Policy and Impact of Public Museums in China : Exploring New Trends and Challenges

Zurich Open Repository and Archive University of Zurich Main Library Strickhofstrasse 39 CH-8057 Zurich www.zora.uzh.ch

Year: 2017

Policy and impact of public museums in China : exploring new trends and challenges

Bollo, Sofia ; Zhang, Yu

Abstract: In a commercialised and globalised China, museum institutions are pivotal elements in public strategies to present and create national self‐consciousness, insofar as their vast collections provide symbols of cultural identification on a national as well as an international level. This article willexplore Chinese public museum policy and impact, firstly by describing the current status of the system as background information; secondly, by presenting the most recent trends in museum strategies and finally, by replacing the challenges and complexities of the museum system in a broader context. The analysis will draw from first hand material from interviews and informal conversations with museum professionals, small‐scale visitor surveys as well as the most recent facts and figures, and it will be illustrated by examples and supported by secondary sources.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/muse.12170

Posted at the Zurich Open Repository and Archive, University of Zurich ZORA URL: https://doi.org/10.5167/uzh-180940 Journal Article Published Version

The following work is licensed under a Publisher License.

Originally published at: Bollo, Sofia; Zhang, Yu (2017). Policy and impact of public museums in China : exploring newtrends and challenges. Museum International, 69(3-4):26-37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/muse.12170 Policy and Impact of Public Museums in China: Exploring New Trends and Challenges by Sofia Bollo and Yu Zhang

26 | MUSEUM international ofia Bollo has an academic background in Chinese Studies. She holds a B.A. Sin Chinese Language and Culture from the University of Turin and an M.A. in Chinese Studies from the School of Oriental and African Studies in London. She also gained work experience in diverse museum institutions in the UK and Italy. She obtained her Ph.D. from the University Research Priority Program (URPP) Asia and Europe at the University of Zurich, to which she is currently affiliated to publish her Ph.D. thesis. Her research on museums in China focuses on museum-elaborated narratives about the country’s prehistoric past. Her study aims to explore the uses of the past in the present, through displays of archaeological collections of Neolithic Pottery in museums in China.

u Zhang has an M.A. in Cultural and Media Management from Institut d’Études YPolitiques de Paris, France and a B.A. in French Literature from the University of International Studies of Shanghai, China. With experience in event management and publishing, she occupied different roles at the International Council of Museums (ICOM), where she worked as Head of the Communications Department between 2013 and 2016. Since 2016, she works as a museum consultant and in 2017 she founded Yu Culture, a Paris-based company that provides consulting to cultural institutions on their China-related projects and partnerships. She lectures on Chinese museums and trends in the Chinese cultural sector regularly.

MUSEUM international | 27 n a commercialised and globalised China, museum institutions represent pivotal elements in public strategies to present and create national awareness and identity, insofar as their vast collections provide symbols of cultural identification. Chinese legislation identifies one of the main roles of museums as ‘a basis for patriotic education’ through the commemoration and celebration of Chinese history. The aim is to promote Chinese heritage on both a national and an international level. Despite the many intellectual and scholarly efforts at interpreting Chinese history, the fact is that provincial, regional, and increasingly commercial and private interests, guide most decisions on public histor- Iical displays. Museums in contemporary China are undergoing a reconfiguration of policies in or- In China, one of der to adapt to the needs of the market economy, for which new legislation is attempt- the main roles ing to pave the way. In the programmes that Chinese museums develop, the need to of museums is to comply with the different missions of museums (as defined by ICOM) is doubled provide a ‘patriotic with Chinese political directives, among which The Internet + Chinese Civilisation education’ through and Let cultural relics tell their stories. Meanwhile, new joint projects in the museum the commemoration and heritage sectors, constant technological advancements, international exhibitions and celebration of and cultural exchanges are increasing—less as a need for economic sustainability Chinese history. than as a means to establish Chinese cultural diplomacy. This article will explore current museum policy in China and its impact in Chinese museums, with a focus on public museums, in order to better highlight the trends and challenges brought about through cultural policy. The analysis will be based on facts and figures illustrated by case studies, and supported by the use of first-hand material from interviews and informal conversations with museum professionals, as well as small-scale visitor surveys.

Background ver the past decade, the number he first legal document to set up the The role of the State Administration Oof museums in China has grown Tframework for the ownership of all of Cultural Heritage exponentially, with an average of one archaeological objects was issued in he current Law on the Protection new museum every day. Three distinc- 1930 under the Law on the Preservation Tof Cultural Relics (文物保护法, tive monographs, published in 2014, are of Ancient Objects (古物保存法, guwu wenwu baohufa, hereafter Cultural dedicated to contemporary museums in baocun fa). It also regulated the reg- Relics Law) was promulgated in 1982 China: Kirk Denton (2014) describes the istration system of private collections during the National Congress, and re- political and propaganda role of muse- and artefacts trade (Li 1996). In Mao’s cently amended at the 14th Meeting ums in China in his study on their rep- China, the politics of display operated as of the Standing Committee of the resentation of the past, Marzia Varutti a state in power and as a state in revolu- Twelfth National People’s Congress on (2014) has undertaken a thorough study tion (Ho 2017). Since China’s outward- 24 April 2015 (SACH 2015b). The State of representation practices in heritage looking vision, which led to the Reform Administration of Cultural Heritage policy and nationalist narratives with and Opening-up in 1978, the number of (国家文物局, guojia wenwuju, SACH) valid cases of ethnic minorities displayed museums grew steadily and, by 1980, within the Ministry of Culture regu- in museums, and the analysis of Tracey approximately 365 museums existed in lates the value of both material culture Lu (2014) focuses on notions of identi- China (Lü 2004). In the 1990s, a thou- and most public museums. According to ty materialised through museum collec- sand more museums were established this legislation, movable heritage objects tions in China.1 and consequently legislation on muse- (文物, wenwu)—a Chinese term often ums and specific treatises on museo- translated into English as ‘cultural rel- logy flourished (Lü 1995; Wang 1990; ics’—are categorised into four grades of Wenhuabu wenwuju 1985). value, from Grade 1, ‘most rare and valuable’ to Grade 4, ‘ordinary’ (Lau 2011).

6000 4873 5000 4510 4165 3789 3866 4000 3489 2970 3145 3000 2300 2000 1548 1215 1397 1000 349 407 8 147 21 214 0

1905 1937 1949 1965 1978 1980 1991 2000 2004 2005 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Fig. 1. The number of museums in China (1905-2016). © State Administration of Cultural Heritage (SACH)

28 | MUSEUM international Fig. 2. Queues outside the Shanghai Museum for an exhibition during the Chinese New Year in 2017. © YZ / Yu Culture

he same body also breaks down International partnerships Museums flourishing TChinese public museums into three nother conservation charter was he opening of new museums can categories: the best museums are classi- Ainitially developed through a col- Tbe explained by a number of fac- fied as First, Second or Third Grade. This laboration that began in 1997 between tors. Firstly, the development of muse- hierarchy of public museums is estab- SACH, the Getty Conservation Institute ums in China is the result of favourable lished according to quantitative criteria (GCI) and the Australian Heritage measures in terms of financial and cul- related to general management, facility, Commission as institutional partners, tural policy. These incentives were ac- collection management, research, exhi- which ended in 2000 with the creation companied by other initiatives: i) local bitions and public services. This classifi- of the Principles for the Conservation councils started looking to the Bilbao cation method, which was introduced in of Heritage Sites in China (中国文物 model to attract tourists with new cul- 2009, is used to distribute public fund- 古迹保护准则, hereafter the China tural landmarks through the extension ing to museums throughout the coun- Principles). The China Principles were of existing museums; ii) the opening of try. A re-evaluation of public museums finally issued by the Chinese National trade or industrial museums by (former) takes place every four to five years and Committee for the International Council state-owned companies, and iii) the in- museums can be downgraded if deemed of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and auguration of specialised museums, e.g. inconsistent with government criteria. approved by SACH in 2000. It took 10 science and technology, natural history, years to implement the Principles, and art, contemporary art, folk art, ethnolo- n 2012, after the first evaluation, 100 in 2010 the Chinese ICOMOS commit- gy, industrial heritage, 21st century her- Imuseums were ranked First Grade, tee began a revision of the document, itage, intangible heritage, as well as the 222 Second Grade and 438 Third Grade. which was completed in 2015 (ICOMOS multiplication of private museums. According to the latest evaluation in China 2015). 2016, there are currently 130 museums he increase in the budget allocated ranked First Grade (four were down- ccording to the Mid to Long-Term Tto culture was pivotal for the growth graded in 2013 and 34 were promoted AMuseum Development Plan (2011- of museums. Some 140 billion CNY to First Grade). It is to be noted that 2020), China intends to open one mu- (21.7 billion USD) in public funds were there is no clear distinction between the seum per area of 250,000 inhabitants in allocated to cultural heritage protection terms ‘public’ (公立, gongli) and ‘state- order to cover the maximum population from 2011 to 2015. In addition to central owned’ (国有, guoyou) museums within in terms of cultural offer, hosting 30,000 government support, public museums legal documents at the moment and the temporary exhibitions and attracting also received subsidies from local gov- two terms are used interchangeably. The one billion visitors annually by 2020. As ernment, while private museums can number of museums evaluated is insig- of 2016, there are 4,873 registered muse- apply for local government funding on nificant compared with the overall num- ums in China, 363 more than the previ- a project basis. Museum development is ber of museums in China (Fig. 1). SACH ous year, 1,297 of which are private mu- also due to an increase in archaeologi- is expected to evaluate all public muse- seums, accounting for almost one third cal excavations: new archaeological dis- ums in order to create a benchmark and of the country’s total (Mengjie 2017). In coveries often lead to the establishment a standard on museum collection, facili- 2016, some 30,000 temporary exhibi- of site museums. By 2006, SACH listed ty and management. tions were held in museums and cultur- a total of 2,351 archaeological sites and al institutions, and the current quota is historical monuments as National Major already one museum per 330,000 inhab- Heritage Protection Units. itants (Figs. 1 and 2). Chinese public museums registered 900 million visitor en- trances, which is an 8.7 per cent increase from the previous year (Ning 2016).

MUSEUM international | 29 Fig. 3. Wuzhen has evolved from a water town to a popular and authentic tourist destination, making it a model for other Chinese villages. © YZ / Yu Culture, 2017

f ‘musealisation’ is understood as the he increasing number of museums his requires that the villagers’ needs Ioperation of ‘trying to extract, physi- Tand free admission policies were Tbe taken into account throughout cally or conceptually, something from also intended to draw the Chinese mid- the whole process. Such projects were its natural or cultural environment and dle-class to museums, an affluent and launched even before the government giving it a museal status, transforming well-educated population seeking ways directives were made official. For -ex it into a musealium or “museum object”, to return to their roots through the arts ample, in Henan Province, a Cereals that is to say, bringing it into the mu- and culture by attending exhibitions and and Oils Museum and Village Activity seal field’, it can be argued that China is joining educational activities. In addi- Centre was created. Some villages opt currently undergoing a ‘musealisation’ tion, this development provided ideo- for cultural tourism, in the hope that process (Desvallées and Mairesse 2010, logical tools for the ‘Chinese Dream’.2 attracting visitors, whether domestic or p. 50). The soft power of museums to The value of heritage has also been ap- foreign, will help create jobs and gener- attract audiences, investments, tourists plied to local economic development ate income. and economic development is definitely through the promotion of cultural tour- a key element in understanding the mu- ism. Tourism is developing as a leisure he Wuzhen Model is one example. sealisation of China. One of the most in- activity within an expanding economic TWith its international arts festi- fluential strategies implemented in order industry, as will be discussed later in the val, attended by renowned contempo- to attract a wider public was free admis- article. rary artists, Wuzhen, a town of around sion policy. 60,000 people in the eastern province notable example of musealisation of Zhejiang, has become a talking point. Encouraging visitor attendance A and cultural tourism can be found in (Fig. 3). Following years of infrastruc- rom 2009 onwards, visitors enter the 2016 No. 1 Central Document, an an- tural renovation that began in 1999, Fwithout paying in all 1,804 state- nual report on developments in key pol- Wuzhen is now home to a rich artistic owned museums. Over 120 Chinese mu- icy published by the Central Committee community and even hosts a number of seums have over one million visitors per of the Communist Party of China and high-profile events, including a contem- year, mainly due to this free admission the State Council (MOA 2016). In this porary art festival, a theatre festival, and policy. In 2015, 3,717 museums, includ- report, the government emphasises the the World Internet Conference (Zheng ing state-owned, professional and pri- importance of preserving historic set- and Wang 2012). vate museums, have started offering free tlements and building ‘beautiful and admission to the public. State-owned liveable villages’, which led to the revit- museums receive national subsidies, as alisation of Chinese traditional villages. an economic contribution to compen- Prominent Chinese architects have been sate for a lack of earnings due to free involved in these projects to advise on admission. the consolidation of old houses, re-plan- ning of the villages and creation or re- purposing of spaces, especially for community and cultural activities.

30 | MUSEUM international Fig. 4. Chinese museums have developed merchandising lines. © YZ / Yu Culture New trends useums in contemporary China The Thirteenth Five-Year Plan A youth-oriented museum Mhave been recently undergoing a s part of the Key Tasks for State experience policy reconfiguration to adapt to the AAdministration of Cultural Heritage o support organisations in devel- needs of the dynamic market economy, in 2017, under the country’s Thirteenth Toping cultural products, the State alongside reconceptualisation of cul- Five-Year Plan, an annual evaluation Council has issued general guidelines tural heritage values (Blumenfield and system will take into account the pro- for several departments, including the Silverman 2013; Evans and Rowlands tection of cultural heritage at local lev- Ministry of Culture and the Ministry 2015; Shepherd and Yu 2013). In the els, and local authorities will be held ac- of Finance. This document encourages Thirteenth Five-Year Plan (2015-2020), countable for negligence, if they fail to national and regional cultural organi- ‘cultural industries’—a term first intro- protect cultural heritage. sations (including museums, art muse- duced in a central policy document in ums, libraries) to experiment with cul- 2010’s Eleventh Five-Year Plan—are ex- n the Five-Year Plan, other measures tural products and allows them to set pected to become a pillar in the national Iinclude: the prices of these products, to license economy in the next five years. – encouraging the cultural creativity intellectual property and to establish industry (so far, income from commercial enterprises to manage cul- he revised Cultural Relics Law came museum shops and products tural products. On a national level, the Tinto effect in 2015 (SACH 2015c). The represents 10 per cent of the global other general directives that are to be ap- amendments set the foundation for the income of museums); plied to museums are: Internet + Chinese professional management of museums, – increasing employment and the Civilisation or Let cultural relics tell their encouraging them to diversify their in- number of qualified museum workers stories (Su 2017). Museum games or mo- come resources by collaborating with in the cultural heritage sector; bile applications, merchandising prod- private entities and by setting up boards – increasing protection of immovable ucts inspired from museum collections of trustees. Another novel reform is cultural heritage and establishing as well as edutainment are among many that authorisation is no longer needed a compensation scheme for cities examples of how museums comply with to create a museum. However, newly abundant in such cultural resources the Internet + Chinese Civilisation and opened museums need to be registered and for private collectors who want Let cultural relics tell their stories direc- after their creation, especially if the term to conserve their valuable objects; tives (Fig. 4). ‘museum’ is intended to be used in their – stressing preventive conservation; name. SACH is adding more regulations – encouraging more social involvement with regard to the creation of non state- in the cultural sector economy. owned museums and requires local heritage institutions to coordinate the cre- he lagging development of cultural ation of new museums (Wenbozaixian Tproducts until recently results from 2017). a number of factors: for instance, public museums in China are required to oper- ate on a not-for-profit basis. In addition, investment in developing cultural prod- Chinese museums ucts was not covered by government are required to adapt funding and most museums in China to the needs of the did not include this expense in their op- dynamic market erating budgets. At the same time, muse- economy, alongside ums fail to exploit their collections and a reconceptualisation undertake market research to develop of cultural heritage interesting products. values.

MUSEUM international | 31 Fig. 5. A visitor engaging with a hologram interaction video in Banpo Site Museum, 2015. © Sofia Bollo

y connecting with a young and in- he Thirteenth Five-Year Plan also Incentives for tourism development Bternet-savvy public, museum games Tincludes measures to enhance the he material and symbolic signifi- and mobile applications seem to be par- protection of cultural heritage and its Tcance of museums have international ticularly popular: the Palace Museum promotion overseas in all channels and value in terms of tourism, conservation/ has developed several games and app- at all levels. Several high-level govern- preservation and cooperation inter- lications for its permanent collection, ment meetings were held since the out- est. For example, in Shaanxi Province, temporary exhibitions and education lining of the plan, while top Chinese which is regarded as an ‘important ar- programmes. With more than 8,700 officials including President Xi Jinping chaeological region’, a Cultural Heritage types of cultural products generating and Prime Minister Li Keqiang also Promotion Centre coordinates interna- more than one billion CNY (144 mil- stressed the importance of cultural her- tional relations for all institutions in the lion USD), the Palace Museum has be- itage protection and international coop- province. A dedicated team manages ob- come the pioneer in connecting its cen- eration (Wang 2016). In July 2016, the ject loans for international exhibitions, turies-old collection to the public. Other Chinese Museums Association, a gov- mainly the Terracotta Warriors interna- museums have followed the trend by in- ernment-organised NGO (or GONGO) tional travelling exhibition. A museum viting designers or associating with ex- supervised by SACH, created an online educators’ network has also been set up isting brands to explore their vast collec- platform to facilitate the exchange of in- recently to share best practices. In addi- tions and improve their narrative skills formation among museum networks.3 It tion, every year the ICOM International through digital technology and mer- is ‘a bridge between Chinese museums Training Centre for Museum Studies chandising. While free admission poli- and their international partners for ex- (ICOM-ITC) organises workshops for cy and the annual evaluation of muse- hibition exchanges’ (Chinese Muse- museum professionals managed and ums have both discouraged museums to ums Association Exhibition Exchange housed at the Palace Museum in Beijing. charge for their permanent collections, Platform 2016). The platform introduc- they have achieved revenue diversifica- es Chinese exhibitions to the world and tion by complying with market needs showcases international exhibitions for through merchandising (Fig. 5). Chinese museums, nurturing international dialogue by encouraging more Chinese artefacts to be shown in foreign institutions via a ‘China in Cultural Relics’ programme.

32 | MUSEUM international Fig. 6. The Chinese Museums Association hosted a showcase booth about heritage on the Silk Road as tsi response to supporting the OBOR initiative, during its conference in 2016. © YZ / Yu Culture

clear example of how culture and ew museums, cultural heritage pro- A heritage play a role in internation- Ntection projects, exhibitions, festi- al cooperation is also illustrated in the vals and intangible heritage initiatives Silk Road, a ‘cultural route’ that enabled can all apply for the Silk Road Fund, a cultural exchanges and a shared heri- state-owned investment fund founded tage. Its most recent reworking in in- in 2014. Notable examples include a joint ternational diplomacy is called ‘One excavation mission between Chinese Belt, One Road’.4 Launched in 2013, this and Uzbekistani archaeologists since geopolitical initiative is also entangled 2012. This is China’s largest archaeologi- with cultural diplomacy (Sidaway and cal project in a foreign country. The mis- Woon 2017). Nurturing a sense of shared sion is coordinated by the relevant acad- history in specific regions creates politi- emy of Social Sciences in each country, cal and economic cooperation and mu- and a museum is planned near the ar- tual loyalty (Fig. 6). Scholars believe that chaeological site. ‘heritage diplomacy’ will increasingly al- low for the reshaping of history, trade, hese new trends, domestic directives, infrastructures and even security across Tinternational joint exhibition proj- countries (Winter 2016). ects and cultural exchanges for the museum and heritage sectors, together with Nurturing a sense of constant technological advancements shared history in specific and financial strategic incentives, are im- regions creates political plemented to a greater extent, respond- ing to a need to establish cultural rather and economic cooperation, than economic diplomacy for China. and mutual loyalty.

MUSEUM international | 33 4500 Challenges 4165 here are limitations to the current 4000 3866 3589 TChinese museum system reflected 3500 3415 3252 in the emerging trends described above. 3020 Indeed, public museums and tangible 3000 2600 2693 2473 2560 cultural heritage are under the super- 2500 2400 2330 2384 2300 2193 vision of a hierarchical and centralised 2000 2000 1886 state administration (Fig. 7). There is a 1722 1581 geographical hierarchy of Major Heritage 1500 1397 Protection Units, divided into three lev- 1000 els within SACH: National, Provincial, and Municipal/County Major Heritage 500 Protection Units. 0 2000 2005 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 s Figure 7 shows, cultural heritage Museums managed by cultural heritage autorities Museums in China Aauthorities managed less than two- Fig. 7. Number of museums managed by cultural heritage authorities (2000-2014). thirds of Chinese museums in 2014. © State Administration of Cultural Heritage (SACH) Public museums and cultural institutions, depending on their history and not enjoy fiscal benefits such as tax -re n the most recently revised version of type of collection, often answer to differ- duction for the acquisition of museum IThe Past is a Foreign Country, David ent ministries and authorities, both na- collection. Lowenthal (2015) extensively covers var- tionally and locally. On an international ious modalities and reasons why the past level, in addition to the programmes un- External partnerships can be made relevant in the present. The dertaken directly by museums, the many ther actors involved in the mu- recovery, preservation, commemoration overseas Confucius Institutes (managed Oseum system include NGOs, and fabrication of the past are some of by the Ministry of Education), the cul- and GONGOs: the powerful Chinese the most relevant attitudes observed in ture section of Chinese embassies (by Association for Science and Technology, China. Museums and exhibitions act as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs), as well with its hundreds of societies, directly the validation and regulation of cultur- as overseas China Cultural Centres (by or indirectly manages the science and al heritage and thus promote a vision of the Ministry of Culture), can carry out technology museums, botanical gardens, nationalism, enjoy a range of institution- cultural exchange activities. The seg- observatories, etc. Meanwhile, some of al and didactic endorsements, and have mentation sometimes results in ambigu- the most important museums in China become sites for ideological assertion ous managerial conditions and therefore answer directly to specific Ministries: (Denton 2014; Lu 2014; Varutti 2014). a lack of coordination in cultural diplo- for example, the Palace Museum, the macy (Lai 2015; Zan and Bonini Baraldi National Museum and the National Art Making education a priority 2013). Museum report directly to the Ministry n the Cultural Relics Law enforced of Culture, and the Geological Museum Iin 2015, education appeared again as verlapping responsibilities, seg- of China to the Ministry of Land and one of the main functions of museums Omented management across vari- Resources. (Wang 2004).5 Currently the articulation ous government and local agencies, or of the pedagogical role states that muse- blank areas represent a major challenge y contrast, most of the state-owned ums will teach and educate people under for Chinese museums. For example, Bprovincial museums are managed lo- specific modalities, i.e. through the com- art museums, which fall into different cally or regionally, where Chinese prov- memoration and celebration of Chinese categories depending on their collec- inces tend to compete for financial re- history, so as to promote Chinese heri- tion, are managed differently accord- sources and cultural pride. This apparent tage, both on a domestic level and an in- ing to their location; furthermore, there separatism of singular provincial cultur- ternational one in order to revive cultur- are specific museums administered al institutes, particularly in archaeologi- al nationalism (Guo 2007). directly or indirectly by the Chinese cal institutions, can be as well considered Central Military Commission, such as as a means to gain particular support useums are authorised to interpret the Chinese Aviation Museum and the and legitimacy from the central govern- Mnational history, make a selection Military Museum of the Chinese People’s ment, in what has been called a ‘region- and create a representation of the society Revolution. University museums present alist paradigm’ (Falkenhausen 1995). for the society (Bennett 1995). In China, a notable dilemma: they do not hold a traditional concepts of history and ci- legal entity and depend on specific uni- vilisation are moving towards different versities—which are placed under the functional and educational goals; these Ministry of Education in most cases— In China, traditional exploit the past and multiculturalism as that are in general not familiar with mu- concepts of history tools for establishing new nationalistic seum matters and do not assign them and civilisation are features of Chinese cultural identity that with a dedicated permanent staff. They moving towards is then promoted and enshrined in com- seldom benefit from support offered different functional prehensive Chinese public museums to ‘cultural heritage museums’ and do and educational goals. (Bollo 2017).

34 | MUSEUM international Fig. 8. The Shanghai Cohesion Project Museum is a ‘basis of patriotic education’. Opened in 2013, propaganda about the care of the party and the government of the population is shown through archives, photos and objects. © YZ / Yu Culture, 2016

resent-day Chinese nationalism in- its daily visitor number to 80,000 and (Flath 2002). PPPs in China usually im- Pcludes the glorification of cultural was the first to decide on a specific clos- ply outsourcing, concession and divesti- remnants of the past in a form of new an- ing day each week, to undertake resto- ture. On the managerial level, however, tiquarianism, which become instrumen- ration and reparation work otherwise problems connected with the interaction tal in nurturing patriotism and promote impossible with the constant visitor flow. of public and private enterprise are be- the enjoyment of cultural consumer- coming more frequent, as usually each ism and leisure activities (Falkenhausen longside the Chinese government’s pursue separate goals (Gray 2015). The 2014). The soft power of museums -in Aeffort to promote nationalism, com- first 11 PPP pilots in the cultural sector evitably affects the social and cultural mercial and private interests increas- include the construction and manage- alignment of people, has an impact on ingly dictate measures on most pub- ment of county-level cultural centres actions and ideas about what is worth lic displays. The foreword to the China and the development of cultural tour- remembering, and might be the cause Principles states that:6 ism by constructing heritage parks and of potential censorship. In China now- China is employing a new model new museums. Museums are confronted adays, museums remain an important for the establishment of these with commercialisation of public histo- part of the active expression of values [archaeological] sites based on ry, which might lead to the commodi- and the dissemination of state ideology, archaeological research that balances fication of cultural heritage (Falser and which required them to adjust accord- conservation and use, provides for a site’s Juneja 2013). ingly (Fig. 8). interpretation and presentation, protects the interests of various stakeholders, n many parts of China, historical pre- Setbacks: visitors’ perspectives and is beneficial for developing Iservation and real estate investment useums in China are effective po- tourism and improving the lives of the have resulted in tourism gentrifica- Mtential education tools. A small sur- local community (ICOMOS China, tion (Liang and Bao 2015; Shin 2010; vey conducted in 2015 on a selection of 2015, p. 54). Zhao 2009). Tourism is becoming the public museums in China has shown that main driving force in economic, so- visitors generally have a positive attitude Investment, commodification and cial, cultural, and lifestyle transforma- towards the exhibition content and mes- cultural heritage preservation tions. One of the best-known private sages. Nevertheless, many complaints ompared to the Cultural Relics Law, tourism corporations is Shenzhen OCT were registered about museums being Cthe China Principles lay stronger Tourism Development Co. Their slo- too crowded and negatively affecting the emphasis on the economic value of cul- gan is ‘Originating in real life and rising overall museum experience (Bollo 2017). tural heritage. This assertion encour- above it, discarding the dross and select- This is another big challenge brought aged the growth of more Public-Private ing the essential’ (Liang and Bao 2015). forward by the free admission policy. In Partnerships (henceforth, PPPs) in ar- In becoming national monuments, it is order to overcome the downside of the eas of cultural heritage management. A increasingly likely that archaeological free admission policy, many museums case study of Shandong Province shows sites will be transformed into large parks in China have therefore decided to set how the state is still seeking to divest it- and lucrative tourist attractions (Leibold an upper limit for daily visitors. For in- self of economic complexities by turning 2012; Murowchick 2013). stance, the Palace Museum has limited management over to the private sector

MUSEUM international | 35 urthermore, the value of heritage has past’ (Smith 2006, p. 29). However, the rather than to current scholarly stan- Fbeen accepted and reassessed by the efforts of preservation of history trans- dards (Fiskesjö 2015). In many cases Chinese government, and UNESCO ac- form state authorities as caretakers of museums in China have to find a diffi- knowledges Chinese preservation ef- a national cultural heritage, and justi- cult balance between maintaining his- forts, which are recognised on a global fy their means. It has been argued that torical accuracy and achieving econom- scale, bringing international prestige. these measures do preserve the ‘univer- ic growth. The Authorized Heritage Discourse sal’ heritage of the past, while they si- (AHD), connected to UNESCO, stress- multaneously ignore present social real- uch phenomena of managerial seg- es the inherent value of heritage: ‘[t]he ities (Shepherd 2009). Smentation, cultural nationalism, authorized heritage discourse focuses commercialisation and commodifica- attention on aesthetically pleasing ma- he commodification of cultural arte- tion represent actual challenges for mu- terial objects, sites, places and/or land- Tfacts and the promotion of narratives seums in China nowadays, and have led scapes that current generations ‘must’ of unbroken continuity in the develop- scholars to describe the country’s ‘mu- care for, protect and revere so that they ment of Chinese civilisation within museum boom’ as an exaggerated form of may be passed to nebulous future gener- seum exhibitions also demonstrate that ‘musealisation’, even using the pejorative ations for their ‘education’, and to forge a curatorship is still subject primarily to term ‘museumification’ (Johnson and sense of common identity based on the consideration of tourism and patriotism Florence 2013).

his article has provided an overview of Chinese policy in relation to museums, by exploring the current status of the museum system, the implementation of measures to adapt to market economy needs Tand to comply with government directives, and the resulting limitations. In describing both successful new trends in museum policy as well as challenges they present, this paper provides a fresh perspective on the existing discussion on the Chinese museum system, and its role and impact on both domestic and international levels. The Chinese museum system responds to different domestic needs and combines strong international cultural policies. In the coming years, museums in China will develop further adapting to local market economy and national political directives, while they increasingly expand their influence and connections at an international level.

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