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Ethnic Boundaries, Identity, and Schooling: a Socio - Cultural Study of Welsh-English Relations

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Ethnic Boundaries, Identity, and Schooling: a Socio - Cultural Study of Welsh-English Relations DOCUMENT RESUME ED 108 517 FL 006 988 AUTHOR Khleif, Bud B. TITLE Ethnic Boundaries, Identity, and Schooling: A Socio - cultural Study of Welsh-English Relations. SPONS AGENCY National Inst. of Education (DREW), Washington, D.C. PUE PATE 8 May 75 GRANT NE-G-00-3-0130 \ NOTE 464p.; Portions of\pages 30, 140, 164, 255, 371, and 403 are copyrighted) and not available. They do not affect the,,pagination EDRS PRICE MF-$0.76 HC-$23.48 PLUS POSTAGE DESCRIPTORS *Bilingual Education; Bilingualism; *Cultural Awareness; Cultural Background; Cultural Education; Cultural Factors; Economic Factors; Educational Legislation; Educational Planning; Educational Policy; Ethnic Groups; *Ethnic Relations; *Ethnic Studies; Language Instruction; Language Planning; Language Pole; *Nationalism; Official Languages; Political Attitudes; Second Languages; Social Factors; Sociolinguistics; Uncommonly Taught Languages; *Welsh IDENTIFIERS Welsh English Relations ABSTRACT This report is concerned with the current Welsh cultural resurgence, with the focus of this resurgence on the Welsh language as a chief determinant of ethnicity, and with the efforts of the Welsh to obtain from those that govern them institutional supports for their language in schools, courts of law, and similar public and official establishments. This study is put in the co xt of relations with the English, the historical background of the Welch, and the larger context of autonomist movements in Europe and North America, South America, Asia, and Africa. The questions explored here include:(1) what is the relationship between ethnicity, nationalism, and language;(2) under what circumstances do they fuse into one another; (3) to what extent do they have an unieerlying unity, yet can be discussed apart; and (4) what accounts foi the persistence of ethnicity well into the twentieth century? The report is divided into the following sections: a brief history of European, Celtic, and Welsh nationalism; issues and development in Welsh nationalism; land, language, and community; language versus institutions; the school as an agency of regeneration; and the teaching of history in the schools. Implications of.this study in relation to ethnicity, nationalism, and bilingualism are also discussed. (Author/AM) Ethnic Boundaries, Identity, and Schooling: D A Socio-Cultural Study of Welsh-English Relations BUD B. 'MITA!: ali -.if i.;) iti..., _../ °Q,.`' N5 ... Ael- o A ._,,...._1e ETHNIC BOUNDARIES, IDENTITY, AND SCHOOLING: A SOCIO-CULTURAL STUDY OF WELSH-ENGLISH RELATIONS BUD B. KHLEIF DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY & ANTHROPOLOGY UNIVERSITY OF NEW HAMPSHIRE DURHAM, NEW HAMPSHIRE 03824 The project reported herein was performed pursuant to a grant from the National Institute of Education, Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. However, the opinions expressed herein do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the National Institute of Education, and no official endorsement by the National Institute of Education should be inferred. N.I.E. Project No. NE-G-00-3-0130. Bud B. Khleif. May 8, 1975. 4 ii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS viii I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION: INDEPENDENCE MOVEMENTS, ETHNICITY, & LANGUAGE 1 Essentialism vs. Epochalism II. A BRIEF HISTORY OF NATIONALISM: EUROPEAN, CELTIC, & WELSH 11 The Celtic Fringe as a Case of "Internal Colonialism" 18 (English "Language Golliwogs" against the Welsh) 27 III. WELSH NATIONALISM: ISSUES & DEVELOPMENT 31 A Word about Plaid Cymru: The Post-1945 Phase 40 IV. LAND, LANGUAGE, & COMMUNITY 45 Language as Identity 45 Languages as Ethnic Boundaries 47 A Note on the Psychology of Loss of Language 51 The Welsh-W610 & the Anglo-Welsh: The Dragon-Has Two Tongues 65 The Current Crisis: Statistics on the Decline of the Language 75 iii S PAGE Linguistic "Restoration": Efforts to Promote the Welsh Language as an Instrument of Culture and Identity, as the Core of Wel shness 86 Land, Language, & Community ("Gwlad," "Iaith," & "Cymdogaeth") 101 The Key: Emergence of a New Middle Class 106 V. THE LANGUAGE VS. INTERLOCKING INSTITUTIONS 112 The Courts 115 The Post Office & Other Gov't Depts. 125 Welsh on Television & Radio 126 Welsh in Higher Education 131 The Kilbrandon Report 1)4 VI. THE SCHOOL AS AN AGENCY OF REGENERATION 139 The Whole of Which the School Is Only a Part 139 Quoth the Saxon to the C mrot "Thou Shalt Not Speak Welsh in Wa ees" 146 A. The 1847 Report (The "Betrayal of the Blue Books") 148 B. The 1870 Education Act 159 "Ysgolion Cymraeg" (Welsh-Medium Schools) 163 (Welsh Nursery Schools & Welsh Play-Groups for Pre-Schoolers) 178 Support Units & Research Projects (a) Welsh Reading Books Scheme of W.J.E.C. 185 b Welsh National Language Unit 191 c Bilingual Education Project 201 d Welsh Language Research Unit 216 e English & Welsh History Project 216 iv PAGE The Issue of Bilingualism 227 Welsh-Medium Schools as Schools for Regeneration 253 Characteristics of Welsh-Medium Schools A. Aims 263 B. Performance 269 C. Subjects Taught in English vs. Welsh 278 D. Notes on the Operation of Welsh-Medium Schools 282 E. On the Process of Welshification in Welsh-Medium Schools 292 (1) The "Block Program" 302 (2) Compensatory Welsh & Compensatory Welshness 309 F. Stereotypes about Welsh-Medium Schools 311 VII. CATECHISM FOR IDENTITY: THE TEACHING OF HISTORY IN SCHOOLS 314 History & History-and-Anthropology Projects 330 The Teaching of History in Welsh-Medium Schools 333 Examples of History Syllabi in Welsh-Medium Secondary Schools A. Glan Clwyd School 351 B. Maes Garman School 354 C. Rhydfelen School 356 D. Morgan Llwyd School 361 E. Ystalyfera School 364 A Note on History as Nourishment for, or Spoiler of, Identity 366 VIII. SOME IMPLICATIONS OF THIS STUDY 372 A. Ethnicity & Nationalism 372 B. Bilingualism 1. Language Maintenance vs. Transition 392 PAGE 2. Teacher Training 396 3. Assessment Instruments 397 4. Language Valuation & Devaluation by Parents & Community 398 GLOSSARY 404 BIBLIOGRAPHY A. GENERAL 4-07 B. TEXTBOOKS 446 PLATES 1. Y Ddraig Goch: Tyngyd yr Iaith (The Welsh Dragon: The Fate of the Language) 2. Counties of Wales & Percentages of Welsh Speakers 3. Golliwog POEMS 1. "If You Can Call It Living" (R. S. Thomas) 30 2. "Wales to The Netherlands" (R. Garlick) 140 3. "Oni ellir dysgu Saesneg ar y gore" & translation (Twm o'r Nant) 164 4. "Gadael hwsmonaeth, a chanlyn y Gyfraith" & transiltion (Huw Morys) 255 5. "The Engli Are So Nice" (D. H. Lawrence) 771 vi 8 PAGE 6. "The Deepest Sensuality" (D. H. Lawrence) 371 7. "We Shall Not Cease from Exploration" (T. S. Eliot) 403 TABLES 1. Percentages of Welsh Speakers: 1801-1971 76 2. Welsh Monoglots & Welsh-English Bilinguals: 1911-1971 Percentages 83 3. Percentages of Welsh Speakers by County: 1961 & 1971 85 4. 1972 Daily Radio & Television Broadcasts to Wales 128 5. Summary of 12 Years of Welsh Language Broadcasting on Radio & TV 129 6. 1973-74 Welsh-Medium Primary & Secondary Schools: Enrollment per New (Post-April, 1974) Counties 175 7. 1973-74: Overall Exposure to Welsh as a Medium of Instruction--Welsh-Medium Schools in Anglicized Areas & English-Medium Schools in Welsh-Speaking Areas 176 8. Rhydfelen School: "0" Level & "A" Level Exams in English & French, 1966-1972 271 9. Rhydfelen School: "A" Level Exams as a Whole, 1969-1972 272 10. Rhydfelen School: "0" Level Exams as a Whole, 1966-1972 272 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to the University of New Hampshire for my 1973-74 sabbatical'leave, to the National Institute of Education for a research grant, and to St. Antony's College, Oxford University, for an intellectually rewarding year. For their active support and gracious help in facilitating this project, I owe a special debt of thanks to the following persons: Professor Kenneth Kirkwood, Rhodes Professor of Race Relations, Oxford University; Professor Idris Ll. Foster, Jesus Professor of Celtic, Oxford University; Professor Andrew Taylor, Professor of Education, University College, Cardiff; Rev. J. Elfed Davies, Mr. W. Alun Mathias, Mr. David I. Allsobrook, Lecturers in Education, and Dr. V. Michael Walker, Lecturer in Sociology, University College, Cardiff. Many people in Wales in all walks of life, academic and non-academic, as well as a few people in England, have been my anthropological informants. Without them, this s'ildy could not have been written; to them, I am deeply grateful. Regrettably, they shall remain nameless; field -work practice prevents me from identifying them. Whatever error of fact or interpretation they may spot in this report is, of course, mine alone. With exemplary care and skill, Mrs. Janet A. Snow has tyjed the manuscript. I am appreciative of her assistance. To all the above, in both English and Welsh, let me say Thank You and Diolch Yn Fawr! Bud B. Khleif May 8, 1975 Durham, New Hampshire viii 10 1 411110" so10 'Polk voioc "Oni ellir dysgu Saesneg ar y gore, Heb fynd yn felchion goegion gege, I wadu na fedrant ddim yn faith Mewn moment o iaith eu mime ?" (Twm o'r Nant) "Why should they purse their lips and mince along, The moment they acquire the English tongue, Deny, decry their mother tongue, and feign No fluency of phrase in native vein?" (Twm o'r Nant, Eighteenth century Welsh poet) Sources: (a)Dragon: Meils,G. ,1973: front cover; (b)Poem: Isaac, N., 1972:94,95. Plate 1 ix 11 1. Ar, -1. -ey C1c rtarv)n it ire 1 MON Dent-ri-h 65.7 (75.5) FILINT '1tnt:-11:rf- 14.7 (19.0 DINBYCII , r) )114-ti- :-111 ARSON 28.1(34.8) 73.1 09.9) mid ,tre 7. t-h-tre MEIRION thnorrInrc 73.5 (75,9) r.Perr-Ir C Irr-rtrthem;h1re 11, Hrer lnf-h re . TREFALDWYN 28.1 (32.8) Cl h or -hr 1 Mon-lout/Is/1i re I .. 7 3 MAESYFED ABERTEIFI 3.8 (4.5) Not e 87.6 (74.8) .k-,T.111,' $7/1, the 11 counts e- of Wal have 'beer reorr-anized 11 1'1 into ar follows: BRYCHEIN1OG PENFTIO CAERFYRDIMN 22.9 (29.1) ( Gw-ned I:1, 68.5 (75.1) 20.7 (24.4) (b) Clwyd : A.
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