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Nrecovering Japanese American Experiences for the EFL Classroom

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Nrecovering Japanese American Experiences for the EFL Classroom Christof Ribbat Ingrid Gessner and Christine Moreth-Hebel Recovering Japanese American Experiences for the EFL Classroom Ingrid Gessner and Christine Moreth-Hebel 1 Historical and Cultural Contexts Long before the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, Asian Americans suffered from Anglo-American prejudice, practically since their arrival in the United States in the late nineteenth century. They were victimized by discriminatory public policies such as the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, which marked the first step toward the US government’s controversial quota legislation of the 1920s. To better control Asian immigration, Angel NIsland, the “Ellis Island of the West” or the “Guardian of the Western Gate,” was opened in the San Francisco Bay in 1910. While Ellis Island as the entry point for European immigrants is part of American cultural memory, many Americans have never heard of Angel Island. By 1920, an estimated 20,000 Japanese “picture brides”1 had been processed through the immigration station in the San Francisco Bay. Unlike European immigrants, Japanese immigrants were not allowed to become naturalized American citizens in the nineteenth and in the first half of the twentieth century. The status of Japanese immigrants as aliens ineligible for citizenship provided the alleged reason for various anti-Japanese laws. In 1923, the US Supreme Court upheld a California law limiting the rights of Japanese immigrants to own land. California had passed an alien land law as early as 1913. The National Origins Act of 1924 completely prohibited Japanese immigration. 1 The picture-bride system relied on the traditional practice of arranged marriage, where prospective bride and groom would exchange photographs. The “picture marriage” was successfully transplanted to the Japanese American context as it offered a way for Issei, first generation, men to marry and raise families in their adopted land without the expense and trouble of returning to Japan. 142 143 Ingrid Gessner and Christine Moreth-Hebel Recovering Japanese American Experiences The widespread racial stereotypes of the time were increased by the fear which spread after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Forces within the military, the press, and among politicians, as well as so-called ‘patriotic’ associations such as the Native Sons and Daughters of the Golden West pressed the executive branch of the US government to order the removal of all ethnically Japanese people from the West Coast. The US government authorized extensive searches of the homes of Japanese immigrants and Japanese Americans as they suspected them of committing acts of sabotage or treason. However, no evidence for any such activities was ever found, and it has been proven by scholars today that race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership led to the wartime incarceration of Japanese Americans. At the time, the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) detained respected elders, community leaders and heads of household, people who were desperately needed at the time to stabilize and possibly mobilize the frightened Japanese American communities on the Pacific West Coast. On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066.2 The order gave Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson, the power to ‘evacuate’ from specific military areas any residents who were considered risks to national security.3 The reason given to enact the order was a need for “successful prosecution of the war” (qtd. in Muller 23). Although the order did not mention any specific ethnic group, it was appliedÑalmost exclusivelyÑto Japanese Americans. The western parts of the states of Washington, Oregon, California, and Arizona were designated as ‘Military Area No. 1.’ In California eventually all Japanese and Japanese Americans were relocated, those in the eastern parts of Washington, Oregon, and Arizona were allowed to remain.4 In Hawaii, the situation for Hawaiians of Japanese ancestry was different. Despite their relatively large number, no internment policy was implemented there. Possible reasons for this are a less prevalent racism, as well as economic dependency on Japanese laborers Voluntary relocation to inland areas was offered and encouraged by the US military. Yet Japanese Americans were not any more welcome farther inland than on the Pacific Coast. Yoshiko Uchida, for example, describes in her book Desert Exile that her family learned of “arrests, violence, and vigilantism encountered by some who had fled ‘voluntarily’” (58). The possibility of voluntary relocation was altogether terminated on March 18, 1942, when President Roosevelt established the War Relocation Authority (WRA) to facilitate and coordinate what was to be called the evacuation (Executive Order 9102). The Japanese American community almost as a body complied with the removal program. This might be understood as a continuation of an obedient attitude adopted by Japanese American immigrants, who were enduring racist citizenship laws, alien land laws, and 2 Today, this is the date that Japanese Americans memorialize each year as their Day of Remembrance. “E.O. 9066” is also the title of books, poems, and a musical piece. 3 The euphemistic language needs to be problematized in the context of the classroom, e.g. ask the students what “evacuation” means to them. 4 A map of the “Original Evacuation Zones, March 1942” may be found in Roger Daniels, Asian America 215. 144 145 Ingrid Gessner and Christine Moreth-Hebel Recovering Japanese American Experiences exclusion laws. The phrase ‘shikata ga nai,’ meaning ‘it cannot be helped’ or ‘it must be done,’ best describes the attitude that had been instilled in the Nisei by their Issei parents.5 Considered a virtue and distinct feature of Japanese culture, the acceptance of what could not be changed should, however, not be overstated. Three young Nisei men, Fred Korematsu, Gordon Hirabayashi, and Min Yasui challenged the evacuation orders in court. All of them lost their cases and were convicted of violating the exclusion order (Korematsu, Hirabayashi) and the curfew order (Yasui). When their cases were reopened in the 1980s, their convictions were eventually overturned. Between March 1942 and March 1946, when the last camp officially closed, 120,000 men, women and children of Japanese descent were interned, two thirds of whom were Nisei, American citizens by birth. Although the camps are sometimes referred to as concentration camps, which is actually the technically correct term (cf. Yoo 692; Dubel 97),6 they were by no means comparable to German death camps; a critical distinction must be made between the two. In the spring of 1942, Japanese Americans were only given a few days to leave their homes and report to local pick-up areas from where they were taken to ‘assembly centers’ or directly to designated ‘relocation centers.’ Allowed to take with them “only what they could carry,” most had to sell their homes and businesses, and other property they might have been able to acquire despite restrictive land laws for unreasonably low prices. The ten relocation camps were situated in desolate areas of California, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, and Arkansas.7 The living conditions in the camps were miserable, especially during the first year of internment: tar paper barracks that lacked adequate heating and offered little to no privacy; meager job opportunities for adults (monthly wages ranged between $8-19 per month); minimal educational opportunities for children. The dismal conditions were among the factors that led to open conflicts. By the end of December 1942, several disturbances occurred in Poston, Heart Mountain, Tule Lake, Topaz, and Minidoka. A mass uprising in Manzanar in protest of camp conditions led to the jailing of one of the community leaders. The ensuing Manzanar incident on December 6, 1942, left two internees dead and ten more wounded. 5 First generation Japanese immigrants are called Issei; their American born children are called Nisei, or second generation. 6 According to the American Heritage Dictionary, concentration camps are camps “where civilians, enemy aliens, political prisoners, and sometimes prisoners of war are detained and confined, typically under harsh conditions.” 7 Most people spent up to six months in one of the sixteen assembly centers before being transferred to the permanent camps. According to Taylor, “[t]he pattern of distributing the Japanese American population among the sixteen assembly centers was not totally random, and most people from one area went to the center and camp together” (60). A map of assembly centers and relocation camps may be found in Taylor 59; Inada 418; Daniels, Concentration Camps 96; it may also be downloaded at <http://www.elearn.arizona.edu/wracamps/ map.html>. 144 145 Ingrid Gessner and Christine Moreth-Hebel Recovering Japanese American Experiences In 1943, the exclusion of Japanese American citizens from the armed forces, which had been in effect since the bombing of Pearl Harbor, was lifted. President Roosevelt even announced the organization of a segregated combat team for Nisei who would volunteer their service. The 442nd Regimental Combat Team became a model combat unit, the most decorated unit in World War II. In January 1944, Nisei became subject to the draft.8 A year before, the WRA had begun to distribute a so-called loyalty questionnaire labeled “Application for Leave Clearance” to all internees over seventeen years of age. The questionnaires were used as the reason for
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