The Authority of Nature Race, Heredity, and Crime 1800–1940

Starting with the second half of the eighteenth century, power relationships between peoples on earth, the growing and dramatic division between dominant nations and nations that were dominated, or even eliminated, and indeed the foundations of social inequalities, were increasingly seen by western naturalists and intellectuals as inevitable (albeit, to some, unpleasant) features of the order of nature. Racial weakness was regarded as inscribed in the shape of human skulls, individual deficiencies in the traits of human faces. Across the world, as within societies, every human group and individual occupied the place that nature had assigned to it. The attempt to ground political and social phenomena on the authority of nature preceded the advent of Darwinism in the 1860s. It could indeed be claimed that the immediate and chaotic spread of Social Darwinism within the Western world simply reflected the widespread presence of attitudes and beliefs for which Charles Darwin, often unwittingly, provided authoritative scientific evidence. Darwin himself, in the last analysis, shared many of the presuppositions of his self-appointed and at times extreme followers, and predicted that many populations of the earth would disappear as the inevitable, albeit regrettable consequence of natural laws regulating the relationships between nations. Yet, the “natural” triumph of the “civilizing” imperial western powers was not granted. Once again, the struggle for life and natural selection had to be called upon to express anxieties about the stability of the social order. The mounting aggressiveness of the “dangerous classes” and the fertility of the lower orders were jeopardizing the efforts of the “natural” elites that were responsible for civilization and imperial advances. The superior races had to exercise control over the less endowed ones, in the same way as the social elites had to carefully monitor demographic and political transformations that in the long term would endanger the survival of the race itself. Chronic illnesses, moral insensitivity, atavist aggressiveness had to be curbed through a rigid control of immigration and reproduction. New ways to investigate dangerous traits emerging in social groups would have led to scientifically based preventive actions. Racial anthropology found its parallel in criminal anthropology and criminology. Crime was seen as a natural phenomenon for which, often, there was no cure. Individuals as well as crowds often showed the survival of traits that characterized previous stages in the development of society, or in the natural history of man. “Beastly behaviours” and “savage crimes” became expressions that summed up a widespread climate of opinion. The survival of nations depended on their capacity to steer the reproductive flow and to isolate and possibly eliminate the danger that lethal traits would further spread throughout society. To some legislative bodies, such as the State of Indiana in 1907 and 1927, forced sterilisation appeared as a benign solution capable of stopping the spread of dangerous individual traits. To National Socialist political and scientific leaders in Germany, sterilization had to be accompanied by stronger measures, such as forced isolation and straightforward physical elimination. A strong State had to take strong measures to survive and to lead. Has the tragic lesson of negative eugenics during the 1930s and the early 1940s been learnt? A final lecture will be devoted to the periodic resurgence of attitudes appealing to the authority of nature and of science to explain complex social and historical phenomena. Is intelligence hereditary, geographically and socially distributed, and can “science” prescribe social norms and suggest political measures?

Tutors: Pietro Corsi, Ruth Harris, Graham Baker 2

I. Prelude: The races of man, 1750–1900

A New Science of Man Skulls, faces, and races Monogenism vs. Polygenism Races and climates Races and cultures

Immanuel Kant, “On the Distinctiveness of Races in general”, in E.W. Count, ed., This is Race, An Anthology Selected from the International Literature on the Races of Man, New York, Henry Schuman, 1950, pp. 16-24 (equivalent of 11pp) Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, from On the Natural Variety of Mankind, Section IV, “Five principal varieties of mankind, one species”, in E.W. Count, ed., This is Race, An Anthology Selected from the International Literature on the Races of Man, New York, Henry Schuman, 1950, pp. 34-39 (equivalent 8pp) Johann Caspar Lavater, Essays on Physiognomy, for the Promotion of the Knowledge and Love of Mankind, 2 vols, London, C. Whittingham, 1804, vol. 2, pp. “On Sculls”, pp. 205- 228 (equivalent of 12 pp.); vol. 3, “National Physiognomy”, pp. 85-125 (equivalent of 22pp) William Lawrence, “On the Causes of the Varieties of the Human Species”, from Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man (1819), in E.W. Count, ed., This is Race, An Anthology Selected from the International Literature on the Races of Man, New York, Henry Schuman, 1950, pp. 51-59 (equivalent of 15pp) Julien-Joseph Virey, J.J. “Natural History of the Negro Species Particularly” (1835), in A. F. Augstein, ed. , Race. The Origin of an Idea, 1760-1850, London, Thoemmes Press Press, 1996, pp. 163-80 Louis Agassiz, “The Diversity of Origin of the Human Races”, The Christian Examiner and Religious Miscellany, XLIX (1850), pp. 110-145, available on line Robert Knox, Races of Man: A Fragment (London, Henry Renshaw, 1850), pp. 447-467, Races of Man. A Philosophical Enquiry into the Influence of Race over the Destinies of Nations, 2nd edn, London, Henry Renshaw, 1862, pp. 588-600 (32pp.) A. Retzius, “A glance at the present state of ethnology, with reference to the form of the skull”, in British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review 25 (1860), pp. 503-514, available on line

Paul Broca, “On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo”, in E.W. Count, ed., This is Race, An Anthology Selected from the International Literature on the Races of Man, New York, Henry Schuman, 1950, pp. 68-74

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Recommended secondary sources:

Kidd, C., The Forging of Races. Race and Scripture in the Protestant World, 1600-2000, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006, Chapters 4 and 5 John C. Greene, The Death of Adam: Evolution and Its Impact on Western Thought, Ames, Iowa State Press, 1981 Stephen J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, New York and London, W. W. Norton, 1981, especially Ch. 3, “Measuring Heads: Paul Broca and the Heyday of Craniology” George W. Stocking, Race, culture and evolution : essays in the history of anthropology, Chicago, Chicago University Press, 1982 Douglas Lorimer, “Nature, Racism and Late Victorian Science,” Canadian Journal of History XXV (1990), pp. 369-85. Claudio Pogliano, “Between Form and Function: A New Science of Man”, in P. Corsi, ed., The Enchanted Loom. Chapters in the History of Neuroscience, New York and Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991, pp. 144-203 John van Wyhe, Phrenology and the Origins of Victorian Scientific Naturalism. Science, Technology and Culture, 1700–1945, Aldershot, Ashgate, 2004. Anne Fausto-Sterling, “Gender, Race, and Nation: The Comparative Anatomy of ‘Hottentot’ women in Europe:1815-1817,” in J. Terry and J. Urla, eds., Deviant Bodies, Bloomington, IN, Indiana University Press, 1995, pp.19-48.

II. Darwinism and mankind The struggle for life and the economy of nature Darwin and mankind Natural selection Darwin on Man

Charles Lyell, Principles of Geology, London J. Murray, 1830-1833, vol. II, 1832, Chapters I- XI, in particular Chapter VIII, pp. 123-141, available on line. Charles Darwin, a selection of his views on man from several books and his correspondence, available on line, 10 pp. Charles Darwin, Voyage of the Beagle, ed. And abridged by Janet Browne and Micale Neve, Penguin Books, 1989, Ch. 11, “… Feugians ..” pp.171-184 Darwin, C. R. 1882. The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. London, John Murray, 1st ed., 1871, use new Penguin Classics edition, ed. by James Moore and Adrian Desmond, 2004, Chapter VII, “On the Races of Man”, pp. 194-240 James Bonwick, The Last of the Tasmanians, or the Black War of Van Diemen’s Land, London, Sampson, Law, Son and Marston, 1870, Ch.12, “Native Rights”, pp. 324-330 and Ch 13, “Civilization”, pp. 334-354 and 360-369 4

Thomas Henry Huxley, “On the Method and Results of Ethnology”, 1865, in E.W. Count, ed., This is Race, An Anthology Selected from the International Literature on the Races of Man, New York, Henry Schuman, 1950, pp. 107-122 Ernst Haeckel, The History of Creation, or the Development of the Earth and its Inhabitants by the Action of Natural Causes, 2 vols., London, King & Sons, 1876, vol. 2, pp. 334-369

Two useful websites for further readings:

The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online, http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Darwin Correspondence Project, http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/

Recommended secondary sources:

H. Gruber, and P. H. Barrett, Darwin on man. A psychological study of scientific creativity, London, Wildwood House, 1974. Sandra Herbert, “The place of man in the development of Darwin’s theory of transmutation : Part I. To July 1837”, Journal of the History of Biology., VII (1974), pp. 217-58 and “Part II”, X (1977), pp. 155-227. Gregory Claeys, “‘The Survival of the Fittest’ and the Origins of Social Darwinism,” Journal of the History of Ideas, LXI (2000), pp. 223-240 Sven Lindqvist, “Exterminate all the brutes”, translated from the Swedish by Joan Tate, London, Granta, 2002. James Moore and Adrian Desmond, “Introduction”, in C. Darwin, The descent of man, Penguin Classics, 2004

Recommended biographies of Charles Darwin:

Adrian Desmond and James Moore, Darwin, London, Michael Joseph, 1991 Janet Browne, Charles Darwin, vol. 1, Voyaging, Vol. 2, The Power of Place, London, Jonathan Cape, 1995-2002

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III. Darwinism and societies: Social Darwinism Societies as organisms The biological foundations of power Social Darwinism in Europe The “cooperation” vs. the “struggle” for existence

William Rathbone Greg, “England as It Is”, in Essays on Political and Social Science, Contributed Chiefly to the Edinburgh Review, 2 vols., London, Longman, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1853, vol. 2, pp. 297-343, equivalent 35 pp. Herbert Spencer: “Progress: Its Law and Causes”, The Westminster Review, LXVII (April 1857), pp 445-447, 451, 454-456, 464-65, online William Rathbone Greg, “On the Failure of ‘Natural Selection’ in Man,” Fraser’s Magazine, LXXVIII (September 1868), pp. 353-362 Benjamin Kidd, Social Evolution (1894), London, Methuen, 1920, Ch. 2, “Conditions of Human Progress”, pp. 29-59, equivalent 25 pp., Ch. 9, “Human Evolution is not Primarily Intellectual”, pp. 247-291, equivalent 36 pp. Grant Allen, “Spencer and Darwin”, Fortnightly Review, LXVII (February 1897), pp. 251- 262. E. Ray Lankester, “The Present Evolution of Man,” Fortnightly Review, LXVI (September 1896), pp. 408-415.

Recommended secondary sources:

Kidd, C., The Forging of Races. Race and Scripture in the Protestant World, 1600-2000, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2006, Ch. 5 and 6 D. Paul Crook, Benjamin Kidd. Portrait of a Social Darwinist, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984 Paul, Diane. Controlling Human Heredity: 1865- the Present, New Jersey: Humanities Press, 1995, Chapters 2, 4, and 6, pp. 22-39, 50-71, 97-114. Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997, Ch. 1-5 Diane Paul, “Darwin, Social Darwinism and Eugenics”, in J. Hodge and G. Radick, eds., The Cambridge Companion to Darwin, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2003, pp. 214-237 Joy Harvey , “Almost a Man of Genius”: Clemence Royer, Feminism, and Nineteenth- Century Science, Geoffrey M. Hodgson, “Social Darwinism in Anglophone Academic Journals: A Contribution to the History of the Term”, Journal of Historical Sociology, XVII (December 2004), pp. 428-63. Crook, Paul. “Darwin’s Coat-Tails: Essays on Social Darwinism” (Peter Lang, New York, Oxford, 2007)

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IV. The Foundations of Eugenics Theories of heredity The heredity of the elites The improvement of humanity The politics of reproduction

Francis Galton, “Hereditary Talent and Character” in Macmillan’s Magazine, XII (1865), 20 pp. on line Edgar Schuster, The Promise of youth and the performance of manhood, being a statistical inquiry into the question whether success in the examination for the B.A. degree at Oxford is followed by success in professional life, London, Dulau and Co., 1907, 10 pp. Francis Galton, “Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims”, in The American Journal of Sociology, X (Jul., 1904), pp.1-25 Ethel M. Elderton, The Relative Strength of Nurture and Nature, London, Dulau and Co., 1909, pp.3-10 and pp.31-33 Karl Pearson, The Right of the Unborn Child, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1927, 26 pp. Karl Pearson, The Groundwork of Eugenics, London, Dulau and Co., 1909, pp. 3-7, 19-24, 30-32 and 37-39

Recommended secondary sources:

Daniel J. Kevles, In the Name of Eugenics: Genetics and the Uses of Human Heredity, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press, 1995, especially Ch. 1 and 2 Greta Jones, “Theoretical Foundations of Eugenics”, in Robert A Peel (ed.) Essays in the History of Eugenics, London, The Galton Institute, 1998 Geoffrey R. Searle, “Eugenics: The Early Years”, in Robert A Peel (ed.) Essays in the History of Eugenics, London, The Galton Institute, 1998 Donald A. MacKenzie, “Social Biologies in Competition: The Biometrician-Mendelian Debate” in Charles Webster (ed.) Biology, Medicine and Society 1840 – 1940, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981 Greta Jones, Social Darwinism and English Thought: The interaction between Biological and Social Theory, The Harvester Press, Sussex, 1980, Ch. 8 , “Race and Class” Michael Bulmer, Francis Galton: Pioneer of Heredity and Biometry, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003, Ch. 6 to 10 Nicholas Wright Gillham, A Life of Sir Francis Galton: From African Exploration to the Birth of Eugenics, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001, Ch. 12, “Hereditary Talent and Character”, and chapters 18, 19 and 21 on development and the use of statistics. 7

V. Eugenics in Europe and the US Positive and negative eugenics Races and heredity The purification of the race

Sybil Neville-Rolfe, “Autobiographical Notes”, in Sybil Neville-Rolfe, Social Biology and Welfare, London, George Allen and Unwin Ltd, London, 1949, especially the section “Eugenics and allied activities”, pp. 17 -24 Henry Herbert Goddard, The Kallikak Family: A Study in the heredity of feeblemindedness (Macmillan, New York, 1927), 117 pp. – including charts– equivalent of 60 pp. Caleb Williams Saleeby, The Methods of Race-Regeneration, Lond. & C. 1911, 63 small pp., equivalent of 40 pp. John R Commons, Races and Immigrants in America, New York, The Macmillan Company, 1913, Ch. 1, “Race and Democracy”, 20 pp. C. B. Davenport, “The effects of race intermingling”, in Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, LVI (1917), pp. 364-368.

Recommended secondary sources:

Michal Šimůnek, “Eugenics, Social Genetics and Racial Hygiene: Plans for the Scientific Regulation of Human Heredity in the Czech Lands, 1900 – 1925’ in Marius Turda and Paul J. Weindling, eds., “Blood and Homeland” Eugenics and Racial Nationalism in Central and Southeast Europe, 1900–1940, Budapest, Central European University Press, 2007 Marius Turda, ‘The First Debates on Eugenics in Hungary’ in Marius Turda and Paul J. Weindling, eds., “Blood and Homeland” Pauline M. H. Mazumdar, Eugenics, Human Genetics and Human Failings: The Eugenics Society, its sources and its critics in Britain, London Routledge, 1992, Introduction and Chapter 1 Diane B Paul, Controlling Human Heredity 1865 to the Present, New York, Humanity Books, 1998, Chapter 5, “Eugenic Solutions” Richard A. Soloway, “The Perfect Contraceptive’: Eugenics and Birth Control Research in Britain and America in the Interwar Years” Journal of Contemporary History, XXX (1995) pp. 637-664 Gunner Broberg and Nils Roll-Hansen, eds., Eugenics and the Welfare State: Sterilization Policy in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Finland, East Lansing, Michigan State University Press, 1996 Stefan Kühl, The Nazi Connection: Eugenics, American Racism, and German National Socialism, New York, Oxford University Press, 1994 William H. Schneider, Quality and Quantity: The Quest for Biological Regeneration in Twentieth Century France, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990, Ch. 1, 2 and 3 8

William Schneider, “Toward the Improvement of the Human Race: The history of Eugenics in France”, The Journal of Modern History, LIV, n. 2 (1982) Paul J. Weindling, Health, race and German politics between national unification and Nazism, 1870 – 1945, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989, Ch. 6 and 7 G. R. Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Britain 1900 – 1914, Leyden, Noordhoff International Publishing, 1976, Ch. 7, 8 and 9 Greta Jones, Social Hygiene in Twentieth Century Britain, London, Croom Helm, 1986 Ch. 5 “The Social Problem Group” Dan Stone, Breeding Superman: Nietzsche, Race and Eugenics in Edwardian and Interwar Britain, Liverpool University Press, Liverpool, 2002, Ch. 4, “Race and Eugenics”, and Ch. 5, 5 “The ‘Lethal Chamber’ in Eugenic Thought” Barry Alan Mehler, “A history of the American Eugenics Society, 1921–1940”, unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1988, Ch. 1

VI. Theories of degeneration and the “criminal type” Degeneration and atavism Phrenology and criminology The biological roots of crime Criminal races

Cesare Lombroso, Crime. Its Causes and Remedies, Montclair, NJ, Patterson Smith, 1911, reprint, 1968, Ch. 3, “Incidence of Race”, pp. 21-42, Ch. 6, “The Danger of Instruction”, pp. 301-303 and Part III, ch. 1, “Atavism and Epilepsy in Crime and its Punishment”, pp 365-384 Cesare Lombroso, Criminal Man, Durham and London, Duke University Press, 2006, pp. 50- 57, 90-93, 167-174, 301-312 E. R. Lankester, Degeneration: A Chapter in Darwinism, London, Macmillan, 1880, pp. 26- 62, pictures and small pages, equivalent of 20 pp. Hans Kurella, Cesare Lombroso. A Modern Man of Science, London, Rebman, 1911, Ch. 1, “Antecedents. Lombroso’s Predecessors in Research”, pp. 1-17, and Ch. 2, “Criminal Anthropology”, pp. 18-54, equivalent of 35 pp. Maurice Parmerlee, “Introduction”, in Cesare Lombroso, Crime. Its Causes and Remedies, Montclair, NJ, Patterson Smith, 1911, reprint, 1968, pp. xi-xxxii

Recommended secondary sources:

Daniel Pick, Faces of degeneration. A European Disorder, c. 1848-c. 1918, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1989, Part I, Ch. 2 and 4, Part II, Ch. 5, Part III, Ch. 7 9

F. Edwards Chamberlin and Sander L. Gilman, eds., Degeneration. The Dark Side of Progress, New York, Columbia University Press, 1985, Ch. 3, Robert A. Nye, “Sociology and Degeneration: The Irony of Progress”, pp. 49-71, Ch. 5, Nancy Stepan, “Biology and Degeneration: Races and Proper Places”, pp. 97-120, and Ch. 8, Stuart C. Gilman, “Political Theory and Degeneration. From Left to Right, from Up to Down”, pp. 165-198 Henry Taylor Fawkes Rhodes, Alphonse Bertillon, father of scientific detection, London, Harrap, 1956 Stephen J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, New York and London, W. W. Norton, 1981, Ch. 4, “Measuring Bodies. Two cases of Studies on the Apishness of Undesirables” Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1997, Ch. pp. 74-80, 216-222 Mary Gibson, Born to crime: Cesare Lombroso and the origins of biological criminology, Westport, CT, Praeger, 2003

VII. The dictatorship of nature: The “natural” foundations of Fascism and Nazism The psychology of crowds Imperialism and the decline of the West Darwin’s fault?

L. Frank Baum (author of the Wizard of Oz), “Editorials on the Sioux Nation”, Saturday Pioneer, December 20, 1890, ed. and made available on line by A. Waller Hastings Northern State University, Aberdeen, SD http://www.northern.edu/hastingw/baumedts.htm, 1p. Georges Vacher de Lapouge, “The Fundamental Laws of Anthropo-Sociology”, in Journal of Political Economy, VI (1898), pp. 54-92 Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Foundations of the Nineteenth Century, translation by John Lees, 2 vols., New York, John Lane, 1913, Ch. 4, “The Chaos”, pp. 158-302 Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Foundations of the Nineteenth Century (1910), translation by John Lees New York, John Lane, 1968, “Sacredness of pure race”, pp. 317-328. Arthur de Gobineau, “The Inequality of Human Races”, in Robert Bernasconi and Tommy L. Lott, The Idea of Race, Indianapolis, Hackett Publishing Company, 2000, pp. 44-53 Gustave Le Bon, The Crowd. A Study of the Popular Mind, Penguin Books, 1977, “Introduction. The Era of Crowds”, pp. 13-23, Ch. 1, “General Characteristics of Crowds. Psychological Law of their Mental Unity”, pp. 23-34, Ch. 4, “Electoral Crowds”, pp. 173- 185 Robert Bernasconi and Tommy L. Lott, eds., The Idea of Race, Indianapolis, Hackett Publishing Company, 2000

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Recommended secondary sources:

Michael Denis Biddiss, Father of racist ideology: the social and political thought of Count Gobineau, London, Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1970 Daniel Gasman, The scientific origins of National Socialism: Social Darwinism in Ernst Haeckel and the German Monist League, London, Macdonald, 1971 Cecil, Robert (1972). The Myth of the Master Race: Alfred Rosenberg and Nazi Ideology. Dodd Mead & Co.. Robert A. Nye, The Origins of Crowd Psychology: Gustave Le Bon and the Crisis of Mass Democracy in the Third Republic, London, sage Publications, 1975 Robert K. Merton, “The Ambivalence of Le Bon’s The Crowd”, in G. Le Bon, The Crowd, Penguin Books, 1977, pp. v-xxxix Martin Woodroffe, “Racial Theories of History and Politics: the Example of Houston Stewart Chamberlain”, in Paul Kennedy and Anthony Nicholls, eds., Nationalists and Racialists Movements in Britain and Germany Before 1914, London, Macmillan 1981, pp; 143-153 H. Stuart Hughes, “Preface to the Present Edition.” Preface. The Decline of the West: An Abridged Edition. By Oswald Spengler, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press, 1991 U. Deichmann, “The content and result of research at Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes, (selection-- The department of hereditary pathology of the KWI for anthropology, human genetics, and eugenics),. in Biologists under Hitler. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996, pp. 229-249 Mike Hawkins, Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860-1945, Richard Weikart, From Darwin to Hitler: Evolutionary Ethics, Eugenics, and Racism in Germany, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004

VIII. The inequality of nature: a long (and increasingly challenged) heritage The laws of intelligence The invention of the IQ Class and intelligence Nations, races and intelligence

Arthur Jensen, “How Much Can We Boost IQ and School Achievement?” in Harvard Educational Review, XXXIX (1969), pp. 1-123, pp. 1-11 and 72-95 Richard J. Herrnstein and Charles Murray, The Bell Curve. Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life, New York, Simon & Schuster, A Free Press Paperback Book (1994), 1996, Ch. 13, pp. 269-315 Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen, IQ and the Wealth of Nations, London, Praeger, 2002, pp. 1-25, 183-195 11

Richard Lynn, “Race Differences in Intelligence: A Global Perspective,” The Mankind Quarterly, XXXI, no. 3 (1991), pp. 255–96; Thomas Volken, “The Impact of National IQ on Income and Growth. A Critique of Richard Lynn and Tatu Vanhanen s Recent Book”, 2003, available on line, 25 pp. Audrey Smedley and Brian D. Smedley, “Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a Social Problem Is Real. Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social Construction of Race”, American Psychologist, XL, No. 1 (2005), pp. 16–26

Recommended secondary sources:

Stephen J. Gould, The Mismeasure of Man, New York and London, W. W. Norton, 1981, Ch. 5, “The Hereditariness of, and Ch. 6, “The Real error of Cyril Burtt. Factor Analysis and the Reification of Intelligence” Michael J. Howe, IQ in Question. The Truth About Intelligence, London, Sage Publications, 1997, Ch. 4, “Race and Intelligence”, pp. 65-78 and Ch. 7, “Genetics and Intelligence”, pp.107-123 Bernie Devlin, Stephen E. Fienberg, Daniel P. Resnick, and Kathryn Roeder, eds., Intelligence, Genes and Success, New York, Springer Verlag, 1997. Raymond E. Fancher, The Intelligence Men: Makers of the IQ Controversy, New York and London, W. W. Norton, 1985, Ch. 1, “The Nature-Nurture Controversy”, pp. 1-40 and Ch. 2, “The Invention of Intelligence Tests”, pp. 41- 85 Marouf Arif Hasian, Jr., The Rhetoric of Eugenics in Anglo-American Thought, Athens, GA, The University of Georgia Press, 1996, Chapter 7, “The Return of Eugenics: Ideographic Fragments and the Mythology of the Human Genome Project” [20 pages] Diane B Paul, Controlling Human Heredity 1865 to the Present, New York, Humanity Books, 1998, Chapter 7, “From Eugenics to Human Genetics” [21 pages] Paul A Lombardo and Gregory M Dorr, “Eugenics, Medical Education, and the Public Health Service: Another Perspective on the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment” Bulletin of the History of Medicine, LXXX (2006), pp. 291 – 316 Jana Grekul, Harvey Krahn and Dave Odynak, “Sterilizing the “Feeble-minded”: Eugenics in Alberta, Canada, 1929 – 1972” Journal of Historical Sociology, XVII, n. 4 (2004) [26pp] Nancy Ordover, American eugenics: race, queer anatomy, and the science of nationalism Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 2003 N. J. Sauer, “Forensic anthropology and the concept of race: If races don’t exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them?”, Social Science Medicine, XXXIV, n. 2 (1992), pp. 107-111. Joel N. Shurkin, Broken genius: the rise and fall of William Shockley, creator of the Electronic Age, London, Macmillan, 2006

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Bibliography

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