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The History of Use and Conservation of Marine Resources in Zanzibar: Nineteenth Century to the Present Abdallah Rashid Mkumbukwa

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The History of Use and Conservation of Marine Resources in Zanzibar: Nineteenth Century to the Present Abdallah Rashid Mkumbukwa The History of Use and Conservation of Marine Resources in Zanzibar: Nineteenth Century to the Present Abdallah Rashid Mkumbukwa A Dissertation Submitted to the Bayreuth International Graduate School of African Studies (BIGSAS) at the University of Bayreuth in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of a Doctor of Philosophy (African History) Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Achim von Oppen Submission of the dissertation: 29 April 2014 Public Defence: 18 June 2014 Supervisory Team Professor D. Achim von Oppen (Supervisor) Professor Dr. Abdul Sheriff (Mentor) Professor Dr. Detlef Müller-Mahn (Mentor) Dedication To the memory of my mother, Mwajab Mohammed Sendaro, and my father, Rashid Abdallah Mkumbukwa. To Maryam Ali M. Sendaro, Ali, Rashid Amina And Luqman i Table of Contents List of Tables ...................................................................................................................... v List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vi List of Maps ..................................................................................................................... vii Abstract .............................................................................................................................. 1 Acknowledgement .............................................................................................................. 2 List of Abbreviations .......................................................................................................... 6 CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY ............................................................ 7 1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 7 1.2 General Introduction to the Area and Topic ................................................................ 7 1.3 Statement of the Problem and Justification of the Research Topic............................ 14 1.4 Objectives of the Study .............................................................................................. 17 1.5 Literature Review ....................................................................................................... 17 1.5.1 General Ideas on Marine Resource Use and Conservation ................................. 17 1.5.2 Dynamics of Use and Conservation of Mangroves on the East African Coast ... 19 1.5.3 Fisheries in Zanzibar and East Africa in General ................................................ 22 1.6 Research Methodology ............................................................................................... 26 1.6.1 Data Collection Methods ..................................................................................... 26 1.6.2 Data Evaluation and Analysis ............................................................................. 29 1.7 Organisation of the Study ........................................................................................... 29 1.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 31 CHAPTER TWO INTERROGATION OF IMPORTANT TERMS, CONCEPTS AND DEBATES ......... 32 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 32 2.2 What are “Marine Resources”? .................................................................................. 32 2.3 Use .............................................................................................................................. 34 2.4 External Influence and Colonialism ........................................................................... 36 2.5 The Debate about Conservation ................................................................................. 40 2.6 Environmental History Debate ................................................................................... 47 2.7 The Commons Debate ................................................................................................ 49 2.8 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 51 ii CHAPTER THREE AN OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORY OF ZANZIBAR AND THE ROLE OF MARINE RESOURCES, 1840s-1890 ............................................................................. 53 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 53 3.2 Pre-colonial Marine Resources and Land Tenure ...................................................... 55 3.2.1 History and Marine Resources ............................................................................ 55 3.2.2 Land Tenure and Resource Implications ............................................................. 58 3.3 Ecology and Use of Mangroves, 1840s-1890 ............................................................ 68 3.3.1 The Building of Zanzibar City ............................................................................ 68 3.3.2 Mangroves Trade and Local Practices ................................................................ 76 3.4 Fisheries in Zanzibar, 1840s-1890 ............................................................................. 82 3.5 The Omani Sultanate in Zanzibar before British Colonialism ................................... 88 3.3 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 95 CHAPTER FOUR UTILISATION AND CONSERVATION OF MANGROVES AND FISH IN THE ZANZIBAR PROTECTORATE, 1890-1960s ........................................................ 97 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 97 4.2 Phase One: Early Colonial Period, 1890-1933 .......................................................... 98 4.2.1 Mangroves in Zanzibar during the Colonial Period ............................................ 98 4.2.1.1 The Colonial Economy and Mangroves: An Overview ............................................ 98 4.2.1.2 Mangroves and Initial Decrees for Land Administration ........................................ 101 4.2.2 Fishing Industry during Early Colonial Period ................................................. 102 4.2.2.1 The Fishing Practices .............................................................................................. 102 4.2.2.2 Initial Research and its Implications ....................................................................... 104 4.3 Phase Two: Middle Colonial Period, 1933-1950 ..................................................... 108 4.3.1 The Mangroves .................................................................................................. 108 4.3.1.1 Change of Mangrove Vegetation, 1930-1950 ......................................................... 108 4.3.1.2 Trend of Policy Making After 1933 ........................................................................ 117 4.3.1.3 Utilisation of Mangroves, Urbanisation and Population Pressure .......................... 119 4.3.1.4 Ecological Impact of Mangrove Utilisation: The Question of Degradation, 1939 - 1949 ..................................................................................................................................... 123 4.3.1.5 Colonial Administration of Mangroves ................................................................... 125 4.3.2 Fisheries and Initial Transformations ................................................................ 127 4.4 Phase Three: Late Colonial Period, 1950-1963 ....................................................... 131 4.4.1 Mangrove Conservation .................................................................................... 131 iii 4.4.1.1 Colonial Control ...................................................................................................... 131 4.4.1.2 Local Knowledge and Experience ........................................................................... 131 4.4.2 Colonial Administration and Research on the Fishing Industry ....................... 133 4.4.2.1 Institutionalisation of Research Activities in the 1940s .......................................... 133 4.4.2.2 Research and Local Community Interface .............................................................. 142 4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 146 CHAPTER FIVE TRANSFORMATION OF USE AND CONSERVATION OF MARINE RESOURCES IN ZANZIBAR AFTER THE 1964 REVOLUTION ............................ 151 5.1. Introduction ............................................................................................................. 151 5.2 Nationalisation and Marine Resources, 1964-1980s ................................................ 152 5.2.1. Changing Policies, Marketing Strategies and Utilisation of Mangroves and Fish, 1964–1980 ....................................................................................................... 152 5.3 Globalisation: Policy Reforms, Privatisation and Conservation 1980s–2000s ........ 166 5.3.1 Transformations of Policies and the Marine Environment: Implications for Fishing, 1980–2000s ....................................................................................... 166 5.3.2 Local Responses to the Changing Context .......................................................
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