UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI Date:___________________ I, _________________________________________________________, hereby submit this work as part of the requirements for the degree of: in: It is entitled: This work and its defense approved by: Chair: _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ _______________________________ Ancient Maya Water Management: Archaeological Investigations at Turtle Pond, Northwestern Belize A thesis submitted to the Division of Graduate Studies and Research of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS in the department of Anthropology of the McMicken College of Arts and Sciences July 2005 by Jennifer A. Chmilar B.Sc., University of Calgary, 2002 Committee: Vernon L. Scarborough, Chair Alan P. Sullivan, III Nicholas Dunning ABSTRACT Water is a critical resource for human survival. The ancient Maya, inhabiting an environment with a karstic landscape, semi-tropical climate, and a three month dry season, modified the landscape to create water catchments, drainages, and reservoirs within and surrounding settlement. Water management techniques have been demonstrated in the Maya Lowlands extending back into the Preclassic, approximately 600 BC, at sites such as El Mirador and Nakbe. Into the Classic period, 250 AD – 900 AD, water management features have taken a different form than in the Preclassic; as seen at Tikal and La Milpa. In this thesis, Turtle Pond, a reservoir located on the periphery of the core of La Milpa, is evaluated for modifications to it by the ancient Maya. Turtle Pond was a natural depression that accumulated water for at least part of the year. The ancient Maya then modified it to enhance its water holding potential. Specifically, this thesis investigates a possible channel and berm, an anomalous surface exposure on the south side of the reservoir, as well as sediment deposition and pollen accumulation. Excavation and sediment analysis were the prime methods used to determine anthropogenic modification. Although all indicators of human modifications are not verified, that the ancient Maya were using and modified Turtle Pond is illustrated by the presence of a channel as well as other water management related features and a pollen sequence that suggests human-environment interactions. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It seems I have a habit of meeting wonderful people. Although I would like to name each person whom I’ve met in my past two years in Cincinnati, on my last two trips to Guatemala and Belize, everyone associated with my undergraduate degree, and everyone I’ve known stretching back to my early days, it would be impractical so I limit the names I include to those who have aided directly in the production of my Master’s thesis. First on the list is Dr. Vern Scarborough, who I expressly came to the University of Cincinnati to learn from. He has seemed as excited to work with me -a devoted and enthusiastic student- as I have been to work with him, has encouraged me all the way, and provided academic and personal advice even when on sabbatical this past year. Next, I must thank Dr. Alan Sullivan. Even though -and probably because- he is not a Maya archaeologist he has offered insightful and logical critique of my work as well as provided both theoretical and quantitative underpinnings. I also must thank Dr. Nick Dunning who I have only gotten to know in the past year. He has instructed me in sediment analysis, soil coring techniques in Guatemala, and answered many questions covering a wide range of subjects. All the staff at Programme for Belize Archaeological Project particularly Dr. Fred Valdez (director), Dr. Lauren Sullivan, Dr. Stan Walling, Peter Davis, and Tammy Watkins, as well as Jason Fenton and Kevin Magee who accompanied me from Cincinnati, are to credit for the success of a short field season in Belize. Additionally, the Taft Memorial Fund of the University of Cincinnati is appreciated for the grant that allowed my work to take place. Unfortunately, the naming of names must stop here. However, I thank all of my family and friends, young and old, who have faith in me to follow this path that calls to me. As I have only just begun, I look forward to working in Maya archaeology for a long time and meeting many more inspirational people along the way. TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures . iii List of Tables . iv CHAPTER 1: Introduction . 1 CHAPTER 2: Background . 4 Preclassic Water Management . 7 Cobweb Swamp . 8 Cuello . 8 Nakbe . 8 Edzna . 8 Cerros . 8 El Mirador . 9 Classic Water Management . 9 Tikal . 11 La Milpa . 12 Kinal . 13 CHAPTER 3: Environmental Setting . 16 Geographic Location . 16 Weather and Climate . 16 Geology . 16 Physiology . 17 Soils . 18 Water Availability . 18 Vegetation . 19 Turtle Pond . 19 CHAPTER 4: Methodology . 25 Excavation Units . 25 Sub-operation A . 25 Sub-operation B . 25 Sub-operation C . 26 Sub-operations D and E . 26 i Sub-operation F . 27 Sediment Analysis . 28 CHAPTER 5: Excavations . 32 Sub-operation A . 32 Sub-operation B . 44 Sub-operation C . 47 Sub-operation D . 56 Sub-operation E . 59 Sub-operation F . 63 CHAPTER 6: Discussion . 71 Sub-operation A . 71 Sub-operation B . 73 Sub-operation C . 74 Sub-operation D and E . 75 Sub-operation F . 76 CHAPTER 7: Conclusions . 79 References Cited . 82 APPENDIX A: Soil Analysis . 87 ii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1. Contour map of Turtle Pond. 24 Figure 4.1. Photo of Sub-op A. 29 Figure 4.2. Sub-op B and the anomalous surface exposure of chert cobbles. 30 Figure 4.3. Subops D and E. 31 Figure 5.1. East wall of Sub-op A. 37 Figure 5.2. Profile of the east wall of Subop A. 38 Figure 5.3. Profile of the north wall of Subop A. 39 Figure 5.4. Graph of percent organic matter in Subop A. 42 Figure 5.5. South wall of Subop B. 46 Figure 5.6. Photo of Subop C. 50 Figure 5.7. Profile of the north wall of Subop C. 51 Figure 5.8. Graph of organic matter content in Subop C. 54 Figure 5.9. Subops D and E, bottom of Lot 2. 61 Figure 5.10. Subop D (Lot 4) and E (Lot 2). 62 Figure 5.11. Photograph of the sediment core in half sections. 65 Figure 5.12. Graph of organic matter content in Subop F, Lot 2. 68 Figure 5.13. Pollen diagram for Turtle Pond. 70 iii LIST OF TABLES Table 5.1. Artifact counts in Subop A. 36 Table 5.2. Description of soil horizons in Subop A. 40 Table 5.3. Percent organic matter in Subop A. 41 Table 5.5. Texture of sediments in Subop A. 43 Table 5.5. Artifact counts in Subop B. 45 Table 5.6. Artifact count in Subop C. 49 Table 5.7. Description of sediments in Subop C. 52 Table 5.8. Organic matter in Subop C. 53 Table 5.9. Texture of sediments in Subop C. 55 Table 5.10. Artifact count in Subop D. 58 Table 5.11. Artifact count of Subop E. 60 Table 5.12. Description of the sediments in Subop F, Lot 2. 66 Table 5.13. Organic matter content in Subop F, Lot 2. 67 Table 5.14. Sediment texture in Subop F, Lot 2. 69 Table 6.1. Calibrated radiocarbon dates. 78 iv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Water management played a significant role in the overall development of the ancient Maya. In an environment where the soils are not always productive, seasonal drought is imminent, and a karstic landscape prohibits natural accumulations of perennial water sources, the management and control of water attest to its powerful organizing force (Ford 1996; Scarborough 1998; Scarborough et al. 1995). Not only does the storage of water allow for a perennial drinking source, it also guarantees irrigation water for agriculture. For ancient Maya settlements to thrive, organization of water resources was integral. Therefore, it is not surprising that drought and the inability to store reserves of water through consecutive years was a contributing factor to the downfall of the Classic period Maya (Beach and Dunning 1997; Beach et al. 2003; Dunning and Beach 2000; Dunning et al. 2002; Dunning et al. 1998; Gill 2000; Harrison 1977; Hodell et al. 2000; Kunen 2004; Lucero 1999; Peterson and Haug 2000; Scarborough 1993, 1994, 1996, 1998, 2000, 2003abc; Scarborough et al. 1995; Scarborough and Gallopin 1991). In this thesis, I examine a small reservoir feature within the settlement zone of La Milpa but outside its site center, at the Programme for Belize, Central America. The reservoir is called Turtle Pond and is a natural low-lying depression, approximately 25 m north-south and 40 m east-west, hypothesized to have been modified in order to collect, hold, and distribute water for the nearby population. To test this proposition I studied the following crucial indicators: the presence of channels exiting the reservoir, the interior of the reservoir for a sequence of natural and anthropogenic sediment accumulation, the interior of the reservoir for water management related features such as a silting tank, as well as anomalous surface exposures in the vicinity of 1 the reservoir. Whether the purpose of the reservoir was agricultural or for promoting the development of a potable drinking source will also be examined. Evidence of channels, produced by the ancient Maya, exiting the reservoir verifies that water was being directed out of the reservoir. Water potentially was distributed to a population, either for drinking or for agriculture. Channels might also have been put in place to direct excess water out and to another location such as another reservoir or agricultural fields. The absence of channels would suggest that the reservoir was internally-draining.