1 Introduction: Studying the History of Madness

Home , Keith Thomas (historian), Roy Porter

Notes

1. D. Erasmus, Praise of Folly, tr. Hoyt Hopewell Hudson (Moriae Enconium, orig. 1512; tr. 1941; Ware, Herts: Wordsworth Editions Ltd, 1998), p. 39. 2. Wharton’s manuscript is in the British Library: BL Add. MSS. 20006, 20007, ‘Auto- biography of the Hon. Goodwin Wharton’, 2 vols, 1686–1704. The account of Wharton that follows is drawn from this manuscript. See also J. Kent Clark, Goodwin Wharton (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984), for a biographical account. Roy Porter gives a fuller summary of Wharton’s supernatural adventures (though still at a fraction of their original length), and a characteristically lively and illuminating discussion of the issues this narrative raises for the history of psychiatry, in ‘The Diary of a Madman, Seventeenth-Century Style: Goodwin Wharton, MP, and communer with the fairy world’, in R. M. Murray and T. H. Turner, eds, Lectures on the History of Psychiatry: the Squibb series (London: Gaskell, 1990). 3. Although he came quite close even to this; see Roy Porter, ‘Diary of a madman’, pp. 137–138, on his expectations in relation to various ladies of the royal family, and his ambitions for a more significant role in the public sphere. ‘After all’, as Porter comments, ‘his divine mission was to become an earthly power’ (p. 138). 4. Porter, ‘Diary of a Madman’, p. 139. The Fifth Monarchist preacher John Rogers describes how when he was an impoverished student, ‘the Devil did often tempt me to study Necromancy & Nigromancy, and to make use of Magick and that then I should never want’; John Rogers, ‘Another Testimony for the Truth’, in Ohel or Beth-Shemesh: A Tabernacle for the Sun (London, 1653), p. 433. 5. On science, religion and belief systems in seventeenth-century England, see (taking a few texts from a very large field) Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1971); Alexandra Walsham, Providence in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999); Brian Easlea, Witch-hunting, Magic and the New Philosophy: an introduction to debates of the scientific revolution, 1450–1750 (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1980); Christopher Hill, Some Intellectual Consequences of the English Revolution (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1980); Michael Hunter, Science and Society in Restoration England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Patrick Curry, Prophecy and Power: astrology in early modern England (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1989); Barbara J. Shapiro, A Culture of Fact: England 1550–1750 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000). 6. For discussion of this, see for example Basil Clarke, Mental Disorder in Earlier Britain: exploratory studies (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1975), Introduc- tion; R. A. Houston, Madness and Society in Eighteenth-Century Scotland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), Chapter 1; Ruth Padel, Whom Gods Destroy: elements of Greek and tragic madness (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995), Part V. 7. Roy Porter, ‘ “The Hunger of Imagination”: approaching Samuel Johnson’s melancholy’, in W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter and Michael Shepherd, eds, The Anatomy of Madness: essays in the history of Psychiatry. vol. I: People and Ideas (London and New York: Tavistock Publications, 1985), p. 63.

198 Notes to pp. 4–10 199

8. This point also provides a rationale for the potentially problematic use of the word ‘mad’. The history of madness is full of examples of the resistance and refusal of those called mad to accept this view of their condition; on the other hand, its usefulness for the historian is in its ability to signal a generic and transhistorical phenomenon, rather than attempting to attach possibly anachronistic diagnostic labels to sufferers in the past. For a thoughtful discussion of the concept of sanity, see Adam Phillips, Going Sane (London: Hamish Hamilton, 2005). 9. For a fascinating example of how concepts of madness are shaped by these cultural differences, see Padel, Whom Gods Destroy. 10. See for example Michael Macdonald, ed., Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London: Edward Jorden and the Mary Glover case (London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1991); K. Hodgkin, ‘Reasoning with Unreason: visions, witchcraft and madness in early modern England’, in Stuart Clark, ed., Languages of Witchcraft (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2001). 11. The first edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published in 1952 by the American Psychiatric Association, listed 60 disorders; DSM IV, the most recent, published in 1994, lists hundreds. 12. Louise Yeoman, ‘Archie’s invisible worlds discovered – spirituality, madness and Johnston of Wariston’s family’, Records of the Scottish Church History Society 27, 1997 (pp. 156–186). 13. A. Walsham, ‘ “Frantick Hacket”: prophecy, sorcery, insanity, and the Elizabethan Puritan movement’, Historical Journal 41, 1998 (pp. 27–66). 14. Michael Macdonald, ‘Insanity and the realities of history in early modern England’, Psychological Medicine, vol. 11, no.1, 1981 (pp. 11–25). 15. BL Lansdowne MSS 99, Burghley papers, ‘Letters of Several Madmen’. The annota- tions are later than the letters themselves, but probably seventeenth century. 16. Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: a history of insanity in the age of reason, tr. Michael Howard (London: Tavistock Publications, 1967). This is an abridged translation of Histoire de la folie à l’âge classique (Paris: Plon, 1961); a full version has not yet been published in English. 17. This is a large and continuing debate. For a critical view of Foucault’s work, see H. C. Erik Midelfort, ‘Madness and Civilization in Early Modern Europe’, in Barbara C. Malament, ed., After the Reformation: essays in honour of J. H. Hexter (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980); he also discusses Foucault briefly in A History of Madness in Sixteenth-century Germany (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1990) and in Mad Princes of Renaissance Germany (Char- lottesville and London: University Press of Virginia, 1994). For a response to Midelfort’s critique, in an informative and thoughtful collection, see C. Gordon, ‘Histoire de la folie: an unknown book by Michel Foucault’ in Arthur Still and Irving Velody, eds, Rewriting the History of Madness: studies in Foucault’s Histoire de la Folie (London: Routledge, 1992). Other essays in this collection (based on a special feature in History of the Human Sciences 3.1, 1990) respond variously to the empirical and philosophical issues raised. 18. Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth- century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 147; Midelfort, ‘Madness and Civilization in Early Modern Europe’; and see Roy Porter, ‘Foucault’s Great Confinement’, in Still and Velody, eds, Rewriting the History of Madness. Jonathan Andrews revisits the question of confinement in ‘The Politics of Committal to Early Modern Bethlem’, in Roy Porter, ed., Medicine in the Enlight- enment (Amsterdam-Atlanta: Rodopi, Wellcome Institute Series in the History of Medicine, 1995). 200 Notes to pp. 10–12

19. The history of madness has seen something of a boom in the last two or three decades, especially the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. For the eighteenth century specifically, see n. 20. More generally, see for example Klaus Doerner, Madmen and the Bourgeoisie: a social history of insanity and psychiatry, tr. Joachim Neugroschel and Jean Steinberg (Oxford: Blackwell 1981); Joseph Melling and Bill Forsythe, eds, Insanity, Institutions and Society, 1800–1914: a social history of madness in comparative perspective (London: Routledge, 1999); Andrew Scull, Madhouses, Mad-doctors, and Madmen: the social history of psychiatry in the Victorian era (London: Athlone Press, 1981) and The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700–1900 (London and New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: women, madness and English culture 1830–1980 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985); William Llywelyn Parry Jones, The Trade in Lunacy: a study of private madhouses in England in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971). See also the three- volume collection edited by W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter and Michael Shepherd, The Anatomy of Madness: essays in the history of psychiatry, vol. 1, People and Ideas; vol. 2, Institutions and Society (London: Tavistock, 1985); vol. 3, The Asylum and its Psychiatry (London: Routledge, 1988). 20. Significant works on the eighteenth century include Roy Porter, Mind-Forg’d Manacles: a history of madness in England from the Restoration to the Regency (London: Athlone Press, 1987), as well as numerous articles and essays on the topic; Allan Ingram, The Madhouse of Language: writing and reading madness in the eighteenth century (London: Routledge, 1991); R. A. Houston, Madness and Society in Eighteenth-Century Scotland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000); Jonathan Andrews and Andrew Scull, Undertaker of the Mind: John Monro and Mad-Doctoring in Eighteenth-Century England (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). 21. Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam. 22. Carol Thomas Neely, Distracted Subjects: madness and gender in Shakespeare and early modern culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004); see also her earlier survey essay, ‘Recent Work in Renaissance Studies: Psychology. Did Madness have a Renaissance?’, Renaissance Quarterly vol. 44 no. 4, winter 1991 (pp. 776–789). For other discussions of madness and melancholy in literature, see for example, Duncan Salkeld, Madness and Drama in the Age of Shakespeare (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993); Bridget Gellert Lyons, Voices of Melancholy: studies in literary treatments of melancholy in Renaissance England (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971); Ken Jackson, Separate Theaters: Bethlem (“Bedlam”) Hospital and the Shakespearean Stage (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 2005). 23. Collections of primary source material for the eighteenth century have also been finding their way to publication. See Allan Ingram, ed., Voices of Madness: four pamphlets, 1683–1796 (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 1997), which reprints four autobiographical accounts of madness, including that of Hannah Allen, and Allan Ingram, ed., Patterns of Madness in the Eighteenth Century: a reader (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1998). See also Jonathan Andrews and Andrew Scull, Customers and Patrons of the Mad-Trade: the management of lunacy in eighteenth-century London (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2003), which analyses John Monro’s 1766 case-book, and includes the complete text. 24. See in particular Macdonald, ‘Insanity and the realities of history’, and his ‘Religion, Social Change and Psychological Healing in England, 1600–1800’, in W. J. Sheils, ed., The Church and Healing (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982). Notes to pp. 13–16 201

25. Houston, Madness and Society, p. 324. Ingram, Madhouse of Language, also emphasises the continuing importance of religion in framing debates about madness. 26. For some specific studies of religious culture in relation to madness: Jonathan Sawday, ‘ “Mysteriously divided”: Civil War, madness and the divided self’, in Thomas Healy and Jonathan Sawday, eds, Literature and the English Civil War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990); Anne Laurence, ‘Women’s Psychological Disorders in Seventeenth-Century Britain’, in Arina Angermann et al., eds, Current Issues in Women’s History (London: Routledge, 1989); Yeoman, ‘Archie’s Invisible World Discovered’; Christopher Hill and Michael Shepherd, ‘The Case of Arise Evans: a historico-psychiatric study’, Psychological Medicine, vol. 6, no. 3, 1976 (pp. 351–358); Macdonald, ‘Insanity and the realities of history’. 27. Natalie Zemon Davis, ‘City Women and Religious Change’, in Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1975); Stuart Clark, Thinking with Demons: the idea of witchcraft in early modern Europe (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997). 28. See Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down: radical ideas during the English revolution (London: Maurice Temple Smith, 1972), which influentially reclaimed the radical groups of the English revolution for serious analysis. Interestingly, Hill did in fact include a chapter on madness amongst those groups; most subsequent historians working in this field have not taken up that problem. 29. See Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil: witchcraft, sexuality and religion in early modern Europe (London: Routledge, 1994); also her recent Witch Craze: terror and fantasy in baroque Germany (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004). 30. Peter Gay, Freud for Historians (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985); in Chapter 1 he notes the reliance on ‘commonsense psychology at work in history’ (p. 36) while historians remain vehemently hostile to Freud. 31. Stephen Greenblatt, ‘Psychoanalysis and Early Modern Culture’, in Patricia Parker and David Quint, eds, Literary Theory/Renaissance Texts (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986). 32. This discussion in relation to early modern culture is more familiar in literature than in history. See, in addition to Roper and Greenblatt: Juliana Schiesari, The Gendering of Melancholia: feminism, psychoanalysis and the symbolics of loss in Renaissance literature (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992); Mark Breitenberg, Anxious Masculinity in Early Modern England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Carla Mazzio and Douglas Trevor, eds, Historicism, Psychoanalysis and Early Modern Culture (New York and London: Routledge, 2000). 33. Sally Alexander, ‘Feminist History and Psychoanalysis’, in Becoming a Woman and other essays in nineteenth and twentieth-century feminist history (London: Virago, 1994), p. 229. 34. Sally Alexander, ‘Women, class and sexual difference’, in Becoming a Woman, pp. 108–109. 35. Dionys Fitzherbert’s narrative exists in three copies: Bodleian Library MS. e Mus. 169 and MS Bodley 154; Lambeth Palace Library MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47. The first is her original MS, and the other two are corrected manuscripts for circu- lation. References are to her original MS; spelling and punctuation have been modernised. An edition is in preparation: K. Hodgkin, ed., Women, Madness and Sin in Seventeenth-Century England: the autobiographical writings of Dionys Fitzherbert (Aldershot, Hants: Ashgate, 2008). Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs Hannah Allen (London, 1683), has been 202 Notes to pp. 19–20

reprinted in Allan Ingram, ed., Voices of Madness: four pamphlets, 1683–1796 (Stroud: Sutton, 1997); references are to the 1683 edition. George Trosse’s life was published posthumously in Exeter in 1614, and has been reprinted in full with a few MS additions: A. W. Brink, ed., The Life of the Reverend Mr George Trosse (Montreal and London: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974); references are to this edition.

2 Crises of the Self: Madness and Autobiographical Writing

1. Dorothea Gotherson, To all that are Unregenerated: a call to Repentance from dead works (London, 1661), p. 94. 2. John Rogers, Ohel or Beth-Shemesh: A Tabernacle for the Sun (London, 1653), p. 362. 3. On the history of autobiographical writing in this period, see Paul Delany, British Autobiography in the Seventeenth Century (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1969); Dean Ebner, Autobiography in Seventeenth-Century England: theology and the self (The Hague, Paris: Mouton, 1971); Patricia Caldwell, The Puritan Conversion Narrative (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). More recently, to name two among many, Michael Mascuch, Origins of the Individualist Self: autobiography and self-identity in England, 1591–1791 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997); H. Dragstra et al., Betraying Our Selves: forms of representation in early modern English texts (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000). A couple of important anthologies, both with much useful editorial commentary: Elspeth Graham et al., eds, Her Own Life: autobiographical writings by seventeenth-century Englishwomen (London: Routledge, 1989); David Booy, Personal Disclosures: an anthology of self-writings from the seventeenth century (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2002). 4. On seventeenth-century spiritual narratives, in addition to works in the previous note, see Owen Watkins, The Puritan Experience (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972); John Stachniewski, The Persecutory Imagination: English Puritanism and the literature of religious despair (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991). 5. For an extended discussion of the ‘I’ of the author in autobiography, see Phil- ippe Lejeune, Le pacte autobiographique (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1975), Chapter 1, ‘Le pacte’ (also in Philippe Lejeune, tr. Katharine Leary, ed. Paul John Eakin, On Autobiography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1989).) There is now a substantial body of theoretical work on autobiographical writing. See for example, James Olney, ed., Autobiography: essays theoretical and critical (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1980); Paul John Eakin, How Our Lives Become Stories: making selves (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1999); Lejeune, On Autobiography. Women’s autobiography has also generated a substantial literature. See Shari Benstock, ed., The Private Self: theory and practice of women’s autobiographical writings (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, c.1988.); Liz Stanley, The Auto/biographical I: the theory and practice of feminist auto/biography (Manchester: Manchester University Press, c.1992); Domna Stanton, ed., The Female Autograph: theory and practice of autobiography from the tenth to the twentieth century (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); Sidonie Smith, Subjectivity, Identity and the Body: women’s autobiographical practices in the twentieth century (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993). 6. In addition to works in previous note, on conversion narratives in particular, see D. Bruce Hindmarsh, The Evangelical Conversion Narrative: spiritual autobiography in early modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005). Notes to pp. 20–22 203

7. Janet Frame, An Angel at my Table (London: HarperCollins, 1993; orig. Auckland: Hutchinson, 1984), p. 69. Alexander Pope makes a strikingly similar observation in the Dunciad: ‘In Bedlam, now is supreme’; quoted in Allan Ingram, ‘Time and Tense in Eighteenth-Century Narratives of Madness’, Yearbook of English Studies, vol. 30, 2000 (pp. 60–70), p. 60. 8. The narrative often described as the first English autobiography, ‘The Book of Margery Kempe’, written in the fourteenth century, which describes the experiences of a woman whose spirituality was articulated especially in passionate weeping, has often been discussed as a pathological text; this may be problematic in many ways, but it underlines the point that mental disturbances of one kind or another are often the impetus behind autobiographical narrative. See Phyllis R. Freeman, Carley Rees Bogarad and Diane E. Sholomskas, ‘Margery Kempe, a new theory: the inadequacy of hysteria and postpartum psychosis as diagnostic categories’, History of Psychiatry, vol. 1, no. 2, June 1990 (pp. 169–190). Kempe’s narrative has been reprinted several times in recent years; see The Book of Margery Kempe, ed. Barry Windeatt (Harlow: Longman, 2000). 9. Andrew Boord, The Breviary of Helthe (London, 1547; The English Experience no. 362, Amsterdam, New York: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Ltd, 1971), f. 91r. 10. For the debate, see Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: a history of insanity in the age of reason, tr. Richard Howard (New York: Vintage Books, 1973); Jacques Derrida, ‘Cogito and the Writing of Madness’, in Writing and Difference, tr. A. Bass (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul 1978); and Foucault’s response, ‘My Body, This Paper, This Fire’, tr. Geoff Bennington, Oxford Literary Review 4.1, autumn 1979 (pp. 5–28). See also Shoshana Felman’s discussion, ‘Foucault/Derrida: the madness of the thinking/speaking subject’, in her Writing and Madness: literature/philosophy/psychoanalysis (Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 2003; orig. La Folie et la chose littéraire, Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1978). Ruth Padel, Whom Gods Destroy: elements of Greek and tragic madness (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 137–138, gives a sharp summary of the issues. Derrida returned to the question in relation to psychoanalysis after Foucault’s death: ‘ “Etre juste avec Freud”: L’Histoire de la folie et l’âge de psychanalyse’, in Elisabeth Roudinesco, ed., Penser la folie: essais sur Michel Foucault (Paris: Editions Galilée, 1992). For autobiographies of madness, see for example Dale Peterson, ed., A Mad People’s History of Madness (Pittsburgh: University of Pitts- burgh Press, 1982); Roy Porter, A Social History of Madness: stories of the insane (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1987). 11. See for example Sylvia Plath, The Bell Jar (London: Heinemann, 2001; orig. 1963); Antonia White’s autobiographical trilogy Frost in May (1933), The Lost Traveller (1950) and Beyond the Glass (1954). 12. In addition to works cited in note 2, for historians working with autobiographical texts, see for example Sara Heller Mendelson, The Mental World of Stuart Women: three studies (Brighton: Harvester, 1987); Natalie Zemon Davis, Women on the Margins: three seventeenth-century lives (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995). For the history of the self more generally, Thomas Heller, Morton Sosna and David Wellbery, eds, Reconstructing Individualism: autonomy, individuality and the self in Western thought (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1986); Roy Porter, ed., Rewriting the Self: histories from the Renaissance to the present (London: Routledge, 1997). Particularly influential has been the work of literary critics on subjectivity; see Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: from More to Shakespeare (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1980); Francis Barker, The Tremulous Private Body: essays on subjection (London: Methuen, 1984); Catherine 204 Notes to pp. 22–27

Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy: identity and difference in Renaissance drama (London: Methuen, 1985). On the question of medieval subjectivity see David Aers, ‘A whisper in the ear of early modernists, or, reflections on literary critics writing the “history of the subject” ’, in David Aers, ed., Culture and History 1350–1600 (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992). 13. These debates are not of course simply the outcome of recent literary theory. Speculations about Renaissance individualism, the impact of the Reformation on the idea of the self, and the cultural, social and economic transformations with which new forms of selfhood are associated go back to the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries: Jacob Burckhardt, The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy (1860); Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1905); R. H. H. Tawney, Religion and the Rise of Capitalism (1926). 14. Mascuch, Origins of the Individualist Self,p.19. 15. For more detailed discussions of the forms of seventeenth-century spiritual narratives, see Mascuch, Origins of the Individualist Self ; Caldwell, Puritan Conversion Narrative; Michael Macdonald, ‘The Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira: narrative, identity and emotion in early modern England’, Journal of British Studies vol. 31, no. 1, 1992 (pp. 32–61). Numerous other articles discuss specific examples. 16. Booy, Personal Disclosures; Rudolf Dekker, ed., Ego-documents and History: autobiographical writing in its social context since the Middle Ages (Hilversum, NL: Verloren, 2002). Pierre Nora’s collection of autobiographical essays by historians declares it a new genre, distinct from autobiography; Pierre Nora, ed., Essais d’ego-histoire (Paris: Editions Gallimard, 1987). 17. Mascuch, Origins of the Individualist Self ; on the diary form, see in particular Chapter 4, ‘Writing on the Heart’. 18. Thomas Adams, The White Devil, or the Hypocrite Uncas’d (London, 1613), p. 28. 19. John Bunyan, Grace Abounding to the chief of Sinners, W. R. Owens, ed. (London: Penguin, 1987), p. 24. 20. John Donne, ‘Good Friday, 1613. Riding Westwards’; Francis Quarles, ‘On Christ and our Selves’. 21. Phyllis Mack, Visionary Women: ecstatic prophecy in seventeenth-century England (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992), p. 7. 22. Alice Hayes, A Legacy, or Widow’s Mite (London, 1723), p. 65; Elizabeth Stirredge, Strength in Weakness Manifest: in the Life, Various Trials, and Christian Testimony of that faithful Servant and Handmaid of the Lord (London, 1711), p. 17. See also Hilary Hinds, God’s Englishwomen: seventeenth-century radical sectarian writing and feminist criticism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), especially Chapter 4, ‘ “There is no self in this thing”: the disappearing author’. 23. Jane Turner, Choice Experiences of the kind dealings of God, before, in, and after conversion (London, 1653), pp. 185, 194. 24. Bunyan, Grace Abounding,p.71. 25. Turner, Choice Experiences,p.10. 26. See for example Macdonald, ‘The Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira’; Margo Todd, ‘Puritan Self-Fashioning: the diary of Samuel Ward’, Journal of British Studies vol. 31, no. 3, 1992 (pp. 236–264). 27. Elspeth Graham, ‘ “Oppression Makes a Wise Man Mad”: the suffering of the self in autobiographical tradition’, in H. Dragstra et al., eds, Betraying Our Selves: forms of self-representation in early modern English texts (London and New York: Macmillan/St Martins Press, 2000), p. 198. 28. See Stachniewski, Persecutory Imagination, especially Chapter 2, ‘Patriarchs, Provid- ence and Paranoia: subjectification and autobiographical narrative’. Notes to pp. 28–35 205

29. Allan Ingram, ‘Introduction’, in Allan Ingram, ed., Voices of Madness: four pamphlets, 1683–1796 (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 1997), p. xxii. 30. Elaine Hobby, Virtue of Necessity: English women’s writing 1649–1688 (London: Virago Press, 1988), pp. 72–73, 74. 31. Stachniewski, Persecutory Imagination,p.94. 32. Anna Trapnel, A Legacy for Saints, being several Experiences of the dealings of God with Anna Trapnel (London, 1654), p. 5. 33. George Trosse, ed. A. W. Brink, The Life of the Reverend Mr. George Trosse (Exeter, 1714; Montreal and London: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), p. 106. 34. Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs Hannah Allen (London, 1683), p. 50. 35. See for example H. C. Erik Midelfort, ‘Madness and Civilization in Early Modern Europe’, in Barbara C. Malament, ed., After the Reformation: essays in honor of J. H. Hexter (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1980); Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). 36. Trosse, Life, p. 108. 37. Allen, Narrative,p.13. 38. Trosse, Life, p. 109. The fear that one has committed the sin against the holy ghost is a recurrent theme in spiritual autobiography; see Stachniewski, Persecutory Imagination. 39. Trosse, Life, p. 109. 40. Trosse, Life,p.84. 41. Dionys Fitzherbert, Bodleian Library, Ms. e Mus. 169, f. 23v. 42. Fitzherbert, Ms. e Mus. 169, f. xvr (letter from Dr Chetwynd). 43. Turner, Choice Experiences, pp. 3, 4. See also Stachniewski, Persecutory Imagination, pp. 105–107, on the pressure to be scrupulous in spiritual autobiography. 44. For examples of the rehearsal of memory among the godly, see Mascuch, Origins of the Individualist Self, pp. 81–84. See also Kate Chedgzoy, Women’s Writing in the British Atlantic World: histories of place and memory, c. 1550–c. 1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming 2007). Many thanks to Kate Chedgzoy for allowing me to cite unpublished work. 45. See for example the testimonies published by John Rogers, in Ohel or Beth-Shemesh: A Tabernacle for the Sun (London, 1653); Henry Walker and Vavasor Powell, Spir- ituall Experiences, of Sundry Believers (London, 1653). 46. Anna Trapnel, Report and plea, or, a narrative of her journey into Cornwall (London, 1654), p. 34. 47. Trosse, Life,p.47. 48. Catherine Holland, ‘Narration’ (1664), in Booy, Personal Disclosures, p. 120. 49. Joan Vokins, Some Account given forth by Joan Vokins of the great goodness and mercy of the Lord towards her, in Joan Vokins, Works (Cockermouth, 1871), p. 22. ‘Professors’ here refers to those who professed a strong faith in God. 50. John Rogers, ‘Another testimony to the Truth or further Experience of John Rogers Preacher of the Gospel ’, in John Rogers, Ohel or Beth-Shemesh, p. 421. 51. Turner, Choice Experiences, pp. 2–3. 52. Trosse, Life, pp. 90–91. 53. Trosse, Life, p. 132. 54. Allen, Narrative,p.44. 55. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus 169, f. 6v. 56. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus, f. 23v. 57. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 2v. 206 Notes to pp. 36–40

58. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 3v. 59. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 17r. 60. Clement Hawes, Mania and Literary Style: the rhetoric of enthusiasm from the Ranters to Christopher Smart (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). See also Nigel Smith, Perfection Proclaimed: language and literature in English radical religion 1640–1660 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); and Margaret Ezell’s discussion of the linguistic characteristics of female Quaker mysticism, in her Writing Women’s Literary History (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993), pp. 157–158. 61. Cf. Allan Ingram’s thoughtful discussion of language in religious autobiography in the eighteenth century, which I return to below. He suggests that what such narratives demonstrate is ‘not a restoration to linguistic independence, but a capitulation to a single, all-powerful register that carries with it the capacity to make meaningful every aspect of the experience of derangement’; Allan Ingram, The Madhouse of Language: writing and reading madness in the eighteenth century (London: Routledge, 1991), pp. 127–128. 62. Dionys Fitzherbert, Lambeth Palace Library MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, pp. 7r–9r, and title page. 63. See Sue Wiseman’s entry on Hannah Allen in the latest edition of the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography for some speculation about possible subsequent traces. 64. George MacLennan, Lucid Interval: subjective writing and madness in history (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1992), p. 56. 65. Ingram, Madhouse of Language, p. 120. 66. See also Allan Ingram’s discussion of the disrupted relations of past and present in ‘Time and Tense in Eighteenth-century Narratives of Madness’.

3 Without Sense and Understanding: Concepts of Madness in Early Modern Thought

1. For an analysis of the words used to describe the mentally disturbed by a seventeenth-century physician, see Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1981), Chapter 4, ‘Popular stereotypes of insanity’. See also Roy Porter, Mind-Forg’d Manacles: a history of madness in England from the Restoration to the Regency (London: Athlone Press, 1987), pp. 22–23; Carol Thomas Neely, Distracted Subjects: madness and gender in Shakespeare and early modern culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), pp. 2–4. 2. See Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, especially Chapter 5, ‘Psychological healing’; R. A. Houston, Madness and Society in Eighteenth-Century Scotland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), Chapter 8, ‘The Language of Insanity 1: words about the insane’. On the European dimension, H. C. Erik Midelfort, A History of Madness in Sixteenth-century Germany (Stanford: California University Press, 1999), Chapter 6, ‘Pilgrims in search of their reason’. 3. See Akihito Suzuki, ‘Lunacy in seventeenth and eighteenth-century England: analysis of Quarter Session records’, Part I, History of Psychiatry, vol. II part 4, December 1991 (pp. 437–456); Part II, History of Psychiatry, vol. III part 1, March 1992 (pp. 29–44), for discussion of family responsibility in relation to insanity; Houston, Madness and Society, for similar patterns in eighteenth-century Scotland. Notes to pp. 41–44 207

4. See Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, especially Chapters 3 and 4, for an extended account of social and cultural factors in the identification of madness. Gender and madness is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4. 5. Many works on the history of medicine or madness in this period give an overview of humoural theory. A useful summary may be found in Andrew Wear, Knowledge and Practice in English Medicine, 1550–1680 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), Chapter 1. See also Stanley W. Jackson, Melancholia and Depression: from Hippocratic times to modern times (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986); E. Ruth Harvey, The Inward Wits: psychological theory in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Warburg Institute Surveys, VI; London: The Warburg Institute, University of London, 1975); Ken Albala, Eating Right in the Renais- sance (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002); Margaret Healy, Fictions of Disease in Early Modern England: bodies, plagues and politics (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001). 6. Andrew Boord, The Breviary of Helthe (London, 1547; reprinted Amsterdam and New York: The English Experience no. 362, Da Capo Press, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Ltd, 1971) ff. 91r, 32r, 88r–v. 7. See Porter, Mind-Forg’d Manacles; Basil Clarke, Mental Disorder in Earlier Britain: exploratory studies (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1975); Andrew Wear, ‘Medical Practice in Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth-Century England: continuity and unison’, in R. French and A. Wear, eds, The Medical Revolution of the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989); Wear, Knowledge and Practice. 8. Boord, Breviary of Helthe, f. 85v. 9. Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy (orig. London, 1621; eds Thomas Faulkner, Nicholas Kiessling and Rhonda Blair, 6 vols, I, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989–2000), vol. I, p. 140. 10. See Harvey, Inward Wits. 11. Burton, Anatomy, vol. I, p. 157. 12. Neely, Distracted Subjects, pp. 1, 2. Basil Clarke comments similarly that various writers on the mind at this period, including Timothy Bright, Thomas Wright and Robert Burton, ‘might be put into an association to illustrate the growth of a humane, rather than conventionally medical or popularly irrational, approach they were all casting about for ways of finding some room between theology and biochemistry for new psychological ideas which were still unformed’; Mental Disorder, p. 227. 13. Thomas Wright, The Passions of the Mind in General (London, 1604), p. 64. 14. Passion is an important concept in the development of seventeenth-century theories of mind, and this is obviously a very abbreviated discussion. For a full survey of the topic, see Susan James, Passion and Action: the emotions in seventeenth- century philosophy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997). For a discussion of the literature on passion in relation particularly to enthusiasm in the later seventeenth century, see Adrian Johns, ‘The Physiology of Reading and the Anatomy of Enthu- siasm’, in Ole Peter Grell and Andrew Cunningham, eds, Religio Medici: medicine and religion in seventeenth-century England (Aldershot, Hants: Scolar Press, 1996), esp. pp. 146–153. 15. Thomas Adams, Mystical Bedlam, or the World of Mad-men (London: George Purslowe, 1615), p. 35. 16. Thomas Beard, The Theatre of God’s Judgements: Or, a collection of histories concerning the admirable Judgements of God upon the transgressours of his commandements. Translated out of the French, and augmented by more than three 208 Notes to pp. 44–48

hundred Examples (London: Adam Islip, 1597). For a fascinating discussion of this text and the culture of providentialism it embodied, as well as further examples of madness as divine punishment, see Alexandra Walsham, Providence in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). 17. Edward Reynoldes, A Treatise of the Passions and Faculties of the Soule of Man, with the severall Dignities and Corruptions thereunto belonging (London, 1640), pp. 26, 27. (‘Species’ is an Aristotelian term for things seen.) The ability of demons to disrupt vision was much debated; see Stuart Clark, ‘The Reformation of the Eyes: apparitions and optics in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Europe’, Journal of Religious History, vol. 27 (2), 2003, 143–160. 18. ‘For classical man, madness was not the natural condition, the human and psychological root of unreason; it was only unreason’s empirical form; and the madman disclosed that underlying realm of unreason which threatens man ’ Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: a history of insanity in the age of reason, tr. Richard Howard (New York: Vintage Books, 1973), p. 83. 19. John Sym, Lifes Preservative Against Self-Killing (London, 1637; facsimile reprint ed. and introduced by Michael Macdonald, Tavistock Classics in the History of Psychiatry, London: Routledge, 1988), p. 250. 20. Beard, Theatre of Gods Judgements, p. 205. 21. Reynoldes, Treatise of the Passions,p.72. 22. Wright, Passions of the Mind, p. 130. 23. Beard, Theatre of Gods Judgements, p. 184. 24. Sym, Lifes Preservative, p. 172. 25. Compare Ruth Padel’s fascinating account of the ways in which madness was variously imagined as damage, invasion and so on, in ancient Greece: Whom Gods Destroy: elements of Greek and tragic madness (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995). See also Ramin Mojtabai, ‘Delusion as Error: the history of a metaphor’, History of Psychiatry, vol. 11 part 1, issue 41, 2000 (pp. 3–14); Alex Leff, ‘Clean round the bend – the etymology of jargon and slang terms for madness’, History of Psychiatry XI 2000 (pp. 155–162). 26. Adams, Mystical Bedlam, pp. 34–35. 27. Timothy Bright, A Treatise of Melancholie (London, 1586), p. 112. 28. Sym, Lifes Preservative, p. 251. 29. Reynoldes, Treatise of the Passions,p.25. 30. Wright, Passions of the Mind,p.52. 31. Wright, Passions of the Mind, pp. 48–49. It is interesting to compare the statement in the Encyclopedia nearly a century later on a related topic: ‘To deviate from reason knowingly, in the grip of a violent passion, is to be weak; but to deviate from it confidently and with the firm conviction that one is following it, is to be what we call mad’; quoted by Shoshana Felman, Writing and Madness: literature/philosophy/psychoanalysis (Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 2003; orig. La Folie et la chose litteraire, Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1978), p. 36. Wright seems to have a better understanding of the capacity for self-delusion. 32. Reynoldes, Treatise of the Passions, p. 30. There is no clue, regrettably, as to what strange practices among the learned he has in mind. 33. John Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (London, 1690; Peter H. Nidditch, ed., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), p. 161. 34. Locke, Essay, p. 161. 35. Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs Hannah Allen (London, 1683), p. 16; Dionys Fitzherbert, Bodleian Library MS. e Mus. 169, f. 11v; George Trosse, The Life of the Reverend Mr George Notes to pp. 48–54 209

Trosse (Exeter, 1614; A. W. Brink, ed., Montreal and London: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1974), p. 99. 36. Trosse, Life, p. 132. 37. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, ff. 4v, 9r, 10r. 38. Burton, Anatomy, vol. I, p. 302. 39. Burton, Anatomy, vol. I, p. 304. 40. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 29v; f. 22v. Books have a significant part to play in Fitzherbert’s inner world; for further discussion see my forthcoming edition of her manuscript. 41. There is now a substantial literature on the subject of women and writing in early modern Europe. See among others Patricia H. Labalme, ed., Beyond Their Sex: learned women of the European past (New York: New York University Press, 1980); Elaine Hobby, Virtue of Necessity: English women’s writing, 1646– 1688 (London: Virago, 1988); Elaine Beilin, Redeeming Eve: women writers of the English Renaissance (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1987); Margaret Ezell, Writing Women’s Literary History (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); Kate Chedgzoy, Melanie Hansen and Suzanne Trill, eds, Voicing Women: gender and sexuality in early modern writing (Keele: Keele University Press, 1996); Helen Wilcox, ed., Women and Literature in Britain 1500–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Danielle Clarke and Elizabeth Clarke, eds, ‘This Double Voice’: gendered writing in early modern England (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000). 42. Allen, Narrative,p.17. 43. Trosse, Life, p. 115. 44. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 4v. 45. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 3v; f. 10r. On not recognising close kin as a sign of madness, see Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, pp. 126–127; Houston, Madness and Society, pp. 188–189. 46. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 3v. 47. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 3v. 48. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 9r. 49. Allen, Narrative, pp. 22–23. 50. Allen, Narrative, pp. 29–30. 51. Trosse, Life, pp. 90, 132. 52. Trosse, Life, pp. 90, 91, 93. 53. Trosse, Life,p.97. 54. Trosse, Life, p. 100. 55. Trosse, Life,p.98. 56. Trosse, Life,p.89. 57. Trosse, Life,p.87. 58. Trosse, Life,p.87. 59. Michael Macdonald, ‘Insanity and the realities of history in early modern England’, Psychological Medicine, vol. 11, no. 1, 1981 (pp. 11–25), 16. 60. See Barbara J. Shapiro, A Culture of Fact: England 1550–1750 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2000), on the shifting ways of establishing empirical certainty across the seventeenth century. 61. Porter, Mind-Forg’d Manacles,p.35. 62. Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, p. 123. On disordered speech and insanity, see Macdonald, pp. 142–147; Houston, Madness and Society, Chapter 9. Neely gives a thoughtful analysis of the fragmentary and fractured character of mad speech as represented in the early modern theatre, Distracted Subjects, pp. 49–50. For an 210 Notes to pp. 54–59

extended and illuminating discussion of language and madness in the eighteenth century, see Ingram, Madhouse of Language. See also K. Hodgkin, ‘Conceits of Mind, Conceits of Body: Dionys Fitzherbert and the discourses of religion and madness’, in Stanley E. Porter, ed., The Nature of Religious Language (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996). 63. Allan Ingram, The Madhouse of Language: writing and reading madness in the eighteenth century (Routledge: London, 1991), p. 37. For further discussion of conversation in the treatment of madness see Chapter 6. 64. Richard Stafford, A Clear Apology and Just Defence of Richard Stafford for Himself (London, 1690), p. 16. See also Jonathan Andrews’s discussion of Richard Stafford, ‘The Politics of Committal to Early Modern Bethlem’, in Roy Porter, ed., Medicine in the Enlightenment (Amsterdam-Atlanta: Rodopi, Wellcome Institute Series in the History of Medicine, 1995), pp. 6–63. 65. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 11v. 66. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 23v. 67. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 18r, f. 23r–v. 68. Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, p. 123. 69. The Oxford English Dictionary gives a range of uses for ‘distract’ and ‘distracted’ from the late 14th century on. For relevant 17th-century usages see for example, distract, v., 3. ‘To draw or turn away from actual position, destination or purpose; to turn aside to divert’; distracted, 5. ‘Deranged in mind; out of one’s wits; crazed, mad, insane.’ Oxford English Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971). See also Neely, Distracted Subjects, pp. 2–4. 70. Trosse, Life, p. 132. 71. Trosse, Life, p. 115. 72. For discussion of various aspects of speech and silence in early modern culture, see Peter Burke and Roy Porter, eds, Language, Self and Society: a social history of language (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991); Laura Gowing, Domestic Dangers: women, words and sex in early modern London (Oxford: Clar- endon Press, 1996). On ambiguity, excessive speech and anxiety, see Steven Mullaney, ‘Lying Like Truth: riddle, representation and treason in early modern England’, ELH 47, 1980 (pp. 32–47); Patricia Parker, Literary Fat Ladies: rhetoric, gender, property (London and New York: Methuen, 1987); K. Hodgkin, ‘Thomas Whythorne and the Problems of Mastery’, History Workshop Journal 29, 1990 (pp. 20–41). 73. Wright, Passions of the Minde, p. 107. 74. Trosse, Life, p. 105. 75. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 15r. 76. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 3v. 77. Trosse, Life,p.92. 78. Trosse, Life, p. 107. 79. Allen, Narrative, pp. 21–22. 80. Allen, Narrative, pp. 62–63. 81. Allen, Narrative,p.27. 82. Allen, Narrative,p.43. 83. Allen, Narrative,p.40. 84. Allen, Narrative,p.59. 85. Allen, Narrative,p.70. 86. John Bunyan, Grace Abounding to the chief of Sinners, W. R. Owens, ed. (London: Penguin, 1987), pp. 35–37. Notes to pp. 60–63 211

4 Melancholy: A Land of Darkness

1. Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs Hannah Allen (London, 1683), p. 60. 2. For accounts of the uneven shift away from Galenism in seventeenth-century medical practice, see Basil Clarke, Mental Disorder in Earlier Britain: exploratory studies (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1975); Andrew Wear, ‘Medical Practice in Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth-Century England: continuity and unison’, in R. French and A. Wear, eds, The Medical Revolution of the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), pp. 294–320; Andrew Wear, Know- ledge and Practice in English Medicine, 1550–1680 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); Roy Porter, Mind-Forg’d Manacles: a history of madness in England from the Restoration to the Regency (London: Athlone Press, 1987). 3. The key contemporary works on the topic of melancholy are Timothy Bright, A Treatise of Melancholie (London, 1586), and Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melan- choly (orig. London, 1621; eds, Thomas Faulkner, Nicolas Kiessling and Rhonda Blair, 6 vols, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989–2000). For more recent studies, see Lawrence Babb, The Elizabethan Malady: a study of melancholia in English literature from 1580 to 1642 (East Lansing: Michigan State College Press, 1951); Raymond Klibansky, Erwin Panofsky and Fritz Saxl, Saturn and Melancholy: studies in the history of natural philosophy, religion and art (London: Nelson, 1964); Susan Snyder, ‘The Left Hand of God: despair in medieval and renaissance tradition’, Studies in the Renaissance 12, 1965; Bridget Gellert Lyons, Voices of Melancholy: studies in literary treatments of melancholy in Renaissance England (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971). See also J. B. Bamborough’s ‘Introduction’ to the Clarendon Press edition of Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy, above, vol. I, 1989. 4. See Babb, Elizabethan Malady; Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1981). On the question of gender, see Carol Thomas Neely, Distracted Subjects: madness and gender in Shakespeare and early modern culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), Chapter 3, and works cited below, note 90. 5. H. C. Erik Midelfort, Mad Princes of Renaissance Germany (Charlottesville: Univer- sity Press of Virginia, 1994), pp. 154, 155. See also the account of the rise of melancholy in the sixteenth century in his A History of Madness in Sixteenth-century Germany (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1990). The phrase ‘a sicknes full of fantasies’ is from Andrew Boord, The Breviary of Helthe (London, 1547; facsimile ed., English Experience reprints no. 362, Amsterdam, New York: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Ltd, 1971), p. 91r. 6. Bright, Treatise,p.3. 7. Burton, Anatomy, vol. I, pp. 418–419. 8. Burton, Anatomy, vol. I, p. 420. 9. Disorders of perception are discussed in the previous chapter, pp. 50–54. The belief that one is made of glass has an oddly iconic status in early modern writings on melancholy. Locke uses it as an instance in the passage quoted above, p. 47, and it is still being cited by Richard Blackmore, A Treatise of the Spleen and Vapours in Hypochondriacal and Hysterical Affections. With Three Discourses on the Nature and Cure of the Cholick, Melancholy, and Palsies (London, 1725). See Gill Speak, ‘An Odd Kind of Melancholy: Reflections on the Glass Delusion in Europe (1440–1680)’, History of Psychiatry no. 1, 1990 (pp. 191–206). 10. Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, p. 152. 11. On melancholy and gentility, see Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, pp. 150–160. 212 Notes to pp. 63–67

12. Babb, The Elizabethan Malady, p. 175. 13. Nathaniel Bacon, A Relation of the Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira, in the yeare 1548 (London, 1638), pp. 110–111. 14. Bacon, Fearefull Estate, p. 47 15. The case of Spira is described in A notable and marveilous Epistle of the famous Doctour, Mathewe Gribalde, Professor of the Lawe, in the Universitie of Padua: concernyng the terrible judgemente of GOD, upon hym that for feare of men, denieth Christ and the knowne veritie: with a Preface of Doctor Calvine. Now newely imprinted, with a godly and wholesome preservative against desperation (London, [1570?]). Nathaniel Bacon’s fuller translation was published nearly sixty years later; see note 13 above. For a discussion of the publishing history of the case, and of its influence in spiritual self-narrative in the seventeenth century, see Michael MacDonald, ‘The Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira: Narrative, Identity, and Emotion in Early Modern England’, Journal of British Studies, vol. 31, no. 1, January 1992 (pp. 32– 61). See also John Stachniewski, The Persecutory Imagination: English Puritanism and the literature of religious despair (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), pp. 37–39. 16. Thomas Beard, The Theatre of God’s Judgements: Or, a collection of histories concerning the admirable Judgements of God upon the transgressours of his commandements (London, 1597), p. 64. 17. Allen, Narrative, pp. iv–v. (The authorship of the preface is open to question; it may be by Allen herself, or by someone else.) 18. Robert Yarrow, Soveraigne Comforts for a troubled Conscience (London, 1634), p. 16. 19. William Perkins, The Whole Treatise of the Cases of Conscience (London, 1608), Book I, p. 194. 20. Bright, Treatise, pp. 187–188. 21. Bright, Treatise, p. 190. 22. Perkins, Treatise, Book I, p. 195. 23. Burton, Anatomy, vol. III, p. 412. 24. Burton, Anatomy, vol. III, p. 411. 25. Yarrow, Soveraigne Comforts,p.16. 26. Macdonald, ‘Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira’, p. 50. See also the discussion of Burton in Stachniewski, Persecutory Imagination, Chapter 5, ‘Robert Burton and Religious Despair in Calvinist England’, especially pp. 226–232. 27. Bright, Treatise, p. 190. 28. Yarrow, Soveraigne Comforts, pp. 2–3. 29. Yarrow, Soveraigne Comforts,p.14. 30. Neely, Distracted Subjects, pp. 15, 16. 31. Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, p. 151. 32. Bright’s book was widely read. Fitzherbert’s slightly older contemporary Lady Margaret Hoby records reading ‘Bright of Mallincocolie’ in Fitzherbert’s diary in 1599; interestingly, she was brought up in the household of the Countess of Huntingdon, which is also where Fitzherbert was living at the time of her breakdown. See Dorothy M. Meads, ed., Diary of Lady Margaret Hoby, 1599–1605 (London: George Routledge & Sons, Ltd, 1930), p. 77. 33. Lambeth Palace Library, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47. The fair copies of the MS (in the Bodleian and in Lambeth Palace Library) also contain her most extended argument against understanding her affliction as melancholy, in a preface headed ‘Christian Reader’; this preface is not included in her original MS, so quotations from this preface refer to the Lambeth Palace MS. 34. Fitzherbert, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 7r. Notes to pp. 67–75 213

35. Fitzherbert, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 7r; Bodleian Library, MS e Mus 169, ff. 8r, 23v (and see previous chapter). 36. Bright, Treatise, p. 188. 37. Fitzherbert, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 7r. 38. Fitzherbert, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 7v. 39. Bright, Treatise, p. 188–189. 40. Bright, Treatise, p. 189; Perkins, Treatise, Book I, p. 195. 41. Fitzherbert, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 8r. 42. Mary Morrissey, ‘Narrative Authority in Spiritual Life-Writing: the example of Dionys Fitzherbert (fl. 1608–1641)’, The Seventeenth Century, vol. 15, no. 1, 2000 (pp. 1–17). 43. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 3r. 44. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 3v. 45. Fitzherbert, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 7v. 46. John Hart (Hart On-Hi), Trodden Down Strength, by the God of Strength, or, Mrs Drake Revived. Shewing her strange and rare case, great and many uncouth afflictions, for tenne yeares together, together with the strange and wonderfull manner how the Lord revealed himselfe unto her, a few dayes before her death (London, 1647). A further edition was published in 1654, under the title The Firebrand Taken Out of the Fire, or, the Wonderfull History, Case and Cure of Mrs Drake (London, 1654); this version (the Bodleian Library copy) is also available on Early English Books Online. Her case was still known in the later part of the century. Timothy Rogers refers to it several times, regarding Mr Dod, one of the ministers centrally involved in her case, as a model of sensitive treatment of the distressed; Timothy Rogers, A Discourse concerning Trouble of Mind and the Disease of Melancholly. In Three Parts. Written for the Use of such as are, or have been Exercised by the same (London, 1691), pp. viii, xiv. 47. Hart, Trodden Down Strength, pp. 13–14. 48. Hart, Trodden Down Strength, pp. 14, 24. 49. Hart, Trodden Down Strength,p.40. 50. Hart, Trodden Down Strength, pp. 7, 9, 10. 51. Hart, Trodden Down Strength, pp. 30–31. 52. Hart, Trodden Down Strength, pp. 66, 65. 53. Henry More, Enthusiasmus Triumphatus: Or a discourse of the nature, causes, kinds, and cure, of enthusiasme (London, 1656), p. 14. 54. John Rogers, Ohel or Beth-Shemesh: A Tabernacle for the Sun (London, 1653), p. 364. 55. Testimonies of Elizabeth Chambers and Humphrey Mills in Rogers, Ohel or Beth-Shemesh, pp. 407, 410. 56. Mary Penington, Some Account of Circumstances in the Life of Mary Penington (London, 1821), p. 17. 57. Joan Vokins, Some Account given forth by Joan Vokins great goodness and mercy of the Lord towards her, in Joan Vokins, Works (Cockermouth, 1871), p. 18. 58. John Crook, A short History of the Life of John Crook (London, 1706), p. 6. 59. Elizabeth Stirredge, Strength in Weakness Manifest: in the Life, Various Trials, and Christian Testimony of that faithful Servant and Handmaid of the Lord (London, 1711), p. 7. 60. Stirredge, Strength in Weakness Manifest,p.16. 61. Allen, Narrative,p.i. 62. Allen, Narrative, pp. 7–8. 63. Allen, Narrative,p.72. 64. Allen, Narrative,p.44. 65. Rogers, Discourse,p.i. 214 Notes to pp. 76–81

66. Rogers, Discourse, pp. 183–184. 67. Richard Baxter,The Signs and Causes of Melancholy. With Directions Suited to the Case of those who are Afflicted with it. Collected out of the Works of Mr Richard Baxter, for the Sake of Those, who are Wounded in Spirit. By Samuel Clifford, Minister of the Gospel (London, 1716), p. 4. This posthumous compilation of Baxter’s various observations on the topic also demonstrates the continuing purchase of the concept of melancholy in nonconformist circles into the early eighteenth century. 68. Baxter, Signs and Causes,p.30. 69. Baxter, Signs and Causes, pp. 1–3. 70. Rogers, Discourse, pp. ii, xii. 71. Rogers, Discourse, p. iii. 72. Rogers, Discourse, p. xi–xii. 73. Baxter, Signs and Causes, pp. 77–78. 74. Richard Blackmore, A Treatise of the Spleen and Vapours in Hypochondriacal and Hysterical Affections. With Three Discourses on the Nature and Cure of the Cholick, Melancholy, and Palsies (London, 1725), p. 99. 75. Fitzherbert, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 7r. 76. Rogers, Discourse,p.v. 77. The analogy with physical illness is not of course unknown in earlier writings; Burton, for example, declares, ‘you may as well bid him that is sicke of an ague not to bee adry; or him that is wounded not to feel paine’, Anatomy, vol. I, p. 420. Baxter and Rogers, however, mobilise the image in the context of a discussion of specifically spiritual suffering. 78. Rogers, Discourse, p. xiv. 79. Baxter, Signs and Causes,p.18. 80. Baxter, Signs and Causes, pp. 22, 28, 29. 81. Baxter, Signs and Causes,p.15. 82. For discussion of Baxter’s changing views on melancholy and religious despair, and the increasing importance of medical discourse on the topic in the late seventeenth century, see Stachniewski, Persecutory Imagination, pp. 55–61. For Baxter’s personal relation to melancholy and other illnesses, see Andrew Wear, ‘Puritan Perceptions of Illness in Seventeenth-Century England’, in Roy Porter, ed., Patients and Practitioners: lay perceptions of medicine in pre-industrial society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985). 83. Allen, Narrative,p.56. 84. Baxter, Signs and Causes,p.15. 85. Blackmore, Treatise of the Spleen, pp. 11–12. 86. Blackmore, Treatise of the Spleen, pp. 159–160. 87. George Trosse, The Life of the Reverend Mr. George Trosse, A. W. Brink, ed. (Montreal and London: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), p. 114. 88. Trosse, Life, p. 114. 89. Trosse, Life, pp. 94, 107, 111; Boord, Breviary of Helthe, f. 88r. See Macdonald on the terminology and treatment of violent madness, Mystical Bedlam, pp. 121–132; interestingly Napier does not seem to use the word mania at all. 90. See for example Phyllis Chesler, Women and Madness (New York: Doubleday, 1972); Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: women, madness and English culture 1830–1980 (London: Virago, 1987); Jane Ussher, Women’s Madness: misogyny or mental illness? (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991). Much work has also been done in the field of literary criticism and critical theory. See Shoshana Felman, ‘Women and Madness: the critical phallacy’, Diacritics, vol. 5, no. 4, 1975 (pp. 2–10); and in relation to the earlier period, Elaine Showalter, Notes to pp. 81–83 215

‘Representing Ophelia: women, madness and the responsibilities of feminist criticism’, in Patricia Parker and Geoffrey Hartman, eds, Shakespeare and the Ques- tion of Theory (London: Methuen, 1985); Carol Thomas Neely, ‘ “Documents in Madness”: reading madness and gender in Shakespeare’s tragedies and early modern culture’, Shakespeare Quarterly, vol. 42, no. 3, 1991 (pp. 315–338); Helen Small, Love’s Madness: medicine, the novel and female insanity, 1800–1865 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996). Unfortunately, I encountered Neely’s recent very significant study only at a very late point in this project: Carol Thomas Neely, Distracted Subjects: madness and gender in Shakespeare and early modern culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004). 91. Natalie Zemon Davis, ‘Women on Top’, in Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975), p. 125. 92. See Small, Love’s Madness; Lisa Dawson, Sweet Poison: the representation of lovesickness in early modern English literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001). Mary F. Wack, Lovesickness in the Middle Ages: The ‘Viaticum’ and its Commentaries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990), although chiefly concerned with the medieval period, also gives an overview of later developments. 93. For a general history, Ilza Veith, Hysteria: the history of a disease (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965). More specifically relating to early modern culture, see Audrey Eccles, Obstetrics and Gynaecology in Tudor and Stuart England (Kent, Ohio: Kent State University Press, 1982); Michael Macdonald, Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London: Edward Jorden and the Mary Glover case (London: Tavis- tock/Routledge, 1991); Laurinda Dixon, Perilous Chastity: women and illness in pre-Enlightenment art and medicine (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995). 94. On madness in drama, see Duncan Salkeld, Madness and Drama in the Age of Shakespeare (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993); Neely, Distracted Subjects. For Tom o’Bedlam, see Jack Lindsay, ed., Loving Mad Tom: Bedlamite verses of the XVI and XVII centuries, illustrated Norman Lindsay, foreword Robert Graves, musical transcriptions Peter Warlock (London: Fanfrolico Press, 1927). 95. Robert Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, vol. III, p. 55. 96. Schiesari, Gendering of Melancholia, p. 15. Cf. too Elaine Showalter: ‘Women’s melancholy was seen instead as biological, and emotional in origins’; ‘Repres- enting Ophelia’, in Parker and Hartman, eds, Shakespeare and the Question of Theory,p.81. 97. Schiesari, Gendering of Melancholia,p.14. 98. Neely, Distracted Subjects, p. 70. Neely locates this shift in the context again of a secularisation of the discourse of melancholy, particularly here in relation to the need to find a secular account of phenomena such as bewitchment and possession; she argues that these previously spiritual conditions were refigured as the consequence of particularly female mental disorders. See Chapter 3, ‘Diagnosing Women’s Melancholy’. 99. Burton bases his account of women’s melancholy on Lodovicus Mercatus (Luis de Mercado), whose De mulierum affectionibus libri iiii was published in Corduba in 1579, and Rodericus a Castro, author of De universa mulierum medicina, Hamburg, 1603. As part of a cluster of publications on the subject in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries, these texts underline Neely’s point that the elaboration of the concept of women’s melancholy is a new development in this period. 100. Burton, Anatomy, ‘Symptoms of Maids’, Nuns’ and Widows’ Melancholy’, vol. I, pp. 414–418. 216 Notes to pp. 83–88

101. Burton, Anatomy, vol. I, p. 414. 102. Burton, Anatomy, vol. I, p. 414. 103. Burton, Anatomy, vol. I, pp. 414, 416. 104. Helen Hackett, ‘ “A book, and solitarinesse”: melancholia, gender and literary subjectivity in Mary Wroth’s Urania’, in Gordon McMullan, ed., Renaissance Configurations: voices/bodies/spaces, 1580–1690 (London: Macmillan 1998/Palgrave, 2001). 105. Among Napier’s patients, bereavement followed by excessive grief was one of the most commonly cited causes for patients falling into melancholy or madness; marital and love problems also played a significant part, and this was particularly true among women. Of the forty-two patients who consulted Napier because of ‘illness, despair or madness’ following the death of a spouse, thirty-three were women, as were three-quarters of those afflicted because of parental refusal to consent to their marriages, 84 per cent of those under stress because of marital conflict, and all but seven of the fifty-eight suffering because of the loss of a child. Homilectic writers recommended moderation in all human emotions; many people clearly found this advice difficult to follow. See Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, Chapter 3 ‘Stress, anxiety and family life’. 106. Burton, Anatomy, vol. I, p. 165. 107. Burton’s discussion of religious melancholy is part III section 4 of the Anatomy; for examples see chapter 5. 108. Baxter, Signs and Causes, p. 120. 109. Baxter, Signs and Causes, p. 121. 110. For further discussion of this aspect, see K. Hodgkin, ‘Dionys Fitzhertbert and the Anatomy of Melancholy’, in Kate Chedgzoy, Melanie Hansen and Suzanne Trill, eds, Voicing Women: gender and sexuality in early modern writing (Keele: Keele University Press, 1996).

5 Mad Unto the World: Spiritual and Mental Disturbances

1. Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy (orig. London, 1621; eds Thomas Faulkner, Nicolas Kiessling and Rhonda Blair, 6 vols, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989–2000). As noted in the previous chapter, the phrase is attributed to him by Michael Macdonald; ‘The Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira: narrative, identity and emotion in early modern England’, Journal of British Studies, vol. 31, no. 1, 1992 (pp. 32–61), p. 50. 2. Burton, Anatomy, vol. III, p. 338. 3. Burton, Anatomy, vol. III, pp. 414, 415. 4. Burton, Anatomy, vol. III, p. 387. 5. Burton, Anatomy, vol. III, p. 356. 6. The phrase is used by the Quaker Elizabeth Stirredge: Strength in Weakness Mani- fest in the Life, Various Trials, and Christian Testimony of that faithful Servant and Handmaid of the Lord, Elizabeth Stirredge (London, 1711), p. 84. 7. On the often-tricky relations between the godly and the law, see Christopher Hill, Liberty Against the Law: some seventeenth-century controversies (London: Allen Lane, 1996). 8. Alexandra Walsham, Providence in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1999), pp. 214–215. Notes to pp. 88–92 217

9. Also known as Eleanor Audeley and Eleanor Douglas; her family and marital connections placed her at the heart of the patronage networks of the Jacobean and Caroline aristocracy, although her turn to prophecy in her thirties placed her at odds with most of her friends and family. For an extended account of her extraordinary life, see Esther Cope, Handmaid of the Holy Spirit: Dame Eleanor Davies, Never Soe Mad a Ladie (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1992); for a selection of her writings, Esther Cope, ed., Prophetic Writings of Lady Eleanor Davies (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995). See also Roy Porter, ‘The Prophetic Body: Lady Eleanor Davies and the meanings of madness’, Women’s Writing 1, 1994 (pp. 51–63). 10. Quoted in Cope, Handmaid of the Holy Spirit,p.71. 11. Quoted in Cope, Handmaid of the Holy Spirit,p.86. 12. Eleanor Davies Bethlehem, signifying the house of bread: or war. Reprinted in Cope ed., Prophetic Writings, p. 371. 13. As Jonathan Andrews comments, so long as the threat was not felt to be serious there was a fairly high level of tolerance of religious eccentricity; ‘The Politics of Committal to Early Modern Bethlem’, in Roy Porter, ed., Medicine in the Enlight- enment (Amsterdam-Atlanta: Rodopi, Wellcome Institute Series in the History of Medicine, 1995). Prophets with royalist sympathies or aristocratic connections were perhaps more likely to be put away as mad rather than seditious; Eleanor Davies and Richard Stafford are two examples, and a third might be Arise Evans, commonly known as the ‘royalist prophet’. See Christopher Hill, ‘Arise Evans – Welshman in London’, in Change and Continuity in Seventeenth-Century England (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1974). 14. John Rogers, ‘Another testimony to the Truth or further Experience of John Rogers’, in Ohel or Beth-Shemesh: A Tabernacle for the Sun (London, 1653), pp. 428–429. 15. Rogers, ‘Another testimony to the Truth’, p. 429. 16. Rogers, ‘Another testimony to the Truth’, p. 429. 17. On radical religion in the mid-seventeenth century and beyond, see Christopher Hill, The World Turned Upside Down: radical ideas during the English Revolution (orig. London: Maurice Temple Smith, 1972; Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1985); Nigel Smith, Perfection Proclaimed: language and literature in English radical religion 1640–1660 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); Phyllis Mack, Visionary Women: ecstatic prophecy in seventeenth-century England (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992). 18. Henry Jessey, The exceeding riches of grace advanced by the spirit of grace in an empty nothing creature, viz. Mris Sarah Wight (London, 1647), p. 31. 19. John Bunyan, Grace Abounding to the chief of Sinners, ed. W. R. Owens (London: Penguin, 1987), p. 74. 20. See Mack, Visionary Women, especially Chapter 4 ‘Ecstasy and Self-transcendence’. 21. John Crook, A short History of the Life of John Crook (London, 1706), p. 32. 22. Crook, A Short History,p.32. 23. On the Christian fool topos, see M. A. Screech, ‘Good Madness in Christendom’, in W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter and Michael Shepherd, eds, The Anatomy of Madness: essays in the history of psychiatry, vol. I: People and Ideas (London: Tavistock Public- ations, 1985); Hill, World Turned Upside Down, Chapter 13, ‘The Island of Great Bedlam’. 24. Bunyan, Grace Abounding,p.73. 25. Smith, Perfection Proclaimed,p.73. 26. Thomas Tryon, Pythagoras his Mystick Philosophy Reviv’d; Or, the Mystery of Dreams Unfolded (London, 1691), p. 138. 218 Notes to pp. 92–96

27. ‘A fuller Testimony as it was taken from Elizabeth Avery’, in Rogers, Ohel or Beth- Shemesh, p. 405. 28. Anna Trapnel, A Legacy for Saints (London, 1654), pp. 36–37. 29. Trapnel, Legacy, pp. 25–26. 30. Trapnel, Legacy, pp. 35–36. 31. Clement Hawes, Mania and Literary Style: the rhetoric of enthusiasm from the Ranters to Christopher Smart (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 32. Barbara Blaugdone, An Account of the Travels, Sufferings and Persecution of Barbara Blaugdone (London, 1691), p. 28. 33. Thomas Adams, Mystical Bedlam, or the World of Mad-Men (London, 1615), p. 47. 34. George Fox, The Journal of George Fox, John Nickalls, ed. (Philadelphia: Religious Society of Friends, 1997), pp. 43–44. See also Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 228; George Fox, George Fox’s ‘Book of Miracles’, Henry Cadbury, ed. (Philadelphia, PA; London: Quaker Homes Service, 2000). 35. Richard T. Vann, The Social Development of English Quakerism 1655–1755 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1969), p. 29. 36. On the changing relationship of Quakers to insanity in the century and a half between Fox and Tuke, see Fiona Godlee, ‘Aspects of non-conformity: Quakers and the lunatic fringe’, in W. F. Bynum, Roy Porter and Michael Shepherd, eds, The Anatomy of Madness: essays in the history of psychiatry, vol. 2, Institutions and Society (London: Tavistock, 1985). 37. Agnes Beaumont, ‘The Narrative of the Persecution of Agnes Beaumont’, in John Stachniewski and Anita Pacheco, eds, Grace Abounding with other spiritual Autobi- ographies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, World’s Classics, 1998), p. 209. 38. Abiezer Coppe, A Fiery Flying Roll (orig. London, 1649), in Nigel Smith, ed., A Collection of Ranter Writings from the Seventeenth Century (London: Junction Press, 1983), pp. 61–62. 39. Jane Turner, Choice Experiences of the kind dealings of God before, in, and after Conversion (London, 1653), p. 27. 40. Anna Trapnel, Anna Trapnel’s Report and Plea (London, 1654), preface (n. p.); The Cry of a Stone (London, 1654), p. 67. 41. Elizabeth Avery, Scripture-Prophecies Opened, which are to be accomplished in these last times, which do attend the coming of Christ, in several Letters written to Christian friends (London, 1647), preface. 42. Thomas Parker,The Copy of a Letter written by Mr Thomas Parker, Pastor of the Church of Newbury in New-England, to his Sister, Mrs Elizabeth Avery, sometimes of Newbury in the county of Berks, touching sundry Opinions by her professed and maintained (London, 1650), pp. 5, 13. 43. Meric Casaubon, A Treatise Concerning Enthusiasm (London, 1655; Gainesville, Fla.: Scholars’ Fascsimiles and Reprints, 1970); Henry More, Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, or: a discourse of the nature, causes, kinds, and cure, of enthusiasme (London, 1656). (Originallypublishedunderpseudonym‘PhilophilusParresiastes’.) 44. Michael Macdonald, ‘Insanity and the realities of history in early modern England’, Psychological Medicine, vol. 11, no. 1, 1981 (pp. 11–25), p. 15. 45. More, Enthusiasmus Triumphatus,p.16. 46. More, Enthusiasmus Triumphatus,p.17. 47. More, Enthusiasmus Triumphatus,p.51. 48. John Sena, ‘Melancholic Madness and the Puritans’, Harvard Theological Review, vol. 66, no. 3, 1973. Notes to pp. 96–99 219

49. Macdonald, ‘Insanity and the Realities of History’, p. 12. 50. Casaubon, Treatise, pp. 86, 129. Like Burton, Casaubon comments on the suscept- ibility of women, whom ‘all men know to be naturally weaker of brain, and easiest to be infatuated and deluded’, p. 119. 51. Casaubon, Treatise, pp. 131, 213. 52. For a variation on this theme see K. Hodgkin, ‘Reasoning with Unreason: witchcraft, visions and madness in seventeenth-century England’, in Stuart Clark, ed., Languages of Witchcraft: narrative, ideology and meaning in early modern culture (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000). 53. Allen mentions reading ‘blessed Mr Bolton’s Books’, probably referring to Robert Bolton’s Instructions for a Right Comforting Afflicted Consciences, 1631, which was puritan in ethos but nonetheless orthodox; Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs Hannah Allen (London, 1683), p. 5. 54. Louise Yeoman, ‘Archie’s Invisible Worlds Discovered – spirituality, madness and Johnston of Wariston’s family’, Records of the Scottish Church History Society 27, 1997 (pp. 156–186), p. 175. 55. George Trosse, The Life of the Reverend Mr George Trosse, ed. A. W. Brink (Montreal and London: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1974), p. 72. This should not perhaps be taken too literally, though; it forms part of a series of oppositions between his godless youth and his devout nonconformist present, and the oppor- tunity to represent ecclesiastical hierarchy and ceremony as part of the package of godless youth has a structural as well as a personal significance. 56. Trosse, Life, pp. 72–73, p. 71. 57. Trosse, Life, p. 119. 58. Christopher Hill and Michael Shepherd, ‘The Case of Arise Evans: a historico- psychiatric study’, Psychological Medicine, vol. 6, no. 3, 1976 (pp. 351–358), p. 357. 59. See Edward Hare, ‘Schizophrenia before 1800? The case of the Reverend George Trosse’, Psychological Medicine, vol. 18, no. 2, May 1988. 60. Phyllis R. Freeman, Carley Rees Bogarad and Diane E. Sholomskas, ‘Margery Kempe, a new theory: the inadequacy of hysteria and postpartum psychosis as diagnostic categories’, History of Psychiatry, vol. 1, no. 2, June 1990 (pp. 169–190), p. 190. 61. George MacLennan, Lucid Interval: subjective writing and madness in history (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1992), p. 55; Allan Ingram, The Madhouse of Language: writing and reading madness in the eighteenth century (London: Routledge, 1991) (and see also his essay ‘Time and Tense in Eighteenth-Century Narratives of Madness’, Yearbook of English Studies, vol. 30, 2000, pp. 60–70, which also discusses Southcott). 62. See Lyndal Roper’s comments in her review essay ‘Witchcraft and fantasy’, History Workshop Journal 45, spring 1998 (pp. 265–270). 63. Macdonald, ‘The Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira’, p. 55. John Stachniewski’s terri- fying account of the inner lives of many seventeenth-century Calvinists, indeed, comes close to suggesting that the extreme pressure of the demands made by the Calvinist belief system drove people into states of mental disorder, although his analysis is too sophisticated to collapse into seeing religious zeal as intrinsically a sign of madness; John Stachniewski, The Persecutory Imagination: English Puritanism and the literature of religious despair (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991). Cf. also Anne Laurence’s comment, ‘It is important not to make to crude an equation between religious language and modern psychiatric disorders. On the other hand, religion did provide the vocabulary of abstract expression and provided explanations for extremes of mood, for ecstasy, doubt and despair’; ‘Women’s Psycholo- gical Disorders in Seventeenth-Century Britain’, in Arina Angermann et al., eds, Current Issues in Women’s History (London and New York: Routledge, 1989). 220 Notes to pp. 102–103

6 The Thread Out of the Labyrinth: The Experience of Cure

1. On the view of the asylum as an institution of control, see Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: a history of insanity in the age of reason, tr. and abridged Richard Howard (London: Tavistock Publications, 1987). Classics of ‘anti-psychiatry’ include Klaus Doerner, Madmen and the Bourgeoisie: a social history of insanity and psychiatry, tr. J. Neugroschel and J. Steinberg (Oxford: Blackwell, 1981); Thomas Szasz, The Myth of Mental Illness (London: Harper Row, 1974); and see also Jeffrey A. Schaler, ed., Szasz Under Fire: the psychiatric abolitionist faces his critics (Chicago, Illinois: Open Court, 2004). For eighteenth-century asylums more generally see next note. 2. On eighteenth-century asylums, see William Llywelyn Parry Jones, The Trade in Lunacy: a study of private madhouses in England in the Eighteenth and Nine- teenth Centuries (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1972); Roy Porter, Mind-forg’d Manacles: a history of madness in England from the Restoration to the Regency (London: Athlone Press, 1987); Andrew Scull, The Most Solitary of Afflictions: madness and society in Britain 1700–1900 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993); Andrew Scull, Charlotte Mackenzie and Nicholas Hervey, Masters of Bedlam: the transformation of the mad-doctoring trade (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); R. A. Houston, Madness and Society in Eighteenth-century Scotland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000). For autobiographical accounts, see, for example, the eighteenth- century narratives collected in Allan Ingram, Voices of Madness: four pamphlets, 1683–1796 (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 1997), which are explo- sions of outrage against confinement, as the titles make plain: Alexander Cruden’s The London Citizen Exceedingly Injured (1739), Samuel Bruckshaw’s One More Proof of the Iniquitous Abuse of Private Madhouses (1774), and William Belcher’s Address to Humanity: Containing, a Letter to Dr. Thomas Munro; a Receipt to Make a Lunatic, and Seize his Estate; and a Sketch of a True Smiling Hyena (1796). 3. Indeed, the growing interest in experimenting with cures for madness was in some cases worse for the patient than straightforward neglect. Doctors zealously trying out the effects of pouring huge quantities of water on a patient, or swinging them vigorously through the air, might be acting with the best of intentions, but their patients must at times have pined for a quiet straw-lined cell. But less innovative doctors were not necessarily any more trusted by their patients, and the assumption that the mentally disordered did not feel pain, heat or cold in the same way as the sane justified countless abuses. Hostility to doctors is frequently noted as a symptom in the case records of the very traditionally minded John Monro in the middle of the century; see Jonathan Andrews and Andrew Scull, Customers and Patrons of the Mad-Trade: the management of lunacy in eighteenth-century London (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003). See also the protests against medical brutality in the autobiographical narratives cited in previous note. 4. Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth- century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 230. 5. Neely describes similar approaches to madness in the drama of the period: ‘The speech and emotions of the mad are paid close attention toThe mad are cared for with compassion’. She argues that this is in fact associated with the secularisation of madness: supernatural explanations were discredited and madness was brought ‘into the realm of the human’, Carol Thomas Neely, Distracted Subjects: madness and gender in Shakespeare and early modern culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), p. 67. However in the cases discussed in this study it is clear that religious Notes to pp. 103–107 221

discourse was part of that process of humanisation, allowing mental disorder to be placed on a continuum with other forms of human spiritual suffering; how far similar approaches might have shaped the treatment of the mad in other contexts is hard to determine, although her argument in general tends to confirm Macdonald’s brighter picture of seventeenth-century attitudes to madness (see previous note). 6. Hannah Allen’s account of her breakdown was published nearly twenty years later, and though it is not clear when it was written, the fact of publication implies a subsequent life of calm and piety. George Trosse wrote his narrative fifty years after the crisis, and gives a brief account of his life in the intervening decades as well, with no indication of any subsequent mental disorder. Dionys Fitzherbert’s manuscript was written immediately after the event, but various documents dating from later in her life give no indication of recurrence. 7. Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs Hannah Allen (London, 1683), p. 26. 8. Allen, Narrative,p.34. 9. For an overview of the status of physicians in seventeenth-century England, see Lucinda McCray Beier, Sufferers and Healers: the experience of illness in seventeenth- century England (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1987), Chapter 2. See also Margaret Pelling, ‘Compromised by gender: the role of the male medical practitioner in early modern England’, in Hilary Task and Margaret Pelling, eds, The Task of Healing: medicine, religion and gender in England and the Netherlands, 1450– 1800 (Rotterdam: Erasmus Publishing, 1996), for a discussion of the insecurities as well as the social prominence of the physician. 10. George Trosse, The Life of the Reverend Mr George Trosse, ed. A. W. Brink (Montreal and London: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), p. 92. 11. There are two Dr Listers in William Munk’s Roll of the Royal College of Physicians of London (vol. I, 1518–1700; London, 1878) in practice at this time, both eminent men with high-ranking patients: Edward Lister, who died in 1620, and Matthew Lister (1564–1656). It is not clear which was in attendance on Fitzherbert. Dr Carter does not appear in Munk’s Roll, and has not so far been traced elsewhere. 12. Dionys Fitzherbert, Bodleian Library MS. e Mus. 169, f. 12v, 13r. 13. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 12r. 14. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13v. 15. Further discussion in K. Hodgkin, ‘Loving Ministers: sexuality, speech and silence in women’s spiritual writings of the mid-seventeenth century’, unpublished paper, Times Trans-Shifting conference, Birkbeck, September 1996. Charismatic ministers are crucial to the success of many of the gathered churches, and the experience of hearing them is described by many autobiographers in intensely charged language. 16. Allen, Narrative, p. 39. This quotation comes from an interpolated third-person passage apparently written by the minister in question. 17. Allen, Narrative, pp. 55–56. 18. Allen, Narrative,p.47. 19. Allen, Narrative,p.56. 20. Allen, Narrative, pp. 12–13. 21. Allen, Narrative, pp. 65–66. 22. Medical authority, of course, also had a religious dimension. ‘Ministers of religion were seen as God’s instruments for the healing of the soul’s sicknesses’, comments David Harley, ‘physicians and surgeons as his instruments for the healing of the body’; ‘The Good Physician and the Godly Doctor: the exemplary life of John 222 Notes to pp. 107–113

Tylston of Chester (1663–99)’, The Seventeenth Century, vol. IX, no. 1, spring 1994 (pp. 93–117), p. 95. 23. Elspeth Graham, ‘Women’s Writing and the Self’, in Helen Wilcox, ed., Women and Literature in Britain, 1500–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). See also Graham’s comments on masculine authority in Allen’s life in her earlier article, ‘Authority, Resistance and Loss: gendered difference in the writings of John Bunyan and Hannah Allen’, in Anne Laurence, W. R. Owens and Stuart Sim, eds, John Bunyan and his England, 1628–1688 (London: The Hambledon Press, 1990). 24. Trosse, Life, p. 113. 25. Trosse, Life, pp. 96, 101, 102. 26. Trosse, Life,p.98. 27. Allen, Narrative, pp. 52–53. 28. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, ff. 17r, 16r. 29. Trosse, Life,p.96. 30. Dionys Fitzherbert, Lambeth Palace Library MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, 8r. 31. Trosse, Life,p.96. 32. Trosse, Life,p.97. 33. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13r. 34. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 11v. 35. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 11r. 36. Typically, he also argues elsewhere that amongst the ‘recreations of the minde within doores, there is none so fit & proper to expell Idlenesse and Melancholy, as that of Study’, providing that the malady is not the consequence of excessive study in the first place. Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy (orig. London, 1621; eds, Thomas Faulkner, Nicolas Kiessling and Rhonda Blair, 6 vols, Oxford: Clarendon Press,), vol. I, p. 302; vol. II, p. 84. 37. Timothy Rogers, A Discourse concerning Trouble of Mind and the Disease of Melan- cholly. In Three Parts. Written for the Use of such as are, or have been Exercised by the same (London, 1691), p. xix. 38. Fitzherbert, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, 8r. 39. Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, vol. II, pp. 91, 92, 95. 40. Richard Baxter, The Signs and Causes of Melancholy. With Directions Suited to the Case of those who are Afflicted with it. Collected out of the Works of Mr Richard Baxter, for the Sake of Those, who are Wounded in Spirit. By Samuel Clifford, Minister of the Gospel (London, 1716), p. 122. 41. John Hart (Hart On-hi), Trodden Down Strength, by the God of Strength, or, Mrs Drake Revived (London, 1647), pp. 49, 60, 65. 42. Fitzherbert, MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 8r. 43. ‘For in the patient’s insane words there is a voice that speaks; it obeys its own grammar, it articulates a meaning The same language must continue to make itself understood, merely bringing a new deductive element to the rigor of its discourse the problem is not to pursue the delirium, but by continuing it to bring it to its end. It must be led to a state of paroxysm and crisis in which it is confronted by itself and forced to argue against its own truth.’ Foucault, Madness and Civilization, p. 188. See also the discussion of these therapeutic techniques in Neely, Distracted Subjects,p.78. 44. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, 15v–16r. 45. Hart, Trodden Down Strength,p.62. 46. Rogers, Discourse, p. 147. 47. Trosse, Life, p. 110. Notes to pp. 113–118 223

48. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 18r. 49. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, 18v. 50. Allen, Narrative,p.72. 51. George MacLennan, Lucid Interval: subjective writing and madness in history (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1992), pp. 72–73. See also, in a secular context, Neely; the remedies used on the mad are designed ‘to coax them back to their “business,” back into the rituals of everyday life’; Distracted Subjects,p.67. 52. Trosse, Life, p. 111. 53. Trosse, Life, pp. 109–110. 54. Allen, Narrative,p.71. 55. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, 16v, 56. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, 17r. 57. Ruth Padel, Whom Gods Destroy: elements of Greek and tragic madness (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1995), p. 238. 58. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, 7r. 59. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, 5v. 60. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, 7r. 61. Allen, Narrative,p.71. 62. Trosse, Life, p. 133.

7 Inside and Outside: The Body and its Boundaries

1. On the history of the body, see Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process,vol.1(The History of Manners), vol. 2 (State Formation and Civilization), tr. Edmund Jephcott (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1982); Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil: witchcraft, sexuality and religion in early modern Europe (London: Routledge, 1994), and more recently Witch Craze: terror and fantasy in baroque Germany (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 2004); Laura Gowing, Common Bodies: women, touch and power in seventeenth-century England (New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press, 2003); David Hillman and Carla Mazzio, eds, The Body in Parts: fantasies of corporeality in early modern Europe (London: Routledge, 1997); Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics and Poetics of Transgression (London: Methuen, 1986); G. S. Rousseau, ed., The Language of Psyche: Mind and Body in Enlightenment Thought (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990); Margaret Healy, Fictions of Disease in Early Modern England: bodies, plagues and politics (London: Palgrave, 2001); Gail Kern Pastor, The Body Embarrassed: drama and the disciplines of shame in early modern England (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993). 2. See Elias, Civilizing Process; Stallybrass and White, Politics and Poetics of Trans- gression. The most influential figure here is Mikhail Bakhtin; see M. M. Bakhtin, Rabelais and his World, tr. Helene Iswolsky (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984). On Lent and Carnival, see also Peter Burke, Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe (London: Temple Smith, 1978). 3. Norbert Elias, Civilizing Process, vol. 1. As Anna Bryson points out, of course, the assumption that conduct books describe behaviour on the ground is problematic, and overlooks the extent to which rhetorical exaggeration shapes the descriptions of low behaviour. Nonetheless the overall narrative is persuasive in many ways. Anna Bryson, From Courtesy to Civility: changing codes of conduct in early modern England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998). 4. See Jonathan Sawday, The Body Emblazoned: dissection and the human body in Renaissance culture (London: Routledge 1995); Francis Barker, The Tremulous Private 224 Notes to pp. 118–122

Body: essays on subjection (London: Methuen, 1984); Steven Mullaney, ‘Lying Like Truth: riddle, representation and treason in Renaissance England’, ELH vol. 47, no. 1, Spring 1980 (pp. 32–47). 5. Natalie Zemon Davis, ‘Women on Top’, in Society and Culture in Early Modern France (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1975); Peter Stallybrass, ‘Patriarchal Territories: the body enclosed’, in Margaret W. Ferguson, Maureen Quilligan and Nancy J. Vickers, eds, Rewriting the Renaissance: the discourses of sexual difference in early modern Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986); Anthony Fletcher, Gender, Sex and Subordination in England, 1500–1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), part I; Gowing, Common Bodies. See also Lyndal Roper, Witch Craze; Diane Purkiss, The Witch in History: early modern and twentieth- century representations (London: Routledge, 1996), Chapter 4, ‘The House, the Body, the Child’. 6. Gowing, Common Bodies. 7. Laura Gowing comments that ‘Norbert Elias’s narrative of the civilisation of the body takes the male body as universal, as does much of the courtesy literature’, and is very little concerned with the regulation of female bodies; Common Bodies, p. 7. Whether this should be taken to mean that women’s bodies were funda- mentally uncivilisable, or conversely that women were assumed already to have a higher level of bodily self-governance (not spitting on the floor or blowing noses in sleeves), is a moot point. 8. Mary Douglas, Purity and Danger: an analysis of the concepts of pollution and taboo (London: Routledge, 1996). See also Julia Kristeva, Powers of Horror: an essay on abjection, tr. Leon S. Roudiez (New York: Columbia University Press, 1982). 9. Sigmund Freud, ‘On negation’, On Metapsychology (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984; Pelican Freud, vol. 11), p. 439. 10. See Ken Albala, Eating Right in the Renaissance (Berkeley, Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2002), for a detailed account of the ways in which diet and the health of the body interact in humoural theory. 11. See Ulinka Rublack, ‘Fluxes: the early modern body and the emotions’, tr. Pamela Selwyn, History Workshop Journal 53, 2002 (pp. 1–16). 12. The Anathomie of Sinne, briefely discovering the braunches thereof, with a short method how to detest and avoid it (London, 1603), f. B3r; Thomas Adams, The White Devil, or the Hypocrite Uncased: in a sermon preached at Pauls Crosse, March 7 1612 (London, 1613), p. 32. The more technical meaning of hypocrisy, which in Calvinism meant a mistaken belief in one’s own election, also feeds this anxiety; see John Stachniewski, The Persecutory Imagination: Puritanism and the literature of religious despair (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp. 91–93. 13. Richard Brathwait, The English Gentlewoman, drawne out to the full body (London, 1631), pp. 106, 114. See also the character of ‘A She-Precise Hypocrite’, in John Earle’s Micro-cosmographie, Or, a peece of the world discovered, in essayes and characters (London, 1628) – one of only two female characters in the collection. 14. Dionys Fitzherbert, Bodleian Library MS. e Mus. 169, f. 9r. 15. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 8v. 16. Fruit was generally regarded as apt to produce wind, and to be consumed with care. See Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy, vol. I, p. 216. Andrew Boord’s entry for colic includes the warning, ‘beware of cold and beware of eating of colde meate and frutes’; The Breviary of Helthe (London, 1547; facsimile ed., English Experience reprints no. 362, Amsterdam, New York: Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Ltd, 1971), f. 38r. Notes to pp. 122–125 225

17. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 9r. The word ‘uvula’, surprisingly, was quite widely used in early modern English; see Oxford English Dictionary for examples. 18. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 9v. 19. See Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 153–154; Gowing, Common Bodies, pp. 22–24. The fantasy of uncontrollable urin- ation is still being cited in the early eighteenth century; see Richard Blackmore, A Treatise of the Spleen and Vapours in Hypochondriacal and Hysterical Affections. With Three Discourses on the Nature and Cure of the Cholick, Melancholy, and Palsies (London, 1725), p. 162. 20. It also suggests language: the matter coming out of the mouth may be clean or vile. Trosse, referring to his scornful comments about ministers in his irreligious youth, describes himself as ‘vomiting out the Language of Hell against them’; Life, p. 79. 21. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 10r. 22. For medieval precedents, see Caroline Walker Bynum, Holy Feast and Holy Fast: the religious significance of food to medieval women (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987); Rudolph M. Bell, Holy Anorexia (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987). See also Patricia Crawford, Women and Religion in England, 1500– 1720 (London: Routledge, 1992), especially Part II; Caterina Albano, ‘Questioning Starvation’, Women’s Writing, vol. 8, no. 2, 2001, pp. 313–326; Diane Purkiss, ‘Producing the voice, consuming the body: women prophets of the seventeenth century’, in Isobel Grundy and S. Wiseman, eds, Women, Writing, History, 1640– 1740 (London: Batsford, 1992). 23. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 27r. 24. Anna Trapnel, The Cry of a Stone: or a Relation of Something spoken in Whitehall (London, 1654); Henry Jessey, The exceeding Riches of Grace advanced by the spirit of grace in an empty nothing creature, viz. Mtis Sarah Wight (London, 1647). See also Purkiss, ‘Producing the voice’. 25. Barbara Blaugdone, An Account of the Travels, Sufferings and Persecution of Barbara Blaugdone (London, 1691), p. 9; see pp. 11, 14, for prison fasts (probably a good idea given the likely quality of food and water in prison). 26. For example, Anna Trapnel ‘was judged by divers friends to be under a temptation for not eating’, and went to the Lord to check: ‘it was answered me, no, for thou shalt every way be supplied in body and spirit, and I found a continual fullness in my stomack ’ Trapnel, Cry of a Stone,p.5. 27. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13r. 28. Dionys Fitzherbert, Lambeth Palace Library MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 8r. 29. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 18r. 30. George Trosse, The Life of the Reverend Mr George Trosse, A. W. Brink, ed. (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), p. 91. 31. Trosse, Life,p.91. 32. Trosse, Life,p.97. 33. Trosse, Life, pp. 54, 55. 34. Trosse, Life,p.55. 35. Trosse, Life,p.74. 36. Trosse, Life,p.85. 37. Thomas Whythorne, ed. James M. Osborn, The Autobiography of Thomas Whythorne (London: Oxford University Press, 1962; modern spelling edition), p. 50. The autobiography was written in the 1570s. See also K. Hodgkin, ‘Thomas 226 Notes to pp. 126–129

Whythorne and the Problems of Mastery’, History Workshop Journal 29, 1990, pp. 20–41. 38. Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs Hannah Allen (London, 1683), p. 65. 39. Jessey, The Exceeding Riches of Grace, p. 109; Trapnel, Cry of a Stone,p.8. 40. There is a recurrent historical interest in religious fasting, and in the parallels between self-starvation among young women in the past and today. See works cited in note 22 above. 41. Allen, Narrative,p.64. 42. Allen, Narrative,p.65. 43. Allen, Narrative,p.36. 44. Allen, Narrative, pp. 33–34. 45. Allen, Narrative,p.33. 46. Ann Rosalind Jones and Peter Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 3. 47. See Jones and Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing; Lisa Jardine, Still Harping on Daughters: women and drama in the age of Shakespeare (Sussex: Harvester Press, 1983). 48. See Fletcher, Gender, Sex and Subordination, pp. 21–24; Linda Woodbridge, Women and the English Renaissance: literature and the nature of womankind, 1540–1620 (Brighton: Harvester, 1984). 49. W. C. Sellar and R. J. Yeatman, 1066 and all that: a memorable history of England (London: Methuen, 1930). 50. See Jones and Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing; Sara Mendelson and Patricia Craw- ford, Women in Early Modern England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998). 51. Jones and Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing,p.2. 52. See Gowing, Common Bodies, pp. 34–40, on dress and its removal; Mendelson and Crawford, Women in Early Modern England, pp. 218–225, on clothing and material culture. 53. Elizabeth Stirredge, Strength in Weakness Manifest, in the Life, Various Trials, and Christian Testimony of that faithful Servant and Handmaid of the Lord, Elizabeth Stirredge (London, 1711), p. 12. 54. Mary Rich, ed. T. C. Croker, Autobiography of Mary Countess of Warwick (London: Percy Society Reprints, 1848), p. 21. 55. Dorothea Gotherson, To All that Are Unregenerated: a call to Repentance from dead works (London, 1661), pp. 77–78. 56. Brathwait, English Gentlewoman; Philip Stubbes, The Anatomie of Abuses (London, 1583). A vigorous polemic continued in countless advice books and attacks on women throughout the period; see Woodbridge, Women and the English Renais- sance; Suzanne W. Hull, Chaste, Silent and Obedient: English books for women, 1475–1640 (San Marino, California: Huntington Library, 1982). 57. Thomas Adams, Mystical Bedlam, or the World of Mad-Men (London, 1615), pp. 51–52. The four-sailed vessels are wide skirts; and ‘surphul’d beauties’ refers to the use of sulphur to whiten the skin. See Carroll Camden, The Elizabethan Woman: a panorama of English womanhood, 1540 to 1640 (London: Cleaver-Hume Press Ltd, 1952), p. 179. 58. Brathwait, English Gentlewoman,p.37. 59. Thomas Wright, The Passions of the Minde in generall (London, 1604), p. 29. Wright goes on to derive from this another illustration of natural subordination: ‘By this wee may knowe the cause, why children, and especially women, cannot abide to looke in their fathers, masters, or betters faces, because, even nature it selfe Notes to pp. 129–135 227

seemeth to teach them, that thorowe their eyes they see their hearts ’ and while this is allowable for superiors, it would be presumptuous in inferiors ‘to attempt the entry or privy passage’ into the minds of their betters; Wright, p. 29. 60. Two anonymous pamphlets summarise the issue: Hic Mulier: or the Man-Woman; being a Medicine to cure the Staggers in the Masculine-Feminines of our Times (London, 1620), and the response, Haec Vir: or the Womanish Man; being an Answere to a Late Booke (London, 1620). See also Fletcher, Gender, Sex and Subordination, Chapter 5 ‘Effeminacy and Manhood’. Joan Kelly’s classic essay, ‘Did Women Have a Renaissance?’ discusses the disquieting convergence of the courtier and the feminine; Women, History and theory: the essays of Joan Kelly (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984). 61. Adam’s hair ‘hung/Clustring, but not beneath his shoulders broad’. Eve’s hair is more powerfully meaningful: ‘Shee as a vail down to the slender waste/Her unadorned golden tresses wore/Dissheveld, but in wanton ringlets wav’d/As the Vine curles her tendrils, which impli’d/Subjection ’ John Milton, Paradise Lost, Book IV, lines 301–308. 62. Trosse, Life,p.56. 63. As Ophelia describes him, ‘with his doublet all unbrac’d/No hat upon his head, his stockings foul’d/Ungarter’d and down-gyved to his ankle ’ William Shakespeare, Hamlet II. I, lines 78–80 (Arden Shakespeare, ed. Harold Jenkins, London: Methuen, 1982). 64. Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, p. 131 (and see 129–131 in general). See also R. A, Houston, Madness and Society in Eighteenth-Century Scotland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), pp. 176–182, on clothing and appearance as indices of insanity. 65. Trosse, Life, p. 105. 66. Trosse, Life,p.96. 67. Trosse, Life, pp. 86–87. 68. Trosse, Life,p.88. 69. Trosse, Life,p.96. 70. Trosse, Life,p.96. 71. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 10r. 72. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 10v. 73. The version quoted here is taken from the Geneva bible, the standard translation in the late sixteenth century, and the one normally used by Fitzherbert. See The Cambridge Geneva Bible of 1591: a facsimile reprint, introduced by David McKitterick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 74. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 9v. 75. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 4v. 76. Miranda Chaytor, ‘Husband/ry: narratives of rape in the seventeenth century’, Gender and History, vol. 7, no. 3, 1995, pp. 378–407.

8 Beyond the Human Body: Life, Death and the Devil

1. Death in recent years has become a strikingly popular topic among early modernists, particularly in relation to debates about the impact of the Reformation. See Ralph Houlbrooke, ed., Death, Ritual and Bereavement (London: Routledge, 1989); Ralph Houlbrooke, Death, Religion and the Family in England, 1450–1750 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998); David Cressy, Birth, Marriage and Death: religion, ritual and the life-cycle in Tudor and Stuart England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997); Peter Marshall, Beliefs and the Dead in Reformation England (Oxford: Oxford 228 Notes to pp. 135–136

University Press, 2002). On gendered aspects of death and mourning, see Patricia Phillippy, Women, Death and Literature in Post-Reformation England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); also Lucinda Becker, Death and the Early Modern Englishwoman (Aldershot, Hampshire: Ashgate, 2003). For an overview from medieval to modern times, see Philippe Aries, tr. Helen Weaver, The Hour of Our Death (London: Allen Lane, 1981). See also Natalie Zemon Davis’s influential article ‘Ghosts, Kin, and Progeny: some features of family life in early modern France’, Daedalus, vol. 106, no. 2, spring 1977 (pp. 87–114). 2. Naomi Tadmor, Family and Friends in Eighteenth-century England: household, kinship and patronage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001). 3. For mothers’ legacies, see Philippy, Women, Death and Literature; Becker, Death and the Early Modern Englishwoman; see also Sylvia Brown, ed., Women’s Writing in Stuart England: the mothers’ legacies of Dorothy Leigh, Elizabeth Joscelin and Elizabeth Harrison (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 1999). On family portraits and memorials, see Jonathan Goldberg, ‘Fatherly Authority: the politics of Stuart family images’, in Margaret Ferguson, Maureen Quilligan and Nancy Vickers, eds, Rewriting the Renaissance: the discourses of sexual difference in early modern Europe (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986). 4. Davis, ‘Ghosts, Kin and Progeny’; see also her essay ‘Boundaries and the Sense of Self in Sixteenth-Century France’, in Thomas C. Heller et al., eds, Reconstructing Individualism: autonomy, individuality, and the self in western thought (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1986). 5. See Philippy, Women, Death and Literature, on women’s physical intimacy with dead bodies. Henry Batchelor recalls being taken to see a corpse as a small boy in the early nineteenth century: ‘The mother of the dead girl made me touch her hand: and when I felt it as cold as a stone, it sent a shudder through me, which has never wholly left me.’ Peter Barber, ed., Gin and Hell-Fire: Henry Batchelor’s memoirs of a working-class childhood in Crouch End, 1823–1837 (London: Hornsey Historical Society, 2004), p. 25. 6. Dionys Fitzherbert, Bodleian Library MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13v. 7. Hamlet is the most celebrated example of conversations with skulls, but one might add, for example, Vindice, anti-hero of Thomas Middleton and Cyril Tourneur’s The Revenger’s Tragedy (1607) addressing his dead mistress’s skull. The John Donne reference is to his Holy Sonnet 7, inviting the dead to reassemble themselves for the day of judgement. 8. For a discussion of the intense anxiety this uncertainty might cause, see John Stachniewski, The Persecutory Imagination: Protestantism and the literature of religious despair (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991). 9. Alexandra Walsham, Providence in Early Modern England (Oxford: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1999). 10. For examples, see John Fox, Actes and monuments of these latter and perillous dayes, touching matters of the Church (London, 1563; reprinted and expanded in numerous subsequent editions); Thomas Beard, The Theatre of God’s Judgements: Or, a collection of histories concerning the admirable Judgements of God upon the transgressours of his commandements. Translated out of French, and augmented by more than three hundred Examples (London, 1597). 11. Faustus in his last moments wishes that the doctrine of reincarnation were true, and that he might ‘be chang’d/Into some brutish beast’, rather than face eternal damnation; Christopher Marlowe, The Tragical History of Dr Faustus, Act V, scene ii. Notes to pp. 136–143 229

12. John Bunyan, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, ed. W. R. Owen (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1987), p. 29. 13. Marshall, Beliefs and the Dead, p. 188. 14. John Donne, ‘Devotions upon Emergent Occasions’ VII, 1624. Baptism has the same meaning of incorporation into the body of the church; by baptism, ‘that child is thereby connected to that Head which is my Head too, and engraffed into that body, whereof I am a member’. John Donne, Selected Prose, chosen by Evelyn Simpson, eds Helen Gardner and Timothy Healy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967), pp. 100–101. 15. See Marshall, Beliefs and the Dead. 16. Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs. Hannah Allen (London, 1683), pp. 23–24. 17. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 4v. 18. Allen, Narrative,p.31. 19. Allen, Narrative, pp. 28, 57. 20. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 10v. 21. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 23r. 22. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 23r. 23. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 10r. 24. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13v. 25. Elspeth Graham similarly comments on the ‘slippery lack of self-identity’ apparent in the narrative in her illuminating discussion of Fitzherbert and Allen; Elspeth Graham, ‘Women’s Writing and the Self’, in Helen Wilcox, ed., Women and Literature in Britain 1500–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 223. 26. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, ff. 10v–11r. 27. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 12r. This startlingly vivid image also throws a disconcerting light on early modern care of the insane; bed-sharing was, of course, a normal part of life, but to put a child to share with someone in what was at the time quite a seriously disturbed condition is unexpected. On bed-sharing as an index of intimacy and friendship, see Laura Gowing, ‘The Politics of Women’s Friendship in Early Modern England’, in Michael Hunter, Laura Gowing and Miri Rubin, eds, Love, Friendship and Faith in Europe, 1300–1800 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005). 28. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13v. 29. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13v. 30. See Stachniewski, Persecutory Imagination, especially Chapters 1 and 2, for vivid illustrations of this state of mind. 31. George Trosse, The Life of the Reverend Mr. George Trosse, A. W. Brink, ed. (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), p. 93. 32. Trosse, Life, p. 111. 33. Allen, Narrative,p.31. 34. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 23r. 35. Richard Baxter, The Signs and Causes of Melancholy. With Directions Suited to the Case of those who are Afflicted with it. Collected out of the Works of Mr Richard Baxter, for the Sake of Those, who are Wounded in Spirit. By Samuel Clifford, Minister of the Gospel (London, 1716), p. 10. 36. Trosse, Life,p.95. 37. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 10r. 38. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 23r–v. 39. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 23v, 10r. 230 Notes to pp. 143–147

40. Michael Macdonald and Terence Murphy, Sleepless Souls: suicide in early modern England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1990), p. 65. 41. See Stachniewski, The Persecutory Imagination, pp. 46–52, for numerous examples of suicidal temptations and actual suicides on religious grounds. As he comments, ‘What is staggering is that people in despair of salvation, believing what they believed, should have attempted suicide at all They seem to have found life so unbearable that they did not believe hell could be worse’, pp. 48–49. 42. See Macdonald and Murphy, Sleepless Souls, for a comprehensive account of attitudes to suicide in early modern England, and how they change. For further discussion of the shift from spiritual to secular understandings in a European context, see Jeffrey Watt, ed., From Sin to Insanity: suicide in early modern Europe (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004). 43. Fulke Greville, sonnet xcix. 44. Paul Seaver, Wallington’s World: a Puritan artisan in seventeenth-century London (London: Methuen, 1985), p. 26; Richard Carpenter, Experience, Historie and Divin- itie. Divided into five Books (London, 1642), p. 34. Wallington also records his own temptations to suicide, and notes stories of the suicides of others; pp. 16, 31. 45. Baxter, Signs and Causes of Melancholy, pp. 85–86. The intention is to contrast the self with the light and love that is God, but for the melancholy the effect seems less than consoling. 46. Satan looks down into himself and finds that he is himself the pit of hell – a defining moment of early modern subjectivity, and frequently cited. ‘Which way I fly is Hell; myself am Hell;/And in the lowest deeps a lower deep/Still threatning to devour me opens wide ’; John Milton, Paradise Lost, Book IV, lines 75–77. 47. Trosse, Life,p.86. 48. Trosse, Life,p.87. 49. Trosse, Life,p.87. 50. Allen, Narrative, pp. 35–36. See also Allan Ingram’s discussion of this passage as ‘an escape from time and tense’; Allan Ingram, ‘Time and Tense in Eighteenth-century Narratives of Madness’, Yearbook of English Studies, vol. 30, 2000, pp. 60–70. 51. Allen, Narrative, p. 36. In her account of this episode she replicates an association between wandering in the woods and confining oneself in the chamber which is characteristic of melancholy at the time; her family, she explains, ‘concluded I had stolen out the door unknown to them, to go lose myself in some wood, which I much talked of’, p. 36, and had indeed attempted. See Conclusion. 52. Trosse, Life,p.87. 53. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 15v. 54. Compare the phrasing in John Sym’s 1637 treatise on suicide, describing the signs of an inclination to self-murder: ‘a strange change in outward behaviour, with gastly lookes, wilde frights and flaights’; ‘ghastly looks’ may have been a standard coding for suicidal impulses. John Sym, Lifes Preservative against Self- Killing (London, 1637; ed. and introduced by Michael Macdonald, Tavistock Classics in the History of Psychiatry, London: Routledge, 1988), p. 260. 55. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 1r. 56. Her story also hints at the presence of Catholicism as the skeleton in Fitzherbert’s own family cupboard; there is a distant family connection between these Fitzherberts and the prominent recusant Fitzherberts of Derbyshire and Northamptonshire, and throughout her narrative Catholicism and the potential for conversion appears as a disruptive force. See K. Hodgkin, Women, Madness and Sin in Early Modern England: the autobiographical writings of Dionys Fitzherbert (Ashgate, forthcoming 2008). Notes to pp. 147–150 231

57. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13r. 58. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13r. 59. Nathaniel Bacon, A Relation of the Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira, in the yeare 1548 (London, 1638), pp. 122–123. Psalm 69 pleads, ‘Deliver me out of the mire, and let me not sink: let me be delivered from them that hate me, and out of the deep waters./Let not the waterflood overflow me, neither let the deep swallow me up, and let not the pit shut her mouth upon me.’ Psalm 69, 14–15. Most familiar, of course, is Psalm 130, 1–2: ‘Out of the depths have I cried unto thee, O Lord;/Lord, hear my voice ’. 60. Fitzherbert, MS. e. Mus. 169, f. 14v. 61. Philip Barrough, The Method of Phisick, containing the causes, signes and cures of inward diseases in mans body . . . (London, 1601), p. 45. 62. For Goodwin Wharton, see Chapter 1, pp. 1–3. 63. From a large body of work on magic and magical beings, see Keith Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic: studies in popular beliefs in sixteenth and seventeenth century England (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1971); Katherine Briggs, A Dictionary of Fairies (London: Allen Lane, 1976); Ronald Hutton, The Rise and Fall of Merry England: the ritual year, 1400–1700 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994); Diane Purkiss, Troublesome Things: a history of fairies and fairy stories (London: Allen Lane, 2000). 64. See Thomas, Religion and the Decline of Magic; J. A. Sharpe, Instruments of Dark- ness: witchcraft in England, 1550–1750 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1996); Robin Briggs, Witches and Neighbours: the social and cultural contexts of European witchcraft (London: HarperCollins, 1996). 65. See Loving Mad Tom: Bedlamite verses of the XVI and XVII centuries. Jack Lindsay, ed., illustrated Norman Lindsay, foreword Robert Graves, musical transcriptions Peter Warlock (London: Fanfrolico Press, 1927), pp. 25, 39. (It should be noted though that the classical gods and goddesses are even more prominent in these literary ballads than the traditional occupants of the magical world.) 66. Trosse, Life,p.91. 67. See Michael Macdonald, ed., Witchcraft and Hysteria in Elizabethan London: Edward Jorden and the Mary Glover case (London: Tavistock/Routledge, 1991); Louise Yeoman, ‘Archie’s invisible worlds discovered – spirituality, madness and John- ston of Wariston’s family’, Records of the Scottish Church History Society 27 (1997), 156–186.? 68. Michael Macdonald, ‘Women and Madness in Tudor and Stuart England’, Social Research, vol. 53, no. 2, 1986 (pp. 261–281), p. 279. See also Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 208–211; R. A. Houston, Madness and Society in Eighteenth-century Scotland (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), esp. pp. 319–322. 69. On this see K. Hodgkin, ‘Reasoning with unreason: visions, witchcraft and madness in early modern England’, in Stuart Clark, ed., Languages of Witchcraft: narrative, ideology and meaning in early modern culture (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2001). See also Carol Thomas Neely, who argues that changing accounts of mental disorder are bound up with the wish to distinguish between natural and supernatural causes, and that witchcraft is central in these debates; Distracted Subjects: madness and gender in Shakespeare and early modern culture (Ithaca: Cornell Univer- sity Press, 2004). 70. Sexual intercourse with devils or spirits might be regarded as the extreme form of this exchange, transgressing the human/non-human boundary in a very literal 232 Notes to pp. 150–156

way; though very seldom invoked in English legal proceedings against witches, it was regarded by theologians as among the worst of sins. 71. Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, p. 134. 72. For example, see Bunyan, Grace Abounding, pp. 29, 30. 73. John Rogers, ‘Another testimony to the Truth or further Experience of John Rogers’, in Rogers, Ohel or Beth-Shemesh: a tabernacle for the sun (London, 1653),pp. 428–429. 74. Seaver, Wallington’s World,p.24. 75. Seaver, Wallington’s World,p.65. 76. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 12r. 77. Trosse, Life,p.92. 78. Trosse, Life, pp. 93, 99. 79. Trosse, Life, p. 107. 80. Trosse, Life, p. 108. 81. Allen, Narrative, pp. 40, 43. 82. Allen, Narrative,p.54. 83. Ruth Padel, Whom Gods Destroy: elements of Greek and tragic madness (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1995), p. 125. Padel’s discussion of daemonic possession and madness in the ancient Greek context is fascinating, though in many ways quite different to early modern versions of possession. 84. For a detailed account of Protestant and Catholic attitudes to possession in the early modern period, see David Walker, Unclean Spirits: possession and exorcism in France and England in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries (London: Scolar Press, 1981). See also Neely, Distracted Subjects. 85. Macdonald, ‘Women and Madness in Tudor and Stuart England’, p. 279. 86. Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam, p. 156. 87. Houston, Madness and Society, p. 321. 88. As Walker points out, following a late-sixteenth-century exorcism scandal, the Church clamped down, and after 1604 a clergyman had to obtain permission from the bishop to conduct an exorcism; Walker, Unclean Spirits, p. 77. Nonetheless the idea of possession remains potent throughout the seventeenth century. 89. Allen, Narrative, pp. 53–54. 90. Allen, Narrative,p.42. 91. Michel de Certeau, tr. Michael B. Smith, The Possession at Loudun (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2000), p. 100. 92. John Hart [Hart On-Hi], Trodden Down Strength, by the God of Strength, or, Mrs Drake Revived (London, 1647), p. 40. 93. Hart, Trodden Down Strength, p. 71. The subtitle similarly refers to her ‘great and many uncouth afflictions’. 94. John Hart, The Firebrand taken out of the Fire, or, the Wonderfull History, Case, and Cure of Mrs Drake (London, 1654), preface, n. p. This later edition of Trodden Down Strength has a new title and preface, but the rest of the text is unchanged. 95. Trosse, Life,p.93. 96. Trosse, Life,p.93. 97. The juxtaposition of the fly and the reference to Beelzebub recall an iconic moment in Spira’s narrative, when ‘divers flies that came about him, and some lighted on him: Behold (said hee) now also Belzebub comes to his banquet, you shal shortly see my end ’ Nathaniel Bacon, A Relation of the Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira, in the yeare 1548 (London, 1638), p. 99. The reference is to Beelzebub as Lord of the Flies. 98. Trosse, Life, p. 100. (He is referring to the cause of visionary experiences among Catholics; earlier he makes the same point about Quakers.) Notes to pp. 156–163 233

99. Compare Padel on the Greek medical tradition, very similar to the early modern (not surprisingly): ‘Doctors in the Greek tradition thought of cause and treatment in terms of invasion and eviction. Disease got in. Doctors had to get it out.’ Whom Gods Destroy,p.49. 100. On the multiple meanings of Antichrist, see Christopher Hill, Antichrist in Seventeenth-Century England (London: Oxford University Press, 1971); on Cath- olicism in particular, see Chapter 1, ‘Before 1640: the Roman Antichrist’. 101. Stachniewski, Persecutory Imagination,p.94. 102. See Ian Hacking, Rewriting the Soul: multiple personality and the sciences of memory (Princeton, NJ.: Princeton University Press, 1995), for a fascinating account of how some more recent disorders put the idea of the bounded self under pressure.

9 Family Histories: The Self and Others

1. This perspective on the early modern family in England is particularly associated with the important and influential work of Lawrence Stone; see The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500–1800 (London: Weidenfeld and Nich- olson, 1977). See also Edward Shorter, The Making of the Modern Family (London: Collins, 1976); Philippe Aries, tr. Roger Baldick, Centuries of Childhood (London: Cape, 1962). 2. See for example, Ralph Houlbrooke, The English Family 1450–1700 (London: Longman, 1984); Alan Macfarlane, Marriage and Love in England: modes of reproduction 1300–1840 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1986); Alan Macfarlane, The Family Life of Ralph Josselin: an essay in historical anthropology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); Linda Pollock, Forgotten Children: parent-child relations from 1500 to 1900 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 3. Naomi Tadmor, Family and Friends in Eighteenth-century England: household, kinship and patronage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp. 8–9. 4. See Margaret Ezell, The Patriarch’s Wife: literary evidence and the history of the family (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); Susan Dwyer Amussen, An Ordered Society: gender and class in early modern England (Oxford: Basil Black- well, 1988); Anthony Fletcher, Gender, Sex and Subordination in England, 1500– 1800 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995); Sara Mendelson and Patricia Crawford, Women in Early Modern England, 1550–1720 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998). 5. Hilary Hinds, God’s Englishwomen: seventeenth-century radical sectarian writing and feminist criticism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), p. 44. 6. Dionys Fitzherbert, Bodleian Library MS. e Mus. 169, f. 3r. 7. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, 3r, quoting Ezekiel chapter 16 verse 3. The version quoted here is taken from the Geneva bible, the standard translation in the late sixteenth century, and the one normally used by Fitzherbert. See The Cambridge Geneva Bible of 1591: a facsimile reprint, introduced by David McKitterick (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992). 8. Ezekiel 16.49. 9. Ezekiel 16.45. The King James translation a few years later gives, ‘Thou art thy mother’s daughter, that lotheth her husband and her children; and thou art the sister of thy sisters, which lothed their husbands and their children ’ 10. On this see also Suzanne Trill, ‘Speaking to God in his Phrase and Word: women’s use of the psalms in early modern England’, in Stanley E. Porter, ed., The Nature of Religious Language (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996). 234 Notes to pp. 163–168

11. Thomas Adams, Mystical Bedlam, or the World of Mad-Men (London, 1615), pp. 6–7. Adams is concerned with the nature of original sin, and the inheritance by all mankind of Adam’s doom. 12. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 4r. 13. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 7v–8r. 14. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 22r. 15. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 8r. 16. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 8r. 17. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 8r. 18. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, ff. 11r, 9v. Michael Macdonald notes the frequency of this motif as a means of identifying mental illness: ‘To prove that a man was an idiot, one began by showing that he could not name his mother and father. To indicate that a lunatic was insensible, one might note that he did not know his family ’ Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth-century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p. 126. 19. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 10r. 20. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 11r. It is not clear what kind of indebtedness is in question, although the phrasing seems to suggest financial (‘somewhat’ would be odd in relation to other kinds of obligation). 21. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 10v. 22. Mary Rich records being visited by her two brothers when she was involved with a man her father disapproved of, and ‘threatened, in my father’s name, if I did not renounce ever having any thing more to do with him ’ T. C. Croker, ed., Autobi- ography of Mary Countess of Warwick (London: Percy Society Reprints, 1848), p. 11. 23. Elspeth Graham, ‘Women’s writing and the self’, in Helen Wilcox, ed., Women and Literature in Britain 1500–1700 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 223. 24. John Stachniewski, The Persecutory Imagination: English Puritanism and the literature of religious despair (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 95; and see pp. 95–102 in general. 25. Paul Seaver, Wallington’s World: a Puritan artisan in seventeenth-century London (London: Methuen, 1985), p. 30. See also Tadmor, Family and Friends, pp. 157–158, for examples of the multiple significances of the word ‘father’. 26. On patriarchal theory and the politics of the early modern family, see Amussen, Ordered Society; Margaret R. Sommerville, Sex and Subjection: attitudes to women in early modern society (London: Arnold, 1995). For petty treason, see Catherine Belsey, The Subject of Tragedy: identity and difference in Renaissance drama (London: Methuen, 1985), especially chapter 5, ‘Alice Arden’s Crime’; Mendelson and Crawford, Women in Early Modern England, pp. 144–145. See also Graham’s reflections on the significance of burning in Fitzherbert’s imaginary world; ‘Women’s Writing and the Self’, pp. 223–224. 27. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 8v. 28. On the importance of gifts in Jacobean aristocratic culture, see Patricia Fumerton, Cultural Aesthetics: Renaissance literature and the practice of social ornament (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991). 29. Houlbrooke, English Family, p. 177. 30. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 13v. 31. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 14r. 32. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 14v. 33. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 14v. 34. John Rogers, ‘Another testimony to the Truth or further Experience of John Rogers’, in Rogers, Ohel or Beth-Shemesh: a tabernacle for the sun (London, 1653), pp. 425, 435. Notes to pp. 169–177 235

35. John Hart, Trodden Down Strength, by the God of Strength, or, Mrs Drake Revived (London, 1647), p. 133. 36. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 16r. 37. George Trosse, The Life of the Reverend Mr George Trosse, A. W. Brink, ed. (Montreal and London: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), p. 47. 38. Trosse, Life,p.47. 39. Trosse, Life,p.48. 40. Trosse, Life,p.49. 41. Trosse, Life,p.49. 42. Trosse, Life,p.56. 43. Trosse, Life, pp. 49, 56. 44. Trosse, Life, pp. 71, 78. 45. Trosse, Life, p. 78. In a variation on the equivalence of father and king, discussed above, the editor’s note to this suggests that Cromwell ‘was an easy target for irrational hostility, especially so if Trosse felt resentment towards his absent father’, pp. 78–79. 46. Trosse, Life, p. 113. 47. Trosse, Life, p. 119. The phrase he uses is in fact ‘I was satisfy’d, that by my Dissent ’; the double meaning here may be more than a matter of changing idiom. 48. Trosse, Life,p.96. 49. Trosse, Life, p. 106. 50. Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs. Hannah Allen (London, 1683), p. 1. 51. Allen, Narrative,p.25. 52. Allen, Narrative,p.33. 53. Ramona Wray, Women Writers of the Seventeenth Century (Tavistock, Devon: Northcote House Publishers/British Council, 2004), pp. 95–96. Wray’s thoughtful discussion locates widowhood as central to Allen’s account, suggesting that ‘the text plots a course of behaviour which works against the Calvinistic insistence that to cultivate “solitariness” was the widow’s main daily duty and ideal defining virtue’, p. 96. 54. Jonathan Andrews, ‘Letting Madness Range: travel and mental disorder, c1700–1900’, in Richard Wrigley and George Revill, eds, Pathologies of Travel (Amsterdam/Atlanta, GA: Editions Rodopi, 2000), p. 33. 55. Allen, Narrative, p. 25. The fact that not all of these uncles are alive may contribute to this characterisation. 56. Allen, Narrative, pp. 28, 34. 57. Allen, Narrative,p.24. 58. Allen, Narrative, p. 32. As Graham comments, Allen has a habit of putting significant points in parenthesis; ‘Women’s Writing and the Self’, pp. 218–219. 59. Allen, Narrative,p.59. 60. Allen, Narrative,p.47. 61. Sigmund Freud, ‘Family Romances’ (1909), in Pelican Freud Library vol. 7, On Sexuality (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977).

10 Love and Desire: Disordered Passions

1. Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy (orig. London, 1621; Thomas Faulkner, Nicolas Kiessling and Rhonda Blair, eds, 6 vols, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989–2000), vol. III, p. 2. 236 Notes to pp. 177–179

2. Burton, Anatomy, vol. III, p. 199. 3. Burton, Anatomy, vol. III, p. 162. 4. See, for example, Social Research 53.2, 1986, special issue on madness and sexuality – ‘two apparently quite disconnected aspects of human behaviour’, comments Arien Mack, the issue editor, which ‘have been and continue to be intimately connected’ (editor’s note). There is also a gendered dimension to this link: Duncan Salkeld in his discussion of Bedlam scenes in Jacobean drama notes ‘their preoccupation with women’s sexuality as an issue connected with madness’; Madness and Drama in the Age of Shakespeare (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), p. 118. 5. René Major, ‘Crises de raison, crises de folie, ou “la folie” de Foucault’, in Elisabeth Roudinesco, ed., Penser la folie: essais sur Michel Foucault (Paris: Editions Galilée, 1992), pp. 130–131. Major’s point here is about Foucault’s separation of madness and sexuality, despite their many common aspects. By contrast, he suggests, ‘What psychoanalysis uncovers is not the endless chatter of reason on the subject of sexuality, but its intimate link with the secret murmurings of unreason’, p. 132 (my translation). 6. For lovesickness as an aspect of melancholy in Elizabethan England, see Lawrence Babb, The Elizabethan Malady: a study of melancholia in English literature from 1580 to 1642 (East Lansing: Michigan State College Press, 1951); Lisa Dawson, Sweet Poison: the representation of lovesickness in early modern English literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), Carol Thomas Neely, Distracted Subjects: madness and gender in Shakespeare and early modern culture (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2004), chapter 4, ‘Destabilizing Lovesickness, Gender and Sexuality’. See also Jacques Ferrand, A Treatise on Lovesickness, translated and edited by Donald Beecher and Massimo Ciavolella (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1990) (translation of Traité de l’essence et guérison de l’amour, 1610; also translated as, Erotomania; or, A treatise discoursing of the essence, causes, symptomes, prognosticks, and cure of love, or erotique melancholy, tr. Edmund Chilmead, Oxford 1640); Nich- olas Breton, Melancholike humours, in verse of diverse natures (London, 1600). On the medieval tradition, see Mary F. Wack, Lovesickness in the Middle Ages: The ‘Viaticum’ and its Commentaries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990); and cf. Ruth Padel, Whom Gods Destroy: elements of Greek and tragic madness (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), p. 104. 7. Helen Small, Love’s Madness: medicine, the novel, and female insanity (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996), pp. 7, 6. See also Juliana Schiesari, The Gendering of Melan- cholia: feminism, psychoanalysis, and the symbolics of loss in Renaissance literature (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1992). 8. See Small, Love’s Madness, Chapter 1; Elaine Showalter, ‘Representing Ophelia: women, madness and the responsibilities of feminist criticism’, in Geoffrey Hartman and Patricia Parker, eds, Shakespeare and the Question of Theory (London: Routledge, 1993); and for a later context, Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: women, madness and English culture, 1830–1980 (London: Virago Press, 1987). 9. Burton, Anatomy, vol. III, p. 163. 10. Laura Gowing, Common Bodies: women, touch and power in seventeenth-century England (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), pp. 87, 101–102. 11. Andrew Boord, The Breviary of Helthe (London, 1547; English Experience no. 362, Amsterdam/New York: Da Capo Press, Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Ltd, 1971), f. 19v. 12. See, for example, John Bunyan, whose chief vices were swearing, bell-ringing and Sabbath games, and who describes himself as given to ‘all manner of vice and ungodliness’, John Bunyan, Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, W. R. Owens, Notes to pp. 180–182 237

ed. (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin, 1987), p. 8. Sins acknowledged by men in John Rogers’s Dublin congregation include being ‘given to drinking’ (William Walker, p. 412/416); ‘that vile lust of Drunkennesse’ (John Chamberlain, p. 412/419); being ‘a childe of wrath’ (John Hewson, p. 395); ‘swearing, and drinking, &c’ (Adrian Strong, p. 412/419); John Rogers, Ohel or Beth-Shemesh: A Tabernacle for the Sun (London, 1653). John Crook’s chief vices were apparently ‘idle Talk, and vain Company’, ‘minding Pride too much in my Apparel’, ‘wearing long Hair’, and ‘spending my Money in vain, which I thought might have been better employed, if I had bought some good Books, or been charitable to the Poor’; A short History of the Life of John Crook (London, 1706), pp. 9–10. 13. See Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. I: The Will to Knowledge, tr. Robert Hurley (New York: Random House, 1978/Vintage Books edn, 1980). He gives a characteristically brilliant and contentious account of the process by which speaking about sex comes to be identified with telling the deepest truths of the self: ‘we demand that sex speak the truth and we demand that it tell us our truth, or rather, the deeply buried truth of that truth about ourselves which we think we possess in our immediate consciousness’, p. 69. 14. Dionys Fitzherbert, Bodleian Library, MS. e Mus. 169, f. x. (The epistle ‘To the glorious and renowned church of England our dear mother’ exists in two copies, one draft and one fair, both on loose sheets of paper inserted into the book, numbered ff. viii–ix (fair copy) and ff. x–xiii (draft). Quotations here are taken from the draft copy.) 15. See Patricia Crawford, Women and Religion in England 1500–1720 (London: Routledge, 1993), pp. 38–52, on English Protestant attitudes to women and the family. See also Marie Rowlands, ‘Recusant Women 1560–1640’, in Mary Prior, ed., Women in English Society 1500–1800 (London: Methuen, 1985), for Catholic women, celibacy and marriage in the same period. 16. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, ff. x–xi, xiii. 17. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 8r. On the role of gentry parents in arranging marriages for their children, see Ralph Houlbrooke, The English Family 1450–1700 (Harlow, Essex: Longman, 1984), pp. 68–78; Margaret Ezell, The Patriarch’s Wife: literary evidence and the history of the family (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987), pp. 17–34. For seventeenth-century women preferring to live single, see Sara Mendelson and Patricia Crawford, Women in Early Modern England 1550–1720 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998), pp. 168–174. 18. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 8v. 19. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 14v. 20. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 25v. 21. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 29v. 22. In fact since the fair copy of the manuscript removes such phrases as ‘my dear’ in copying this letter, it may be that others felt Fitzherbert overestimates her distance from such misunderstandings. 23. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 10r. 24. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 17r. For the shifting meanings of lewd, see Oxford English Dictionary, s.v. lewd, a., esp. 1, 2, 5, 7; the word moves from meaning ‘lay’ through ‘unlettered’ and into a wider sense of ignorant, vulgar and bad, eventually acquiring specifically sexual misconduct as its primary sense somewhere in the late seventeenth to early eighteenth century. 25. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 16v. On the attractiveness of the idea of the nunnery to early modern Protestant women, see Bridget Hill, ‘A Refuge from Men: the idea of the Protestant nunnery’, Past and Present 117, 1987, pp. 107–130. 238 Notes to pp. 182–186

For a masculine version, compare also Richard Carpenter’s account of how he converted to Catholicism and then back again; a powerful attraction, he explains, was ‘the imagination of an excellent Sanctity, and a spotless Recollection of life, in their Orders of Religion’; Richard Carpenter, Experience, Historie and Divinitie. Divided into five Books (London, 1642), p. 26. 26. Crawford, Women and Religion,p.46. 27. Fitzherbert, MS. e Mus. 169, f. 8v. On her subsequent relation to her family and the various Fitzherbert wills, see K. Hodgkin, Women, Madness and Sin: the autobiographical writings of Dionys Fitzherbert (Ashgate, forthcoming 2008). 28. Hannah Allen, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that Choice Christian Mrs Hannah Allen (London, 1683), p. 7. 29. Allen, Narrative, p. 71. As Allan Ingram comments, what we have of her autobiography is ‘a very brief span of her life, the time in fact when she was Hannah Allen. Of Hannah Archer we know very little, and of Hannah Hatt only that she is secure in God and that she has written a pamphlet under her former name ’; Allan Ingram, ed., Voices of Madness: four pamphlets, 1683–1796 (Stroud, Gloucester- shire: Sutton Publishing, 1997), ‘Introduction’, p. xv. 30. See also Elspeth Graham’s reading of this narrative in relation to ‘inner versus outer incongruences’, in her essay ‘Authority, Resistance and Loss: gendered difference in the writings of John Bunyan and Hannah Allen’, in Anne Laurence, W. R. Owens and Stuart Sim, eds, John Bunyan and his England, 1628–1688 (London: The Hambledon Press, 1990), p. 123. 31. For example, Anna Trapnel in visionary ecstasy: ‘my outward man at this sight was stricken very weak, and all in a sweat, but I received much joy ’; A Legacy for Saints; being several Experiences of the dealings of God with Anna Trapnel (London, 1654), p. 14. 32. Elaine Hobby, Virtue of Necessity: English Women’s Writing 1649–88 (London: Virago Press, 1988), p. 74. 33. Allen, Narrative,p.40. 34. See the editorial note to the citation, Ingram, Voices of Madness, p. 139; Ramona Wray, Women Writers of the Seventeenth Century (Tavistock, Devon: Northcote House Publishers, 2004), p. 93. 35. ‘In loving thou dost well; in passion not’, as Raphael sternly reminds Adam in Milton’s Paradise Lost, responding to his confession of adoration of Eve; ‘carnal pleasure’ is shared by the beasts, but married love should be rational and (in the case of the husband) authoritative. John Milton, Paradise Lost, VIII. ll. 588, 193. 36. John Bunyan, The Pilgrim’s Progress, as originally published by John Bunyan; being a facsimile reproduction of the first edition [1678] (London: Elliot Stock, n.d.), p. 3. 37. British Library Add. MSS 5858, Athenae Cantabrigienses, vol. III, William Cole, ‘Oliver Cromwell’s Cousin’s Diary’. The writer is identified only as a relative of Cromwell’s, in an eighteenth-century copy of the original. 38. Vavasor Powell, Spiritual Experiences, of Sundry Beleevers (London, 1652), p. 34. 39. Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth- century England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), pp. 77–78, 103–104, 159–160. 40. See discussion of women and melancholy, Chapter 4. 41. George Trosse, The Life of the Reverend Mr. George Trosse, A. W. Brink, ed. (Montreal and London: McGill-Queens University Press, 1974), p. 63. 42. Trosse, Life, p. 81. John Bunyan similarly credits God with having preserved him against the temptation to fornication: through ‘a miracle of precious grace’ he was kept from those sins which might have both damned him eternally and laid Notes to pp. 186–192 239

him open to legal penalties. He also notes that the Ranter doctrine of perfection was tempting ‘to my flesh, I being a young man and my nature in its prime’, but he resisted; Grace Abounding, pp. 8, 16. The musician Thomas Whythorne a century earlier claimed that whatever sexual freedoms he might have indulged in, they stopped short of ‘the conjunction copulative’: ‘neither my hand, nor any other part of mine, did once touch the part of hers where the conjunction is made’; James Osborne, ed., The Autobiography of Thomas Whythorne: modern spelling edition (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 33. Evidently Bill Clinton was not without precursors in his uncertainty about the boundaries that define the sexual act. 43. Trosse, Life, p. 62. On the history of masturbation as a sin, see Thomas Laqueur, Solitary Sex: a cultural history of masturbation (New York: Zone Books, 2003). 44. Trosse, Life, pp. 62, 63. 45. Trosse, Life,p.59. 46. Trosse, Life, pp. 58, 59. 47. Trosse, Life,p.63. 48. Trosse, Life,p.81. 49. Trosse, Life,p.81. 50. On the inclusive uses of terms for immediate kin to cover in-laws, step-family and so on, see Naomi Tadmor, Family and Friends in Eighteenth-century England: household, kinship and patronage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 145. 51. Tadmor, Family and Friends, p, 145. 52. Whythorne, Autobiography; see also K. Hodgkin, ‘Thomas Whythorne and the Problems of Mastery’, History Workshop Journal 29, 1990, pp. 20–41; Lyndal Roper, Oedipus and the Devil: witchcraft, sexuality and religion in early modern Europe (London: Routledge, 1994). See also Lorna Hutson, The Usurer’s Daughter: male friendship and fictions of women in sixteenth-century England (London: Routledge, 1994), on humanism and shifting ideas of masculinity. 53. See Phyllis Mack, Visionary Women: ecstatic prophecy in seventeenth-century England (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1992). 54. Alice Hayes, A Legacy, or Widows’ Mite (London, 1723); Agnes Beaumont, The Narrative of the Persecutions of Agnes Beaumont, in John Stachniewski and Anita Pacheco and John Bunyan, eds, Grace Abounding, with other spiritual autobiographies (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). On marital and family tensions around women’s piety, see Hilary Hinds, God’s Englishwomen: seventeenth-century radical sectarian writing and feminist criticism (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996), pp. 49–50, 72–79; Crawford, Women and Religion, pp. 95–97, 147–152. 55. Hayes, A Legacy, pp. 48, 55–57. 56. Michel Foucault, History of Sexuality, vol. I. 57. Jeffrey Weeks, ‘Foucault for Historians’, History Workshop Journal 14, autumn 1982, pp. 106–109.

11 Conclusion: Writing out of the Labyrinth

1. Robert Burton, The Anatomy of Melancholy (orig. London, 1621; Thomas Faulkner, Nicolas Kiessling and Rhonda Blair, eds, vol. I, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p. 66. 2. Burton, Anatomy, p. 397. For wandering madness in general, see Michael Macdonald, Mystical Bedlam: madness, anxiety and healing in seventeenth-century 240 Notes to pp. 192–193

England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), pp. 140–141; Ruth Padel, Whom Gods Destroy: elements of Greek and tragic madness (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995), pp. 99–129. The discussion of wandering and madness in the following pages is an abbreviated version of a longer article: K. Hodgkin, ‘The Labyrinth and the Pit’, History Workshop Journal 51, 2001, pp. 37–63. 3. Thomas Adams, Mystical Bedlam, or, the World of Mad-men (London, 1615), p. 46. Frenzy, technically speaking, was a type of madness (see, for instance, Philip Barrough, The Method of Phisick, London, 1610, 4th edition, p. 21). The elided part of the passage continues: ‘an opinion without ground, a going without a path, a purpose to do it knows not what, a getting and losing, bending and breaking, building up and pulling downe: conceyving a multitude of thoughts, with much anxiety, and with a sudden neglect scattering them here, wildenes is madnes; an indefatigable frenzy; an erring starre reserved for the blacke darkenesse ’ 4. Jack Lindsay, ed., Loving Mad Tom: Bedlamite verses of the XVI and XVII Centuries, illustr. Norman Lindsay, foreword Robert Graves, musical transcriptions Peter Warlock (London: Fanfrolico Press, 1927), pp. 25, 23. 5. Ian Hacking, Mad Travelers: reflections on the reality of transient mental illness (London: Free Association Books, 1999), p. 51. 6. Padel, Whom Gods Destroy, p. 105. 7. Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization: a history of insanity in the age of reason, tr. Richard Howard (London: Tavistock Publications, 1987), p. 9. 8. For a brief bibliography of publications relating to Foucault on madness, see references in introductory chapter. It is interesting that perhaps the most hotly disputed crux sentence, whose accurate translation is argued over in several articles in the collection edited by Arthur Still and Irving Velody (Rewriting the History of Madness, London: Routledge, 1992), is concerned precisely with the life of the wandering insane: ‘Les fous alors menaient une existence facilement errante’, translated by Richard Howard as ‘Madmen then led an easy wandering existence’, and variously criticised and queried; Foucault, Madness and Civilization,p.8. 9. Philip Barrough, The Method of Phisick, containing the causes, signes and cures of inward diseases in mans body, from the head to the foote (orig. London, 1583; 4th edition, 1610), p. 22. 10. Adams, Mystical Bedlam,p.21. 11. For a related discussion, see George MacLennan’s account of the persistence of this metaphor from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, in writers including Tasso, Holderlin, Clare and Nerval: ‘Psychological instability is, it would seem, externalised through spatial movement. Conversely, it is when these writers are immobilised and held in one place that an inner confrontation with subjective crisis becomes unavoidable. For the later writers, the pattern of movement away from or towards a place of asylum seems to involve the problem of what consti- tutes home ’ George MacLennan, Lucid Interval: subjective writing and madness in history (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1992), p. 36. See also Jonathan Andrews, ‘Letting Madness Range: travel and mental disorder, c1700–1900’, in Richard Wrigley and George Revill, eds, Pathologies of Travel (Amsterdam/Atlanta, GA: Editions Rodopi, 2000), pp. 25–88. He is concerned with travel as treatment, and the therapeutic aspects of the journey, rather than with the imaginative dynamics of mad travel, but he also notes that the mentally disturbed might ‘strenuously resist journeys’, or ‘might be impelled to travel by a desire to escape from their own demons and the constraints they were under’, p. 33. Hannah Allen is one of the cases he discusses. Notes to pp. 194–196 241

12. For a discussion of the figure of the labyrinth in relation to knowledge and truth, see John M. Steadman, The Hill and the Labyrinth: discourse and certitude in Milton and his near contemporaries (California: University of California Press, 1984). For the closely related figure of the dark wood, see Eugenio Donato, ‘ “Per Selve e Boscherecci Labirinti”: desire and narrative structure in Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso’, in Patricia Parker and David Quint, eds, Literary Theory/Renaissance Texts (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986). 13. Dionys Fitzherbert, Bodleian Library MS. e Mus. 169, ff. 6r, 8r. 14. Dionys Fitzherbert, Lambeth Palace Library MS Sion arc: L40.2/E47, f. 7r. 15. Alexander Cruden, The London Citizen Exceedingly Injur’d (London, 1739); reprinted in Allan Ingram, Voices of Madness: four pamphlets, 1683–1796 (Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing, 1997). Sylvia Plath, The Bell Jar (London: Faber, 2001, orig. 1963). For discussion of autobiographical accounts of madness in the last 300 years, see Roy Porter, A Social History of Madness: stories of the insane (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1987); Dale Peterson, ed., A Mad People’s History of Madness (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1982); George MacLennan, Lucid Interval. 16. See Porter, Social History of Madness, especially Chapter 10 ‘The American Dream’. 17. Carol Thomas Neely, Distracted Subjects: madness and gender in Shakespeare and early modern culture (Ithaca: Columbia University Press, 2004), p. 180. 18. Jacques Derrida, ‘Etre juste avec Freud’, in Elisabeth Roudinesco, ed., Penser la folie: essais sur Michel Foucault (Paris: Editions Galilée, 1992), p. 152. ‘That which is excluded’, he comments, ‘is evidently never simply excluded, neither by the Cogito nor by anything else, without coming back: this is what a certain psychoanalysis has enabled us to understand’, p. 161 (my translations). Bibliography

Manuscript sources

Bodleian Library: MS e Mus. 169 MS Bodley 154

British Library: Add. MSS. 20006, 20007, ‘Autobiography of the Hon. Goodwin Wharton’, 2 vols. 1686–1704. Add. MSS. 5858, Athenae Cantabrigienses, vol. III, William Cole, ‘Oliver Cromwell’s Cousin’s Diary’. Lansdowne MSS. 99, Burghley papers, ‘Letters of Several Madmen’.

Lambeth Palace Library: MS Sion arc: L40.2/ E47.

Published sources: pre-1900

The Anathomie of Sinne, Briefely discovering the braunches thereof, with a short method how to detest and avoid it (London, 1603). Haec Vir: or the Womanish Man; being an Answere to a late Booke (London, 1620). Hic Mulier: or the Man-Woman; being a Medicine to cure the Staggers in the Masculine- Feminines of our Times (London, 1620). Adams, Thomas, The White Devil, or the Hypocrite Uncas’d (London, 1613). ——, Mystical Bedlam, or the World of Mad-men (London, 1615). ——, Diseases of the Soule: A Discourse Divine, Morall, and Physicall (London, 1616). Allen, Hannah, A Narrative of God’s Gracious Dealings with that choice Christian Mrs Hannah Allen, afterwards married to Mr Hatt (London, 1683). Avery, Elizabeth, Scripture-Prophecies Opened, which are to be accomplished in these last times, which do attend the coming of Christ, in several Letters written to Christian friends (London: Giles Calvert, 1647). Bacon, Nathaniel, A Relation of the Fearefull Estate of Francis Spira, in the yeare 1548 (London, 1638). Barrough, Philip, The Method of Phisick, containing the causes, signes and cures of inward diseases in mans body (London, 1601). Baxter, Richard, The Signs and Causes of Melancholy. With Directions Suited to the Case of those who are Afflicted with it. Collected out of the Works of Mr Richard Baxter, for the Sake of Those, who are Wounded in Spirit. By Samuel Clifford, Minister of the Gospel (London, 1716). Beard, Thomas, The Theatre of God’s Judgements: Or, a collection of histories concerning the admirable Judgements of God upon the transgressours of his commandements. Translated out of the French, and augmented by more than three hundred Examples (London, 1597).

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Blackmore, Richard, A Treatise of the Spleen and Vapours in Hypochondriacal and Hysterical Affections. With Three Discourses on the Nature and Cure of the Cholick, Melancholy, and Palsies (London, 1725). Blaugdone, Barbara, An Account of the Travels, Sufferings and Persecution of Barbara Blaugdone (London, 1691). Bolton, Robert, Instructions for a Right Comforting Afflicted Consciences (London, 1631). Brathwait, Richard, The English Gentlewoman, drawne out to the full body (London, 1631). Breton, Nichola, Melancholike humours, in verse of diverse natures (London, 1600). Bright, Timothy, A Treatise of Melancholie, containing the causes thereof (London, 1586). Carpenter, Richard, Experience, Historie and Divinitie. Divided into five Books (London, 1642). Crook, John, A short History of the Life of John Crook (London, 1706). Earle, John, Micro-cosmographie, Or, a peece of the world discovered, in essayes and characters (London, 1628). Ferrand, Jacques, tr. Edmund Chilmead, Erotomania; or, A treatise discoursing of the essence, causes, symptomes, prognosticks, and cure of love, or erotique melancholy (Oxford, 1640). Freeman, John, The Comforter: or, a comfortable Treatise, wherein are contained many reasons taken out of the word, to assure the forgiveness of sinnes to the conscience that is troubled with the feeling thereof (London, 1600). Gotherson, Dorothea, To all that are Unregenerated: a call to Repentance from dead works (London, 1661). Gribaldus, Matthaeus, A notable and marveilous Epistle of the famous Doctour, Mathewe Gribalde, Professor of the Lawe, in the Universitie of Padua: concernyng the terrible judgemente of GOD, upon hym that for feare of men, denieth Christ and the knowne veritie: with a Preface of Doctor Calvine. Now newely imprinted, with a godly and wholesome preservative against desperation (London, [1570?]). Hart, John (Hart On-Hi), Trodden Down Strength, by the God of Strength, or, Mrs Drake Revived. Shewing her strange and rare case, great and many uncouth afflictions, for tenne yeares together, together with the strange and wonderfull manner how the Lord revealed himselfe unto her, a few dayes before her death (London, 1647). ——, The Firebrand Taken Out of the Fire, or, the Wonderfull History, Case and Cure of Mrs Drake (London, 1654) (reprint of Trodden Down Strength with additional prefatory material). Hayes, Alice, A Legacy, or Widow’s Mite (London, 1723). Henry Jessey, The exceeding Riches of Grace advanced by the spirit of grace in an empty nothing creature, viz. Mtis Sarah Wight (London, 1647). More, Henry, Enthusiasmus Triumphatus, or: a discourse of the nature, causes, kinds, and cure, of enthusiasme (London, 1656). (Originally published under pseudonym ‘Philophilus Parresiastes’.) Parker, Thomas, The Copy of a Letter written by Mr Thomas Parker, Pastor of the Church of Newbury in New-England, to his Sister, Mrs Elizabeth Avery (London, 1650). Perkins, William, The Whole Treatise of the Cases of Conscience (London, 1608). Powell, Vavasor, Spirituall Experiences, of sundry Beleevers (London, 1653). Reynoldes, Edward, A Treatise of the Passions and Faculties of the Soule of Man, with the severall Dignities and Corruptions thereunto belonging (London, 1640). Rogers, John, Ohel or Beth-Shemesh: A Tabernacle for the Sun (London, 1653). Rogers, Timothy, A Discourse concerning Trouble of Mind and the Disease of Melancholly. In Three Parts. Written for the Use of such as are, or have been Exercised by the same (London, 1691). 244 Bibliography

Stafford, Richard, A Clear Apology and Just Defence of Richard Stafford for Himself (London, 1690). Stirredge, Elizabeth, Strength in Weakness Manifest: in the Life, Various Trials, and Christian Testimony of that faithful Servant and Handmaid of the Lord Elizabeth Stirredge (London, 1711). Stubbes, Philip, The Anatomie of Abuses (London, 1583). Trapnel, Anna, A Legacy for Saints, being several Experiences of the dealings of God with Anna Trapnel (London, 1654). ——, Report and plea, or, a narrative of her journey into Cornwall (London, 1654). ——, The Cry of a Stone (London, 1654). Tryon, Thomas, Pythagoras his Mystick Philosophy Reviv’d; Or, the Mystery of Dreams Unfolded (London, 1691). Turner, Jane, Choice Experiences of the kind dealings of God, before, in, and after conversion (London, 1653). Wright, Thomas, The Passions of the Mind in General (London: Valentine Simms, 1604). Yarrow, Robert, Soveraigne Comforts for a Troubled Conscience (London, 1634).

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Adams, Thomas treatments, 102, 104–5, 106–7; on corruption, 163 conversation, 103, 109; with on hypocrisy, 23, 121 ministers, 106–7 on spiritual madness, 43, 93–4, Andrews, Jonathan, 11, 174 192, 193 Antichrist, 150, 157 on women, 129 Archer (family), 173, 175 Alexander, Sally, 15 asylums Allen, Hannah Bedlam, 12, 81, 88, 89, 94, 151, 177 and autobiographical narrative, 4, 12, in early modern period, 12, 102, 104, 16–17, 20, 27, 29, 35, 37, 114, 194, 196 184, 185–6 Glastonbury, 17, 57, 105, 125, 141, and clothing, 130 172–3 conviction of sinfulness, 30–1, 58, 109 as repressive institutions, 10, 195 death: her father’s, 173; her see also Foucault, Michel; madness, husband’s, 173; her own, 51–2, treatments 138–9; as punishment, 141, 143 autobiographical writing, chapter 2 passim family: father, 173, 175; involved in development of, 12, 15, 16–17, 19–23; care, 104–5, 159, 173–5; mother, diaries, 22, 23 104, 173–4 and madness, 2, 9, 20–1; in later and fasting, 124, 126–7 periods, 195 and journeys, 194 and memory, 20 and language, 57–8, 59 and the self, 26 and learning, 49, 175 autobiography, spiritual and madness: confusion, 48, 51; and the bible, 51 disturbed perceptions, 51–2; conversion narratives, 17, 20, 27–8 recovery, 59, 117, 194; religious the devil in, 150, 151 explanations, 29, 100; family in, 25, 39, 159, 161, 170, 173 symptoms, 97 gender identity in, 189 and melancholy, 17, 29, 61, 70; bodily as genre, 4–5, 16–17, 18, 19–20, 22–7, disorder, 74–5, 78–9, 98; gender 29, 37–9 and, 85, 184; spiritual disorder, and madness, 5–6, 12, 20–2, 26–31, 60, 100, 114, 183 37–9, 48, 93, 100, 141, 195 on Mr Baxter, 78–9, 98, 106 and memory, 20, 28, 32, 34–7 and Presbyterianism, 16, 98 ministers in, 106 and religion, as cure, 103, 114, 115; sexuality in, 179–80, 189 bible, 51, 163; and madness, 29, suffering in, 26–7, 29, 37–8, 72–4, 141 100; religious despair, 17 see also Allen, Hannah; Fitzherbert, and the self, 176, 183; and gender, Dionys; Trosse, George 189; separate from melancholy, Avery, Elizabeth, 92, 94 74–5 and sexuality, 85, 179–80, 183–6 Babb, Lawrence, 63 on Spira, 64 Baptists, 24 and suicide, 126–7, 138, 145–6, 175 Barrough, Philip, 148, 193

258 Index 259

Baxter, Richard Burghley, Lord Robert, 8 on melancholy, 61, 76–9, 142; of Burton, Robert Hannah Allen, 98, 106; reading as melancholy: causes of, 43, 44, 62; cure for, 111; in women, 84–5 love, 177, 178; religious, 65, on vileness of self, 144–5 66, 86–7, 97; of scholars, 49, Beard, Thomas, 44, 64 110–11; wandering, 192; Beaumont, Agnes, 94, 189 women’s, 83, 84 bible in early modern religious culture, 51, Calamy, Richard, 98 58, 162, 163, 168 Calvin, Jean, 64 references in autobiographies: Dionys Calvinism, 7, 116, 136 Fitzherbert, 139, 142, 161–4, 169, Carpenter, Richard, 144 180, 185; George Trosse, 53; Carter, Dr and Mrs, 105–6, 132, 140, Hannah Allen, 184–5 151–2, 164, 168 as treatment for madness/ Casaubon, Meric, 95, 96 melancholy, 12, 111 Catholicism Blackmore, Richard, 77, 79 in autobiographies: Fitzherbert and, Blaugdone, Barbara, 37, 93, 123 55, 123, 139, 147, 150, 157, 164, body, chapter 7 passim 180; George Trosse and, 53 and celibacy, 180 in autobiographies: Dionys and death, 135, 136–7 Fitzherbert, 121–4, 133–4, 139–42; fasting, 123 George Trosse, 124–5, 141, 142, possession, 153; Loudun, 155 188; Hannah Allen, 126–7, and the self, 91 138–9, 183–4 Certeau, Michel de, 155 boundaries of, 118–20, 121–2, 133–4, Chambers, Elizabeth, 73 135, 137, 157–8 Chaytor, Miranda, 133 dead, 135–6, 137, 138–41; women childhood and, 136 in early modern family, 159 in early modern culture, 118–20, in spiritual autobiography, 25, 173; in 134, 158 George Trosse, 170; in Hannah madness and, 120, 134, 143, 178 Allen, 173 naked, 132–3 Church of England, 87, 98 punishment of, 141–3 Clark, Stuart, 13 self and, 157–8 clothing, 127–33 sexual, 133, 178 in autobiographies: Dionys Fitzherbert women’s bodies, 82, 83, 118–19, and, 131–3; George Trosse and, 128–9 130–1 see also clothing; death; food, in early and madness, 130 modern culture; sexuality men and, 129–30 Boord, Andrew, 21, 42–3, 179 religious significance of, 128–30 Brathwait, Richard, 128–9 women and, 127, 128–9 Bright, Timothy, 45, 61 confinement, see asylums; madness, on religious melancholy, 65, 66, treatments 67–8, 69 Coppe, Abiezer, 94 Bunyan, John Crawford, Patricia, 182 and the devil, 91, 151 Crook, John, 73, 91 Grace Abounding (autobiography), Cruden, Alexander, 195 23–4, 25, 59, 91, 136 and madness, 99, 100, 151 Davies, Lady Eleanor, 88–9 Pilgrim’s Progress, 185 Davis, Natalie Zemon, 13, 81, 118 260 Index death, 135–43, 146 see also religious culture, early in early modern culture, 135–8 modern; sectarian churches and madness: confusion about, Erasmus, Desiderio, 1 138–41; fear of, 138–9, 141–3 Evans, Arise, 99 religious attitudes to, 135–7; Catholic, 135, 136–7; Protestant, 135, 136–7 family, chapter 9 passim see also body; suicide early modern, 15, 135, 159–61, 176; Derrida, Jacques, 21, 196–7 hierarchy in, 165–7; Descartes, René, 41 historiography, 159–60 desire, see love; lovesickness; sexuality and madness, 71, 159, 161, 174, 175; devil/ devils, 148–53 involved in care of mad, 102–5 and eating/ drinking, 124–6 and sexuality, 187–8 and melancholy or madness, 56, 70, in spiritual autobiography, 38–9, 159, 71, 72, 74, 78, 108, 109–10, 112, 170, 173; Allen, 173–5; 114, 150, 151 Fitzherbert, 161–70; Trosse, 170–3 as non-human, 137–8, 143 fancy, see imagination fasting, see food, in early modern culture and possession, 78, 153–8 Faustus, Dr, 136 in spiritual autobiography, 51–3, Fifth Monarchists, 13, 33, 73 150–1 language, 37 tempting to sin, 59, 91, 157; to and madness, 90 suicide, 92, 144, 145, 148, 150 and the self, 91 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Fitzherbert, Dionys Mental Illness,7 and autobiographical narrative, 4, 16, diaries, see autobiographical writing 17, 20, 28; authority of experience distraction, see madness in, 37, 68–70; manuscript, 16, 28 doctors, 40, 102–3, 104–6, 173 and the body, 121–4, 183; dead see also Carter, Dr and Mrs bodies, 136, 140 Donne, John, 24, 136, 137 and clothing, 130, 131–3 Douglas, Mary, 119 death: fear of burning, 165, 166; her Drake, Joan [Mrs] own, 139–40; as punishment, and the devil, 71, 72, 111–12 141–3 father’s house, 168–9 and the devil, 67, 70, 104–5, 150, melancholy of, 70–2, 74, 75, 84, 111, 151–2; possession, 156–7 113 family, 131–2, 139, 159, 161–70, 174, and possession, 155–6 176, 182–3; brothers, 109, 131, dreams 164–5, 168, 169, 187; father, 113, of Francis Spira, 64 166–9, 181, 182, 183; mother, of John Rogers, 168 104, 109, 113–14, 115, 169; in radical religious groups, 87, 90, 91, sisters, 109, 113, 140, 165, 169 92, 93 and food, 123–4 see also visions and journeys, 193–5 drunkenness, 44, 56, 125, 179, 188 and the labyrinth, 194–5 and language, 55, 56, 58 Elias, Norbert, 118 and learning, 29, 49, 162 enlightenment and madness: as defect of reason, madness and, 10–11, 41 48–9; definitions of, 16, 97, 100; Wharton and, 3 delusions, 30, 121–2; distraction, enthusiasm, 87, 90, 92–5, 99 55; disturbed perceptions, 50–1, and madness, 8, 13–14, 87, 89, 94–7 112–13; as punishment, 16; and political dissent, 8, 88, 95–7 rejection of diagnosis, 16, 183 Index 261

and melancholy, and affliction of and learning, 49, 162 conscience, 66–70, 72, 74, 75, 77; and madness, 81–2; and melancholy, gender and, 85, 183; symptoms, 82–5, 178, 184–5 67–8 and religion, 182, 189 and memory, 32, 35–6 and self, 188–9, 190 and religion, 103; atheism, 142; and sexuality, 133 blasphemy, 31, 139, 166; and unreason, 179 Catholicism, 55, 139, 146, 147, see also family; lovesickness; sexuality 150, 157, 164, 180, 181; Glover, Mary, 149 conversion, 163–4; spiritual cure, Gollop, Mrs, 107–8, 109, 172 113–14, 115; use of bible, 161–3 Gotherson, Dorothea, 19, 128 and the self, 115, 116–17, 139–40, Gowing, Laura, 118, 179 142–3, 156–7, 183; and gender, Graham, Elspeth, 26, 107, 166 188; and hypocrisy, 116–17, 121 Greenblatt, Stephen, 15 and sexuality, 179, 180, 183, 186; Greville, Fulke, 144 friendships: with men, 181–2; virginity, 180–1, 182 Hacket, William (Frantick Hacket), and suicide, 146–8 8, 96 and treason, 110, 139, 142, 166, 167 Hackett, Helen, 83 treatments, 102, 105–6; conversation, Hacking, Ian, 193 109, 110; and doctors, 105–6, 107, Hamlet, 130, 178 110; and ministers, 110, 116–17; Hare, Edward, 99 reading, 110–11 Hart, John (Hart On-hi), 71–2 food, in early modern culture, 119, Hawes, Clement, 37, 92 121–7 Hawkins, Jane, 88 in autobiography: Allen and, 126–7; Hayes, Alice, 24, 189 Fitzherbert and, 121–2; Trosse Hill, Christopher, 99 and, 124 Hinds, Hilary, 160 devil and, 124–5 Hobby, Elaine, 184 fasting, 90, 123–5, 126 Holland, Catherine, 33 and madness, 123–6 Houlbrooke, Ralph, 167 spiritual significance of, 123–4, 126 Houston, R. A., 11, 12, 13, 154 women and, 126 humoural theory, 42–3, 47, 60–1, Foucault, Michel 119–20 and history of madness, 9–11, 21, 44, and love melancholy, 177 102, 112, 177, 193, 196 and madness, 12, 42–3 and religious melancholy, 79; Mrs and history of sexuality, 177, Drake’s case, 71–2 189–90 and women, 82, 83 Fox, George, 94, 98 hypocrisy, 23, 56, 116–17, 121 Frame, Janet, 20 women and, 121 Freud, Sigmund, 14, 119, 160, 175, 196 imagination in autobiographers, 50–4 Galen, 62 madness/ melancholy as disturbance Gay, Peter, 14 of, 45–6, 50–4, 62, 63, 77, 78, 79, gender 80, 86, 96 and the body, 118–19 as one of inward wits, 43, 44, 122 and clothing, 127–30, 133 incest, 187–8 and the family, 160, 165 individualism, see self, early modern; and food, 126 subjectivity 262 Index

Ingram, Allan madness language and madness, 11, 27–8, and autobiographical writing, 20–2, 38, 54, 99 26–30, 38–9 insanity, see madness; melancholy and the body, 120; death, 137–8; nakedness, 132–3; restraint of Jones, Ann Rosalind, 127 body, 143 causes: devils, 78, 150–3; early modern Kempe, Margery, 20, 99 explanations of, 40–1, 42–7, 113; God’s punishment for sin, 16, 17, labyrinths, 194–6 43–4, 108, 141; love, 177–8; language possession, 7, 78, 153–8; blasphemy, 28, 30–1, 55, 59, 139, supernatural causes, 12, 40, 43–4, 143, 166 149–50; witchcraft, 7, 149 conversation as cure, 103, 108–13, 120 classifications of, chapter 3 passim, 40, and madness, 21, 27–8, 30–1, 38, 41, 42–3, 80, chapter 11 passim; 54–9, 93, 108 confusion, 48–9; delusion, 29–30, religious community of, 58–9, 115 34–5, 111–13; distraction, 55–6, rhetoric of enthusiasm, 37, 92–3 59; mania, 42, 80 Laud, Archbishop, 88 and family relationships, 71, 160–1; learning, 49–50 incest, 187–8; not recognising kin autobiographers: Allen, 49, 175; as sign of madness, 164 Fitzherbert, 29, 49, 162; Trosse, and gender, 81–5; greensickness, 81; 79–80 hysteria, 81 books as cure, 110–11 history of: in the eighteenth century, and melancholy, 49, 63, 110–11 11–13, 102–3; and the women and, 49, 162 enlightenment, 10–11, 41; see also melancholy, of scholars historiography, 6, 9–15, 99–101 life-writing, see autobiography, spiritual and language, 37, 38; blasphemous Lister, Dr, 105 speech, 30–1, 55, 59; disordered Locke, John, 41, 46–7 speech, 30, 54–9, 93; silencing of love madness, 10–11, 21 as a form of madness, 177–8 human in tension with divine, 185 literary approaches to, 11–12, 43 see also lovesickness; melancholy and memory, 34–7 lovesickness, 177–8, 179 and politics, 8, 88, 95–7 and gender, 81, 178, 184–6 problems of definition, 1, 3–4, 5–9, 89, 93–4, 97–101, 190–1, 196–7 Macdonald, Michael and religion, 4, 5, 7–8, 12–14, 37–8, on the devil, 150; possession, 153–4 87–95, 97–101, 103–4, 108–13; on enthusiasm, 8, 95–6 secularisation of, 12–13; spiritual on the history of madness, 10, 11, 103 madness (Adams), 43, 93–4 on melancholy: and class, 63; and the self, 116–17, 196 religious, 66, 99 and sexuality, 82–4, 177–8, 187–8, on suicide, 143 190–1 on symptoms of madness: delusions, symptoms of: belief in criminality, 30; 53–4; disordered clothing, 130; blasphemy, 30–1; disordered language, 54 dress, 130–1; disordered eating witchcraft, 149 and drinking, 123–5; disordered Mack, Phyllis, 24 perceptions, 50–4; disordered MacLennan, George, 38, 99, 114 speech, 54–9; lack of reason, 48–9; Mad Maudlin, 149, 178 meaningless language, 30; Index 263

mistakes about the body, 120; memory suicide attempts, 144; wandering, and autobiographical writing, 20–1, 192–7 32–8 treatments, 40, chapter 6 passim; of the dead, 136, 137 binding, 28–9, 108; confinement, and madness, 34–6, 45 10, 12, 193, 197; conversation, one of inward wits, 43, 45 104, 108–13, 116, 120; domestic rehearsed memory, 32–3, 36 care, 103, 108; orderly habits, 104, mental disorder, see madness; 113–15; persuasion, 111–12; melancholy reading, 110–11; spiritual Midelfort, H. C. Erik, 61 treatments, 104, 106–7, 112–13, Mills, Humphry, 73 116; women’s role in, 107–8; see Milton, John, 129, 145, 156 also medical, treatments mind, chapter 3 passim see also Foucault, Michel; lovesickness; early modern theories of, 41–3, melancholy 60–1, 78 Major, René, 177 inward wits, 43; memory, 43, 45 Marshall, Peter, 137 passions, 43, 44, 46, 80; gender and, Mascuch, Michael, 22, 23 81–2 medical see also humoural theory; imagination; theory, 12, 40, 42–3, 60–1, 119–20 memory; reason treatments: for madness, 40, 42, ministers, 98, 106–7, 110, 116, 176, 184, 102–3, 104–6, 193; for 186 melancholy, 68–9, 116 More, Henry, 72, 95–6 views of madness, 40, 100, 195–6; of Morrissey, Mary, 69 melancholy, 42, 62–3, 76–7, 78 Murphy, Terence, 143 melancholy, chapter 4 passim Napier, Richard, 11, 55, 153, 185 autobiographers and: Dionys Nayler, James, 94 Fitzherbert, 66–70, 71, 72, 74, 75, Neely, Carol Thomas 77; George Trosse, 79–80; Hannah on history of madness, 12, 43, Allen, 17, 29, 60–1, 74–5, 184–6 195–6 and class, 63 on religion and melancholy, 66 and gender, 81–5, 178, 184–5 on women and melancholy, 83 in later seventeenth century, 75–81 literary approaches to, 11–12 Ophelia, 130 medical views, 8, 42, 62–3, 76–7, 78; as disturbance of imagination, 50, Padel, Ruth, 116, 193 53–4, 62–3, 77–8 passions, see mind philosophical views, 62–3; and patriarchy, 166–7; petty treason, women, 82–3 167 and religion, 63–81 passim, 86–7, 99; Penington, Mary, 73 and afflicted conscience, 8, 63–6, perceptions, see imagination 72–3; discussed by Fitzherbert, Perkins, William, 64–5, 75 66–70; and enthusiasm, 95–7 Plath, Sylvia, 195 of scholars, 49, 63, 110–11 Plumpton, Dorothy, 167 symptoms of, 62, 63, 80; discussed by Porter, Roy, 3, 4, 11 Fitzherbert, 68–9 possession, 7, 78, 150, 153–8 transience of, 195 exorcism, 153 see also Bright, Timothy; Burton, Loudun, 155 Robert; lovesickness; Powell, Vavasor, 185 madness Presbyterians, 16, 97–8 264 Index

Protestantism see also bible; devil/ devils; and celibacy, 180 enthusiasm; Protestantism; and death, 135, 136–7, 141 sectarian churches; sin and the devil, 149; possession, 153 Reynoldes, Edward, 44, 46 and fasting, 123 Rich, Lady Mary, 128 as rational, 13 Rogers, John, 19, 37, 73, 98 and the self, 14–15, 23–5, 37–8, 113, and dreams, 168 114, 115, 116–17, 141, 143–5, and hallucinations, 90, 97, 151 157–8, 162 on memory training, 33 see also religion; religious culture, early Rogers, Timothy, 75–8, 111, 113 modern; sectarian churches Roper, Lyndal, 14, 188 providence, 43, 91, 136 psychoanalysis sanity and the body, 119 in relation to madness, 2, 6, 9, 18, 27, and the family, 161, 175 38, 55, 117, 157, 190–1, 197 and history, 13–14 Satan, see devil/ devils Schiesari, Juliana, 82–3 Scull, Andrew, 11 Quakers, 13, 19, 33, 123 Seaver, Paul, 166 language, 37, 94 sectarian churches, chapter 5 passim and madness, 53, 73, 90, 93, 94, 95 fasting among, 90, 123 and the and self, 24, 91, 189 and gender identity, 189 Quarles, Francis, 24 hostility to, 87–8, 89, 94–7 language, 92–3, 94 reason madness, 8–9, 13, 87–8, 97–9 and madness, 3–4, 21, 41, 43–7, melancholy, 73–4, 95–7 48–50, 62, 78, 111–13 politics of, 88, 89 one of inward wits, 43 spiritual autobiography, 19–20, 87 Reformation, 11, 13, 118, 137 visions, 53, 87, 90–4 religion see also enthusiasm; Fifth Monarchists; and madness, 5, 7–8, 12–14, 18, 37–8, Quakers; religious culture, early 43–4, 95–101, 108–13, 190–1 modern and melancholy, 63–70, 72–6, 78–9, self, early modern, 5–6, 11, 14–15, 22–6 86–7, 179, 185–6 and body, 133–4, 157–8, 190; and politics, 8 clothing, 128, 133; death, 135, and sexuality, 179, 180–2, 186, 189 137–8 religious culture, early modern and gender, 188–9 affliction of conscience, 5, 7–8, 16; and madness, 5–6, 18, 20–1, 114, discussed by Fitzherbert, 66–70; 116–17, 190–1, 196–7 and melancholy, 63–6, 72–5 in relation to others, 38–9, 159, authority of experience in, 37–8 175–6 collective worship, 58–9 and religion: the devil, 150–3; death in, 136–7 possession, 154–7; spiritual and devotional writing, 5, 15, 23–5, dissolution, 18, 24, 26, 91 37–8, 63–6, 110–11 and sexuality, 190 and fasting, 123–6 sinfulness of, 23–4, 29, 141, 143–5, memory training in, 33 146, 157 as rational, 13, 114–15 and spiritual autobiography, 5, 20–1, and self-abandonment, 18, 91 22–6, 27, 38–9 significance of clothing, 128–30 and suicide, 143–5 and spiritual conversation, 108–13 Sena, John, 96 Index 265 sexuality, 133, chapter 10 passim suicide, 44, 45, 46, 126–7, 138, 143–8 and the body, 133–4, 178, 188 thedevil’sagencyin,144,145,146,148 in early modern autobiography, early modern attitudes to, 144 179–80 and madness, 144, 148 and historiography, 189–90 Sym, John, 44–5, 46 incest, 187–8 and madness/ melancholy, 82–3, Tadmor, Naomi, 135, 160, 187 177–80, 185, 187 Tasso, 178 men’s, 133, 178, 179, 188 Tawney, R. H., 11 and religion, 189–90 Tom o’Bedlam, 81, 149, 178, 192–3 see also Mad Maudlin and sin, 178, 185, 186, 190 Trapnel, Anna women’s, 82–5, 118, 133, 178, 179, fasting, 123, 126 185–6, 187 memory, 32 Shepherd, Michael, 99 and sin, 29–30 Shorthose, John and Mrs, 104, 107, as visionary, 92, 94–5 173, 188 Trosse, George sin and autobiographical narrative, 4, 12, affliction of conscience, 7–8, 64–6, 17, 20, 28–9, 30 75–6 and clothing, 130–1 against the holy ghost, 31, 91, death, 141, 142, 143 103, 109 and the devil, 52–3, 56, 124–5, 150, madness and, 5, 40, 44, 100, 109, 152–3; and possession, 156 141–2, 143, 146, 195 and drinking, 125, 188 and Protestant self, 23–4, 29–30, and eating, 124–5 93, 117, 141, 143, 157, 170 family, 159, 170–3, 174, 176; sexuality, 178, 185, 186, 190 brother-in-law, 173; father, 170–1; suicide as, 144 Mrs Gollop as spiritual parent, Small, Helen, 178 172; mother, 56, 170–3 Smith, Nigel, 91 and journeys, 194 Southcott, Joanna, 99 and language, 55–7, 58; blasphemy, spiders, 126–7, 146 30, 31 Spira, Francis, 63–4, 70, 72, 148 and learning, 29, 49 spirits, 3, 99, 148–9, 150 and madness: confusion, 48; disturbed angels, 2, 3, 92, 103, 108, 148 perceptions, 52–3, 56, 109–10; loss fairies, 2, 52, 103, 148 of reason, 48; symptoms, 17, 80 see also devil/ devils; Witchcraft/ and melancholy, 79–80 witches and memory, 33, 34–5 Stachniewski, John, 29, 157, 166 and religion: as context, 103; as Stafford, Richard, 54–5 minister, 17, 29, 35, 37, 57; Stallybrass, Peter, 127 religious affiliation, 17, 97–8; Stirredge, Elizabeth, 24, 73–4, 128 spiritual cure, 113, 114–15, 177, Stubbes, Philip, 128–9 188 subjectivity treatment, 17, 102, 105–6, 107–8; autobiographical, 21, 25, 38–9 binding, 28–9; confinement, 17; and the body, 157–8 conversation, 109–10; reading, early modern, 22–6 111; recovery, 117 history and subjectivity, 14–15 and sexuality, 56, 180, 186–8; in in psychoanalysis, 14–15, family, 186–8; and masculinity, 196–7 188; masturbation, 186 see also self, early modern and suicide, 145, 146 266 Index

Tryon, Thomas, 92 Wallington, Nehemiah, 144, 151, 166 Turner, Jane, 24, 25, 32, 33, 94 Walsham, Alexandra, 8, 88 Wariston, Archibald, 7, 149 understanding, see reason Weber, Max, 11 unreason Weeks, Jeffrey, 190 in early modern culture, 3–4, 6, 14, Wharton, Goodwin, 1–3, 6, 148 44–5, 50 Whythorne, Thomas, 125, 188 as error, 111–12 Wight, Sarah, 90, 123, 126 Foucault and, 10–11, 21, 44, 196–7 Wilson, Ann and Samuel, 173, 175 and memory, 32 Witchcraft/ witches and women, 179 and madness, 7, 149 visions and possession, 153–4, 156 and madness/ melancholy, 4, 54, and rationality, 13, 14, 148–9, 64, 93 150, 189 among religious groups, 13, 53, 87, 90, Wray, Ramona, 174 91–3, 99 Wright, Thomas supernatural: caused by the devil, 53; on passion and self-control, 43, 44, of the devil, 150; of spirits, 148; 46, 56 caused by witchcraft, 149 on women, 129 Vokins, Joan, 33, 73 Wroth, Lady Mary, 83

Walker, Mr Peter and Mrs, 104, 106, Yarrow, Robert, 64, 65, 66, 75 109, 174 Yeoman, Louise, 7, 98