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Roman Imperialism and Runic Literacy The Westernization of Northern Europe (150-800 AD) Svante Fischer Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University Uppsala 2005 Abstract Fischer, Svante 2005. Roman Imperialism and Runic Literacy. The Westernization of North- ern Europe (150-800 AD). Aun 33. Uppsala. 260 pp., 28 illustrations. ISBN 91-506-1840-7. This dissertation discusses Roman imperialism and runic literacy. It employs an interdiscipli- nary terminology. By means of terms new to archaeology, the growth of a specialized lan- guage, a technolect, is traced until it enters the realm of literacy. The author argues that there is more than one way for literacy to appear in prehistoric cultures. The ’normal’ perception is that literacy grows out of a need to keep records of a growing economic surplus. The ’other’ way for a culture to become literacy is that someone else forces literacy upon it. This has been the case in many parts of the world subject to Western imperialism. The onslaught of Roman imperialism caused the invention of runic literacy in Northern Europe during the Early Ro- man Iron Age. The invention of the runic script should thus be seen as a pre-emptive reaction to the threat of Westernization. A comparison is made with a number of Early Modern Period cases of newly invented scripts caused by the arrival of literate westerners in West Africa. The invention and introduction of the runes may well have been a dictated shift in literacy, seeking to break away from Latin. A number of dictated shifts in literacy from Early Modern Period America and Modern Period Asia are studied in comparison. The role of runic literacy changed in the post-Roman aftermath of the Migration and Vendel Periods as the ruling elite found it increasingly difficult to find the economic means to support a lavish lifestyle that included runic literacy. As a result, there was a decline in runic literacy in Northern Europe until the economic revival of the Viking Period. By then, it was clear that the North was soon to be integrated into the Christian West. Key words: Rome, Imperialism, Literacy, Runes, Northern Europe, Westernization. Svante Fischer Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Box 626, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden E-mail: [email protected] Cover design: Alicja Grenberger & Martin Herschend © Svante Fischer 2005 ISSN 0284-1347 ISBN 91-506-1840-7 Published by the Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala 2005 Editor: Camilla Lööf Series editor: Frands Herschend & Ola Kyhlberg Distributed by the Department of Archaeology and Ancient History, Uppsala University, Box 626, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden Printed by Elanders Gotab AB, Stockholm 2005 Contents Introduction 9 Terminology 10 PART I 15 Roman Imperialism and Runic Literacy 1 Literacy and Imperialism 15 1.1 What is Affinity? 16 1.2 The Creation of Technolect 18 1.2.1 Mesolect – Intermediate Technolect 21 1.2.2 Social Stratification in Atlantic Creole 22 1.2.3 Rotwelsch – A Kleptocratic Technolect 23 1.3 The Technolect of Literacy 24 1.3.1 The Behavioral Effects of Literacy on the Human Brain 26 1.4 What is Imperialism? 29 1.4.1 Are there Universal Reactions to Imperialism? 30 1.4.2 The Imposition of the Linear 31 1.4.3 Literate Imperialism 32 1.4.4 Biliteracy and Digraphic Literacy under Imperialism 35 1.5 Belated Reactions to Imperialism – Dictated Shifts in Literacy 36 1.5.1 The State of Utah 36 1.5.2 The Republic of Turkey 38 1.5.3 East Asian Reifications of Western Literate Imperialism 40 1.6 Manipulative Founding Fathers versus the Language Continuum 42 2 Latin and Early Runic Literacy 44 2.1 The Origin of the Runes 44 2.1.1 Literacy and Language Development 46 2.1.2 Runological Method 46 2.1.3 Early Runic in Context 50 2.2 Latin Literacy and Roman Text Production 50 2.2.1 Textual Longevity and Quantity of Roman Media 51 2.2.2 Roman Numerical Literacy and Its Applications 53 2.2.3 The Acquisition of Latin Literacy 54 2.2.4 The Roman Military – A Carrier of Literacy 56 2.2.5 The Limitations of Roman Literacy 57 2.3 Early Runic Literacy 58 2.3.1 Early Runic Technolect 60 2.3.2 The Atemporal Power of Early Runic 63 2.3.3 The Early Runic Gender Construction 64 2.3.4 Early Runic Innovation – Frontier and Periphery 65 2.3.5 The Early Runic Stone Inscriptions 66 2.3.6 The Bone Tools 68 3 The Clash of Germanic and Roman Civilizations 71 3.1 Understanding the ‘Other’ 71 3.2 The Fiscal Nature of Roman Imperialism (c. 31 BC-68 AD) 74 3.2.1 Tacitus on Imperialist Strategy 76 3.3 The Militarization of the Roman Empire 78 3.4 Germanic Appropriation, External and Internal 80 3.5 A Germanic Raid on a Roman Vicus 85 6 3.5.1 The Agri Decumates 86 3.5.2 The Crime Scene 90 3.5.3 The Roman Reaction 91 PART II 95 The Emergence of Kleptocracy 4 The Germanization of the Roman Military 95 4.1 The Old Legionary Army of the 3rd Century 95 4.1.1 The Failure of Mithraism 97 4.1.2 The Gallic Kingdom 100 4.2 The Hired Hands and the 4th Century Military Doctrine of Mobility 101 4.3 The Price Edict and the Last Rite of the Tetrarchy 104 4.4 The Constantine and Valentine Emperors 105 4.5 The Roman Navy and Its Imitators 108 4.5.1 Gudme 111 4.5.2 Nydam 113 4.5.3 Fallward 113 4.6 The late 4th century Roman Reaction – A Return to Rhetoric and Space 114 4.6.1 The Intellectuals of the Late Roman Empire 115 5 The Emergence of Germanic Kleptocracy 117 5.1 The Roman Roots of Germanic Kleptocracy 117 5.2 Kleptocracy – The Regression of Society under a Criminal Social Order 119 5.3 Symbols of Germanic Kleptocracy – Supraregional or Local? 122 5.3.1 Kleptocratic Burials in the Mälar Valley 125 5.4 ek erilaR – Early Runic Self-Expression in the Kleptocratic Technolect 128 5.5 African Developments towards Literacy and Kleptocracy 130 5.5.1 The West African Syllabaries 130 5.5.2 The Emergence of African Kleptocracy 132 5.5.3 The War Veterans 133 5.5.4 The Teacher and his Students 134 5.5.5 The Emperor of Central Africa 136 5.5.6 Literacy in the Ethiopian Empire 138 5.5.7 Osmanya Literacy and Somali Kleptocracy 141 6 The Germanic Reification of Roman Monetary Capital 144 6.1 To the Victor Belongs the Spoils of War 144 6.2 The multiplum and the solidus 146 6.3 The Nordic Gold Import 147 6.3.1 Pannonia and Beyond 148 6.3.2 The Five Jackpots 149 6.3.3 A Common Weal? 152 6.3.4 Distribution and Circulation 153 6.4 The Germanic Gold Bracteate 155 6.5 The Figural Gold Foils 158 6.6 Conclusion 159 PART III 161 The Rupture of Early Runic Literacy 7 Continental Runic Literacy in the Merovingian Kleptocracies 161 7.1 Latin Conversion and Runic Reaction 162 7.2 Archaeological Method 162 7.2.1 The Row Grave Cemetery – An Unequal and Differentiated Affinity 164 7 7.3 Continental Runic Literacy 166 7.3.1 The Merovingian Period Male – A Continental Runic Literate? 167 7.4 The ‘Thuringian Narrative’ 169 7.4.1 The ‘Nordic type’ Runic Objects in Alemannia 172 7.4.2 The Nordic Runic Connection to Alemannia – Graphematic Fact or Fiction? 173 7.4.3 Nordic Gods on the Nordendorf I Brooch? 174 7.5 Pforzen 174 7.5.1 The Runological Context 176 7.5.2 Deductive Method and Scientific Probability outside Runology 178 8 The Demise of Literacy in the Nordic Periphery 182 8.1 The Rejection of Knowledge 183 8.2 Historical Research – Ynglingatal and Heimskringla 185 8.3 Onomastic Research –Central Places and Place Names 188 8.4 Macro-archaeological Research – Centers and Spheres of Power 190 8.5 Locating Early Runic and Transitional Runic Literacy 191 9 The Rinkebyar 194 9.1 Rinkeby in Spånga 195 9.1.1 Conclusion 196 9.2 Rickeby in Vallentuna 198 9.2.1 Conclusion 199 10 Three Runic Contexts in Södermanland 202 10.1 Rönö 202 10.1.1 Conclusion 205 10.2 Hölebo and Daga 205 10.2.1 The Gold in Tuna in Västerljung 206 10.2.2 The Graves in Husby in Vagnhärad 207 10.2.3 Conclusion 208 10.3 Övre Tör 209 10.3.1 Grave A 24, Cemetery RAÄ 120 Älvesta 210 10.3.2 The Relationship between Grave A 24 and Cemetery RAÄ 120 213 10.3.3 The Runic Inscription 215 10.3.4 Conclusion 216 11 Early Runic and Transitional Runic Literacy in Blekinge 218 11.1 Eastern Blekinge – An Early Runic Turnpike 218 11.1.1 Conclusion 220 11.2 Bornholm and Gotland – Friends or Foes? 220 11.3 The Transitional Runic of the Listerland and Listerby 222 11.3.1 Conclusion 226 11.4 The Arrival of Danish Hegemony 227 12 Summary 228 References 231 Tables 251 8 List of illustrations Jacket: The Tjurkö Bracteate Chapter 1: 1. Basic Aspects of Literacy (After Hines 1997) 27 Chapter 2: 2. Roman Cavalry Watching Germanic Prisoners Decapitate Each Other (From the Column of Marcus Aurelius, c. 193 AD) 56 3. Reconstruction of the Early Runic Language (After Nielsen 2003) 62 4. The Older Futhark (After Düwel 2001) 67 Chapter 3: 5.
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