (6)(6) Termitomyces clypeatusc/ypeatus edible (1)(1) AmanitaAmanita fu/vafulva edible (12)(12) Termitomyces schimperi edible (1)(1) Amanita rubescensrubescens edible (6)(6) Volvariella vo/vaceavolvacea edible (1)(1) Amanita vaginatavaginata edible (6)(6) Xylaria papyrifera medicinal (2)(2) Armillaria me//eamellea [edible][edible] (6)(6) Armillaria tabescenstabescens edible (6)(6) Auricularia auricula-judaeauricula-judae edible (6)(6) CHILE 1. FAO, 1998b; 2.2. Minter, Cannon andand Pereda,Peredo, 1987;1987; Auricularia polytricha edible (6)(6) 3. Schmeda-Hirschmann etetal a/.,., 1999a1999a Bankera fuligineoalba medicinal (18)(18) Boletellus russellii edible (6)(6) Armillaria me//eamellea food (1)(1) Boletinus pinetorum edible (12)(12) Auricularia auricula-judaeauricula-judae edible (1)(1) Boletus aereusaereus edible (6)(6) Auricularia polytrichapolytricha edible (1)(1) Boletus citrifragrans edible (14)(14) Boletus loyo food (1)(1) Boletus edulis edible (17)(17) Clitocybe nebularis food (1)(1) Boletus speciosusspeciosus edible (6)(6) Coprinus atramentarius edible (1)(1) Boletus violaceofuscusviolaceofuscus edible (6)(6) Coprinus comacomatus tus edible (1)(1) Calocybe gambosa edible (18)(18) Cyttaria berteroi [edible][edible] (3)(3) CalvaCalvatia tia cae/atacaelata edible (6)(6) Cyttaria darwinii food (2)(2) CalvaCalvatia tia liIacinalilacina edible (6)(6) Cyttaria espinosaeespinosae food (2)(2) Cantharellus cibariuscibarius edible (6)(6) Cyttaria hariotiihariotii edible (1)(1) Catathelasma venventricosum tricosum edible (14)(14) Cyttaria hookeri edible (1)(1) Chroogomphus rutilus edible (6)(6) Cyttaria johowiijohowii [edible][edible] (3)(3) C/avariaClavaria purpurea edible (6)(6) Fistulina hepatica edible (1)(1) Clitocybe clavipesc/avipes edible (6)(6) Flammulina velutipes food (1)(1) Clitocybe geotropa edible (6)(6) Gyromitra antartica edible (1)(1) Annex 2: Country recordsrecords of wild usefuluseful fungi (edible, medicinal and otherother uses)uses) 109

C1itocybeClitocybe nebularis edible (6)(6) LeucopaxillusLeucopaxi I lus giganteus giganteus edible (6)(6) C1itopilusClitopilus prunulus edible (6)(6) LobariaLoba ria sp. food (7)(7) Collybia radicata edible (12)(12) Lycoperdon perlatumperlatum edible (6) Coprinus atramentariusatramentarius edible (6) Lycoperdon pyriformepyriforme edible (6) Coprinus cinereus edible (6) Lyophyllum decastesdecastes edible (6) Coprinus comatus edible (6) Lyophyllum sykosporum edible (6) Coprinus micamicaceus ceus edible (6) Macrolepiota procera edible (6) Cordyceps militarismilita ris medicinal (5)(5) Macro/epiotaMacrolepiota rhacodes edible (6)(6) Cordyceps sinensis edible (6)(6) Marasmius androsaceus medicinal (18) Cortinarius claricolor var. edible (6)(6) Marasmius oreades edible (6)(6) turmalisturma lis Morchella conica var. rigida edible (6)(6) Cortinarius collinitus edible (6) Cortina rius collinitus edible (6) Morchella crassipescrassipes edible (6)(6) Cortinarius elatiorelatior edible (6)(6) Morchella deliciosa edible (6)(6) Cortinarius praestans edible (6) Cortinarius praestans edible (6) Morchella elata edible (6) Cortinarius purpurascens edible (6) Morchella esculentaescu/enta edible (6) Cortinarius rufo-olivaceus Cortinarius rufo-olivaceus food (3)(3) M. escu/entaesculenta var. rotunda edible (6) Craterellus cornucopioides edible (12)(12) M. escu/entaesculenta var. umbrinaumbrina edible (6) Cryptoporus volvatus medicinal (14) M. escu/entaesculenta var. vulgaris edible (6) Dictyophora echinovolvata Dictyophora echinovolvata edible (6)(6) Neolentinus adhaerens edible (14) Endophallus yunnanensis Endophallus yunnanensis edible (24)(24) Neolentinus lepideus edible (6) Fistulina hepatica Fistulina hepa tica edible (6)(6) Omphalia lapidescenslapidescens medicinal (18)(18) Flammulina velutipesvelutipes edible (6)(6) Oudemansiella mucida edible (6) Fomes fomentarius medicinal (18) Fomes fomenta rius medicinal (18) Paecilomyces sinsinensis ensis medicinal (10)(10) Ganoderma applanatum medicinal (11) Panellus serotinus edible (6)(6) Ganoderma lucidum edible (6) Phaeolepiota aurea edible (6) Ganoderma sinense Ganoderma sinense medicinal (18)(18) Phallus fragrans edible (14)(14) Ganoderma tsugae Ganoderma tsugae edible (6) Phallus impudicusimpudicus edible (6) Gastrodia e/ataelata edible (29) Phellinus baumiibaumii medicinal (7) Grifola frondosa edible (6) Pholiota adiposa edible (6) Hericium clathroides edible (6)(6) Pholiota aurivella edible (6)(6) Hericium coralloides edible (14)(14) Pholiota namekonameko edible (6)(6) Hericium erinaceum Hericium erinaceum edible (14)(14) Pholiota squarrosasquarrosa edible (6)(6) Hericium ramosum Hericium ramosum edible (14)(14) Pleurotus abalonus edible (6)(6) Hydnum repandum edible (6)(6) PleuroPleurotus tus citrinopileatuscitrinopileatus edible (6)(6) Hygrophorus arbustivus edible (6)(6) Pleurotus cornucopiae food (3)(3) Hygrophorus russularussula edible (6) Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae edible (18)(18) Hypsizygus marmoreus edible (22)(22) PleuroPleurotus tus floridanusfloridanus edible (20)(20) Kuehneromyces mutamutabilis bilis edible (6) edible (6) Pleurotus ostreatus edible (6)(6) Laccaria laccata food (3)(3) Pleurotus pulmonarius edible (14)(14) Laccocephalum mylittaemylittae edible (6)(6) PleuroPleurotus tus sapidus edible (14)(14) Lactarius akahatsu Lactarius akahatsu edible (6)(6) Polyozellus multiplexmultiplex edible (21)(21) Lactarius camphoratus Lactarius camphoratus edible (4)(4) Polyporus cristacristatus tus not edibleedible (12)(12) Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius deliciosus edible (6)(6) Polyporus squamosussquamosus edible (6)(6) Lactarius hatsudake Lactarius hatsudake edible (6)(6) Polyporus tubaeformis medicinal (7)(7) Lactarius quietus edible (6)(6) Polyporus umbellatus edible (6)(6) Lactarius sanguifluus edible (6)(6) Polystictus unicolor medicinal (18)(18) Lactarius subindigo food (7)(7) Psathyrella candolleanacando Ileana edible (6)(6) Lactarius volemus edible (6)(6) Pseudohydnum gelatinosum edible (14)(14) Laetiporus sulphureus edible (14)(14) Ptychoverpa bohemica edible (8)(8) Langermannia gigantea edible (11)(11) Ramalina sp.sp. food (7)(7) Laricifomes officinalis edible (6)(6) Ramaria botrytis edible (6)(6) Leccinum scabrum Leccinum scabrum edible (6)(6) Ramaria flavobrunnescens edible (12)(12) Lentinula edodes Lentinula edodes edible (14)(14) Ramaria obtusissima edible (6)(6) Lentinus javanicus edible (14)(14) RamaRamaria ria stricta food, medicinalmedicinal (3)(3) Lentinus sajor-cajusajor-caju edible (16)(16) Rhizopogon piceus edible (9)(9) LeLepista pista caespitosa edible (6)(6) Rhizopogon rubescensrubescens edible (6)(6) Lepista irina edible (6)(6) RhodophyllusRhodophyl/us clypea c/ypeatus tus edible (6)(6) Lepista luscina Lepista luscina edible (6)(6) Rhodophyllus crassipes crassipes edible (6)(6) Lepista nuda Lepista nuda edible (6)(6) Rozites caperatus edible (6)(6) Lepista personata Lepista personata edible (6)(6) Russula alutacea edible (6)(6) Lepista sordida Lepista sordida edible (6)(6) Russula cyanoxantha edible (6)(6) 110 Wild edibleedible fungi:fungi: aa global overview of their use and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Russula delica edible (6) CONGO [DEMOCRATIC[DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC REPUBLIC OFOF THE]THE) Russula depallens not known (12)(12) 1. Degreef et al.,al., 1997;1997; 2.2. PeglerPegler andand Vanhaecke,Vanhaecke, Russula pectinatapectinata not knownknown (12)(12) 1994; 3.3. RammelooRammeloo andand Walleyn, 1993; 4.4, Walleyn Russula rubra edible (12)(12) and Rammeloo, 19941994 Russula vescavesca edible (6)(6) Agaricus erythrotrichus edible (3)(3) Russula virescens edible (12)(12) Agaricus goossensiaegoossensiae edible (3)(3) SaSarcodon rca don aspratus edible (6) Agaricus nivescensnivescens edible (3)(3) SaSarcodon reo don imbricatus edible (14) Agaricus volvatulus edible (1) Schizophyllum commune edible (6)(6) Amanita aureaaurea edible (1)(1) Scleroderma sp.sp. medicinal (12)(12) Amanita goosensiaegoosensiae edible (3)(3) Shiraia bambusicolabambusico/a medicinal (18) Amanita loosii edible (1)(1) Sparassis crispa edible (6) Amanita robustarobusta edible (1)(1) Sporisorium cruentum food (13)(13) Amanita zambianazambiana edible (3)(3) Sui/IusSuillus bovinusbovinas edible (6) Amanitopsis pudica edible (4) Sui/IusSuillus granulagranu/atus tus edible (6)(6) Auricularia auricula-judaeauricu/a-judae edible (3)(3) Sui/IusSuillus grevillei edible (6) Auricularia delicatadelicata edible (3)(3) Sui/IusSuillus lutelateas us edible (6) Auricularia polytricha edible (3)(3) Termitomyces albuminosus edible (27)(27) Auricularia tenuis edible (1)(1) Termitomyces clypeatus edible (6) Bondarzewia berkeleyi edible (3)(3) Termitomyces cylindricus edible (15)(15) Camarophyllus subpratensis edible (3)(3) Termitomyces eurhizus edible (15)(15) Cantharellus cibarius edible (3)(3) Termitomyces heimii edible (20)(20) C. cibariuscibarius var.var. defibu/atusdefibulatus edible (1)(1) Termitomyces microcarpus edible (15)(15) C. cibariuscibarius var.var. latifoliuslatifolius edible (1)(1) Thamnolia vermicularisvermicu/aris [food] (3)(3) Cantharellus congolensis edible (1)(1) The/ephoraThelephora ganbajun food (3)(3) Cantharellus cyanoxanthus edible (3)(3) The/ephoraThelephora vialis not edible (12)(12) Cantharellus densifolius edible (1)(1) Trametes robiniophila robiniophila edible (28)(28) Cantharellus incarnatusincamatus edible (1)(1) Trametes sanguineasan guinea medicinal (18)(18) Cantharellus luteopunctatusluteopunctatus edible (1)(1) Trametes versicolor edible (6)(6) Cantharellus miniatescens edible (1)(1) Tremella aurantiaaurantia edible (6)(6) Cantharellus platyphyllus edible (1)(1) Tremella foliacea edible (6)(6) Cantharellus pseudofriesii edible (3)(3) Tremella fuciformisfuciformis [medicinal] (3)(3) Cantharellus ruber edible (1)(1) Tremella lutescens edible (14)(14) Cantharellus rufopunctatus edible (1)(1) Tremella mesenterica edible (6)(6) Cantharellus symoensiisymoensii edible (1)(1) Tricholoma bakamatsutake edible (17)(17) Clavaria albiramea edible (1) Tricholoma caligatum edible (6) Collybia piperata edible (3) Tricholoma flavovirens edible (6)(6) Cookeina sulcipessulcipes edible (3)(3) Tricho/omaTricholoma magnivelaremagnive/are edible (6) Corditubera bovonei edible (4)(4) Tricholoma matsutake edible (17)(17) Cotylidia aurantiacaaurantiaca edible (1)(1) Tricholoma mongolicum edible (11)(11) Craterellus aureus edible (3)(3) Tricholoma portentosum edible (6) C. cornucopiacomucopioides ides var.var. edible (1)(1) Tricholoma quercicolaquercico/a edible (17)(17) cornucopioides Tricholoma saponaceum edible (6) C. cornucopioides var.var. edible (3)(3) parvisporus Tricholoma sejunctum edible (6)(6) Cymatoderma eleganselegans subsp. subsp. edible (1)(1) Tricholoma terreum edible (6)(6) infundibuliformein fundibuliforme Tuber aestivum edible (6)(6) Goossensia cibarioides edible (3)(3) Tuber bruma/ebrumale edible (6)(6) Gymnopilus sp. sp. edible (3)(3) Tuber indicum edible (25)(25) Hypholoma wambensiswambensis edible (3)(3) Tuber me/anosporummelanosporum edible (6)(6) Lactar/asLactarius engastasangustus edible (3)(3) Tuber rufum edible (6)(6) Lactan/asLactarius congolensis edible (4)(4) Tuber sinosum edible (6)(6) Lactarius edulis edible (1)(1) Tyromyces sulphureus medicinal (18)(18) Lactarius Inversasinversus edible (1)(1) Umbilicaria esculentaesculenta edible (6)(6) Lactarius kabansuskabansus edible (1)(1) Usnea sp.sp. medicinal (1)(1) Lactar/asLactarius latifoliuslatifolius edible (1)(1) Volvariella bombycina edible (6)(6) Lactarius pellicu/atuspellica/atas f.f. edible (3)(3) Volvariella esculentaesculenta edible (19)(19) pallidus Volvariella volvaceavolvacea edible (6)(6) Lactan/asLactarius pseudovolemuspseudovolemus edible (1)(1) Wolfiporia extensaextensa edible (6)(6) Lactan/asLactarius sesemotani edible (3)(3) Wynnella silvicola edible (2)(2) Lentinus citrinascitrinus edible (4)(4) LenLentinus tinas sajor-cajusajor-caja edible (3)(3) Lentinus squarrulosus edible (3)(3) AnneAnnexx 2: CountCountryry recordsrecords of wildwild usefuluseful ffungiungi (edible,(edible, medicinalmedicinal anandd other uses)uses) 111

LentinusLen tinus tuber-regiumtuber-regium edibleedible (3) Chlorophyl/umChlorophyllum molybdites edibleedible Lentinus velutinus edibleedible (4) Col/ybiaCollybia anombe edibleedible Lenzites elegans medicinal, Collybia oronga edibleedible [poisonous][poisonous] (4)(4) LeucocoprinusLeucocoprinus gandourgandour edibleedible Lepiota henningsii edibleedible (3) Phlebopus sudanicus edibleedible Leucoagaricus bisporus edibleedible (3) Leucocoprinus discoideus edibleedible (3) COSTACOSTA RICA Macrolepiota africana edible (3) edible (3) Saenz, UzanoLizano and Nassar,Nassar, 1983 M. gracilenta var.var. goossensiaegoossensiae edibleedible (1) Macrolepiota proceraprocera edibleedible (1) Agaricus silvasilvaticus ticus edible Macrolepiota prominens edibleedible (3) Amanita caesareacaesarea edibleedible Macrolepiota zeyheri edibleedible (3) Amanita gemmata edibleedible Marasmius arborescens edibleedible (4) Amanita inaurata edible Marasmius buzungolobuzungolo edibleedible (3) Amanita muscariamuscaria hallucinogen, poisonous Marasmius crinis-equi other - jewelry (4)(4) poisonous Amanita rubescensrubescens edibleedible Marasmius grandisetulosus edibleedible (4) Amanita vaginatavaginata edibleedible Marasmius piperodora edibleedible (4) Armillaria me/leamellea edible Nothopanus hygrophanus edibleedible (3) Armillaria tabescenstabescens edibleedible Oudemansiella canarii edible (4)(4) Aspropaxillus lepistoides edible Peziza vesiculosa edible (3)(3) Cantharellus cibarius edible Phallus indusiaindusiatus tus medicinal (4) Co//ybiaCollybia distorta edible Phlebopus colossuscolossus [edible][edible] (4)(4) edible Collybia dryophila edible Pleurotus djamor edible (3)(3) edible Collybia familia edible Pluteus cervinus var.var. ealaensisealaensis edible (3)(3) Co//ybiaCollybia platyphyl/aplatyphylla edible Psathyrella spadicea edible (1)(1) Coprinus comatus edible Pseudocraterellus laeticolor edible (1)(1) Cortinarius purpurascenspurpurascens edible Pycnoporus sanguineus medicinal (4) Craterellus cornucopioides edible Ramaria ochracea edible (4)(4) Fistulina hepatica edible Russula atrovirensatrovirens edible (3)(3) He/ve/laHelvella lacunosa edible Russula cellulatace//u/ata edible (1)(1) Hericium erinaceuserinaceus edible Russula cyclosperma edible (3)(3) Hydnum umbilicatum edible Russula diffusadiffusa var. diffusa edible (1)(1) Hygrophorus penarius edible Russula hiemisilvaehiemisilvae edible (1)(1) Laccaria amethystina edible Russula pseudostriatoviridis pseudostriatoviridis edible (3)(3) Laccaria laccata edible Russula roseoalba edible (3)(3) Lacrymaria velutina edible Russula roseostriataroseostriata edible (3)(3) Lactarius deliciosus edible Russula sese edible (3)(3) Lactarius indigo edible Russula sesenasesenagula gula edible (3)(3) Lactarius mitissimus edible Russula striatoviridis striatoviridis edible (3)(3) Lactarius vellereusvel/ereus edible Schizophyllum commune edible (1)(1) Lepista nuda edible Scleroderma bovonei edible (3)(3) Leucopaxillus giganteus edible Termitomyces aurantiacus edible (3)(3) Lyophyllum aggregatum edible Termitomyces clypeatus edible (3)(3) Macrolepiota gracilenta edible Termitomyces entolomoidesentolomoides edible (2)(2) Macrolepiota proceraprocera edible Termitomyces globulus edible (3)(3) Marasmius oreades edible Termitomyces letestui edible (1)(1) Melanoleuca grammopodia edible Termitomyces mammiformis edible (3)(3) Morchella esculentaesculenta edible Termitomyces microcarpus edible (1)(1) Morchella esculentaesculenta var. edible Termitomyces robustus edible (3)(3) rotunda Termitomyces schimperi edible (1)(1) Mycena pura edible Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible (2)(2) PanaeolusPanaeolus cyanescenscyanescens hallucinogen TT. striatus var.var: auraaurantiacus ntiacus edible (1)(1) PleurotusPleurotus ostreatusostreatus edibleedible Termitomyces titanicus edible (3)(3) PleurotusPleurotus salignussalignus edibleedible Trogia infundibuliformis edible (3)(3) PluteusPluteus cervinuscervinus edibleedible Volvariella bombycinabombycina edible (3)(3) PsilocybePsilocybe aztecorum hallucinogen Volvariella parvisporaparvispora edible (3)(3) PsilocybePsilocybe cubensiscubensis hallucinogen Xerocomus pallidosporus edible (3)(3) PsilocybePsilocybe mexicanamexicana hallucinogen RhodophyllusRhodophyl/us aprilisaprilis edibleedible CONGO [REPUBLIC[REPUBLIC OF THE] RussulaRussula atropurpureaatropurpurea edibleedible Rammeloo and Walleyn, 19931993 RussulaRussula chamaeleontina edibleedible RussulaRussula cyanoxantha edible ArmillariaArmillaria distansdistans edibleedible edible 112 Wild eedibledible fufungi:ngi: a ggloballobal ovoverviewerv iew of their useuse anandd importanceimportance to peoplepeople

Russula erythropuserythropus edible Mycena~ycena flavescensflavescens edible (2)(2) Russula lepidale pida edible Phlebopus colossuscolossus [edible][edible] (4)(4) Russula minutulaminutula edible Pluteus subcervinus edible (2)(2) Russula viscida edible Psathyrella sp.sp. edible (2)(2) Volvariella bakeri edible Schizophyllum commune edible,edible, medicinalmedicinal (2)(2) Volvariella bombycina edible Termitomyces sp.sp. edible (2)(2) Volvariella speciosaspeciosa edible Volvariella volvaceavolvacea edible (3)(3) Xerula radicata edible

GREECE COTE D'IVOIREO'IVOIRE Diamandis, 2002, personalpersonal communication 1. Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002;2002; 2.2. Locquin,Locquin, 1954;1954; 3. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994;1994; 4. Rammeloo andand Agaricus arvensis food Walleyn, 19931993 Agaricus campestris food Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca edible (4)(4) Amanita caesarea caesarea foodfood Hygrophoropsis mangenotii edible (2)(2) Boletus spp. foodfood Russula sp.sp. food (1)(1) Cantharellus cibarius foodfood Termitomyces striatusstriatus edible (3)(3) Coprinus sp.sp. foodfood Lactarius deliciosus food ~acrolepiotaMacrolepiota sp.sp. food EGYPT Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus food Zakhary etetal., al., 19831983 Ramaria sp.sp. food Agaricus campestris edible Agaricus rodmani edible GUATEMALA Collybia sp.sp. edible Flores, 2002, personalpersonal communication

Agaricus campestris food ETHIOPIA Agrocybe aegerita food Tuno, 20012001 Amanita caesareacaesarea food Lentinus sp.sp. edible Amanita calyptroderma food Schizophyllum commune edible Amanita hemibapha food Amanita rubescensrubescens food Armillaria me//eamellea food FIJIFul Markham, 19981998 Auricularia delicata food Boletus edulis food Auricularia sp.sp. food Cantharellus cibarius food Cantharellus ignicolor food

GABON Cantharellus odoratusodoratus food 1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;1993; 2. Walleyn andand Catathelasma ventricosum food Rammeloo, Note: another types are Rammeloo, 1994. Note: another 15+15+ types are Clavulina cinerea food listed inin Walker, 19311931 by locallocal name only Cortinarius praestans food Cantharellus sp.sp. edible (1)(1) HelvellaHe/ve//a crispa food Daldinia sp.sp. medicinal (2)(2) HelvellaHe/ve//a lacunosa food Lentinus tuber-regium edible (1)(1) Hydnum repandum foodfood Polyporus rhizomorphus other -- stringstri ng (2)(2) Hygrophorus russularussula foodfood Pycnoporus sp.sp. medicinal (2)(2) Hypomyces lactifluorum lactifluorum foodfood Laccaria amethystea foodfood Laccaria bicolorbicolor foodfood GHANA 1. Ducousso, BaBa and and Thoen,Thoen, 2002; 2.2. ObodaiObodai and Laccaria laccata foodfood Apetorgbor, 2001;2001; 3.3. RammelooRammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;1993; Lactarius corrucorrugis gis food 4. Walleyn andand Rammeloo,Rammeloo, 19941994 Lactarius deliciososdeliciosus food Lactarius indigo food Agaricus campestris edible (3)(3) Lactarius rubrilacteusrubrilacteus food Agaricus goossensiaegoossensiae edible (3)(3) Lactarius salmonicolorsalmonicolor food Auricularia sp.sp . edible, medicinal (2) Morchella~orchella esculentaesculenta food CalvatiaCalva tia excipuliformisexcipuliformis medicinal (2)(2) Pleurotus sp.sp. food Cantharellus floridulusfloridulus food (1)(1) RamariaRama ria araiosporaara iospora food Coprinus micamicaceus ceus edible (2)(2) Ramaria botrytis food Daldinia concentrica medicinal (2) Ramaria flava food Ganoderma lucidum medicinal (2)(2) Russula delica food Lentinus tuber-regium medicinal (2)(2) Schizophyllum commune food ~acrolepiotaMacrolepiota procera edible (3)(3) Tremella reticulata food Annex 2: Country recordsrecords ofof wild wild usefuluseful fungi (edible,(edible, medicinalmedicinal and otherother uses)uses) 113

Tricholoma flavovirens food C/avicoronaClavicorona pyxidata edible Trogia sp.sp. food C/avulinaClavulina cristata edible C/avulinopsisClavulinopsis he/yolahelvola edible C/avulinopsisClavulinopsis miyabeana edible GUINEA Walleyn and Rammeloo,Rammeloo. 19941994 Clitocybe clavipesclavipes edible Clitocybe fragransfragrans [edible],[edible]. medicinalmedicinal Lepiota grasseigrassei edible Clitopilus prunulus edible Collybia acervata [edible] GUYANA Collybia butyracea [edible] Simmons, Henkel andand Bas,Bas. 2002 Collybia confluens edible Collybia dryophila [edible] Amanita perphaea edible Coprinus comacomatus tus [edible].[edible], medicinalmedicinal Coprinus micaceus [edible],[edible]. medicinalmedicinal HONG KONGKONG SPECIALSPECIAL ADMINISTRATIVEADMINISTRATIVE REGION, CHINACHINA Coprinus plicatilis edible,edible. medicinal Chang and Mao, 19951995 Coprinus radians edible,edible. medicinal Agaricus abruptibulbusabruptibulbus edible Coprinus sterquilinus edible,edible. medicinal Agaricus arvensis edible.edible, medicinal Craterellus aureus edible Agaricus bisporus edible.edible, medicinal Craterellus cornucopioides edible Agaricus campestris edible.edible, medicinal Crepidotus applanaapplanatus tus edible Agaricus comtulus edible Crepidotus mollis edible Agaricus micromegethus edible CyaCyathus thus stercoreusstercoreus medicinal Agaricus placomyces [edible] Cystoderma amianthinum edible Agaricus purpurellus [edible][edible] Cystoderma terreiterrei edible Agaricus rubellus edible Dacrymyces palmapalmatus tus edible Agaricus semotus [edible][edible] Dacryopinax spathularia edible Agaricus silvaticus edible Dictyophora duplicata edible,edible. medicinalmedicinal Agaricus silvicola edible D. indusiata f. lutea edible Agrocybe cylindraceacylindracea edible,edible. medicinalmedicinal Dictyophora multicolor [medicinal] AgroAgrocybe cybe dura edible,edible. medicinalmedicinal Flammulina velutipes edible Agrocybe farinacea edible Fomes fomentariusfomentarius medicinal Agrocybe paludosa edible Fomitopsis ulmaria medicinal AgrocybeAgro cybe pediades edible Ganoderma applanatum medicinal Agrocybe praecox edible.edible, medicinal Ganoderma capensecapense medicinal Amanita rubescensrubescens edible Ganoderma lobatum medicinal Amanita vaginata [edible][edible] Ganoderma lucidum medicinal Amanita virgineoides edible Ganoderma sinensesinense medicinal AmaurodermaAma uroderma nigrum medicinal Ganoderma tenue medicinal AmaurodermaAma uroderma rude medicinal Ganoderma tropicumtropicum medicinal Armillaria me/leamellea edible,edible. medicinal Ganoderma tsugae medicinal Astraeus hygrometricus medicinal Geastrum triplextriplex medicinal Auricularia auricula-judae edible.edible, medicinal Gomphus clavatus edible Auricularia delicata edible.edible, medicinal Grifola frondosa edible.edible, medicinal Auricularia fuscosuccineafuscosuccinea edible GyrodonGyro don lividus edible Auricularia polytricha edible.edible, medicinal Gyroporus castaneus [edible] Boletus emodensis edible Hericium erinaceus edibleedible,. medicinal Boletus griseus edible Hexagonia apiaria medicinal Boletus speciosus [edible] Hirschioporus abietinumabietinum medicinal Bovista plumbea edible.edible, medicinal Hirschioporus fuscoviolaceum medicinal Bovistella sinensis medicinal Hohenbuehelia petaloides edible Calocera cornea edible Hygrocybe cantharellus edible Calocera viscosaviscosa edible HygrophoropsisHygrophoropsis aurantiaca edible Calocybe leucocephala edible HygrophorusHygrophorus eburneus edible CalvatiaCa/vatia caelatacae/ata medicinalmedicinal Hypsizygus marmoreusmarmoreus edibleedible CalvatiaCalva tía craniiformis craniiformis edible,edible. medicinal IschnodermaIschnoderma resinosum medicinal CalvatiaCa/vatia cyathiformiscyathiformis edible,edible. medicinal Kobayasia nipponicanipponica edible CalvatiaCa/vatia liIacinalilacina edible.edible, medicinal Kuehneromyces mutabilismutabilis edible Camarophyllus virgineus edible Laccaria amethysteaamethystea edible Cantharellus cinecinereus reus edible Laccaria laccata edible Cantharellus cinnabarinus edible Lacrymaria velutinavelutina edible Cerrena unicolorunicolor medicinal Lactarius akahatsu edible CiaClavaria va ria vermicularis edible Lactarius deliciosus edible 114 Wild edibleedible fungi:fungi: aa globalglobal overviewoverview of theirtheir use andand importance to people

Lactarius hatsudake edible, medicinalmedicinal Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus edible, medicinal Lactarius hygrophoroideshygrophoroides edible, medicinalmedicinal Pleurotus pulmonarius edible Lactarius volemus edible, medicinalmedicinal Pleurotus rhodophyllus edible Langermannia gigantea edible, medicinalmedicinal Pleurotus spodoleucus edible Lanopila nipponica edible Pluteus leoninus edible Lentinellus cochleatus edible Pluteus pellituspellitus edible LentinulaLen tinula edodes edible, medicinalmedicinal Pluteus tricuspidatus edible Lentinus sajor-caju edible Polyporus alveolaris medicinal Lentinus strigosus edible Polyporus arcularius edible, medicinalmedicinal LentinusLen tinus tigrinustigrinus edible Polyporus elegans medicinal Lepiota asperaaspera edible Polyporus umbellatus edible, medicinalmedicinal Lepiota clypeolaria [edible][edible] Psathyrella candocandolleana Ileana edible Lepiota ventriosospora edible Psathyrella piluliformispiluliformis edible Lepista nuda edible Psathyrella rugocephala edible Lepista sordida edible Pulveroboletus ravenelii [edible].[edible], medicinal Leucoagaricus pudicuspudicus [edible] Pycnoporus cinnabarinus medicinal Leucocoprinus cepaestipescepaestipes [edible].[edible], medicinal Pycnoporus coccineus medicinal Limacella glioderma edible RameraRamaria apiculata edible Lycoperdon asperum medicinal Rhizopogon rubescensrubescens edible Lycoperdon perlaperlatum tum edible, medicinalmedicinal Russula aeruginea edible Lycoperdon pusillum medicinal Russula crustosa edible, medicinalmedicinal Lycoperdon pyriformepyriforme edible, medicinalmedicinal Russula delica edible, medicinalmedicinal Lycoperdon spadiceum medicinal Russula emetica [medicinal] Lyophyllum fumosum edible Russula foefoetens tens [medicinal] Lyophyllum ulmarium edible Russula //lacealilacea edible, medicinalmedicinal Lysurus mokusin medicinal Russula sansanguinea guinea edible, medicinalmedicinal Macrocybe lobayensis edible Russula senecis [medicinal] Macrolepiota proceraprocera edible, medicinalmedicinal Russula yescavesca edible, medicinalmedicinal Macrolepiota rhacodesrhacodes edible, medicinalmedicinal Russula virescens edible, medicinalmedicinal Marasmiellus ramealis edible, medicinalmedicinal Sarcoscypha coccinea edible Marasmius cohaerens edible, medicinal Schizophyllum commune edible Marasmius crinis-equi edible Scleroderma bovista edible, medicinalmedicinal Marasmius maximus edible Scleroderma citrinum [medicinal] Marasmius oreades edible, medicinalmedicinal Scleroderma flavidum medicinal Marasmius personatus edible Scleroderma polyrhizumpolyrhizum edible, medicinalmedicinal Marasmius purpureostriatuspurpureostria tus edible Scleroderma verrucosumverrucosum medicinal Megacollybia platyphylla edible, medicinalmedicinal Strobilomyces conconfusus fusus edible Melano/eucaMelanoleuca alboflavida edible Strobilomyces strobilaceus edible, medicinalmedicinal MelanoleucaMelano/euca melaleucamelaleuca edible Stropharia coronilla edible, medicinalmedicinal Mycena pura edible Stropharia rugosoannulata edible NeolentinusNeo/entinus lepideus edible, medicinal Stropharia semiglobata edible, medicinalmedicinal Ossicaulis lignatilis lignatilis edible Suillus americanus edible Oudemansiella mucida edible, medicinal Suillus brevipes edible Panellus serotinus edible Suillus granulatus edible, medicinalmedicinal Panellus stipticus [medicinal] Suillus lactifluus edible Phallus impudicus edible, medicinal Suillus subluteus edible Phallus rubicundus [medicinal] Suillus tomentosus edible Phallus tenuis medicinal Termitomyces albuminosusalbuminosus edible, medicinal Phellinus conchaconchatus tus medicinal Termitomyces clypeatus edible Phellinus igniarius medicinal Termitomyces microcarpus edible Pholiota flammansflammans edible, medicinal Trametes albida medicinal Pholiota highlandensishighlandensis edible Trametes hirsuta medicinal Pholiota nameko edible, medicinal Trametes orientalisorientalis medicinal Phylloporus rhodoxanthus edible Trametes pubescens medicinal Pisolithus tinctorius medicinal Trametes versicolor medicinal Pleurocybella porrigensporrigens edible Tremella fuciformisfuciformis edible, medicinal Pleurotus citrinopileatus edible, medicinal Tricholoma imbricatum edible Pleurotus cornucopiae edible Tricholoma pessundatum edible Pleurotus corticacorticatus tus edible, medicinal Tricholoma rutilans [edible] Pleurotus cystidiosus edible Tylopilus ballouiiballouii edible Pleurotus flexilis edible Volvariella bombycina edible, medicinal Annex 2: Country recordsrecords of wild usefuluseful fungi (edible, medicinal and otherother uses)uses) 115

Volvariella speciosaspeciosa edible Morchella esculentaesculenta edible (3)(3) V speciosa var. gloiocephala [edible] Mycenastrum corium edible (4)(4) Volvariella vo/vaceavolvacea edible, medicinalmedicinal Parmotrema sp.sp. other - spicespice (7)(7) Wolfiporia extensaextensa edible, medicinalmedicinal Peltigera canina medicinal (1)(1) Xerocomus chrysenteron edible Phallus impudicus medicinal (4)(4) Xeromphalina campanellacampanella edible Phellorinia inquinans edible (10)(10) Xerula radicata edible Pleurotus eryngii edible (6)(6) Xylaria polymorpha medicinal Pleurotus fossulafossulatus tus edible (6)(6) Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus edible (6)(6) Podabrella microcarpa edible (4)(4) INDIA 1. Birks, 1991; 2.2. Boruah eteta/., al., 1996;1996; 3.3. SinghSingh Podaxis pistillarispistillaris edible (6)(6) and Rawat, 2000;2000; 4.4. Harsh,Harsh, Tiwari andand Rai, Rai, 1996;1996; Podoscypha nitidulanitidula edible (6)(6) 5. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994;1994; 6. Purkayastha RR.. flavobrunnescensflavobrunnescens var. var. aurea aurea food (9)(9) and Chandra, 1985;1985; 7.7. Richardson,Richardson, 1991;1991; 8.8. Sarkar,Sarkar, R. flavobrunnescens var. [edible] (9)(9) Chakraborty andand Bhattacharjee,Bhattacharjee, 1988; 1988; 9. 9. Sharda,Sharda, formosoformosoides ides Kaushal and Negi, 1997;1997; 10.10. SharmaSharma andand Doshi,Doshi, (9) 1996 RR.. flavobrunnescensflavobrunnescens var. var. typica typica food (9) Ramaria obtusissima food (9)(9) Agaricus campestris edible (6)(6) Ramaria sandaracina [edible][edible] (9)(9) Amanita vaginatavaginata edible (6)(6) Ramaria sansanguinea guinea food (6)(6) Astraeus hygrometricus edible (6)(6) Ramaria subbotrytis food (9)(9) Auricularia delicata edible (6)(6) Russula delica edible (6)(6) Boletus edulis edible (2)(2) Russula densifo/iadensifolia edible (6)(6) Bovista apedicellata medicinal (4)(4) Schizophyllum commune edible (6)(6) Bovista gigantea edible (6)(6) Scleroderma radicans edible (4)(4) Calocybe indica edible (8)(8) Scleroderma verrucosum edible (6)(6) Calvatia cyathiformis edible (4)(4) Sparassis crispa edible (6)(6) Cantharellus cibarius edible (6)(6) Termitomyces albuminosusalbuminosus edible (6) Cantharellus floccosusfloccosus edible (2)(2) Termitomyces clypeac/ypeatus tus edible (5) Cetrariastrum sp,sp. other -- spicespice (7)(7) Termitomyces eurhizus edible (8) C/avariaClavaria aurea edible (6)(6) Termitomyces heimiihe/mi edible (4) Clitocybe sp.sp. edible (6)(6) Termitomyces microcarpus edible (8)(8) Collybia sp.sp. edible (6)(6) Termitomyces radicatus edible (5) Coprinus acuminaacuminatus tus edible (6)(6) Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible (5) Coprinus atramentarius edible (6)(6) Tricholoma sulphureum food (6)(6) Coprinus comatus edible (6)(6) Tuber sp.sp. edible (6) Cyathus limbatus medicinal (4) Volvariella diplasia edible (8)(8) Daldinia concentricaconcentrica medicinal (4) Volvariella terastria edible (6)(6) Entoloma microcarpum edible (6)(6) Volvariella volvaceavolvacea edible (8)(8) EvemiaEvernia prunastri other -- Xylaria polymorpha medicinal (4) perfume (7)(7) Ganoderma lucidum medicinal (4) Geastrum fimbrfimbriaia tum edible (4)(4) INDONESIA 1. Burkhill, 1935;1935; 2.2. Ducousso,Ducousso, Ba and Thoen, 2002 Geastrum triplextriplex eedibledible (4)(4) 1. Geopora sp.sp. ediedibleble (6)(6) Auricularia auricula-judaeauricula-judae food,food, medicinal (1)(1) HelvellaHe/ve//a sp.sp. eedibledible (6)(6) ClitoClitocybecybe hypocalamus food (1)(1) Lactarius deterrimus eedibledible (6)(6) Marasmius sp.sp. foodfood (1)(1) LactariusLactarius princeps edible (6)(6) Polyporus grammocephalus food (1)(1) Langermannia gigantea edible (6)(6) Russula sp.5p. edible (1)(1) Lentinula edodesedodes edible (6)(6) Scleroderma sp. food (2)(2) Lentinus sajor-cajusajor-caj u edible (6)(6) Termitomyces albuminosus food (1)(1) Lentinus subnudus edible (6)(6) Lepiota mastoideamastoidea edible (6)(6) IRAQ Limacella sp.sp. edible (6)(6) IRAQ 1. AI-Naama,Al-Naama, Ewaze and Nema, 1988;1988; 2. AlsheikhAisheikh Lycoperdon pusillum edible (4)(4) and Trappe,Trappe, 19831983 LycoperdonLycoperdon pyriformepyriforme edible (6)(6) Terfezia claveryi edible (1)(1) Macrocybe gigantea edible (6)(6) Tirmania nivea edible (2)(2) Macrocybe lobalobayensis yensis edible (8)(8) Tirmania pinoyi edible (2)(2) Macrolepiota proceraprocera edible (6)(6) Marasmius sp.sp. edibleed ible (8)(8) Microporus xanthopus medicinal (4)(4) Morchella angusticepsangusticeps edibleedible (3)(3 ) 116 Wild ediedibleble funfungi:gi: aa ggloballobal ovoverviewerview of ttheirheir use aandnd impoimportancertance to ppeopleeople

ISRAEL Lepista nuda edible Wasser, 1995 Lycoperdon gemmagemmatum tum edible Lycoperdon pyriformepyriforme edible Pleurotus eryngii var. ferulae edible Macrolepiota excoriataexcoriata edible Suillus granulatusgranulatus edible Morchella conicaconica edible Vo/variellaVolvariella speciosa edible Morchella intermedia edible Paxillus atrotomentosusatrotomentosus edible

JORDAN Pleurotus eryngii edible 1. Ereifej andand Al-Raddad,AI·Raddad, 2000;2000; 2.2. SabraSabra andand Pleurotus ostreatus edible Walter, 20012001 Polyporus squamosus edible Agaricus campestris foodfood (2)(2) Ptychoverpa bohemica edible Boletus aestivalis foodfood (2)(2) Ramaria flava edible Boletus erythropus edible (1)(1) Russula aerugineaaeruginea edible Cantharellus cibarius foodfood (2)(2) Russula delica edible Ento/omaEntoloma c/ypeatumclypeatum edible (1)(1) Russula nitidanitida edible Lactarius deliciosus foodfood (2)(2) Russula olivascens edible Lepista nuda foodfood (2)(2) Russula rosacea edible Lyophyllum decastesdecastes foodfood (2)(2) Russula sardoniasardonia edible Pleurotus eryngii foodfood (2)(2) Sarcodon imbricatus edible Scleroderma citrinumcitrinum [edible] Tricholoma portentosumportentosum edible KENYA 11.. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994; 22.. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 3. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Walleyn, 1993; 3. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 LAO PEOPLE'SPEOPLE'S DEMOCRATICDEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC REPUBLIC 1. Hosaka, 2002, 2002, personal personal communication; communication; 2.2. http/!http// Agaricus campestris edible (2)(2) giechgroup.hp.infoseek.co.jp/kinoko/eng.htmlgiechgroup.hp.infoseek.co.jp/kinoko/eng.html Coprinus sterquilinussterquilinus edible (3)(3) Engleromyces goetzeigoetzei medicinal (3)(3) Amanita hemibapha food (1)(1) Langermannia wahlbergiiwahlbergii other - dyedye (3)(3) Amanita vaginata [edible] (2)(2) Lignosus sacer medicinal (3)(3) Amanita virgineoidesvirgineoides [edible] (2)(2) Macrolepiota dolichaula edible (2)(2) Armillaria sp.sp. [edible] (2)(2) Phlebopus sudanicus [hallucinogen] (3)(3) Cantharellus luteocomus [edible] (2)(2) Podaxis pistillarispistillaris other -- dyedye (3)(3) Collybia acervata [edible] (2)(2) Psilocybe merdariamerdaria hallucinogen, Coprinus disseminadisseminatus tus [edible][edible] (2)(2) poisonous (3)(3) Ganoderma lucidum [medicinal][medicinal] (2)(2) Termitomyces eurhizus edible (2)(2) Hygrocybe cantharellus [edible][edible] (2)(2) Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible (1)(1) Hygrocybe conica [edible] (2)(2) Hygrocybe punicea [edible] (2)(2) Laccaria amethysteaamethystea [edible] (2)(2) KOREA [DEMOCRATIC[DEMOCRATIC PEOPLE'S PEOPLE'S REPUBLICREPUBLIC OF] Wang, Hall andand Evans,Evans, 1997 Laccaria laccata [edible] (2)(2) Lactarius vo/emusvolemus [edible] (2)(2) Tricholoma matsutake edible Leccinum extremiorientaleextremiorientale [edible] (2)(2) Lentinus strigosus food (1)(1)

KUWAIT Lyophyllum sp.sp. [edible] (2)(2) AisheikhAlsheikh and Trappe,Trappe, 19831983 Macrolepiota procerapro cera [edible] (2)(2) Oudemansiella sp.sp. [edible] (2)(2) Tirmania nivea edible Pycnoporus coccineus [other] (2)(2) Tirmania pinoyi food, medicinalmedicinal Ramaria medicinal (1)(1) Russula foodfood (1)(1) KYRGYZSTAN RusRussulasula densifoliadensifolia [edible] (2)(2) EI'chibaev, 1964 El'chibaev, 1964 Russula virescens [edible] (2)(2) Armillaria me//eamellea edible Schizophyllum commune foodfood (1)(1) Bovista plum/seaplumbea edible Suillus granulatusgranulatus [edible] (2)(2) Ca/vaCalvatia tia caelatacae/ata edible Termitomyces foodfood (1)(1) Cantharellus cibarius edible Trametes versicolor [medicinal] (2)(2) Coprinus atramentarius edible Coprinus comatus [edible] LESOTHO Flammulina velutipes edible Rammeloo and Walleyn, 19931993 Gyromitra esculentaesculenta [edible] Termitomyces edible Lactarius deliciosus edible Laetiporus sulphureus edible Leccinum scabra edible Annex 2: Country recordsrecords of wild usefuluseful fungi (edible, medicinal and otherother uses)uses) 117

LIBYANLIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA Microporus sansanguineus guineus [edible] (1)(1) Alsheikh andand Trappe,Trappe, 19831983 Morchella intermedia edible (3) Mutinus bambusinus [edible] (1) Tirmania nivea edible Mutinus bambusinus [edible] (1) Phaeolus manihotis [edible] (1) Tirmania pinoyipinoyi edible Phaeolus manihotis [edible] (1) Phallus armeniacus [edible] (1)(1) Phallus impudicus [edible] (1)(1) MADAGASCAR Phlebopus colossuscolossus edible (3) 1. Bouriquet, 1970;1970; 2.2. DucoussoDucousso,, Ba and Pleurotus dactylophorus [edible] (1)(1) Thoen, 2002; 3. Rammeloo andand Walleyn, 1993;1993; 4. Richardson, 1991; 5.5. WalieynWalleyn and Ramrneloo,Rammeloo, 19941994 Podaxon termitophilustermitophilus [edible] (1)(1) Polyporus croceoleucuscroceo/eucus [edible] (1)(1) Agaricus campestris edible (5) Agaricus campestris edible (5) Polystictus sp.sp. [edible] (1)(1) Agaricus silvicola [edible] (1) [edible] (1) Ramaria stricta [edible] (1)(1) Amanita hovae edible (3) edible (3) Roccella sp. other - dyedye (4)(4) Amanita robusta [edible] (1)(1) Russula cyanoxanthacyanoxantha [edible] (1)(1) Amanita vaginata [edible] (1)(1) Amanita vaginata Russula madagassensis edible (5) Anthurus pentulus [edible] (1) Anthurus pentulus [edible] (1) Schizophyllum commune edible (3) Armillaria he/miheimii [edible] (1) [edible] (1) Strobilomyces [edible] (1)(1) Armillariella elegans [edible] (1) Armillariella elegans [edible] (1) Strobilomyces coturnixcoturnix edible (5) AseroeAseroé sp.sp. [edible] (1) [edible] (1) SuillusSui/Ius granulatus edible (3) Auricularia auricula-judae [edible] (1) Auricularia auricula-judae [edible] (1) Terfezia decaryi [edible] (1)(1) Boletus bouriqueti [edible] (1)(1) Boletus bouriqueti Tricholoma scabrum edible (3) Boletus colossus [edible] (1) Boletus colossus [edible] (1) Volvariella esculenta [edible][edible] (1)(1) Cantharellus cibarius [edible] (1) Cantharellus cibarius [edible] (1) Volvariella volvaceavolvacea edible (3)(3) Cantharellus cyanoxanthus [edible] (1) [edible] (1) Xerocomus chrysenteron [edible][edible] (1)(1) Cantharellus eucalyptorum food (2) Cantharellus eucalyptorum food (2) Xerocomus versicolor edible (3)(3) Cantharellus madagascariensis [edible] (1)(1) Chlorophyllum edible (3) madagascariense MALAWI Chlorophyllum molybdites edible (3)(3) 1. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 2. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994; seesee also also www.malawifungi.org www.malawifungi.org CfathrusClathrus madagascariensis [edible] (1)(1) CfavariaClavaria miniatamm/ata [edible] (1)(1) Afroboletus costatisporuscostatisporus edible (1)(1) Collybia tamatavae edible (3)(3) Afroboletus luteolus edible (1)(1) CortinariusCortina rius largus edible (5)(5) Agaricus bingensis edible (1)(1) Cyathus stercoreus [edible] (1)(1) Agaricus campestris edible (1)(1) Galiella javanica medicinal (5)(5) Agaricus croceolutescenscroceolutescens edible (1)(1) Ganoderma lucidum [edible] (1)(1) Agaricus endoxanthus edible (1)(1) Geastrum fimbriafimbriatum tum [edible] (1)(1) Amanita bingensisbingensis edible (1)(1) lnocybeInocybe [edible] (1)(1) Amanita ca/opuscalopus edible (1)(1) lnocybeInocybe tulearensistulearensis [edible] (5)(5) Amanita flammeola edible (1)(1) Laccaria edulis edible (3)(3) Amanita fu/vafulva edible (1)(1) Lactarius rubroviolascens [edible] (1)(1) Amanita goosensiaegoosensiae edible (1)(1) LenLentinus tinus berteriberteri [edible] (1)(1) Amanita hemibaphahemibapha edible (1)(1) LenLentinus tinus tuber-regiumtuber-regium edible (3);(3); Amanita muscariamuscaria hahallucinogen, II ucinogen, medicinal (5)(5) poisonous, (2)(2) Lenzites palisoti [edible] (1)(1) Amanita praeclarapraeclara [edible],[edible). Lepiota asperaaspera [edible] (1)(1) insecticidalinsecticidal (2)(2) Lepiota imerinensisimerinensis [edible] (1)(1) Amanita rhodophylla edible (1)(1) Lepiota madagascariensismadagascariensis [edible] (1)(1) Amanita robustarobusta edible (1)(1) Lepiota madirokelensis edible (3)(3) Amanita rubescensrubescens edible (1)(1) Lepiota rabarijanonae [edible] (5)(5) Amanita vaginatavaginata edible (1)(1) Lepiota roseoalbaroseoalba [edible] (5)(5) Amanita zambiana edible (1)(1) Leucocoprinus badhamii [edible] (1)(1) Auricularia auricula-judaeauricula-judae edible (1)(1) Leucocoprinus imerinensis edible (3)(3) Auricularia delicatade/icata edible (1)(1) Leucocoprinus nanianae edible (5)(5) Cantharellus cibariuscibarius edible (1)(1) Leucocoprinus tanetensis edible (3)(3) Cantharellus congolensiscongolensis edible (1)(1) Lycoperdon endotephrum edible (5)(5) Cantharellus longisporus edible (1)(1) Lysurus periphragmoidesperiphragmoides [edible] (1)(1) Cantharellus tenuis edible (1)(1) MacroMacrocybe cybe spectabilis edible (3)(3) CfavariaClavaria albiramea edible (1)(1) Macrolepiota excoria excoriata ta [edible][edible] (1)(1) Collybia conconfluens fluens edible (1)(1) M. excoriaexcoriata ta var.var. rubescensrubescens edible (3)(3) Collybia dryophila edible (1)(1) Macrolepiota procerapro cera [edible][edible] (1)(1) Coprinus disseminatusdisseminatus edible (1)(1) M. procera var.var. vezovezo edible (5)(5) Cymatoderma dendriticum edible (1)(1) 118 WildWild edibleedible fungi fungi:: aa globalglobal overviewoverview of ttheirheir use and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

GyroporuGyroporuss castaneuscastaneus edible (1) MAURITIUS Inocybelnocybe [edible][edible] (1) 1. Rammeloo andand Walleyn, 1993; 2. Walleyn and Lactarius gymnocarpus edible (1) Rammeloo, 1994 Lactarius piperatuspipera tus edible (1) Coprinus castacastaneus neus edible (2) Lactarius vellereus edible (1) Macrocybe spectabilis [edible] (2)(2) Lentinus cladopuscJadopus edible (1) Pseudohydnum gelatinosumgelatinosum edible (1) Lentinus squarrulosus edible (1) Tricholoma mauritianum edible (1) Lepista caffrorumcaffrorum edible (1) Volvariella volvacea edible (1)(1) Macrocybe lobayensis edible (1) Macrolepiota dolichaula edible (1) Macrolepiota procera edible (1) MEXICO 1. Lopez, Cruz and Zamora-Martinez, 1992; 2. Mata, Micropsalliota brunneospermabrunneosperma edible (1) 1. Lopez, Cruz and Zamora-Martinez, 1992; 2. Mata, 1987; 3.3. Montoya-Esquivel,Montoya-Esquivel, 1998; 4.4. Montoya­Montoya- Perenniporia mundula medicinal (2) Esquivel etet al.,a/., 20012001;; 5.5. Moreno-FuentesMoreno-Fuentes etet Phlebopus colossuscolossus edible (1) a/.,aI. , 1996; 66.. Richardson, 1991; 77.. Villarreal andand Phlebopus sudanicu~sudanicu; edible (1) Perez-Moreno, 1989; 8.8. www.semarnat www.semarnat.gob.mx;.gob.mx; 9. Zamora-Martinez, Alvardo and Dominguez, 2000; Polyporus brasiliensis edible (1) Zamora-Martinez, Alvardo and Dominguez, 2000; 10. Zamora-Martinez, ReygadasReygadas and Cifuentes, 19941994 Polyporus moluccensis edible (2) Psathyrella atroumbonataatroumbonata [edible] (2)(2) Agaricus arvensis food (8)(8) Psathyrella candolleana edible (1)(1) Agaricus augustus food (8)(8) Pulveroboletus aberrans edible (1)(1) Agaricus bisporus var. albidus edible (7)(7) Pycnoporus sanguineus edible (1)(1) Agaricus bisporus var.var. bisporusbisporus edible (7)(7) Rubinoboletus luteopurpureus edible (1)(1) Agaricus bitorquis food (8)(8) Russula afronigricansafronigricans edible (1)(1) Agaricus campestris food (8)(8) Russula cyanoxanthacyanoxantha edible (1)(1) Agaricus comtulus food (8)(8) Russula delicadel/ca edible (1)(1) Agaricus essettei food (8)(8) Russula ochroleuca edible (1)(1) Agaricus fuscofibrillosus food (8)(8) Russula rosea edible (1)(1) Agaricus impudicus food (8)(8) Russula schizodermaschizoderma edible (1)(1) Agaricus placomyces edible (8)(8) Schizophyllum commcommune une edible (1)(1) Agaricus silvaticus food (8)(8) Stereopsis hiscens edible (1)(1) Agaricus silvicolasilvico/a food (8)(8) Suillus granulatusgranulatus edible (1)(1) A. squamuliferus var. caroli food (8)(8) Suillus luteus edible (1)(1) Agaricus subperonasubperonatus tus food (8)(8) Termitomyces auraaurantiacus ntiacus edible (1)(1) Agaricus subrutilescens food (8)(8) Termitomyces clypeatuscJypeatus edible (1)(1) AgroAgrocybe cybe vervacti edible (10)(10) Termitomyces eurhizus edible (1)(1) Albatrellus ovinusovinus food (8)(8) Termitomyces microcarpus edible (1)(1) Aleuria auraaurantia ntia edible (7)(7) Termitomyces robustus edible (1)(1) Amanita caesareacaesarea food (8)(8) Termitomyces schimperischimperi edible (1)(1) A. caesarea ff.. sp.sp. americana food (7)(7) Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible (1)(1) Amanita calyptratoides edible (7)(7) Termitomyces titanicus edible (1)(1) AmanitaAmanita calyptrodermacalyptroderma edible (10)(10) Trogia infundibuliformis [edible] (2)(2) AmanitaAmanita ceciliaececiliae food (8)(8) TubosaTubosaeta eta brunneosetosabrunneosetosa edible (1)(1) AmanitaAmanita crocea crocea food (8)(8) Vascellum pratense edible (1)(1) AmanitaAmanita flavivolvaflavivolva [edible].[edible], medicinal, Volvariella volvaceavolvacea edible (1)(1) insecticidal (8)(8) Xerocomus pallidosporus edible (1)(1) AmanitaAmanita flavoconiaflavoconia food (8)(8) Xerocomus soyerisoyeri edible (1)(1) AmanitaAmanita flavorubescensflavorubescens edible (3)(3) Xerula radicataradicata edible (1)(1) AmanitaAmanita fu/vafulva food (8)(8) AmanitaAmanita gemmatagemmata edible (10)(10) AmanitaAmanita inauratainaurata food (8)(8) MALAYSIA MALAYSIA AmanitaAmanita musca muscaria ria medicinal, 1. Burkhill, 1935;1935; 2.2. PeglerPegler andand Vanhaecke,Vanhaecke, 19941994 insecticidalinsecticidal (8)(8) Termitomyces albuminosus foodfood (1)(1) AmanitaAmanita rubescens rubescens foodfood (8)(8) Termitomyces clypeatuscJypeatus edible (2)(2) AmanitaAmanita tuzatuza foodfood (8)(8) Termitomyces entolomoides edible (2)(2) AmanitaAmanita umbonataumbonata food (8)(8) Termitomyces eurhizus edible (2)(2) AmanitaAmanita vaginatavaginata foodfood (8)(8) Termitomyces heimii edible (2)(2) ArachnionArachnion albumalbum foodfood (8)(8) Termitomyces microcarpus edible (2)(2) ArmillariaArmillaria luteovirensluteovirens food (8)(8) Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible (2)(2) ArmillariaArmillaria me//ea mellea food (8)(8) ArmillariaArmillaria ostoyaeostoyae foodfood (8)(8) ArmillariaArmillaria tabescens tabescens foodfood (8)(8) AuriculariaAuricularia auricula-judaeauricula-judae edible (8)(8) Annex 2: Country recordsrecords ofof wild usefuluseful fungi (edible,(edible, medicinal and otherother uses)uses) 119

Auricularia delicatadelicata edible (7) Coprinus comacomatus tus edibediblele (7)(7) Auricularia fuscosuccinea fuscosuccinea edible (8) Cortinarius glaucopus foodfood (4)(4) Auricularia mesentericamesenterica edible (8) Craterellus cornucopioides foodfood (8)(8) Auricularia polytricha edible (8) Craterellus fallax foodfood (8)(8) Boletellus ananas foodfood (8)(8) Cronartium conigenum ededibleible (7) Boletellus betula foodfood (8)(8) Daldinia concentrica medmedicinalicinal (8)(8) Boletellus russellii foodfood (8)(8) Enteridium lycoperdonIycoperdon edibediblele (7)(7) Boletinus lakei edible (7)(7) Entoloma abortivum food (7)(7) BoletusBoletos aestivalis food (8)(8) Entoloma clypeatum food (4)(4) Boletus atkinsoniiatkinsonii edible (3)(3) Favolus alveolariusalveolarius edible (7)(7) Boletus barrowsiibarro wsii edible (7) Favolus brasiliensis edible (7)(7) Boletus bicoloroides food (8)(8) Flammulina velutipes food (8)(8) BoletusBoletos edulis food (8)(8) Fomitopsis pinicola medicinal (8) Boletus erythropuserythropus foodfood (8)(8) Fuligo septica edible (7) Boletus felleus edible (10) Ganoderma lobatum medicinal (8) BoletusBole tus frostii frostii food (8)(8) Gautieria mexicana edible (3)(3) Boletus luridiformisluridiformis edible (3)(3) Geastrum saccatumsacca tum medicinal (8) BoletusBoletos luridus edible (7) Geastrum triplextriplex foodfood (8);(8); medicinal BoletusBoletos michoacanus food (8)(8) (2) Boletus pinicola food (8)(8) Gomphidius glutinosusglutinosos edible (7) BoletusBole tus pinophilus pinophilus food (4)(4) Gomphus clavatus food (8)(8) BoletosBoletus regius edible (8) Gomphus floccosus· food (8)(8) BoletosBoletus reticulareticulatus tus food (8)(8) Gomphus kauffmaniikauffmanii foodfood (8)(8) Boletus variipes foodfood (8)(8) Gyrodon merulioides ededibleible (7)(7) Bovista plumbea var. foodfood (8)(8) Gyromitra infula food (8)(8) ovalisporaova/ispora Gyroporus castaneus edibediblele (7)(7) Chalciporus piperatus edible (7) HebelomaHebel orna fastibilefastibile food (8)(8) Calvatia cyathiformis foodfood (8)(8) Hebeloma mesophaeum food (4)(4) Camarophyllus pratensis edible (7) HelvellaHe/ve//a acetabulumacetabulum food (4)(4) Cantharellula umbonata edible (7) HelvellaHe/ve/la crispa food (8)(8) Cantharellus cibariuscibarius food (7)(7) HelvellaHe/ve/fa elastica food (8)(8) Cantharellus odoraodoratus tus food (7)(7) He/ve/laHelvella infula food (4)(4) Cantharellus tubiformistubiformis food (8)(8) HelvellaHe/ve//a lacunosa food (8)(8) Chlorophyllum molybditesmolybdites edible (7) Hericium caput-ursicaput-ursi edible (7)(7) Chroogomphus jamaicensis foodfood (4)(4) Hericium coralloides edible (7)(7) Chroogomphus rutilus food (8)(8) Hericium erinaceus food (8)(8) Chroogomphus vinicolor food (8)(8) Hohenbuehelia petaloides edible (7)(7) ClavariaC/avaria vermicularis food (8)(8) Hydnopolyporus fimbriafimbriatus tus edible (7)(7) CiaC/avariadelphus va riadelph us cokeri food (8)(8) Hydnopolyporus palmatus food (8)(8) Clavariadelphus pistillarispistillaris food (8)(8) Hydnum repandum food (8)(8) Clavariadelphus truncatus food (8)(8) Hygrocybe nigrescensnigrescens food (8)(8) ClavariadelphusClava riadelphus unicolorunicolor food (8)(8) Hygrophoropsis auranbacaaurantiaca food (8)(8) Clavicorona pyxidata food (8)(8) Hygrophorus chrysodonchrysodon food (8)(8) C/avulinaClavulina cinereacinerea food (8)(8) Hygrophorus niveusniveus food (8)(8) Clavulina cristatacristata edible (7)(7) Hygrophorus purpurascens food (8)(8) ClavulinaC/avulina rugosa edible (10)(10) Hygrophorus russula food (8)(8) Climacocystis borealis edible (3)(3) Hypomyces lactifluorumlactifluorum food (8)(8) Clitocybe clavipes food (7)(7) Hypomyces macrosporus edible (10)(10) Clitocybe gibba food, medicinalmedicinal (8)(8) Laccaria amethystinaamethystina food (8)(8) Clitocybe nebularis food (8)(8) Laccaria bicolorbicolor food (8)(8) Clitocybe odora edible (8)(8) Laccaria farinacea edible (7)(7) Clitocybe squamulosasquamulosa edible (3)(3) Laccaria laccata food (8)(8) Clitocybe suaveolenssuaveolens food (8)(8) Laccaria proxima food (8)(8) Clitopilus prunulus food (8)(8) Laccaria scrobiculatus edible (1)(1) Collybia acervataacervata edible (7)(7) Lactarius carbonicola edible (3)(3) Collybia butyraceabutyracea food (8)(8) Lactarius deliciososdeliciosus food (7)(7) Collybia confluens food (8)(8) Lactarius indigoindigo food (7)(7) Collybia dryophila food (4)(4) Lactarius piperatus food (8)(8) Collybia polyphylla edible (8)(8) Lactarius salmonicolor food (8)(8) Cookeina sulcipes edibleedible (7)(7) Lactarius sanguifluus edible (7)(7) Cookeina tricholomatricho/oma edible (7)(7) Lactarius scrobiculatus food (8)(8) 120 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overview of their useuse and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Lactarius subdulcis edible (10) Pseudohydnum gelatinosum edible (8) Lactarius vellereus edible (7) Psilocybe zapotecorum edible, Lactarius volemus food (8)(8) hallucinogen (8)(8) Lactarius yazooensis food (4)(4) Pycnoporus sanguineus medicinal (8) Laetiporus sulphureus food (8)(8) Ramalina ecklonii edible (8)(8) Langermannia gigantea food,food, medicinal (8)(8) Ramaria aurea food (7)(7) Leccinum aurantiacum foodfood (8)(8) Ramaria boniibonii edible (3)(3) Leccinum chromapes edible (7)(7) RamariaRama ria botrytisbotrytis food (8)(8) Leccinum rugosiceps edible (3)(3) Ramaria botrytoides edible (3)(3) Lentinula boryana foodfood (7)(7) Ramaria cystidiophora edible (3)(3) LenLentinus tinus conchatus edible (7)(7) Ramaria flava edible (8)(8) Lepiota asperaaspera edible (7)(7) Ramaria flavobrunnescens food (7)(7) Lepiota clypeolariac/ypeolaria edible (8)(8) Ramaria rosella edible (3)(3) Lepista irina edible (7)(7) Ramaria rubiginosa food (8)(8) Lepista nuda food (8)(8) Ramaria rubripermanens food (4)(4) Lepista personata edible (7)(7) Ramaria sansanguinea guinea edible (3)(3) Lycoperdon candidum edible (7)(7) Ramaria stricta edible (7)(7) Lycoperdon marginatummarginatum edible (3)(3) Rhizopogon food (8)(8) Lycoperdon oblongisporum edible (7)(7) Rhodophyllus clypeatusc/ypeatus food (8)(8) Lycoperdon peckiipeckii food (8)(8) Roccella other - dye (6)(6) Lycoperdon perlaperlatum tum food (7)(7) Rozites caperacaperatus tus food (8)(8) Lycoperdon pyriformepyriforme food (8)(8) Russula aciwlocystisaciculocystis edible (3)(3) Lycoperdon rimulatumrimulatum edible (7)(7) Russula alutacea food (8)(8) Lycoperdon umbrinumumbrinum food (8)(8) Russula brevipes food (7)(7) L. umbrinumumbrinum var. floccosumfloccosum edible (7)(7) Russula cyanoxanthacyanoxantha food (8)(8) Lyophyllum decastesdecastes food (7)(7) Russula delicade//ca food (4)(4) Lyophyllum ovisporum food (4)(4) Russula densifoliadensifolia edible (7) Macrolepiota procerapro cera edible (8)(8) Russula emeticaemetica edible (9) Macropodia macropusmacropus food (8)(8) Russula lepidalepida foodfood (8)(8) Marasmius albogriseus edible (7)(7) Russula lutea food (8)(8) Marasmius oreades food (8)(8) Russula macropodamacropoda edible (3)(3) Melano/eucaMelanoleuca evenosaevenosa edible (7)(7) Russula mariaemariae food (4)(4) Melanoleuca grammopodia edible (7)(7) Russula mexicana edible (10)(10) Melanoleuca melaleucamelaleuca edible (7)(7) Russula nigricansnigricans food (8)(8) Merulius incamatusincarnatus food (8)(8) Russula olivacea food (8)(8) Morchella angusticeps edible (10)(10) Russula ornaticepsorna ticeps edible (3)(3) Morchella conicaconica foodfood (8)(8) Russula queletiiqueletii edible (10)(10) Morchella costatacostata edible (7)(7) Russula romagnesianaromagnesiana food (4)(4) Morchella crassipescrassipes foodfood (8)(8) Russula rubroalbarubroalba edible (3)(3) Morchella elata foodfood (8)(8) Russula vescavesca edible (7)(7) Morchella esculentaeswlenta foodfood (8)(8) Russula xerampelinaxerampelina food (4)(4) Mycena pura food (8)(8) Sarcodon imbricatus food (8)(8) Neolentinus lepideuslepideus edible (8)(8) Sarcoscypha coccinea food (8)(8) Neolentinus ponderosus food (5)(5) Sarcosphaera eximia food (4)(4) Oudemansiella canarii food (8)(8) Schizophyllum commune edible (7)(7) Panus crinituscrin/tus edible (7)(7) Schizophyllum fasciatumfascia tum edible (7)(7) Paxina acetabulumacetabulum food (8)(8) Sparassis crispa food (8)(8) Peziza badia food (8)(8) Strobilomyces conconfusus fusus edible (7)(7) Pholiota lenta food (4)(4) Strobilomyces floccopus food (8)(8) Pleurotus cornucopiae edible (7)(7) Stropharia coronilla food (4)(4) Pleurotus djamordjamor food (8)(8) Suillus acidus edible (7)(7) Pleurotus dryinus food (8)(8) Suillus americanus food (8)(8) Pleurotus /evislevis food (8)(8) Suillus brevipes food (8)(8) Pleurotus ostreatoroseus edible (7)(7) SuillusSuit Ius cavipes food (8)(8) Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus food (7);(7); Suillus granulatus food (8)(8) medicinal (8)(8) Suillus hirtellus food (8)(8) Pleurotus smithiismithii edible (7)(7) Suillus luteus food (8)(8) Pluteus aurantiorugosusaurantiorugosus food (8)(8) Suillus pseudobrevipes food (4)(4) Pluteus cervinus food (7)(7) Suillus tomentosus food (8)(8) Pogonomyces hydnoides food (8)(8) Tephrocybe atrata edible (10)(10) Psathyrella spadicea edible (10)(10) Thelephora paraguayensis medicinal (2) Annex 2: Country recordsrecords ofof wild usefuluseful fungi (edible, medicinal and otherother uses)uses) 121

Trametes versicolorversicolor medicinal (8) TerfeziaTer fezia leonis edible (5) Tremella conconcrescens crescens edible (8) Tirmania nivea edible (1)(1) Tremellodendron schweinitzii edible (8) Tricholoma caligatum edible (5)(5) Tricholoma flavovirens foodfood (8)(8) Tricholoma nauseosumnauseosum edible (2)(2) Tricholoma magnivelare foodfood (8)(8) Tuber oligospermum edible (3)(3) Tricholoma sejunctum foodfood (8)(8) Tricholoma ustaloides edibleedible (10) MYANMARMYAN MAR Tricholoma vaccinum edibleedible (10) Pegler and Vanhaecke, 19941994 Tylopilus felleus food (4)(4) Ustilago maydis food (7)(7) Termitomyces eurhizus edible Vascellum curtisiicurtisii edible (7)(7)

Vascellum intermediumintermedium food (8)(8) NAMIBIA Vascellum pratensepratense edible (7),(7), 1. RammelooRamrneloo and Walleyn, 1993; 2. TaylorTaylor etet al., medicinal (8) 1995; 3. WalleynVValleyn andand Rammeloo, 19941994 Vascellum qudeniiqudenii food, medicinalmedicinal (8)(8) Battarrea stevenii medicinal; Volvariella bombycina edible (7) Volvariella bombycina edible (7) cosmetic (3)(3) Volvariella volvacea edible (7) Volvariella volvacea edible (7) Terfezia pfeiliipfeilii foodfood (2)(2) Xanthoconium separans edible (7) Xanthoconium separans edible (7) Termitomyces schimperi edible (1)(1) Xerocomus badius edible (7) Xerocomus badius edible (7) Termitomyces umkowaaniiumkowaanii edible (1)(1) Xerocomus chrysenteron edible (8)(8) Xerocomus spadiceus edible (8)(8) Xeromphalina campanella medicinal (8)(8) NEPAL 1. Adhikari, 1999;1999; 2. Adhikari andand Durrieu,Durrieu, 1996;1996; 3. Richardson, 1991; 4. Zang and Doi, 19951995

MOZAMBIQUE Agaricus bitorquis foodfood (1)(1) 1.1. Uaciquete,Uaciquete, Dai andand Motta, 1996;1996; 2.2. Wilson, Cammack and Shumba, 19891989 Agaricus campestris edible (1)(1) Agaricus silvicola food (1)(1) Afroboletus luteolus Afroboletus luteolus food (1)(1) Agaricus subrufescens food (1)(1) Amanita hemibapha food (2) Amanita hemibapha food (2) Amanita caesarea caesarea food (1)(1) Armillaria mellea Armillaria me/lea food (1)(1) Amanita chepangianachepangiana edible (2)(2) Auricularia auricula-judaeauricula-judae food (2)(2) Amanita hemibaphahemibapha edible (1)(1) Boletus edulis Boletus edulis food (1)(1) Amanita vaginatavaginata edible (2)(2) Cantharellus cibarius food (2)(2) Armillaria me//eamellea edible (1)(1) Cantharellus densifolius food (1) Cantharellus densifolius food (1) Astraeus sp.sp. edible (2)(2) Cantharellus longisporus food (2) Cantharellus longisporus food (2) Auricularia auricula-judae edible (1)(1) Cantharellus pseudocibarius Cantharellus pseudocibarius food (1)(1) Auricularia delicata edible (1)(1) Cantharellus symoensii Cantharellus symoensii foodfood (1)(1) Auricularia mesentericamesenterica edible (1)(1) Coprinus micaceus Coprinus micaceus foodfood (1)(1) Auricularia polytricha edible (1)(1) LentinusLen tinus squarrulosussquarrulosus foodfood (2)(2) Boletus edulis edible (2)(2) Leucoagaricus leucothitesleucothites foodfood (1)(1) BoleBoletus tus luridus edible (2)(2) Micropsalliota brunneospermabrunneosperma foodfood (2)(2) Boletus vitellinus edible (2)(2) Phlebopus colossus food (2) Phlebopus colossus food (2) Cantharellus cibariuscibarius food (1)(1) Psathyrella candolleana Psathyrella candolleana foodfood (2)(2) Cantharellus odoratus edible (1)(1) Schizophyllum commune food (1) Schizophyllum commune food (1) Cantharellus subalbidus edible (2)(2) Termitomyces Termitomyces foodfood (1)(1) Cantharellus subcibarius edible (1)(1) Termitomyces clypeatus Termitomyces clypeatus foodfood (2)(2) Cantharellus tubiformis edible (2)(2) Termitomyces eurhizus Termitomyces eurhizus foodfood (2)(2) Clavaria vermicularis edible (2)(2) Termitomyces microcarpus Termitomyces microcarpus foodfood (2)(2) Clavulina cinereacinerea food (1)(1) Termitomyces schimperi food (2) food (2) C/avulinaClavulina cristata food (1)(1) C/avulinopsisClavulinopsis fusiformfusiformis is edible (2)(2) MOROCCO Collybia butyracea edible (2)(2) 1. Alsheikh and Trappe,Trappe, 1983;1983; 2. Kytovuori, 1989;1989; Coprinus comacomatus tus edible (2)(2) 3. Moreno-Arroyo eta/.,et al., 2001; 2001; 4. 4. Richardson, Richardson, 1991;1991; Cordyceps sinensissinensis (1) 5. FAG,FAO, 20012001b b medicinal (1) Craterellus cornucopioides edible (1)(1) Agaricus bisporus edible (5)(5) Crepidotus mollis [edible] (2)(2) Boletus edulis edible (5)(5) Evernia prunastriprunastri other - Cantharellus cibarius edible (5)(5) perfume (96)(96) Evernia prunastriprunastri other -- Fibroporia vaillantii medicinal (2)(2) perfume (4)(4) Fistulina hepatica medicinal (2)(2) Morchella sp.sp. edible (5)(5) Flammulina velutipes edible (1)(1) Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus edible (5)(5) Ganoderma applanatum medicinal (2)(2) Pseudevernia furfuracea other - Ganoderma lucidum [medicinal] (2)(2) perfume (4)(4) 122122 Wild edibleedible fungi:fungi: aa global overview of theitheirr use and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Geastrum sp. edibleedible (2) NIGERIANIGERIA Grifola frondosa foodfood (1) 1.1. Alofe,Alofe, Odeyemi andand Oke,Oke, 1996;1996; 2.2. Oso,Oso, 1975;1975; Hericium clathroides edibleedible (1) 3. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993; 4. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 1994 Hericium coralloides foodfood (1)(1) Hericium erinaceus foodfood (1)(1) AgrocybeAgro cybe broadwayibroadwayi food (2)(2) Hericium flagellum foodfood (1)(1) Armillaria me/leamellea edible (3)(3) Hericium laciniatum edibleedible (2) Auricularia auricula-judae food (2)(2) Hydnum ranceo-foetidum [edible][edible] (1) Calvatia cyathiformiscyathiformis food, medicinalmedicinal (2)(2) Hydnum repandum food (1)(1) Chlorophyllum molybdites edible (3)(3) Inonotuslnonotus hispidus medicinal (2) Coprinus africanus food (2)(2) Laccaria amethystinaamethystina food (1)(1) Lentinus subnudus edible (1)(1) Laccaria laccata food (1)(1) Lentinus tuber-regium food (2);(2); medicinal, Lactarius deliciosus food (2)(2) cosmetic (4)(4) Lactarius piperatuspiperatus edible (2)(2) Lentinus velutinus medicinal (4)(4) Lactarius volemus edible (2) MacroMacrocybe cybe lobayensis food (2)(2) Laetiporus sulphureus food (1)(1) Panus flavus medicinal (2)(2) Lentinula edodes food (1)(1) Phallus aurantiacus [poisonous],[poisonous]. Lycoperdon sp.sp. edibleedible (2) medicinal (4)(4) Macrolepiota procera edible (2)(2) Pleurotus squarrosulus food (2)(2) Marasmius oreades edible (2)(2) Psathyrella atroumbonataatroumbonata food (2)(2) Meripilus giganteus food (2)(2) Schizophyllum commune food (2)(2) Morchella con/caconica edible (1)(1) Termitomyces clypeaclypeatus tus food (2)(2) Morchella deliciosadeliciosa edible (1)(1) Termitomyces globulus food (2);(2); animal poisonpoison (4)(4) Morchella elata [edible][eilible] (1)(1) Termitomyces mammiformis food (2)(2) Morchella esculenta edible (1)(1) Termitomyces microcarpus food (2);(2); Morchella smithiana [edible] (1)(1) medicinal (4) Morchella esculentaesculenta var.var. edible (1)(1) Termitomyces robustus food (2)(2) vulgaris Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible (3)(3) Pholiota nameko edible (2)(2) Volvariella esculentaesculenta food (2)(2) Pleurotus circinatus edible (1)(1) Volvariella volvaceavolvacea food (2)(2) Pleurotus cornucopiae edible (1)(1) Pleurotus dryinus food (1)(1) Pleurotus nepalensis edible (1) PAKISTAN Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus food (1)(1) 1. Batra, 1983;1983; 2.2. Gardezi,Gardezi, 1993;1993; 3.3. FAO,FAO, 1993b;1993b; 4. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994;1994; 5.5. Syed-RiazSyed-Riaz and P ostreatus var. magnificus edible (1) Mahmood-Khan, 19991999 Pleurotus pulmonarius edible (1) Pluteus cervinus food (1)(1) Agaricus augustus edible (2)(2) Polyporus arcularius food (1)(1) Agaricus campestriscampestris edibleedible (2)(2) Polyporus badius edible (1) Agaricus placomyces edible (2)(2) PolyporuPolyporuss brumalis medicinal (2)(2) Agaricus rodmani edibleedible (2)(2) Pycnoporus cinnabarinus edible (2)(2) Agaricus silvaticus edible (2)(2) Ramaria aurea food (2)(2) Agaricus silvicola edible (2)(2) Ramaria botrytis foodfood (1)(1) Armillaria me/leamellea edible (5)(5) Ramaria flava food (2)(2) Cantharellus cibariuscibarius edible (5)(5) Ramaria formosa edible (2)(2) Craterellus cornucopioides edible (5)(5) Ramaria fuscobrunnea foodfood (1)(1) Flammulina velutipes edible (5)(5) Ramaria obtusissima foodfood (1)(1) Macrolepiota proceraprocera edible (5)(5) Rhizopogon luteolus edible (2)(2) Morchella angusticepsangusticeps edible (3)(3) Russula chloroidesch/oroides foodfood (2)(2) Morchella conicaconica edible (3)(3) Russula delicadel/ca edible (2)(2) Morchella esculentaesculenta edible (3)(3) Russula nigricans edible (2)(2) Podaxis pistillaris edible (1)(1) Russula virescens foodfood (2)(2) Termitomyces clypeaclypeatus tus edible (4)(4) Scleroderma citrinum edible (1)(1) Termitomyces eurhizus edible (4)(4) Scleroderma texensetexense edible (1)(1) Termitomyces he/milheimii edible (4)(4) Secotium himalaicum edible (149)(149) TermitomycesTermitomyces microcarpus edible (4)(4) TermitomycesTermitomyces eurhizus foodfood (1)(1) TermitomycesTermitomyces radicatusradicatus edible (4)(4) Trametes hirsuta medicinal (2)(2) TermitomycesTermitomyces striastriatus tus edible (4)(4) Tremella mesenterica edible (2)(2) Volvariella volvaceavolvacea foodfood (1)(1) Xerula radicataradicata foodfood (1)(1) Annex 2: CountryCountry recordsrecords ofof wild wild usefuluseful ffungiungi (edible,(edible, medicinalmedicinal andand otherother uses)uses) 123 ------

PAPUA NEW GUINEA PHILIPPINES Sillitoe, 19951995 1.1. Novellino,Novellino, 1999; 2. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 1994.1994. See alsoalso Mendoza, Mendoza, 19381938- - records not includedincluded Armillaria sp.sp. not eaten Agaricus ?spp.?spp. foodfood (1)(1) Auricularia polytricha not eaten Ganoderma ?spp.?spp. foodfood (1)(1) Boletus erythropus var.var. edible novoguineensis Pleurotus ?spp.?spp. foodfood (1)(1) Boletus nigrovio/aceusnigroviolaceus edible Polyporus ?spp.?spp. foodfood (1)(1) Bondarzewia montana edible Termitomyces eurhizus edible (2)(2) Cantharellus edible Termitomyces microcarpus edible (2)(2) Collybia sp.sp. not eateneaten Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible (2)(2) Cortinarius sp.sp. edible

Grifola frondosa edible POLAND Gymnopilus novoguineensis not eateneaten wwwwww.grzyby.pl.grzyby.pl Inocybe sp.sp. edible Armillaria me/leamellea food Laccaria amethystea edible Auricularia auricula-judaeauricu/a-judae food Lactarius edible Boletus edulis food Lentinu/aLentinula lateritia edible Cantharellus cibarius food Lentinus araucariae edible Lactarius deliciosus foofoodd Lentinus umbrinus not eaten Leccinum griseum food MicroporusMicro porus affinis edible Leccinum scabrum food Microporus xanthopus not eaten Macrolepiota proceraprocera food Oudemansiella canarii edible Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus food Phaeomarasmius affinisaffinis edible RozitesRozites caperatus food Phellinus senex not eaten Russula cyanoxantha foofoodd PhollotaPholiota austrospumosaaustrospumosa edible Tricholoma equestre foofoodd Phylloporus bellus not eaten Xerocomus badius foofoodd Pleurotus djamor edible Xerocomus subtomentosus fofoodod Polyporus arculariusarcu/arius edible Polyporus blanchetianus edible Polyporus tentenuiculus uiculus edible RÉUNIONReUNION Pycnoporus coccineuscoccineus other - Rammeloo and Walleyn,Walleyn, 19931993 raw material Volvariella volvaceavolvacea edible Pycnoporus sanguineus edible Ramaria fistulosa edible Russula amaendumamaendum edible RUSSIAN FEDERATIONFEDERATION Russula eburneoareolataeburneoareolata edible 1. Saar, 1991;1991; 2.2. Vasil'Vasil'eva, eva, 19781978.. NoteNote:: This is only for thethe Russian Russian farfar east. east. Russula pseudoamaendumpseudoamaendum edible Strobilomyces velutipes edible Agaricus campestris edible (2)(2) Trametes versicolor not eaten Agaricus placomyces edible (2)(2) Trogia sp.sp. edible Agaricus silvaticus edible (2)(2) Agaricus silvicola edible (2)(2) Aleuria auraaurantia ntia [edible][edible] (2)(2) PERU 1. Diez, 2003,2003, personalpersonal communication:communication: Collecting Amanita caesareoidescaesareoides edible (2)(2) Boletus edulis for commercialcommercial purposespurposes in Peru;Peru; 2. Amanita croceacrocea edible (2)(2) Remotti andand Colan,Colan, 19901990 Amanita muscariamuscaria poisonous (2);(2); medicinal (1)(1) Auricularia delicatadelicata edible (2)(2) Amanita vaginatavaginata edible (2)(2) Auricularia fuscosuccineafuscosuccinea edible (2)(2) Armillaria melleamellea edible (2)(2) Boletus edulis food (1)(1) Auricularia auricula-judaeauricu/a-judae edible (2)(2) Favolus alveolarius edible (2)(2) Auricularia polytricha edible (2)(2) Favolus brasiliensis edible (2) BoletinusBo/etinus asiaticusasiaticus edible (2)(2) Lentinus conchatusconchatus edible (2)(2) BoletinusBo/etinus palusterpa/uster not knownknown (2)(2) Pleurotus concavusconcavus edible (2)(2) BoletusBoletus calopusca/opus edible (2)(2) Pleurotus ostreatus edible (2)(2) Boletus edulis not edibleedible (2)(2) Pleurotus roseopilearoseopi/eatus tus edible (2)(2) Boletus erythropus edible (2)(2) Pluteus cervinus edible (2)(2) BoleBoletus tus luridus edible (2)(2) Polyporus arcularius edible (2)(2) BoleBoletus tus regius edible (2)(2) Polyporus sansanguineus guineus edible (2)(2) B. tomentososquamulosus not edibleedible (2)(2) Schizophyllum edible (2)(2) Bovista plumbea edible (2) brevilamellatum edible (2) BuchwaldoboletusBuchwaldobo/etus spectabilisspectabilis edible (2) Schizophyllum commune edible (2)(2) edible (2) edible (2) Volvariella bakeri edible (2)(2) Ca/ocybe gambosa edible (2) 124124 Wild edibleedible fungifungi:: aa global overview of their use and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

CalvatiaCa/vatia excipuliformisexcipuliformis edible (2)(2) Hygrophorus lucorum edible (2)(2) CalvatiaCalva tia utriformis utriformis edible (2) Hygrophorus olivaceoalbusolivaceoalbus edible (2)(2) Camarophyllus niveus edible (2)(2) Hygrophorus pudorinus edible (2)(2) Camarophyllus pratensis edible (2) Hygrophorus russularussula edible (2)(2) Camarophyllus virgineus not known (2)(2) lnonotusInonotus obliquus medicinal (1) Cantharellus cibarius edible (2) Kuehneromyces mutamutabilis bilis edible (2)(2) Cantharellus floccosus edible (2) LacearíaLaccaria amethystinaamethystina edible (2)(2) Catathelasma venventricosum tricosum edible (2) LacearíaLaccaria laccata edible (2)(2) Chalciporus piperatus edible (2)(2) Lactarius chrysorrheus edible (2)(2) Chroogomphus rutilus edible (2)(2) Lactarius controcontroversus versus edible (2)(2) Clavaria purpurea edible (2)(2) Lactarius deliciosus edible (2)(2) ClavariadelphusC/avariadelphus pistillarispistillaris edible (2)(2) Lactarius flavidulus edible (2)(2) ClavariadelphusC/avariadelphus sachalinensis edible (2)(2) Lactarius insulsus edible (2)(2) Clavariadelphus truncatus edible (2) Lactarius japonicusjaponicus edible (2)(2) ClavulinaC/avulina amethystina edible (2) Lactarius necator edible (2)(2) Clavulina cristata edible (2)(2) Lactarius piperatuspiperatus edible (2)(2) Clitocybe infundibuliformisinfundibuliformis edible (2)(2) Lactarius pubescens edible (2)(2) Clitocybe nebularis edible (2)(2) Lactarius pyrogalus edible (2)(2) Clitocybe odora edible (2)(2) Lactarius repraesentaneus [edible] (2)(2) Clitocybe suaveolens edible (2)(2) Lactarius resimus edible (2)(2) Clitopilus prunulus edible (2)(2) Lactarius rufus edible (2)(2) CoilybiaCollybia contorta edible (2)(2) Lactarius scrobiculatus edible (2)(2) Collybia dryophila edible (2)(2) Lactarius torminosus edible (2) Coprinus atramentariusatramentarius edible (2)(2) Lactarius trivialis edible (2)

Coprinus comacomatus tus edible (2)(2) Lactarius uvidus [edible] (2) Coprinus micaceus edible (2)(2) Lactarius vellereus edible (2) Cortinarius alboviolaceus edible (2)(2) Lactarius volemus edible (2) Cortinarius armeniacus edible (2)(2) Laetiporus sulphureus edible (2) Cortinarius armillaarmillatus tus edible (2)(2) Langermannia gigantea edible (2) Cortinarius collinitus edible (2)(2) Leccinum auraaurantiacum ntiacum edible (2) Cortinarius glaucopus edible (2)(2) Leccinum chromapeschromapes edible (2)(2) Cortinarius orichalceus edible (2)(2) Leccinum extremiorientale edible (2)(2) Cortinarius prasinus edible (2)(2) Leccinum holopus not knownknown (2)(2) Craterellus cornucopioidescomucopioides edible (2)(2) Leccinum oxydabile edible (2)(2) Flammulina velutipes edible (2)(2) Leccinum scabrum edible (2) Fomes fomentariusfomentarius medicinal (1)(1) Leccinum testaceoscabrum edible (2) Gomphidius maculatus edible (2)(2) Lepista glaucocanaglaucocana edible (2) Gomphidius purpurascens edible (2)(2) Leucoagaricus leucothites edible (2) Gomphus clavatus edible (2)(2) Leucocortinarius bulbiger edible (2) Gyromitra ambigua edible (2)(2) Limacella illinita edible (2) Gyromitra esculenta not knownknown (2)(2) Lycoperdon perlatum edible (2) Gyromitra infula not knownknown (2)(2) Lycoperdon pyriforme [edible] (2) Gyromitra ussuriensisussuriensis edible (2)(2) Lyophyllum connatumconnatum edible (2) He/ve//aHelvella crispa edible (2)(2) Lyophyllum decastes decastes edibleedible (2) Hericium erinaceuserinaceus edible (2)(2) Lyophyllum ulmarium edibleedible (2) Hydnotrya tulasnei edible (2)(2) Macrolepiota proceraprocera edibleedible (2) Hydnum repandum edible (2)(2) Macrolepiota puellaris edibleedible (2) Hygrocybe cantharellus edible (2)(2) Marasmius oreades edibleedible (2) Hygrocybe coccineacoccinea edible (2)(2) Marasmius scorodonius edible (2) Hygrocybe conicaconica edible (2)(2) Melanoleuca brevipesbrevipes edibleedible (2) Hygrocybe laeta edible (2)(2) Melanoleuca grammopodia edibleedible (2)(2) Hygrocybe obrusseaobrussea edible (2)(2) Melanoleuca verrucipesverrucipes not knownknown (2)(2) Hygrocybe psittacina edible (2)(2) Morchella conicaconica edible (2)(2) Hygrocybe punicea edible (2)(2) Morchella esculentaesculenta edible (2)(2) Hygrocybe unguinosa edible (2)(2) Otidea onoticaonotica edible (2)(2) HygrophoHygrophorus rus agathosmus edible (2)(2) Oudemansiella edible (2)(2) Hygrophorus camarophyllus edible (2)(2) brunneomarginata Hygrophorus chrysodon edible (2)(2) Oudemansiella mucida edible (2)(2) Hygrophorus eburneus edible (2)(2) Panellus serotinus edible (2)(2) Hygrophorus erubescenserubescens edible (2)(2) Paxillus involutus edible (2)(2) Hygrophorus limacinus edible (2)(2) Phaeolepiota aureaaurea edible (2)(2) Annex 2: Country recordsrecords ofof wild wild usefuluseful fungi (edible,(e dible, medicinal and otherother uses)uses) 125

Phallus impudicus not edibleedible (2)(2) Suillus subluteus edible (2)(2) Phellinus igniarius medicinal (1)(1) Suillus variegatus edible (2)(2) Pholiota aurivella edible (2)(2) Suillus viscidus edible (2)(2) Pleurotus citrinopileatus edible (2)(2) Tremiscus helvelloideshelvelloides edible (2)(2) Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus edible (2)(2) Tricholoma atrosquamosum edible (2)(2) Plica riaria badia edible (2)(2) Tricholoma fulvum edible (2)(2) PlateasPluteus cervinus edible (2)(2) Tricholoma orirubens edible (2)(2) Pluteus coccineuscoccineus edible (2)(2) Tricholoma portentosum edible (2)(2) Polyporus squamosus edible (2)(2) Tricholoma terreum edible (2)(2) Porphyrellus atrobrunneus edible (2)(2) Tricholomopsis decora edible (2)(2) Porphyrellus pseudoscaberpseudoscaber edible (2)(2) Tricholomopsis rutilans edible (2)(2) Pseudohydnum gelatinosum edible (2)(2) TylopilusTylopilus neofelleusneofe//eus not edibleedible (2)(2) Psiloboletinus lariceti edible (2)(2) Volvariella speciosaspeciosa edible (2)(2) Ptychoverpa bohemica edible (2)(2) Xerocomus badius edible (2)(2) Ramaria aurea edible (2)(2) Xerocomus chrysenteron edible (2)(2) Ramaria botrytoides edible (2)(2) Xerocomus rubellus edible (2)(2) Ramaria flava edible (2)(2) Xerocomus subtomentosus edible (2)(2) Ramaria formosa not edibleedible (2)(2) Ramaria invalii not edible (2)(2) SAUDI ARABIAARABIA Ramaria obtusissima not edible (2)(2) 1. AisheikhAlsheikh and Trappe, 1983; 2.2. Bokhary and Ramaria pulcherrima edible (2)(2) Parvez, 1993;1993; 3.3. KirkKirk eteta/., al., 20012001 Rhizopogon roseolusroseolus edible (2)(2) Parmelia austrosinensis food (3)(3) Rhodophyllus aprilis edible (2) Terfezia claveryi edible (2)(2) Rhodophyllus clypea clypeatus tus edible (2) Tirmania nivea edible (1)(1) Rozites caperatus edible (2) Russula adusta edible (2)

Russula aerugineaaeruginea edible (2) SENEGAL Russula albonigraalbonigra edible (2)(2) 1. Ducousso, BaBa and and Thoen,Thoen, 2002;2002' 2. Thoen and Ba,1989Ba, 1989 Russula alutacea edible (2)(2) Russula aurataaurata edible (2)(2) Afroboletus costatisporuscostatisporus [edible] (2)(2) Russula consobrinaconsobrina edible (2)(2) Amanita crassiconus crassiconus [edible] (2)(2) Russula cyanoxanthacyanoxantha edible (2)(2) Amanita hemibaphahemibapha [edible] (2)(2) Russula delicadel/ca edibediblele (2)(2) Amanita rubescensrubescens [edible] (2)(2) Russula emetica edible (2)(2) Cantharellus congolensis [edible] (2)(2) Russula flava edible (2)(2) Cantharellus pseudofriesii [edible] (2)(2) Russula foefoetens tens edibediblele (2)(2) Gyrodon intermediasintermedius foodfood (1)(1) Russula fragilis edible (2)(2) Lactarius gymnocarpus [edible] (2)(2) Russula olivascens edible (2)(2) Phlebopus sudanicus foodfood (1)(1) Russula pectinatoidespectinatoides edible (2)(2) Polyporus medicinal (122)(122) RussulaRussula punctatapunctata edible (2)(2) Russula foetensfoetens [edible] (2)(2) Russula queletiiqueletii not knownknown (2)(2) Russula pectinatapectinata [edible] (2)(2) Russula vescavesca edibleedible (2)(2) TubosaetaTubosaeta brunneosetosabrunneosetosa [edible] (2)(2) RussulaRussula virescens edible (2)(2) Russula xerampelinaxerampelina edible (2)(2) SIERRA LEONE SarcodonSarcodon imbricaimbricatus tus edible (2)(2) Pegler and Vanhaecke,Vanhaecke, 19941994 Sarcodon lobatus edible (2)(2) Sarcoscypha coccinea edible (2)(2) Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible Scutiger ovinus edible (2)(2) SparassisSparassis crispa edible (2)(2) SINGAPORE Strobilomyces floccopusfloccopus edible (2)(2) Burkhill, 19351935 Stropharia rugosoannulatarugosoannulata edible (2)(2) TermitomyceTermitomycess albalbuminosusuminosus food Suillus abietinus edible (2)(2) Suillus americanus edible (2)(2)

SuillusSu//las bovinusbovinus edible (2)(2) SLOVENIASLOVENIA SuillusSu//las cavicavipespes edibleedible (2)(2) www.matkurja.comwww.matkurja.com Suillus granulatusgranula tus edible (2)(2) Agaricus bitobitorquisrquis edible Suillus grevilleigrevillei edible (2)(2) Agaricus campestris edibleedible Suillus luteus edible (2)(2) AmanitaAmanita caesareacaesarea edibleedible Suillus pictus edible (2)(2) Amanita rubescensrubescens edible Suillus placidus edible (2)(2) Armillaria me/leamellea edible Suillus plorans ediblediblee (2)(2) 126 Wild ededibleible funfungi:gi: a global overviewoverview of their useuse andand importanceimportance to to people people

Astraeus hygrometricus not edible Clitocybe geotropa food (2)(2) Boletus aestivalis edible Clitocybe nebularis food (2)(2) Boletus erythropus edible Coprinus comatus food (2)(2) Calocybe gambosa edible Craterellus cornucopioides food (2)(2) Cantharellus cibarius edible HelvellaHelveIla leucomelaena food (2)(2) Coprinus comatus edible HelvellaHelveIla monachella food (2)(2) Craterellus cornucopioides edible Hydnum repandum food (2)(2) Leccinum griseum edible Hydnum rufescensrufescens food (2)(2) Leccinum scabrum edible Hygrophorus eburneus food (1)(1) Leccinum testaceoscabrum edible Hygrophorus latitabundus food (3)(3) Macrolepiota procera edible Hygrophorus limacinus food (2)(2) Macrolepiota rhacodesrhacodes edible Hygrophorus o/ivaceoalbusolivaceoa/bus food (2)(2) MorchellaMorche//a esculenta edible Hygrophorus russularuss ula food (1)(1) Pleurotus ostreatus edible Lactarius deliciosusdeliciosus food (2)(2) Russula cyanoxanthacyanoxantha edible Lactarius sanguifluussanguifluus food (2)(2) Tricholoma portentosumportentosum edible Leccinum aurantiacumaurantiacum food( 2)2) Xerocomus badius edible Leccinum lepidumlepidum food (2)(2) Xerocomus subtomentosus edible Lepista nuda food (2)(2) Lepista personatapersonata food (2)(2) Leucopaxillus candidus food (2)(2) SOMALIA Rammeloo and Walleyn, 19931993 Leucopaxillus lepistoides food (2)(2) Macrolepiota proceraprocera food (2)(2) Agaricus amboensis edible Macrolepiota rhacodesrhacodes food (2)(2) Agaricus campestris edible Marasmius oreades food (2)(2) Morchella esculentaesculenta food (2)(2)

SOUTH AFRICA Pleurotus eryngii food (2)(2) 1. Pegler and Vanhaecke, 19941994; 2.2. Walleyn andand Pleurotus nebrodensis food (2)(2) Rammeloo, 19941994 Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus food (2)(2) food (2) Amanita excelsaexcelsa [edible] (2)(2) Rhodocybe truncata food (2) Amanita foetidissima [edible] (2)(2) Russula cyanoxanthacyanoxantha food( 2)2) food (2) Amanita muscariamuscaria hallucinogen, RusRussulasula virescensvirescens food (2) poisonous (2)(2) Suillus belliniibellinii food (2)(2) Amanita rubescensrubescens [edible] (2)(2) Suillus bovinus food (3)(3) He/ve//aHelvella lacunosa [edible] (2)(2) Suillus granulatus food (2)(2) Hericium coralloides [edible] (2)(2) Sui/IusSuillus luteus food( 2)2) Lepista caffrorum [edible] (2)(2) Suillus variegavariegatus tus food (3)(3) Macrolepiota rhacodesrhacodes [edible] (2)(2) Terfezia arenariaarena ria food (2)(2) Psilocybe semilanceata hallucinogen (2)(2) Terfezia claveryi food (2)(2) Suillus granulatus [edible] (2)(2) Terfezia leptodermaleptoderma food (2)(2) Termitomyces striatusstriatus edible (1)(1) TricholomaTricho/oma equestre food (2)(2) Tricho/omaTricholoma goniospermum food (2)(2) Tricho/omaTricholoma portentosumporten tosum food (2)(2) SPAIN Tricholoma terreum food (2)(2) 1. Cervera andand Colinas 1997;1997; 2.2. Martinez,Martinez, Oria de Rueda andand Martinez,Martinez, 1997; 3.3. Martinez,Martinez, Florit and Tuber aestivum food (2)(2) Colinas (1997) Tuber brumale food (2)(2) Tuber melanosporum food (2)(2) Agaricus arvensisarvensis food (2)(2) AgroAgrocybe cybe aegerita food (2)(2) Amanita caesareacaesarea food (2)(2) SRI LANKA Amanita ponderosaponderosa food (2)(2) Pegler and Vanhaecke, 19941994 Armillaria me//eamellea food (2)(2) Termitomyces eurhizus edible Boletus aereus food (2)(2) Termitomyces micromicrocarpus carpus edible Boletus aestivalus food (2)(2) Boletus edulis food (2)(2) Boletus pinicola food (2)(2) TANZANIA [UNITED[UNITED REPUBLIC REPUBLIC OF]OF] 1. Harkönen,Harkbnen, Saarimaki and Mwasumbi,Mwasumbi, 1994e;1994a; Boletus regregius ius food (2)(2) 2. Hárkönen,Harkbnen, Saarimaki and Mwasumbi,Mwasumbi, 1994b;1994b; Boletus reticulatus food (2)(2) 3. Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;1993; 4. Walleyn andand Ca/ocybeCalocybe gambosa food (2)(2) Rammeloo, 1994 Cantharellus cibarius food (2)(2) Agaricus campestris edible (3)(3) Cantharellus lutescens food (2)(2) Amanita tanzanicatanzanica edible (2)(2) Cantharellus tubaeformis food (2)(2) Amanita zambiana edible (2)(2) Annex 2: Country records of wiwildld useful fungifungi ((edible,edible, medicinamedicinall anandd other uses) 127127

Armillaria me/leamellea edible (2)(2) Russula heterophylla heterophylla food (1)(1) Auricularia delicata edible (2)(2) Russula lepidalepida food (1)(1) Auricularia fuscosuccineafuscosuccinea edible (2)(2) Russula nigricansnigricans food (1)(1) Auricularia polytricha edible (2)(2) Russula sanguineasan guinea foodfood (1)(1) Cantharellus congolensis edible (2) Russula violeipesvioleipes foodfood (1)(1) Cantharellus isabellinus edible (2) Russula virescens foodfood (1)(1) Cantharellus platyphyllus edible (2) TermitomycesTermitomyces aurantiacusaurantiacus foodfood (2)(2) Cantharellus symoensii edible (2) TermitomycesTermitomyces c/ypeatusdypea tus foodfood (2)(2) Coprinus cinereus edible (2) TermitomyTermitomycesces globulusglobulus foodfood (2)(2) Entoloma argyropus edible (3) Volvariella volvaceavolvacea foodfood (1)(1) Hypholoma subsubviride viride not eaten (2)(2) Kuehneromyces mutamutabilis bilis edible (3) TUNISIATUNISIA Lactarius gymnocarpus edible (2) AisheikhAlsheikh and Trappe,Trappe, 19831983 Lactarius kabansus foodfood (2)(2) Lactarius pelliculatuspelliculatus edible (2) Tirmania nivea edible Lactarius phlebophyllusphlebophyllus foodfood (2)(2)

Lactarius rubroviolascens edible (2) TURKEYTURKEY LentinusLen tinus sajor-cajusajor-caju edible (3) 1. Afyon, 1997;1997; 2. Caglarirmak, Unal andand Otles,Otles, LentinusLen tinus tuber-regiumtuber-regium edible (3), 2002; 3. Demirbas, 2000; 4.4. SabraSabra andand Walter,Walter, 2001; medicinal (4) 5. httpl/www.ogm.gov.tr/;http//www.ogm.gov.tri; 6.6. Yilmaz,Yilmaz, OderOder andand Lenzites eleelegans gans edible (3) Isiloglu, 19971997 Leucoagaricus leucothitesleucothites edible (3) Agaricus bisporus food (6)(6) Leucoagaricus rhodocephalus edible (4) Agaricus bitorquis edible (3)(3) Lignosus sacer medicinal (4) Agaricus campestriscampestris food (6)(6) ~acrolepiotaMacrolepiota procera edible (3) Agaricus silvicolasilvicola edible (3)(3) Phellinus sp.sp. medicinal (4) Amanita caesareacaesarea edible (5)(5) Pleurotus djamor edible (2)(2) Armillaria me/leamellea ededibleible (5)(5) Polyporus moluccensis edible (2)(2) Boletus edulis foodfood (4)(4) Russula cellulatace//u/ata food (2)(2) Cantharellus cibarius foodfood (4)(4) Russula ciliataciliata edible (2) Chroogomphus rutilus edible (5)(5) Russula compressa edible (2)(2) Coprinus comacomatus tus food (1)(1) Russula congoanacon goana edible (2)(2) Cortinarius variecolor edible (5)(5) Russula heimiihe/mil edible (1)(1) Craterellus cornucopioides edible (5)(5) Russula hiemisilvaehiemisilvae edible (2)(2) Fistulina hepatica edible (5)(5) Russula liberiensis edible (1)(1) HelvellaHe/ve//a lacunosa foodfood (1)(1) Russula phaeocephalaphaeocephala edible (1)(1) Hericium coralloides foodfood (6)(6) Russula sublaevis edible (1)(1) Hydnum repandum edible (5)(5) Russula tanzaniaetanzaniae edible (1)(1) Hygrophorus chrysodon edible (5)(5) Suillus granulatusgranula tus edibediblele (2)(2) Laccaria laccata edible (3)(3) Termitomyces auraaurantiacus ntiacus edibediblele (2)(2) Lactarius deliciosus foodfood (6)(6) Termitomyces eurhizus ededible,ible, medicinal (2)(2) Lactarius piperatuspipera tus foodfood (2)(2) Termitomyces letestui foodfood (2)(2) LactLactariusarius sasalmonicolorlmonicolor foodfood (6)(6) Termitomyces microcarpus edible (2)(2) Lactarius volemus edible (5)(5) Termitomyces sinsingidensis gidensis foodfood (2)(2) Laetiporus sulphureus edible (5)(5) Volvariella bombycina edible (3)(3) Lycoperdon perlatum foodfood (6)(6) Volvariella volvaceavolvacea edible (3)(3) ~acrolepiotaMacrolepiota proceraprocera edible (5)(5) ~orchellaMorchella conicaconica foodfood (6)(6) ~orchellaMorchella crassipescrassipes edible (1)(1) THAILAND Morchella~orchella deliciosadeliciosa edible (5)(5) 1. Jones, WhalleyWhalley and Hywel-Jones,Hywel-Jones, 1994;1994; 2. PeglerPegler Morchella~orchella elata edible (1) andand Vanhaecke,Vanhaecke, 1994;1994; 3.3. Stamets,Stamets, 20002000 edible (1) ~orchellaMorchella esculentaesculenta foodfood (6)(6) Auricularia sp. sp. foodfood (1)(1) ~.M. esculenta var. rotunda edible (5)(5) Cantharellus cibarius foodfood (1)(1) Pleurotus cornucopiae edible (5)(5) Cantharellus minor foodfood (1)(1) Pleurotus eryngii foodfood (1)(1) LentinulaLentinula edodesedodes foodfood (1)(1) Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus foodfood (6)(6) Lentinus praerigidus foodfood (1)(1) Polyporus squamosus edible (5)(5) PleurotusPleurotus cystidiosuscystidiosus foodfood (3)(3) Rhizopogon luteolus edible (5)(5) Russula aerugineaaeruginea foodfood (1)(1) Rhizopogon roseolusroseolus foodfood (6)(6) Russula de//cadelica foodfood (1)(1) Rhizopogon rubescensrubescens edible (5)(5) Russula densifolia foodfood (1)(1) Russula del/cadelica foodfood (6)(6) Russula foefoetens tens food (1)(1) Sparassis crispacrisp a edible (5)(5) 128 Wild eedibledible ffungi:ungi: aa ggloballo bal ooverviewverview of theirtheir useuse andand importanceimportance toto people people

SuillusSu//tus bovinusbovinus edible (5) CfitocybeClitocybe nebularis [edible] Sui/IusSu//tus grevilleigrevillei edible (5)(5) CfitocybeClitocybe o/eariaolearia [edible] SuillusSu//tus luteluteus us edible (5)(5) CfitocybeClitocybe rivulosa [edible] TerfeziaTerfezia boudieriboudieri food (4)(4) CfitopilusClitopilus prunulus [edible] TricholomaTricholoma populinum populinum food (1)(1) Collybia butyracea [edible] Tricholoma terreum edible (5) Coprinus comacomatus tus [edible] Tuber aestivum edibleedible (4) Coprinus micaceus [edible] Tuber borchiiborchii edibleedible (4) Cortinarius crassuscrass us [edible] Xerocomus badius edibleedible (5) CortinariusCortina rius mucosus [edible] Cortinarius multiformismultiformis [edible] CortinariusCortina rius varvariusius [edible] UGANDA 11.. Katende, Segawa and Birnie, 1999;1999; 2. Pegler and Entoloma clypeatum [edible] Vanhaecke, 1994; 3. Rammeloo andand Walleyn,Walleyn, 19931993 Entoloma rhodopolium [edible] Flammulina velutipevelutipess [edible] Agaricus bingensis edibleedible (3) Gomphidius glutinosus [edible] Armillaria me//eamellea edible (1)(1) Gyrodon lividus [edible] Lentinus prolifer edible (1)(1) Gyromitra esculentaescu/enta [edible] Termitomyces aurantiacus edibleedible (1) Gyroporus castaneus [edible] Termitomyces eurhizus edible (1)(1) Gyroporus cyanescenscyanescens [edible] Termitomyces letestuiletestui edibleedible (1) Hydnum repandum [[edible]edible] Termitomyces microcarpus edibleedible (1) HygrophoHygrophorus rus hypothejus [edible] Termitomyces robustus edibleedible (3) Hypholoma capnoidescapnoides [edible] Termitomyces striatus edible (2)(2) Hypholoma epixanthum [edible] Tricholoma sp.sp. edible (3)(3) Kuehneromyces mutamutabilis bilis [edible] Laccaria laccata [edible] UILeucopaxillus giganteus [edible] Boletus vanegatusvariegatus [edible] Leucopaxillus giganteus [edible] Lycoperdon perlatum [edible] Calvatia utriformisutriformis [edible] Lycoperdon perlatum [edible] Lyophyllum decastesdecastes [edible] Cantharellus cibarius [edible] [edible] Macrolepiota excoriaexcoriata ta [edible] Chalciporus piperatus [edible] [edible] Macrolepiota proceraprocera [edible] ClitocybeCfitocybe aurantiaca [edible] [edible] Marasmius alliaceus [edible] ClitocybeCfitocybe clavipesclavipes [edible] Marasmius alliaceus [edible] Marasmius oreades [edible][edible] AnnAnnexex 2: CountrCountryy recordsrecords of wwildild usefuluseful fungi ((edible,edible, medicinmedicinalal and otherother uses)uses) 129129

Marasmius prasiosmus [edible][edible] Tylopilus felleus [edible] Marasmius scorodoniusscorodonius [edible][edible] VolvariellaVolvariella bombycina [edible] Morchella esculenta [edible][edible] Xerocomus badius [edible] Paxillus atrotomentosusatrotomentosus [edible][edible] Xerocomus chrysenteron [edible] Paxillus involutusinvolutus [edible][edible] Xerocomus parasiticus [edible] PholiotaPholiota squarrosa [edible][edible] Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus [edible][edible] URUGUAY Pluteus cervinus [edible][edible] Deschamps, 2002 Porphyrellus pseudoscaber [edible]

Ramaria maireimairei [edible] Gymnopilus spectabilis foodfood

Rozites caperatus [edible][edible] Lactarius deliciosus foodfood Russula adustaadusta [edible] Laetiporus sulphureus foodfood Russula aeruginea aeruginea [edible] Rhizopogon luteolus foodfood Russula alutaceaalutacea [edible] Rhizopogon roseolus foodfood Russula atropurpurea atropurpurea [edible] Suillus granulatusgranulatus food Russula aurataaura ta [edible][edible] TricholomaTricholoma ssulphureusulphureus food Russula badiabadia [edible] Russula brunneoviola brunneoviolaceacea [edible] UNITED STATES OF AMERICA Russula caerulea [edible] 1. Birks, 1991; 2.2. LincoffLincoff and Mitchel, 1977;1977; Russula claroflavaclaro flava [edible] 3. Singer, 19531953;; 4. 4. www.mykoweb.com www.mykoweb.com Russula cyanoxanthacyanoxantha [edible] Agaricus arvensis edible (4) Russula decolorans [edible] Agaricus augustusaugustus edible (4) Russula de//cadelica [edible] Agaricus benesii edible (4) Russula emetica [edible] Agaricus bernardiibemardii edible (4) Russula farinipesfarinipes [edible] Agaricus bisporus edible (4) Russula fe//eafellea [edible] Agaricus bitorquis edible (4) Russula firmulafirmula [edible][edible] Agaricus campestris edible (4)(4) Russula foetens [edible][edible] Agaricus cupreobrunneus edible (4) Russula heterophyllaheterophylla [edible][edible] Agaricus fuscofibrillosusfuscofibrillosus edible (4)(4) Russula integraintegra [edible] Agaricus fuscovelatusfuscovelatus edible (4)(4) Russula lepida [edible] Agaricus lilaceps edible (4)(4) Russula maculata [edible][edible] Agaricus pattersonae edible (4)(4) Russula melliolensmelliolens [edible] Agaricus perobscurus edible (4)(4) Russula mustelina [edible] Agaricus silvicola edible (4)(4) Russula nigricans [edible] Agaricus subrutilescenssubrutilescens edible (4)(4) Russula ochroleuca [edible] Aleuria aurantia edible (4)(4) Russula paludosa [edible][edible] Amanita calyptrata edible (4)(4) Russula pectinatapectina ta [edible] Amanita constrictaconstricta edible (4)(4) Russula rosea [edib[edible]le] Amanita pachycoleapachycolea edible (4)(4) Russula sanguineasan guinea [edible] Amanita vaginatavaginata edible (4)(4) Russula sardoniasardonia [edible] Amanita ve/osave/osa edible (4)(4) Russula vescavesca [edible] Armillaria me/leamellea edible (4)(4) Russula virescens [edible] Armillaria ponderosaponderosa edible (4)(4) Russula xerampelinaxerampelina [edible] Battarrea phalloides medicinal (1)(1) Sarcodon imbricatus [edible] Boletus aereusaereus edible (4)(4) Scleroderma auraaurantiacum ntiacum [edible] Boletus appendiculatus edibleedible (4)(4) Scutiger ovinus [edible] Boletus edulisedulis edible (4)(4) Sparassis crispa [edible] Boletus truncatruncatu tuss edible (4)(4) Strobilomyces floccopus [edible] Boletus zelleri edible (4)(4) Suillus bovinus [edible] Bovista pila medicinal (1)(1) Suillus cavipes [edible] BOBovista vista plumbeaplumbea medicinal (1)(1) Suillus grangranulatu ulatuss [edible] Ca/vatioCalvatia craniiformis medicinal (1)(1) Tricholoma flavovirens [edible] Ca/vatiaCalvatia cyathiformis medicinal (1)(1) Tricholoma imbricatum [edible] Calvatia utriformis medicinal (1)(1) Tricholoma populinum [edible] Camarophyllus pratensis edible (4)(4) Tricho/omaTricholoma portenportentosum tosum [edible] Cantharellus cibariuscibarius edible (4)(4) Tricholoma robustum [edible] Cantharellus subalbidussubalbidus edible (4)(4) Tricholoma saponaceumsaponaceum [edible] Cantharellus tubiformis edible (4)(4) Tricholoma terreum [edible] Chroogomphus vinicolor edible (4)(4) Tricho/omopsisTricholomopsis rutilans [edible] Clitopilus prunulusprunulus edible (4)(4) Tuber aestivum [edible] 130 WildWild eedibledible fufungi:ngi: aa ggloballobal ooverviewverview of ttheirheir use and importanceimportance toto peoplepeople

Coprinus comacomatus tus edible (4)(4) ZAMBIA Craterellus cornucopiacornucopioides ides edibleedible (4) 1. Pegler and Piearce,Piearce, 1980;1980; 2. Piearce,Piearce, 1981;1981 ; 3. Entoloma bloxamii edibleedible (4) Rammeloo and Walleyn, 1993;1993; 4. Walleyn and Rammeloo, 19941994 Entoloma madidum edibleedible (4) Flammulina velutipes edible (4)(4) Afroboletus costatisporuscostatisporus edible (2)(2) Floccularia albolanaripes edibleedible (4) Amanita flammeola food (1)(1) Geastrum medicinal (1) Amanita zambiana food (1)(1) Gomphus clavatus edible (4)(4) Cantharellus cibarius food (1)(1) HelvellaHe/ve//a lacunosa edible (4)(4) Cantharellus densifolius food (1)(1) Hericium abietis edible (4)(4) Cantharellus longisporus food (1)(1) Hericium erinaceus edible (4)(4) Cantharellus miniatescens food (1)(1) Hericium ramosum edible (4)(4) Cantharellus pseudocibarius food (1)(1) Hydnum repandum edible (4)(4) Lactarius gymgymnocarpus no carpus food (1)(1) Hydnum umbilicatum edible (4)(4) Lactarius kabansus food (1)(1) Hypsizygus tessulatus food (3)(3) Lactarius piperatus food (1)(1) Laccaria amethysteo­amethysteo- edible (4)(4) Lentinus cladopuscladopus edible (3)(3) occidentalis MacrolepiotaM acrolepiota proceraprocera food (1)(1) Lactarius deliciosus edible (4)(4) Polyporus moluccensismoluccensis edible (4)(4) Lactarius rubidus edible (4)(4) Schizophyllum commune food (1)(1) Lactarius rubrilacteus edible (4)(4) SuilluSuilluss granulatus edibleedible (2)(2) Laetiporus sulphureus edible (4)(4) Termitomyces clypeatus food (1)(1) Leccinum manzanitae edible (4)(4) Termitomyces eurhizus food (1)(1) Leccinum scabrum edible (4)(4) Termitomyces medius food (1)(1) Lepista nuda edible (4)(4) Termitomyces micro carpuscarpus food (1)(1) Leucoagaricus leucothitesleucothites edible (4)(4) Termitomyces schimperi food (1)(1) Lycoperdon perlatum edible (4);(4); Termitomyces titanicus food (1)(1) medicinal (1) Vanderbylia ungulata medimedicinalcinal (4)(4) Lycoperdon pyriformepyriforme medicinal (1) Macrolepiota rhacodesrhacodes edible (4)(4) Marasmius oreades edible (4)(4) ZIMBABWE Morchella deliciosadeliciosa edible (4)(4) Boa et a/.,al., 20002000

Morganella subincarnata medicinal (1)(1) Amanita aureaaurea food edible (4) Pleurotus ostreatus edible (4) Amanita loosii food edible (4) Pluteus cervinus edible (4) Amanita zambiana food Sarcodon imbricatus edible (4) Sarcodon imbricatus edible (4) Cantharellus cibarius food Sparassis crispa edible (4) Sparassis crispa edible (4) Cantharellus congolensis food Sui/IusSuillus brevipes edible (4)(4) Cantharellus miniatescens food edible (4) Suillus punpungens gens edible (4) Cantharellus symoensii food Suillus tomen tosus edible (4)(4) Suillus tomentosus Lactarius kabansuskabansus food edible (4) Tricholoma flavovirens edible (4) Lycoperdon food Tricholoma magnivelare edible (4)(4) Russula cellulata food T pessundatum var.var. edible (2)(2) TermitomyceTermitomycess clypeatusclypeatus foodfood populinum Termitomyces schimperi food Tulostoma brumale medicinal (1)(1) Volvariella speciosa edible (4)(4) Xerocomus chrysenteron edible (4)(4)

VIET NAM Burkhill, 19351935

Amanitina manginiana foodfood

YUGOSLAVIA (NOW SERBIASERBIA AND MONTENEGRO)MONTENEGRO) 1. Richardson, 1988;1988; 2.2. Zaklina, 19981998

Bo/etusBoletus foodfood (2)(2) Cantharellus cibarius foodfood (2)(2) Craterellus comucopioidescornucopioides foodfood (2)(2) Evernia prunastri other -- perfume (1)(1) 131

ANNEX 33 A global list of wildwild fungifungi usedused as food,food, saidsaid toto be edibleedible oror withwith medicinal properties

These records areare takentaken fromfrom moremore than than 140 140 sources,sources, includingincluding papers,papers, books,books, websites web sites and other contacts.contacts. FullFull detailsdetails are held in aa databasedatabase established byby the author. The species namesnames areare asas they appear in thethe originaloriginal publicationpublication with thethe exceptionexception ofof obvious spelling mistakes or where thethe preferredpreferred namename hashas changedchanged (Table(Table 5). ForFor mode of nutrition (saprobic,(saprobic, mycorrhizalmycorrhizal etc.) etc.) seesee ChangChang and and Mao Mao (1995); (1995); Wang,Wang, BuchananBuchanan and Hall (2002(2002 ) lists edible fungi that are mycorrhizal. The mycologicalmycological literature doesdoes not alwaysalways make it clearclear whether anan "edible""edible" fungusfungus isis eaten.eaten. There must bebe aa clearclear report toto warrantwarrant thethe descriptiondescription ofof "food""food" underunder the the column column labelled labelled "use"."use". MoreMore species are listed at www.wildusefulfungi.org.

(m) medicinal properties

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE

Afroboletus costatisporacostatispora edible Agaricus rodmani edible Afroboletus luteolus food Agaricus rubellusrubel/us edible Agaricus abruptibulbus edible Agaricus silvaticus food Agaricus amboensis edible Agaricus silvicola food Agaricus arvensis food (m)(m) Agaricus squamuliferus var. caroli food Agaricus augustus food Agaricus subedulis edible Agaricus benesii edible Agaricus subperonatus food Agaricus bernardii edible Agaricus subrufescenssubrufescens food Agaricus bingensis edible Agaricus subrutilescenssubrutilescens food Agaricus bisporus food (m)(m) AgroAgrocybe cybe aegerita food Agaricus bisporus var. albidus edible AgrocybeAgro cybe broadwayibroadwayi food Agaricus bisporus var. bisporus edible Agrocybe cylindracea edible Agaricus bitorquis food Agrocybe farinacea edible Agaricus blazei edible (m)(m) Agrocybe paludosa edible Agaricus campestriscampestris food (m)(m) Agrocybe paras/ticaparasitica edible Agaricus comtulus food Agrocybe pediades edible Agaricus croceolutescenscroceolutescens edible Agrocybe sal/cae/colasalicacicola edible Agaricus cupreobrunneus edible Agrocybe vervacti edible Agaricus endoxanthus edible AlbatrellusAlbatrel/us confluensconfluens edible (m) Agaricus erythrotrichus edible AlbatrellusAlbatrel/us ovinus foodfood Agaricus essettei food Aleuria aurantia edible Agaricus fuscofibrillosusfuscofibril/osus food Amanita alliodoraal/iodora medicinal Agaricus fuscove/atusfuscovelatus edible Amanita aureaaurea foodfood Agaricus gennadii edible Amanita bingensisbingensis edible Agaricus goossensiaegoossensiae edible Amanita caesareacaesarea foodfood Agaricus impudicus food Amanita caesareacaesarea f. sp. americana foodfood Agaricus lilaceps edible Amanita caesareoidescaesareoides edible Agaricus macrosporusmacrosporus edible Amanita ca/opuscalopus edible Agaricus micromegethus edible Amanita calyptrata edible Agaricus nivescensnivescens edible Amanita calyptratoidescalyptratoides edible Agaricus pattersonae edible Amanita calyptrodermacalyptroderma food Agaricus perobscurus edible Amanita ceciliaececiliae food Agaricus placomycesplacomyces edible Amanita chepangianachepangiana edible 132 Wild edible fungi:fungi: a global overviewoverview of theirtheir useuse and importance importance toto peoplepeople

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE Amanita constrictaconstricta edible Boletus appendiculatus edible Amanita croceacrocea foodfood Boletus atkinsoniiatkinsonii edible Amanita flammeola foodfood Boletus barrowsii edible Amanita flavoconiaflavoconia food Boletus bicoloroides food Amanita flavorubescensflavorubescens edible Boletus ca/opuscalopus edible Amanita fu/vafulva food Boletus citrifragrans edible Amanita gemmatagemmata edible Boletus edulis food (m)(m) Amanita goosensiaegoosensiae edible Boletus emodensis edible Amanita hemibaphahemibapha food Boletus erythropus food Amanita hovae edible Boletus erythropus var. edible Amanita inauratainaurata food novoguineensis Amanita loosii food Boletus felleus edible Amanita muscariamuscaria medicinal Boletus frostiifrostii food Amanita pachycoleapachycolea edible Boletus griseus edible Amanita perphaea food Boletus /oyoloyo food Amanita rhodophylla edible Boletus luridiformis edible Amanita robusta edible Boletus luridus edible Amanita rubescensrubescens food Boletus michoacanus foodfood Amanita tanzanica edible Boletus nigroviolaceus edible Amanita tuza food Boletus pinicola foodfood Amanita umbonata food Boletus pinophiluspinophilus foodfood Amanita vaginata food Boletus regius edible Amanita ve/osavelosa edible Boletus reticulatus food Amanita virgineoides edible Boletus separans edible Amanita zambiana food Boletus speciosusspeciosus edible Aman/tinaAmanitina manginianamanginiana food Boletus truncatruncatus tus edible Amanitopsis pudica edible Boletus variipes food Amauroderma niger medicinal Boletus violaceofuscusviolaceofuscus edible Amauroderma rude medicinal Boletus vitellinusvitellin us edible AraArachnion chnion album food Boletus zelleri edible Armillaria distansdistans edible Bondarzewia berkeleyii edible Armillaria luteovirensluteovirens food Bondarzewia montana edible Armillaria me//eamellea food (m)(m) Bovista apedicellata medicinal Armillaria ostoyaeostoyae food Bovista gigantea edible Armillaria ponderosaponderosa edible Bovista pila medicinal Armillaria tabescenstabescens food Bovista plumbea edible (m)(m) Aspropaxillus /epistoideslepistoides edible Bovista plumbeaplumbea var. ovalispora food Astraeus hygrometricus edible (m) Bovista pusilla medicinal Aureobasidium pullulanspullulans var.var. medicinal Bovistella sinensis medicinal pullulans Buchwaldoboletus spectaspectabilis bilis edible Auricularia auricula-judaeauricula-judae food (m)(m) Calocera cornea edible Auricularia delicatadelicata food Calocera viscosaviscosa edible Auricularia fuscosuccineafuscosuccinea edible Calocybe gambosa food (m)(m) Auricularia mesentericamesenterica edible (m) Calocybe indica edible Auricularia polytricha edible Calocybe leucocephala edible Auricularia tenuistenuis edible Calvatia bovista medicinal Bankera fuligineoalbafuligineoalba edible CalvatiaCalva tia caelatacae/ata edible (m)(m) Battarea phalloides medicinal CalvatiaCalva tia craniiformis craniiformis medicinal Battarrea stevenii medicinal Calvatia cyathiformis food Bjerkandera fumosa medicinal Calvatia excipuliformis edible (m)(m) Boletellus ananasananas food Calvatia lilacinaliIacina edible Boletellus betula food CalvatiaCa/vat/a purpureapurpurea edible Boletellus emodensisemodensis edible Calvatia utriformisutriformis edible (m)(m) Boletellus russellii food Camarophyllus niveus edible Boletinus asiaticusasiaticus edible Camarophyllus pratensis edible Boletinus lakei edible Camarophyllus subpratensis edible Boletinus pinetorumpinetorum edible Camarophyllus virgineus edible BoletopisBo/etopis leucomelaenaleucomelaena edible Cantharellula umbonata edible Boletus aereus edible Boletus aestivalis food Annex 3: A global list of wwildild fungifungi used as foodfood,, saidsaid to be edible or witwithh medicinalmedicinal propertpropertiesies 133

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE Cantharellus cibarius foodfood (m)(m) ClavariadelphusC/avariadelphus unicolor food Cantharellus cibarius var. edible C/avicepsClaviceps purpureapurpurea medicinal defibulatus Clavicorona pyxidata food Cantharellus cibarius var.var. latifoliuslatifolius edible ClavulinaC/avulina amethystina edible Cantharellus cinereus edible Clavulina cinerea food Cantharellus cinnabarinus edible ClavulinaC/avulina cristata food Cantharellus congolensis foodfood Clavulina rugosarugosa edible Cantharellus cyanescenscyanescens edible ClavulinopsisC/avulinopsis fusiformisfusiformis edible Cantharellus cyanoxanthus edible C/avulinopsisClavulinopsis he/yolahelvola edible Cantharellus densifolius foodfood ClavulinopsisC/avulinopsis miyabeana edible Cantharellus eucalyptorum foodfood Climacocystis borealis edible Cantharellus floccosus edible Clitocybe clavipesc/avipes food Cantharellus floridulusfloridulus food Clitocybe geotropa edible Cantharellus formosus edible Clitocybe gibba food Cantharellus ignicolorignicolor food Clitocybe hypocalamus foodfood Cantharellus incarnatus edible Clitocybe infundibuliformisinfundibuliformis edible Cantharellus infundibuliformisinfundibuliformis edible Clitocybe nebularis foodfood Cantharellus isabellinus edible Clitocybe odora edible Cantharellus longisporus food Clitocybe squamulosa edible Cantharellus luteocomus edibediblele Clitocybe suaveolens foodfood Cantharellus luteopunctatus edible ClitopilusC/itopilus abortivus medicinal Cantharellus miniatescens food Clitopilus prunulus food Cantharellus minor food Collybia acervata edible Cantharellus odoratus food Collybia anombe edible Cantharellus platyphyllus edible Collybia attenuata edibediblele Cantharellus pseudocibarius food Collybia aurea edible Cantharellus pseudopseudofriesii friesii edible Collybia butyracea food Cantharellus ruber edible Collybia conconfluens fluens food Cantharellus rufopunctatus edible CollybiaCo//ybia contortacontorta edible Cantharellus rufopunctatus edible Collybia distorta edible var. ochraceus Collybia dryophila edible Cantharellus splendens edible Collybia familia edible Cantharellus subalbidus edible Collybia oronga edible Cantharellus subcibarius edible Collybia piperata edible Cantharellus symoensii food Collybia platyphyllaplatyphylla edible Cantharellus tenuis edible Collybia polyphylla edible Cantharellus tubiformis foodfood Collybia pseudocalopus food Catathelasma imperialeimperiale edible CollybiaCo//ybia radicata edible Catathelasma venventricosum tricosum foodfood Collybia subpsubpruinosa ruinosa food Cerrena unicolorunicolor medicinal Collybia tamatavae edibediblele Cetraria islandica medicinal Coltricia cinnamomea medicinal Chalciporus piperatuspiperatus edible Cookeina sulcipes edible Chlorophyllum madagacariensemadagacariense edible Cookeina tricholoma edible Ch/orophyllumChlorophyllum molybdites edible Coprinus acuminatus edible Choiromyces aboriginumaboriginum food Coprinus africanus food Choiromyces meandriformismeandriformis edible Coprinus atramentarius edible (m) Chroogomphus jamaicensis food Coprinus castaneus edible Chroogomphus rutilus foodfood Coprinus cinereus edible Chroogomphus vinicolor foodfood Coprinus comacomatus tus edible Cladina stellaris foodfood Coprinus disseminatus edible Cladonia spp.spp. medicinal Coprinus micaceusmicaceus foodfood ClavariaC/avaria albirameaalbiramea edible Coprinus sterquilinus edible ClavariaC/avaria aurea edible Corditubera bovonei edible ClavariaC/avaria coralloides foodfood Cordyceps militarismilitaris medicinal Clavaria purpurea edible Cordyceps ophioglossoides medicinal ClavariaC/avaria vermicularis food Cordyceps sinensis edible (m)(m) Clavariadelphus cokeri food Coriolus consors medicinal CiaClavariadelphus va riadelph us pistillarispistillaris food Cortinarius alboviolaceus edible ClavariadelphusC/avariadelphus sachalinensis edible Cortinarius armeniacus edible ClavariadelphusC/avariadelphus truncatus food 134134 Wild edible fungi: a global overview ofof theirtheir use andand importanceimportance to people

BINOMIALBINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE CortinCortinaa riusrius armillatusarmilla tus edible Favolus brunneolus foodfood CortinariusCortina rius claricolor claricolor var.var. turmalisturmalis edible Favolus striatulusstriatulus foodfood CortinariusCortinarius collinituscollinitus edible Favolus tesselatesselatus tus foodfood CortinariusCortinarius elatiorelatior edible Fibroporia vaillantii medicinal CortinariusCortina rius glaucopusglaucopus foodfood Fistulina hepatica foodfood (m)(m) CortinariusCortinarius largus edible Flammulina velutipes foodfood (m)(m) CortinariusCortina rius orichalceus edible Floccularia albolanaripes edible CortinariusCortina rius praestans foodfood FomesFames fomentariusfomenta rius medicinal Cortinarius prasinus edible Fomes melanoporusmelanoporus medicinal CortinariusCortina rius pseudosalorpseudosalor edible Fomitopsis pinicola medicinal Cortinarius purpurascens edible Fomitopsis ulmaria medicinal Cortinarius rufo-olivaceus foodfood Fuligo septicaseptica edible Cortinarius tenuipes edible Galiella javanica medicinal Cortinarius variecolor edible Ganoderma applanatumapplanatum medicinal CotylidiaCotylidia aurantiaca edible Ganoderma capensecapense medicinal CraterellusCraterellus aureus edible Ganoderma curtisii medicinal Craterellus cornucopioides foodfood (m)(m) Ganoderma lobatum medicinal C. cornucopioidescornucopioides var.var. edible Ganoderma lucidum edible (m) cornucopioidescomucopioides Ganoderma sinensesinense medicinal C. cornucopioidescomucopioides var. parvisporus edible Ganoderma tenue medicinal Craterellus fallax foodfood Ganoderma tropicum medicinal Crepidotus applanatus edible Ganoderma tsugaetsugae edible (m) Crepidotus mollis edible Gastrodia elata edible Cronartium conigenum edible Gautieria mexicanamexicana edible Cryptoderma citrinum medicinal Geastrum fimbriatum edible Cryptoporus volvatus medicinal Geastrum hygrometricum medicinal Cyathus bimbalimbatus tus medicinal Geastrum saccatumsacca tum medicinal Cyathus stercoreus medicinal Geastrum triplex foodfood (m)(m) Cymatoderma dendendriticum driticum edible Geopora sp.sp. edible C. e/eganselegans subsp.subsp. infundibuliforme infundibuliforme edible Gloeoporus conchoidesconchoides food Cystoderma amianthinumamianthinum edible Gloeostereum incarnatum edible Cystoderma terreiiterreii edible Gomphidius glutinosus edible Cyttaria darwinii foodfood Gomphidius maculatus edible Cyttaria espinosaeespinosae foodfood Gomphidius purpurascens edible Cyttaria gunnii food Gomphus clavatusclavatus food Cyttaria hariotiihariotii food Gomphus f/occosusfloccosus food Cyttaria hookeri edible Gomphus kauffmaniikauffmanii food Dacrymyces palmatuspalma tus edible Goossensia cibarioides edible Dacryopinax spathularia edible Grifola frondosafrondosa edible (m)(m) Daedaleopsis conconfragosa fragosa var. medicinal Grifola gargal food tricolor Gymnopilus earlei food Daldinia concentrica medicinal Gymnopilus hispidellus food Dictyophora echinovolvata edible Gyrodon intermedius food Dictyophora indusiata f. lutealutea edible Gyrodon lividus edible Elaphomyces granulatusgranulatus medicinal Gyrodon merulioides edible Endophyllus yunnanensis edible Gyromitra ambigua edible Eng/eromycesEngleromyces goetziigoetzii medicinal Gyromitra antartica edible Enteridium /ycoperdonIycoperdon edible Gyromitra esculentaesculenta edible Ento/omaEntoloma abortivum food GyromitraGyromitra infula food EntolomaEnto/oma aprilis edible GyromitraGyromitra ussuriensis ussuriensis edible EntolomaEnto/oma argyropusargyropus edible Gyroporus castaneuscastaneus edible EntolomaEnto/oma bloxami edible HebelomaHebe/oma fastibile food EntolomaEnto/oma clypeatumclypeatum food HebelomaHebe/oma mesophaeummesophaeum food Entoloma crassipes crassipes edible He/ve//aHelvella acetabulum food Entoloma madidum edible He/ve//aHelvella crispacrisp a food Entoloma microcarpummicrocarpum edible He/ve/laHelvella elasticaelastica food Evernia mesomorpha medicinal He/ve/laHelvella ínfulainfula food Favolus a/veo/arusalveolarus edible He/ve//aHelvella lacunosalacunosa food Favolus brasiliensis food Hericium abietis food AnnAnnexex 3: A glglobalobal list of wiwildld ffungiungi used as food,food, saisaidd toto bbee eedibledible oror wwithith memedicinaldicinal proppropertieserties 135 ------

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE Hericium caput-ursi edible LaccariaLaccaria edulisedulis edible Hericium clathroides edible LaccariaLaccaria farinaceafarinacea edible Hericium coralloidescoral/oides edible LaccariaLaccaria laccata foodfood Hericium erinaceuserinaceus food (m)(m) LaccariaLaccaria proximaproxima foodfood Hericium flagel/umflagellum food LaccariaLaccaria scrobiculatusscrobicula tus edible Hericium laciniatum edible LLaccocephalumaccocephalum mylittaemylittae edible Hericium ramosum edible Lacrymaria veluvelutina tina edible Heterobasidion annosum medicinal Lactarius akahatsu foodfood Hexagonia apiaria medicinal Lactarius angustus edible Hirschioporus abietinus medicinal LactariusLactarius annulatoangustifoliusannulatoangustifolius foodfood Hirschioporus fuscoviolaceusfuscoviolaceus medicinal LactariusLactarius camphoratucamphoratuss edible Hohenbuehe/iaHohenbuehelia petaloides edible Lactarius carbonicola edible HydnopolyporusHydnopo/yporus fimbriafimbriatus tus edible Lactarius chrychrysorrheussorrheus edible Hydnopolyporus palmatus foodfood Lactarius congo/ensiscongolensis edible Hydnotrya tulasnei edible Lactarius controcontroversus versus edible Hydnum repandum foodfood Lactarius corruguiscorruguis foodfood Hydnum umbilicatum edible Lactarius deliciosus foodfood Hygrocybe cantharel/uscantharellus edible Lactarius deterrimusdeterrimus edible Hygrocybe coccinea edible Lactarius denigricans food Hygrocybe con/Caconica edible Lactarius densifolius food Hygrocybe laeta edible Lactarius edulis edible Hygrocybe nigrescensnigrescens foodfood Lactarius flavidulusflavidulus edible Hygrocybe obrusseaobrussea edible Lactarius gymnocarpoides food Hygrocybe psittacina edible Lactarius gymnocarpus food Hygrocybe punicea edible Lactarius hatsudake food Hygrocybe unguinosa edible Lactarius heimiiheimii food Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca food Lactarius indigoindigo food Hygrophoropsis mangenotii edible Lactarius insulsusinsulsus edible Hygrophorus agathosmus edible Lactarius inversusinversus edible HygrophoHygrophorus rus arbustivus edible Lactarius japonicus edible HygrophoHygrophorus rus camarophyl/uscamarophyllus edible Lactarius kabansus food Hygrophorus chrysodonchrysodon food Lactarius laevigatus food Hygrophorus eburneuseburneus edible Lactarius laeticolorlaeticolor edible Hygrophorus erubescenserubescens edible Lactarius latifoliuslatifolius edible HygrophorusHygrophorus limacinuslimacinus edible Lactarius luteopus food Hygrophorus lucorum edible Lactarius medusae food HygrophoHygrophorus rus niveusniveus food Lactarius mitissimus edible Hygrophorus olivaceoalbusolivaceoalbus edible Lactarius necatornecator edible Hygrophorus penariuspenarius edible Lactarius pel/iculatuspelliculatus edible Hygrophorus pudorinus edible Lactarius pel/iculatuspelliculatus f. pal/iduspallidus edible Hygrophorus purpurascens food Lactarius phlebophyl/usphlebophyllus food Hygrophorus russularussula food Lactarius piperatus food Hypholoma sublateritium food LactariusLactar/os princepprincepss edibleedible Hypholoma wambensiswambensis edible Lactarius pseudovo/emuspseudovolemus edible Hypomyces lactifluorumlactifluorum food Lactarius pubescenspubescens edible Hypomyces macrosporus edibleedible Lactarius pyrogpyrogalusalus edible Hypsizygus marmoreus food Lactarius ququietusietus edible Hypsizygus tessulatus food Lactarius resimus edible I/eodictyonIleodictyon cibarium edible Lactarius rubidus edible Inocybe sp.sp. edible Lactarius rubrilacteus food Inonotus hispidushispidus medicinal Lactarius rubrorubroviolascens violascens edible InonotusInonotus obliquusobliquus medicinal Lactarius rufus edible Ischnoderma resinosumresinosum medicinal Lactarius salmonicolor food Kobayasia nipponica edible LactariusLactar/os sanguifluus edible Kuehneromyces mutabilis edible Lactarius scrobiculatus foodfood Laccaria amethystea food Lactarius sesemotani edible Laccaria amethysteo-occidentalisamethysteo-occidentalis edible Lactarius subdulcissubdulcis edible Laccaria amethystinaamethystina food Lactarius subindigo food Laccaria bicolorbicolor food Lactarius tanzanicus foodfood 136 Wild ededibleible fungi:fungi: aa ggloballobal ooverviewverview of ttheirheir use anandd importanceimportance to people

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE Lactarius torminosus edible Lepista nuda food (m)(m) Lactarius trivialistriyialis edible Lepista personapersonata ta food Lactarius vellereus edible Lepista sordida edible Lactarius volemoidesvo/emoides food Leucoagaricus bisporus edible Lactarius volemusvo/emus food (m)(m) Leucoagaricus hortensis food Lactarius xerampelinus food Leucoagaricus leucothites food Lactarius yazooensis food Leucoagaricus rhodecephalusrhodecephalus edible Lactocollybia aequatorialis food Leucocoprinus cheimonoceps food Laetiporus sulphureus food Leucocoprinus discoideus edible Lampteromyces japonicus medicinal Leucocoprinus gandourgandour edible Langermannia gigantea edible (m) Leucocoprinus imerinensis edible Lanopila nipponica edible Leucocoprinus nanianae edible Lariciformes officianalis edible (m) Leucocoprinus tanetensis edible Lasiosphaera fenzliifenzlii medicinal Leucocortinarius bulbigerbulbiger edible Leccinum aurantiacum food Leucopaxillus giganteus edible Leccinum chromapes edible LignososLignosus sacer medicinal Leccinum extremiorientaleextremiorientale edible Limacella glioderma edible Leccinum griseum food Limacella iIIinitaillinita edible Leccinum manzanitae edible Lobaria pulmonaria medicinal Leccinum oxydabile edible LobariaLoba ria sp.sp. foodfood Leccinum rugosiceps edible Lycoperdon asperum medicinal Leccinum scabrum food Lycoperdon candidum edible Leccinum testaceoscabrum edible Lycoperdon endotephrumendotephrum edible Leccinum versipelle edible Lycoperdon gemmagemmatum tum edible Lentinellus cochleatus edible Lycoperdon marginatum edible Lentinula boryanaboryana food Lycoperdon oblongisporum edible Lentinula edodesedodes food (m)(m) Lycoperdon peckii food Lentinula lateritia edible Lycoperdon perlaperlatum tum food (m)(m) Lentinus araucariae edible Lycoperdon pusilum edible (m)(m) Lentinus brunneofloccosus edible Lycoperdon pyriforme food (m)(m) Lentinus critinus edible Lycoperdon rimularimulatum tum edible Lentinus cladopus edible Lycoperdon spadiceumspadiceum medicinal LenLentinus tinos conchatus edible Lycoperdon umbrinum food LenLentinus tinos crinitus food Lycoperdon umbrinum var.var. edible Lentinus glabratus food floccosum LentinusLen tin us javanicus edible Lyophyllum aggregatum edible Lentinus praerigidus food Lyophyllum connatum edible Lentinus proliferprolifer edible Lyophyllum decastesdecastes food (m)(m) Lentinus sajor-cajusajor-caju edible Lyophyllum fumosum edible Lentinus squarrulosussquarrulosus food Lyophyllum ovisporumoyisporum food Lentinus strigosusstrigosus food Lyophyllum shimeji edible Lentinus subnudus edible Lyophyllum sykosporum edible Lentinus tigrinus edible Lyophyllum ulmarium edible Lentinus tuber-regium food (m)(m) Lysurus mokusinmokusin medicinal Lentinus velutinus food (m)(m) Macrocybe gigantea edible Lenzites betulina medicinal MacrocybeMacro cybe lobalobayensis yensis food Lenzites elegans edible Macrocybe spectabilis food Lepiota esperaaspera edible Macrolepiota africana edible Lepiota clypeolariaclypeolaria edible Macrolepiota dolichaula edible Lepiota discipesdiscipes edible Macrolepiota excoriaexcoriata ta foodfood Lepiota grasseigrassei edible Macrolepiota excoriaexcoriata ta var.var. edible rubescens Lepiota henningsii edible Macrolepiota gracilenta edible Lepiota madirokelensis edible Macrolepiota gracilenta var.var. edible Lepiota mastoidea edible goossensiae Lepiota ventriosospora edible Macro/epiotaMacrolepiota procerapro cera foodfood Lepista caespitosacaespitosa edible Macrolepiota proceraprocera var.var. vezovezo edible Lepista caffrorumcaffrorum edible Macrolepiota prominens edible Lepista glaucocana edible Macrolepiota puellaris edible Lepista irina edible Macrolepiota rhacodesrhacodes edible Lepista luscinaluscina edible Macrolepiota zeyheri edible Annex 3: A globglobalal lilistst ofof wiwildld fungifungi used asas food,food, saisaidd toto bebe ediblediblee oror withwith medicinmedicinalal propertiesproperties 137

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE Macropodia macropus food Oudemansiella venoslamellata edible Marasmius albogriseus edible Pachyma hoehoelen len edible Marasmius androsaceus medicinal Paecilomyces sinensis medicinal Marasmius arborescens edible Panellus serotinus edible Marasmius buzungolobuzungolo edible Panellus stipticus medicinal Marasmius caryophylleus edible Panus conchatus edible Marasmius crinis-equi edible Panus crinituscrin/tus edible Marasmius grandisetulosus edible Panus flavus medicinal Marasmius heinemannianusheinemannianus edible Parmelia austrosinensis food Marasmius hungohungo edible Parmelia sulcata medicinal Marasmius maximmaximus us edible Paxillus atrotomentosus edible Marasmius oreades food Paxillus invo/utusinvolutus edible Marasmius personapersonatus tus edible Paxina acetabulum food Marasmius piperodorapiperodora edible Peltigera caninacanina medicinal Marasmius purpureostriatuspurpureostria tus edible Perenniporia mundula medicinal Marasmius scorodonius edibediblele Peziza badia food Melanoleuca alboflavida edibediblele Peziza vesiculosa edible (m) Melanoleuca brevipes edible Phaeangium lefebvrei edible Melanoleuca evenosaevenosa edibleedible Phaeolepiota aureaaurea edible Melanoleuca grammopodia edible Phaeolus schweinitziischweinitzii medicinal Melanoleuca melaleuca food Phaeomarasmius affinis edible MeripilusMeripi/us giganteus food Phallus fragrans edible Merulius incarnaincarnatus tus food Phallus impudicus edible (m) Microporus affinis edible Phallus indusiaindusiatus tus medicinal MicroporusMicro porus xanthopusxanthopus medicinal PhalluPhalluss tenuis medicinal Micropsalliota brunneospermabrunneosperma foodfood PhellinusPhellinus rimosusrimosus medicinal Morchella angusticepsangusticeps edible PhellinusPhellinus baumii medicinal Morchella conicaconica food Phellinus conchaconchatus tus medicinal Morchella conica var. rigida edible Phellinus igniarius medicinal Morchella costatacostata edible Phellinus nigricans medicinal Morchella crassipescrassipes food Phellorinia inquinans edible Morchella deliciosadeliciosa edible (m)(m) PhlebopusPhlebopus colossus colossus foodfood Morchella elata food Phlebopus sudanicus edible Morchella esculentaesculenta food (m)(m) Pholiota adiposaadiposa edible Morchella esculenta var. rotunda edible Pholiota aurivella edible Morchella esculenta var. umbrina edible Pholiota austrospumosaaustrospumosa edible Morchella esculentaesculenta var. vulgaris edible Pholiota bicolor foodfood Morchella intermedia edible Pholiota edulisedu/is edible Morganella subincarnatasubincarnata medicinal Pholiota highlandensishighlandensis edibleedible Mycena aschiaschi edible Pholiota lentalenta foodfood Mycena bipindiensis edible Pholiota lubricalubrica edible Mycena flavescensflavescens edible Pholiota nameko edible Mycena pura food Pholiota squarrosasquarrosa edibleedible Mycenastrum corium edible Phylloporus rhodaxanthus edibleedible Mycoleptodonoides aitchisonii edible Picoa carthusiana edibleedible Myriosclerotinia caricis-ampullaceacaricis-ampullacea medicinal Piptoporus betu/inusbetulinus medicinal Neoclitocybe bissisedabissiseda food Pisolithus tinctoriustinctorius medicinal Neolentinus adhaerens edible Pleurocybella porrigens edible Neolentinus lepideuslepideus edible Pleurotus abalonusabalonus edible Neolentinus ponderosus foodfood Pleurotus circinacircinatus tus edibleedible Nothopanus hygrophanus edible Pleurotus citrinopileacitrinopileatus tus edibleedible Omphalia lapidescenslapidescens medicinal Pleurotus concavusconcavus foodfood Onnia tomentosa medicinal Pleurotus cornucopiae foodfood Ophiglossum engelmannii medicinal Pleurotus cystidiosuscystidiosus edibleedible Ossicau/isOssicaulis lignatilis lignatilis edible Pleurotus djamor foodfood Otidea onotica edible Pleurotus dryinus foodfood Oudemansiella brunneomarginatabrunneomarginata edible Pleurotus eryngii foodfood Oudemansiella canarii foodfood PleurotusPleurotus eryngii var,var. ferulae edibleedible Oudemansiella mucidamucida edible Pleurotus ferulae edibleedible 138138 WWildild ediblediblee ffungi:ungi: aa ggloballobal ooverviewverview of ttheirheir use andand importanceimportan ce toto peoplepeople

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE Pleurotus flexilis edible Psathyrella pululiformis pululiformis edible Pleurotus floridanus edible Psathyrella rugocephla edible Pleurotus fossulafossulatus tus edible Psathyrella spadicea edible Pleurotus lelevis vis food Pseudocraterellus laeticolorlaeticolor edible Pleurotus nepalensis edible Pseudohydnum gelatinosum edible Pleurotus ostreatoroseus edible Psiloboletinus lariceti edible Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus food (m)(m) Psilocybe spp.spp. medicinal Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus var.var. edible Psilocybe zapotecorumzapotecorum edible magnificus Ptychoverpa bohemica food Pleurotus pulmonarius edible Pulveroboletus aberrans edible Pleurotus rhodophyllus edible Pycnoporus cinnabcinnabarinusarinus edible (m) Pleurotus roseopileatus edible Pycnoporus coccineuscoccineus medicinal Pleurotus sal/gnussalignus edible Pycnoporus sanguineus food (m)(m) Pleurotus sapidus edible Ramalina ecklonii edible Pleurotus smithii edible Ramaria apiculata edible Pleurotus spodoleucus edible Ramaria araiosporaraiosporaa food Pleurotus squarrosulus food Ramaria aurea foodfood PlicaP//caria ria badiabadia edible Ramaria boniibonii edible Pluteus aurantiorugosusaurantiorugosus food Ramaria botrytis foodfood Pluteus cervinus food Ramaria botrytoidebotrytoidess edible Pluteus cervinus var.var. ealaensis edible Ramaria cystidiophora edible Pluteus coccineus edible Ramaria fistulosa edible Pluteus leoninus edible Ramaria flava foodfood Pluteus pellitus edible Ramaria flavobrunnescens food Pluteus subcervinus edible Ramaria flavobrunnescens var.var. food Pluteus tricuspidatus edible aurea Podabrella microcarpa edible Ramaria formosa edible Podaxis pistillaripistillariss edible (m)(m) Ramaria fuscobrunneafuscobrunnea food Podoscypha nitidulanitidula edible Ramaria obtusissimaobtusissima foodfood Pogonomyces hydnoides food Ramaria ochracea edible Polyozellus multiplexmultiplex edible Ramaria pulcherrimpulcherrimaa edible Polyporus alveolarialveolariss medicinal Ramaria rosella edible Polyporus aquosus food Ramaria rubiginosa foodfood PolyporusPolyporus arcularius food Ramaria rubripermanens foodfood Polyporus badius edible Ramaria sansanguinea guinea foodfood Polyporus blanchetianus edible Ramaria stricta edible Polyporus brasiliensis edible Ramaria subaurantiaca foodfood Polyporus elegans medicinal Ramaria subbotrytis foodf ood Polyporus grammocephalus food Rhizopogon luteolus edible Polyporus indigenus foodfood Rhizopogon piceuspiceus edible Polyporus moluccensismoluccensis edible Rhizopogon roseo/usroseolus edible Polyporus mylittae foodfood (m)(m) Rhizopogon rubescensrubescens edible Polyporus rugulosus medimedicinalcinal Rhodophyllus aprilisaprilis edible Polyporus sanguineus edible Rhodophyllus clypeaclypea tustus foodfood Polyporus sapurema foodfood Rhodophyllus crassipes crassipes edible Polyporus squamosussquamosus edible Rigidoporus sanguinolentussanguinolentus medicinal Polyporus sstipitariustipitarius foodfood Rigidoporus ulmariusulmarius medicinal Polyporus tenuiculus edible Rozites caperatus foodfood PolyporusPolyporus tinosustinosus medicinal Rubinoboletus luteopurpureusluteopurpureus edible Polyporus tricholoma foodfood RussulaRussula aciculocystis edibleed ible Polyporus tubaeformitubaeformiss medicinal Russula adusta edibleedible Polyporus tuberastertuberaster medicinal Russula aeruginea foodfood Polyporus umbellaumbellatus tus edible (m)(m) RussulaRussula afronigricansafronigricans edibleedible Polystictus unicolorunicolor medicinal Russula albonigraalbonigra edibleedible Porphyrellus atrobrunneus edible Russula alutacea foodfood PorphyrellusPorphyrellus pseudoscaberpseudoscaber edible Russula amaendum edibleedible Psathyrella atroumbonataatroumbonata foodfood Russula atropurpureaatropurpurea edibleedible Psathyrella candolleana foodfood Russula atrovirensatrovirens edibleedible Psathyrella coprinoceps foodfood Russula aurata edibleedible Psathryella hymenocephala foodfood Russula brevipes foodfood Annex 3: A global list of wild fungi used as foodfood,, saidsa d to be edible or withwith medicinalmedicinal propertiesproperties 139

BINOMIALBINOMIAL USE BINOMIALBINOMIAL USE Russula ce/tu/atacellulata food Russula viscida edible Russula chamaeleontinachamaeleontina edible Russula xerampelinaxerampelina foodfood Russula chloroideschloroides edible Sarcodon aspratusaspratus foodfood Russula ciliata edible Sarcodon imbricaimbricatus tus foodfood Russula compressa edible Sarcodon lobatus edibleedible Russula concongoana goana edible Sarcoscypha coccineacoccinea foodfood Russula consobrina edible Sarcosphaera eximia foodfood Russula cyanoxantha foodfood Schizophyllum brevilamellatum edibleedible Russula cyclosperma edible Schizophyllum communecommune foodfood (m)(m) Russula delica foodfood Schizophyllum fasciatumfascia tum edibleedible Russula densifoliadensifolia foodfood Scleroderma bovonei edibleedible Russula diffusadiffusa var. diffusa edible Scleroderma citrinum edibleedible Russula eburneoareolataeburneoareolata edible Scleroderma flavidum medicinal Russula emetica edible Scleroderma radicansradicans edible Russula erythropus edible Scleroderma texensetexense edible Russula flava edible Scleroderma verrucosumverrucosum edible (m)(m) Russula foetens food Sclerotium glucanicum medicinal Russula fragilis edible Scutiger ovinus edible Russula heimiiheimii edible Secotium himalaicum edible Russula heterophylla heterophylla food Secotium sp.sp. medicinal Russula hiemisilvaehiemisilvae edible Shiraia bambusicolabambusico/a medicinal Russula lepida food Sparassis crispacrisp a foodfood Russula liberiensis edible Sphaerothallia esculentaesculenta foodfood Russula lutea food Sporisorium cruentum foodfood Russula macropoda edible Stereopsis hiscens edible Russula madegassensis edible Stereum hirsutum medicinal Russula mariae foodfood Stereum membranaceum medicinal Russula mexicana edible Strobilomyces conconfusus fusus edible Russula minutula minutula edible Strobilomyces coturnixcoturnix edible Russula nigricansnigricans foodfood Strobilomyces floccopus food Russula nitidanítida edible Strobilomyces velutipes edible Russula ochroleucaochroleuca edible StropStropharia haria coronilla food Russula olivaceaolivacea food Stropharia rugosoannulata edible Russula olivascens edible Suillus abietinus edible Russula ornaticepsorna ticeps edible Suillus acidus edible Russula pectinatoidespectinatoides edible SuitlusSuillus americanus food Russula phaeocephalaphaeocephala edible Suillus bovinus edible Russula pseudoamaendumpseudoamaendum edible Suillus brevipes food Russula pseudostriatoviridis pseudostriatoviridis edible Suillus cavipes food RussulaRussula punctata punctata edible Suillus granulagranulatus tus foodfood Russula queletii queletii edible Suillus grevillei edible (m) Russula romagnesianaroma gnesiana food Suillus hirtellushirtellus food Russula rosacea edible Suillus lactifluuslactifluus edible Russula roserosea a edible Suillus luteluteus us food (m)(m) Russula roseoalbaroseoalba edible Suillus placidus edible Russula roseostriataroseostriata edible Suillus plorans edible Russula rubrarubra edible Suillus pseudobrevipes food Russula rubroalba rubroalba edible SuitlusSuillus punpungens gens edible Russula sanguineasan guinea food SuitlusSuillus subluteus edible Russula sardoniasardonia edible Suillus tomentosus food Russula schizodermaschizoderma edible SuitSu//tus Ius variegatusvariegatus edible Russula sese edible Suillus viscidus edible Russula sesenagulasesena gula edible Tephrocybe atrataatrata edible Russula striatoviridis striatoviridis edibleedible Terfezia arenaarenaria ria edible Russula sublaevis edibleedible Terfezia boudieriboudieri edible Russula tanzaniaetanzaniae edibleedible TerfeziaTer fezia claveryiclaveryi edible Russula vesca edibleedible TerfeziaTer fezia leonisleonis edible Russula violeipes foodfood Terfezia pfeiliipfeilii foodfood Russula virescens foodfood (m) TermitomycesTermitomyces albuminosusalbuminosus foodfood 140 Wild eedibledible fungi: a global overview ofof their their useuse andand importance importance to to people people

BINOMIAL USE BINOMIAL USE Termitomyces aurantiacus foodfood Tricholoma pessundatum edible Termitomyces clypeac/ypeatus tus foodfood Tricholoma pessundatum var.var. edible Termitomyces cylindricus edible populinum Termitomyces entolomoides edible Tricholoma populinum food Termitomyces eurhizus food Tricholoma portentosum edible Termitomyces fuliginosus edible Tricholoma quercicola edible Termitomyces globulus food Tricholoma saponaceum edible Termitomyces heimiihe/mi/ edible Tricholoma scabrumscabrum edible Termitomyces letestuiletestui food Tricholoma sejunctum food Termitomyces mammiformismammiformis food Tricholoma spectabilis edible Termitomyces medius food Tricholoma sulphureum food Termitomyces microcarpus food (m)(m) Tricholoma terreum edible Termitomyces radicaradicatus tus edible Tricholoma ustaloidesustaloides edible Termitomyces robustus food Tricholoma vaccinumvaccinum edible Termitomyces schimperi foodfood Tricholomopsis decora edible Termitomyces singidensis food TricholomopsisTricho/omopsis rutilansrutilans edible Termitomyces striastriatus tus edible Trogia infundibuliformisinfundibuliformis edible Termitomyces striastriatus tus var.var. edible Tuber aestivum food aurantiacus Tuber borchii food Termitomyces titanicus food Tuber brumale edible Termitomyces umkowaaniiumkowaanii edible Tuber californicum edible Thelephora ganbajum food Tuber gibbosum edible Thelephora paraparaguayensis guayensis medicinal Tuber hiemalbum edible Tirmania africana edible Tuber indicum edible Tirmania nivep edible Tuber magnatum food Tirmania pinoyipinoyi edible Tuber melanosporum food Trametes albida medicinal Tuber mesentericum edible Trametes cubensis food Tuber moschatum edible Trametes hirsuta medicinal Tuber oligospermumoligospermum edible Trametes ochracea food Tuber rufumrufum edible Trametes orientalisorientalis medicinal Tuber sinosum foodfood Trametes pubescens medicinal Tubosaeta brunneosetosa edible Trametes robiniophilarobiniophila edible Tulostoma brumale medicinal Trametes sanguinea medicinal Tylopilus ballouiiballouii edible Trametes suaveolens medicinal Tylopilus felleus food Trametes versicolor edible (m) Tyromyces sulphureussulphureus medicinal Tremella aurantia edible (m) Umbilicaria esculentaesculenta food (m)(m) Tremella concrescensconcrescens edible Umbilicaria muehlenbergii food Tremella foliacea edible Usnea hirta medicinal TremellaTremella fuciformisfuciformis edible (m)(m) Ustilago esculentaesculenta food (m)(m) Tremella lutescens edible Ustilago maydis food (m)(m) Tremella mesenterica edible (m) Vanderbylia ungulata medicinal Tremella reticulatareticulata food Vascellum curtisii edible Tremellodendron schweinitzii edible Vascellum gudeniigudenii edible Tremiscus helvelloideshe/vello/des edible Vascellum intermediumintermedium food Trichaptum trichomallum food Vascellum pratense edible Tricholoma atrosquamosum edible Verpa conica edible Tricholoma bakamatsutake edible Volvariella bakeri edible Tricholoma caligatum food Volvariella bombycina edible Tricholoma equestre food Volvariella diplasia edible Tricholoma flavovirens food Volvariella esculenta foodfood Tricholoma fulvum edible Volvariella parvispora edible Tricholoma imbricatum edible VolvariellaVo/variella speciosa edible Tricholoma japonicumjaponicum edible Volvariella terastriateras tria edible Tricholoma magnive/aremagnivelare foodfood Volvariella volvacea foodfood (m)(m) Tricholoma matsutake foodfood (m)(m) Wolfiporia extensaextensa edible (m)(m) Tricholoma mauritianum edible Wynnella silvicola edible Tricholoma mongolicum edible Xanthoconium separansseparans edible Tricholoma muscarium edible Xerocomus badius food Tricholoma orirubens edible Xerocomus chrysenteron edible Annex 3: A global list of wild fungi used as food,food, said to be edible or with medicinal properties 141

BINOMIALBINOMIAL USE Xerocomus pallidosporus edible Xerocomus rubellus edible Xerocomus soyeri edible Xerocomus spadiceus edible Xerocomus subtomentosus food Xerocomus versicolor edible Xeromphalina campanellacampanella edible (m)(m) Xerula radicataradicata medicinal Xylaria papyrigera medicinal Xylaria polymorpha medicinal Xylosma flexuosum edible 143

ANNEX 4 Edible andand medicinalmedicinal fungifungi thatthat cancan be cultivated

This list ofof 9292 namesnames hashas beenbeen preparedprepared fromfrom StametsStamets (2000)(2000) and ChangChang andand MaoMao (1995). TheThe = sign denotes the namename asas originaloriginal publishedpublished andand whichwhich hashas sincesince beenbeen changed. This list containscontains onlyonly saprobicsaprobic species species andand excludesexcludes ectomycorrhizalectomycorrhizal species species such as truffles (Tuber spp.) that areare managedmanaged in naturalnatural habitats.habitats.

BINOMIAL BINOMIAL BINOMIAL Agaricus arvensisarvensis Hericium coralloides Paneolus subalteatus Agaricus augustus Hericium erinaceum Paneolus tropicalistropicalis Agaricus bisporus Hypholoma capnoidescapnoides Phallus impudicus Agaricus bitorquis Hypholoma sublateritium Phellinus spp.spp. Agaricus blazei Hypsizygus marmoreus Pholiota nameko Agaricus brunnescensbrunnescens Hypsizygus tessulatus Piptoporus betulinusbetulin us Agaricus campestris lnonotusInonotus obliquusobliquus Piptoporus indigenus Agaricus subrufescens Kuehneromyces mutamutabilis bilis Pleurocybella porrigens Agrocybe aegerita Laetiporus sulphureus Pleurotus citrinopileacitrinopileatus tus Agrocybe cylindraceacylindracea Laricifomes officinalis Pleurotus cornucopiae (= Fomitopsis officinalis) AgroAgrocybe cybe molesta Pleurotus cystidiosuscystidiosus Lentinula edodes AgroAgrocybe cybe praecox Pleurotus djamour Lentinus strigosus Albatrellus spp. spp. Pleurotus eryngii (=Panus rudis)rudis) Armillaria me//eamellea Pleurotus euosmuseuosmus Lentinus tigrinus Auricularia auricula-judae Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus Lentinus tuber-regium Auricularia fuscosuccinea Pleurotus pulmonarius Auricularia fuscosuccinea Lepista nuda Auricularia polytricha Pleurotus rhodophyllusrhodophyllus Lepista sordida CalvatiaCa/vatia gigantea Pluteus cervinus Lyophyllum fumosum Coprinus comatus Polyporus indigenus Coprinus coma tus Lyophyllum ulmarium Daedalea quercina (=Hypsizygus ulmarium) Polyporus saporema Dictyophora duplicata Macrocybe gigantea Polyporus umbellatus (=(=Tricholoma Tricholoma giganteum) (= Dendropolyporus Flammulina velutipes Flammulina velutipes umbellatus) Macrolepiota procerapro cera Fomes fomentarius Fomes fomentarius Psilocybe cyanescens Marasmius oreades Ganoderma applanatum Ganoderma applanatum Schizophyllum commune Morchella angusticepsangusticeps Ganoderma curtisii Ganoderma curtisii Sparassis crispa Morchella esculentaesculenta Ganoderma Ganoderma lucidum Stropharia rugusoannulata Neolentinus lepideus Ganoderma oreoregonense gonense (=Lentinus lepidus) Trametes cinnabarinum Ganoderma sinensesinense Oligoporus spp.spp. Trametes versicolor Ganoderma tenus Ganoderma tenus Oudemansiella radicata Tremella fuciformis Ganoderma tsugae Oxyporus nobilissimus Volvariella bombabombacyina cyina Grifola frondosa Panellus serotinus yo/varíe/laVolvariella volvaceavolvacea (=Hohenbuehelia serotina) V volvacea var. gloiocephala 145

ANNEX 55 Wild edibleedible fungifungi soldsold inIn• locallocal markets

The followingfollowing examplesexamples are mostlymostly fromfrom developingdeveloping countries.countries. ItIt is is aa small small selectionselection of the manymany speciesspecies that are sold around thethe world,world, particularlyparticularly for China. Popular species such as BoletusBoletus edulis, Cantharellus cibariuscibarius and PleurotusPleurotus ostreatusostreatus areare soldsold in many countriescountries andand areare notnot listed listed below. below. SpeciesSpecies soldsold inin MalawiMalawi oror MozambiqueMozambique markets areare availableavailable separately (www.malawifungi.org).(www.malawifungi.org). ThereThere are markets for edibleedible fungi in thethe UnitcdUnited RepublicRepublic ofof Tanzania Tanzania (Flärkönen,(Harkonen, 1995)1995) andand BurundiBurundi (Buyck,(Buyck, 1994b) butbut furtherfurther information is needed on the speciesspecies sold. Some marketmarket reportsreports list only locallocal names.names. ':." indicates species that are also cultivated; it is not always made clear whatwhat origin these have in some markets.

Dictyophora indusiataindusiata" * ARMENIA Nanaguylan, 2002, personal communication Flammulina velutipes*velutipes" Ganoderma lucidum*lucidum" Agaricus campestriscampestris Hericium erinaceus"erinaceus* Agaricus silvaticus Hydnum repandum Armillaria me//eamellea Lactarius akahatsu Ca/ocybe gambosa Lactarius deliciosus Cantharellus cibarius Lactarius hatsudake Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius subindico Lepista nuda Lyophyllum decastesde castes Lepista personapersonata ta Pleurotus ostreaostreatus tus * MacrolepiotaMacro/epiota excoriaexcoriata ta Ramaria stricta Macro/epiotaMacrolepiota proceraprocera Russula spp. Pleurotus eryngii Tricholoma matsutake Suillus granulatus Tricho/omaTricholoma quercicola Suillus luteus Umbilicaria esculentaescu/enta

BOLIVIA GUATEMALA Boa, 2001, personal communication Flores, 2002,2002, personalpersonal communicationcommunication

Leucoagaricus hortensis Hypomyces lactifluorumlactifluorum Ramaria araiospora

CHILECHilE Tremella reticulatareticulata Minter, 2002, personal communication Tricho/omaTricholoma flavovirens

Cyttaria espinosae INDIAINDIA Purkayastha and Chandra, 1985 CHINA Chamberlain, 1996;1996; Härkönen,Hark6nen, 2000; 2000; Priest, Priest, 2002,2002, Coprinus acuminatus personal communication; Winkler, 20022002 Tricholoma sulphureum Agaricus blazei*blazei"

Auricularia auricula-judae"auricula-judae * INDONESIAINDONESIA Boletus (i(in n the broadbroad sense) sense) Ducousso, Ba andand Thoen, 2002 Boletus edulis Scleroderma spp.spp. Cordyceps sinensis*sinensis" 146 WildWild eedibledible fungfungi:i: aa ggloballobal overview of ththeireir use and importanceimportance to peoplepeople

KUWAIT Gyromitra infula AlsheikhAisheikh andand Trappe,Trappe, 19831983 Hebeloma fastibilefa stibile Hebeloma mesophaeum Tirmania pinoyi HelvellaHe/ve//a acetabula He/ve/laHelvella crispacrispa LAoLAO PEOPLE'SPEOPLE'S DEMOCRATICDEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC REPUBLIC He/ve/laHelvella elastica Hosaka, 2002, personalpersonal communication He/ve/laHelvella infula He/ve/laHelvella lacunosa Amanita hemibaphahemibapha Hygrocybe nigrescensnigrescens Panus rudis Hygrophoropsis aurantiaca Ramaria sp.sp. Hygrophorus chrysodon Russula spp. Hygrophorus niveus Schizophyllum commune Hygrophorus russula Termitomyces sp.sp. Hypomyces lactifluorum lactifluorum Laccaria amethystinaamethystina MADAGASCAR Laccaria bicolorbicolor Ducousso, SaBa and Thoen, 20022002 Laccaria laccata Cantharellus eucalyptorum Lactarius deliciosus Lactarius indigoindigo Lactarius salmonicolorsalmonicolor MEXICO Lactarius yazooensis Montoya-Esquivel, 1998; Villarreal andand Perez-Perez­ Moreno, 1989a;1989a; wwvv.semarnat.gob.mxwww.semarnat.gob.mx Laetiporus sulphureus Leccinum aurantiaaurantiacumcum Agaricus campestris LentinulaLen tinula boryana Agaricus silvasilvaticus ticus Lepista nuda Amanita caesarea caesarea Lycoperdon perlatumperlatum Amanita caesareacaesarea var. americana Lycoperdon pyriformepyriforme Amanita fu/vafulva Lyophyllum decastesde castes Amanita rubescensrubescens Lyophyllum ovisporum Amanita tuzatuza Marasmius oreades Amanita vaginatavagi nata MorchellaMarche//a con/caconica Armillaria me//eamellea Morchella crassipescrassipes Armillaria ostoyaeostoyae Morchella elata Armillaria tabescens tabescens Morchella esculentaesculenta Boletus bicoloroides PaPaxinaxina acetabulum Boletus edulis Pholiota lentalenta BoleBoletus tus frostiifrostii Pluteus auraaura ntiorugosusntiorugosus Boletus pinicola Pluteus cervinus Boletus pinophilus Ramaria aurea Boletus reticulatus Ramaria botrytis Boletus variipes Ramaria flavobrunnescens Ca/vatiaCalvatia cyathiformis Ramaria rubiginosa Cantharellus cibarius Ramaria rubripermanens Cantharellus odoratus Rhodophyllus abortivus (Entoloma abortivum?)abortivum 7) Cantharellus tubaeformis Rozites caperatus Chroogomphus jamaicensis Russula alutacea Chroogomphus rutilusrutilus Russula brevipes Chroogomphus vinicolor Russula cyanoxantha Clavariadelphus truncatruncatus tus Russula delicadel/ca ClavicoronaC/avicorona pyxidatapyxidata RuRussulassula mariaemariae ClavulinaC/avulina cinerea Russula olivaolivacea cea Clitocybe clavipes Russula romagnesianaromagnesiana Clitocybe gibba Russula xerampelinaxerampelina Collybia dryophila Sarcodon imbricaimbricatus tus Cortinarius glaucopus Sarcosphaera eximia Craterellus cornucopioides Sparassis crispcrispa a Craterellus fallax Stropharia coronilla Entoloma clypeatum Suillus americanamericanus us Gomphus clavatus Suillus brevipes Gomphus floccosus Suillus cavipes Gomphus kauffmaniikauffmanii SuitSuillus Ius granulatus Annex 5: Wild edible fungi sold in local markets 147

Suillus luteus Russula violeipesvioleipes Suillus pseudobrevipes Volvariella volvacea"volvacea * Tricholoma flavovirens Tricholoma magnivelare TURKEY Tylopilus felleus Sabra and Walter, 20012001 Ustilago maydis BoletusBoletos edulis Cantharellus cibarius NEPAL Rhizopogon sp.sp. Adhikari, 1999;1999; Adhikari andand Durrieu, Durrieu, 1996 1996 TerfeziaTer fezia boudieriboudieri Cantharellus cibarius

Clavulina cinerea ZAMBIA ClavulinaC/avulina cristata Pegler and Piearce,Piearce, 1980 Craterellus cornucopioides Amanita zambianazambiana Grifola frondosa Cantharellus cibarius Hericium erinaceus"erinaceus* Cantharellus densifolius Hericium flagellumflagellum* * Cantharellus longisporus Hydnum repandum Cantharellus miniatescens Laccaria amethystinaamethystina Cantharellus pseudocibarius Laccaria laccata Lactarius kabansus Laetiporus sulphureus Schizophyllum commune Meripilus giganteus Termitomyces clypeatusc/ypeatus Pluteus cervinuscervi nus Termitomyces microcarpus Polyporus arcularius Termitomyces titanicus Ramaria aurea Ramaria botrytis Ramaria flava Ramaria fuscobrunnea Ramaria obtusissima Termitomyces eurhizus

SENEGAL Ducousso, Ba andand Thoen, 2002

Gyrodon intermediusintermedios Phlebopus sudanicus

TAIWAN PROVINCEPROVINCE OF CHINACHINA Kawagoe, 19241924

Ustilagoustilago esculentaesculenta

TANZANIA [UNITED[UNITED REPUBLIC REPUBLIC OF] Harkonen,Harkbnen, SaarimäkiSaarimaki and Mwasumbi 1994a1994a

Lactarius kabansus Lactarius phlebophyllusphlebophyllus Russula cellulatace//u/ata Termitomyces letestui Termitomyces sinsingidensis gidensis

THAILAND Jones, WhalleyWhalley and Hywel-Jones,Hywel-Jones, 19941994

Auricularia sp.sp. Cantharellus minor LenLentinula tinula edodes*edodes" LenLentinus tinus praerigiduspraerigidus Russula aerugineaaeruginea Russula lepida Russula sanguineasan guinea FAO TECHNICALTECHNICAL PAPERS

NON-WOOD() -WOOD FOREST FOREST PRODUCTS PRODUCTS

1. Flavours and fragrances of plant origin (1995)(1995)

2. Gum naval stores:stores: turpentine and rosinrosin from pinepine resinresin (1995)(1995)

3. Report of the International ExpertExpert ConsultationConsultation onon Non-WoodNon-Wood ForestForest ProductsProducts (1995)(1995)

4. Natural colourants and dyestuffs (1995)(1995)

5. Edible nuts (1995)(1995)

6. Gums, resins and latexes of plantplant originorigin (1995)(1995)

7. Non-wood forest products for ruralrural incomeincome andand sustainablesustainable forestryforestry (1995)(1995)

8. Trade restrictions affecting internationalinternational trade inin non-woodnon-wood forestforest productsproducts (1995)(1995)

9. DomesticationDomestication and commercialization of non-timber forest products in agroforestry systems (1996)(1996)

10. Tropical palmspalms (1998)(1998)

11. Medicinal plants for forest conservationconservation andand healthhealth carecare (1997)(1997)

12. Non-wood forest products from conifersconifers (1998)(1998)

13. Resource assessment of non-wood forest products Experience and biometric principles (2001)

14. Rattan - Current research issuesissues andand prospectsprospects forfor conservationconservation andand sustainablesustainable development (2002)

15. Non-wood forest products from temperate broad-leaved trees (2002)(2002)

16. Rattan glossary and Compendium glossary with emphasis onon AfricaAfrica (2004)(2004)

17. Wild edible fungi - A global overview of their use and importance to people (2004)(2004)

The FAO Technical PapersPapers areare availableavailable throughthrough thethe authorizedauthorized FAOFAO SalesSales AgentsAgents

[email protected] _ 9- o /7%>\

Wild edibleedible fungifungi areare an important groupgroup of non-woodnon-wood forest products: they are used as bothboth foodfood and medicinemedicine andand provideprovide income toto manymany forestforest usersusers and traders.traders. ThisThis publicationpublication reviews the characteristics of fungifungi biologybiology andand ecology,ecology, as wellwell as fungifungi management andand theirtheir importance to people. Information isis provided that will helphelp forestryforestry technicians,technicians, nutritionists, naturalnatural resourceresource planners,planners, policy-makerspolicy-makers and other stakeholders concerned appraise the opportunities and constraints in promotingpromoting the the sustainable sustainable useuse of wild edible fungi.

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ISBN 92-5 05157-7 ISSN 1020-3370

II111111111 97 8 9 2 5 10 5 1 5 7 3 TC/M Y5489E/1/07.04/3000

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