DID WHITE SUPREMACY STALL THE FORWARD MOMEMTUM OF THE COLORED FARMERS’ ALLIANCE? ____________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University Dominguez Hills ____________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Humanities ____________ by Danielle Cain Spring 2019 This thesis is dedicated to all the patients and families at the Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia that I have cared for over the years. They have helped me to keep life in perspective and to understand what is important. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge the following people who were very supportive of me during my time in the master’s program at CSUDH. First, to my family and friends I would like to say thank you for your encouragement and sage advice. It always came just when I needed it the most. Next, a huge thank you to Dr. Matthew Luckett, who helped me get across the finish line. From the reading list you provided me, to the advice regarding my thesis, your help was invaluable. Thank you also to my committee members, Dr. Howard Holter, who stepped in at the last minute to save the day and to Dr. Jackie Shannon whose assistance was much appreciated. I would be remiss if I did not also thank the HUX professors that have taught me and guided me over the past few years. It has been a remarkable learning experience for me. A mere thank you does not seem to be enough. Lastly, I would like to thank my parents and sister who passed away several years ago. I did not have them nearly long enough, but cherish all the love they gave me and all that they taught me. I carry their spirit with me always. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE DEDICATION ......................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS....................................................................................................iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... iv ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ vi CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION. .............................................................................................................. 1 Background ................................................................................................................. 1 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................... 7 Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................. 10 Theoretical Bases and Organization ........................................................................ 11 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................... 12 Definition of Terms .................................................................................................. 14 2. THREE STEPS FORWARD; TWO STEPS BACK CIVIL RIGHTS BARGAINED AWAY ....................................................................... 16 Getting Out the Vote.................................................................................................. 19 3. SETTING THE STAGE FOR REVOLT ......................................................................... 21 The Farmer Versus Goliath ....................................................................................... 21 The Farmer Versus Supply and Demand ................................................................. 22 Debt Peonage ………………………………………………………………………… 23 4. EVOLUTION OF THE FARMERS’ ALLIANCES ...................................................... 25 Fighting Back ............................................................................................................. 25 The Farmers’ Alliance Organizations ...................................................................... 27 iv CHAPTER PAGE 5. THE COLORED ALLIANCE GAINS A FOLLOWING.............................................. 35 Cracks in the Alliance ............................................................................................... 37 The End of Cooperation and the End of the Alliance ............................................. 39 The Significance of Black Churches in the South ................................................... 41 6. FROM A FARMERS’ ALLIANCE TO A POLITICAL PARTY ................................ 43 Elections of 1892 and 1896 ...................................................................................... 45 Roots of Black Populism .......................................................................................... 47 7. METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................ 49 8. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 51 WORKS CITED ..................................................................................................................... 59 v ABSTRACT In Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America, Lawrence Goodwyn suggests, “White supremacy prevented black farmers from performing the kinds of collective public acts essential to the creation of an authentic movement culture” (Goodwyn 122-123). This thesis offers another point of view endorsing the notion that despite white supremacy, the Colored Farmers’ Alliance did create a movement putting forth an agenda of “collective public acts” that not only sought the betterment of farmers during the 1880s and 1890s, but also contributed to the initial success of the Populist Movement. A discussion entails of the events that precipitated the formation of the National Farmers’ Alliance and subsequent evolution of the Colored Farmers Alliance along with accounts of their unified efforts effecting change. This grass-roots association became one of the largest African American cultural movements in the United States laying the groundwork for the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s. 1 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Background It was an extraordinary period in the United States during the latter half of the nineteenth century. The Civil War had ended, Reconstruction was underway (only to be proven a failure), and the age of industrialization took off. The country was moving from solely relying on an agrarian economy to one of industrial development. Farmers were being left behind, and the severe economic struggles that burdened them were being overlooked by Congress. In order to gain a collective voice, Farmers’ Alliances were organized first as self-help groups that focused on the agricultural education of the farmer regarding new methods of farming, and then evolving into more of a present-day political action committee lobbying for agricultural interests until ultimately becoming the Populist Party in 1892. Originally there were two Alliance movements—the Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial Union, or Southern Alliance and the National Farmers’ Alliance, or Northern Alliance. Later, a third movement for African American farmers known as the Colored Farmers’ Alliance would form to address the needs of Southern black farmers. The Southern Alliance was organized in 1877 as an agricultural group in Texas. Gradually the group expanded to more regional representation throughout 2 the South. The Northern Alliance was formed in 1879 by a cooperative of Grangers from New York; and the Colored Alliance became an officially chartered alliance beginning in 1886. In 1890, Dr. Charles Macune, leader of the Southern Alliance proposed a national cooperation or partnership with the Northern Alliance and the Colored Alliance in order to have a more prominent showing nationally. The Farmers’ Alliance was formed and included all three of the independent farming organizations. The coalition boasted three million members and “grew to one of the most powerful protest movements in American history” (Barnes 1). By the time the three Alliances joined forces under the banner of the Farmers’ Alliance, their mission had progressed to being more political in nature, calling for economic reforms that included the Sub-Treasury Plan, increasing the amount of currency in production, increasing the coinage of silver, dismantling the crop-lien system, overhauling the banking industry, and advocating for government- control of the railroads and telecommunications industry. Initially, the individual Farmers’ Alliances were a means of keeping farmers up-to-date on the latest agrarian techniques, education, trade news, and the economy. Lecturers would travel from one region to the next delivering the same message and inspiring solidarity. They were non-political organizations trying to effect change through cooperation and education. However, by 1889, the tide had started to shift. The farmers were buried in debt, losing their farms, and being 3 forced to turn to sharecropping or migrating to the more urban industrial areas. The need for farmers to consolidate under one flag and speak with one very loud voice was becoming more necessary. It was a strategic move on the part of the farmers to band together into a three million-strong voting bloc in hopes that their solidarity would wield influence over the politicians. Politicians that had the power to pass legislation that could help the farmers in their plight. W. Scott Morgan, political activist and author of History of the Wheel