KEEPING CHINA IN THE WAR: THE TRANS-HIMALAYAN “HUMP” AIRLIFT AND SINO-US STRATEGY IN WORLD WAR II DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By John D. Plating, M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2007 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor John F. Guilmartin, Jr., Adviser Professor Allan R. Millett _____________________________ Professor Christopher A. Reed Adviser Graduate Program in History ABSTRACT The trans-Himalayan airlift of World War II, better known as the “Hump,” is recognized among specialists as the first sustained and most ambitious combat airlift operation in modern history. Cobbled together with only a handful of airplanes and aircrews in early 1942, the operation grew to become the ultimate expression of the US government’s commitment to China, in the end delivering nearly 740,000 tons of cargo. This was no small feat, either, as the US Army Air Forces’ aircraft flew in what is arguably the world’s worst weather system and over its most rugged terrain, all the while under the threat of enemy attack. The thesis of this dissertation is that the Hump airlift was initially started to serve as a display of American support for its Chinese ally who had been at war with Japan since 1937. However, by the start of 1944, with the airlift’s capability gaining momentum, American strategists set aside concerns for the ephemeral concept of Chinese national will and used the airlift as the primary means of supplying American forces in China in preparation for the US’s final assault on Japan. Strictly from the standpoint of war materiel, it comes as no surprise that the airlift was the precondition that had to be met to make possible all other allied military action, as it was an enabling force in the theater. It dictated the level of effort the Americans could bring to bear against the ii Japanese, being the sole route to China until the end of 1944, when the Ledo (or Stilwell) Road opened. Other routes were discussed and attempted, but in the end the only way for supplies to get into China was over the Himalayas. In addition to being an enabler, the Hump was also a driver of CBI strategy, as it was an expression of the broader airpower orientation of the theater. Difficult terrain, extreme weather, and primitive roads all combined to make the CBI a theater best traversed by air. It was in the CBI, and only in the CBI, that allied troops were most commonly inserted, supplied, and extracted by air. Motivations behind the airlift’s execution changed during the war. Once the US entered the war, the Hump was seen as an extension of its (pre-December 1941) Lend- Lease aid to China, aid that had previously been delivered over the Burma Road, but was soon to be cut off by virtue of the Japanese capture of Burma in the spring of 1942. The airlift was thus seen as a means to continue the flow of supplies to Chiang Kaishek’s Nationalist Government in an effort to “keep China in the war.” To the US, China’s national will was tottering as a result of its brutal war with Japan since 1937, and the influx of US material over the Himalayas was the best way to prevent Chinese capitulation. These motives changed at the end of 1943 with the airlift now becoming a facet of US strategy focused on the destruction of Japan. The Hump would enable China-based B-29 bombers to begin striking the home islands, while also increasing deliveries to stockpile supplies at depots on China’s coast in preparation for the planned invasion of Japan. Hump tonnage would also skyrocket in the operation’s last year because of the growth of its infrastructure that included a robust air traffic control system, innovative maintenance procedures, dozens of navigation aid-equipped airfields, hundreds of iii airplanes, and thousands of pilots. All of this combined to dwarf tonnage delivered to China on land routes, ushering in a paradigm shift in the history of wartime logistics that saw airlift become the most efficient and durable means of supply. iv Dedicated to the aircrews who flew the Hump v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people have helped make this project a reality. First, I want to thank Jerry White for his causal remark to me in 2003 when he expressed that no one had yet subjected the Hump airlift to academic scrutiny. A quick survey of the literature on the operation proved the truth of his point, prompting me to see what I might contribute to this void in airpower history. Mr. Jay Vinyard and the generous members of the Hump Pilots Association (HPA) made my job much easier by sharing many hours of war stories and anecdotes that raised my appreciation for the Hump’s challenges. As the President of the HPA in its final year of formal existence (it disbanded in December 2005), Jay was always willing to share his assessment of the airlift with an uncommon degree of lucidity and candor. He brought a unique blend of professionalism and warmth to the leadership of that organization and was always prepared to lend me an ear and give me his time as I sought to get “inside” the Hump some six decades after it happened. I would also like to thank the research assistants at the Air Force Historical Research Agency (AFHRA), the Air Mobility Command History Office (AMC/HO), and the National Museum of the US Air Force for their help. Toni Petito at AFHRA was always willing to go out of her way to lend a hand or mail off a specially requested document, and Mark Morgan was kind enough to feed me a constant supply of Air vi Transport Command files during my visit to Scott Air Force Base; Brett Stolle was also very helpful in digging for documents at the Air Force’s museum in Dayton, Ohio. I would also like to thank Mr. Don Bishop for his encouragement in prodding me to make a research trip to China in 2005. He and his staff at the US Embassy made the excursion a worthwhile endeavor that will not soon be forgotten. I also want to extend my special thanks to Mr. Zou Guihu and Ms. Lan Xi for their indispensable translation help, without which I would have been sorely lost. Thanks should also go to Professor Wang Jianlang (Deputy Director of the Institute of Modern History at the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences), Mr. Liu Xiatong, and Mr. Li Xiaowei for their help in sharing with me the Chinese perspective of the Anti-Japanese War and the place of the Hump in that history. I also want to extend my thanks for the rich hospitality and generosity of Mr. Fan Jianchuan, the owner of the Jianchuan Museum in Dayi County, Sichuan Province. I also want to thank my adviser, Joe Guilmartin, for his timely pep talks and constant encouragement, chiding me on even when I found myself questioning the focus of this project. He helped me most by believing that I could pull this off, even when I had serious doubts. I also want to thank Allan Millett for his encouragement and insight that helped to keep this study on track. Also, I am greatly indebted to Chris Reed for the level of academic rigor he required of me, one that forced me to grapple with this topic from both American and Chinese perspectives. I also want to thank Roger Miller of the Air Force History office for his insights on the revolutionary impact of airlift on World War II, noting that air transport deserves as much visibility as strategic bombing and tactical aviation in the larger rubric of vii airpower studies. I am also indebted to Ed Kaplan, a friend and comrade whose technical expertise helped to make my life as a researcher infinitely easier. Lastly—but surely not least—I want to thank my wife Paula, who tirelessly nurtured and cared for our four children in my absence and who served—at the same time—as my keenest critic and biggest fan. Without her support none of this would have been possible. viii VITA January 14, 1967………………………… Born – Ann Arbor, Michigan 1989……………………………………….B.S. (History), US Air Force Academy 2001……………………………………….M.A. History, The Ohio State University 2004 – present…………………………….Ph.D. Graduate Student, The Ohio State University PUBLICATIONS 1. “Cannon, Egg, Charlie, and Baker: Airlift Links between World War II and the Chinese Civil War,” Air Power History, Vol. 53, No. 3, Fall 2006. 2. (Professional Journal) “He Fought With What He Had: The Early Pacific War,” Air Force Journal of Logistics, Vol. 29, No. 2, Summer 2005. 3. (Encyclopedia Contributor) “William H. Tunner,” and “Berlin, Air Battle of (November 1943–March 1944)” in Tucker, Spencer C. and Priscilla Mary Roberts. Encyclopedia of World War II: A Political, Social, and Military History. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2005. 4. (Chapter Contribution) Showalter, Dennis. History In Dispute, Volume 9: World War I, Second Series. Detroit: St. James Press, 2002. 5. (Broadcast Media) featured as historical advisor for Discovery Wings Channel hour-long episode “Secret Mission at Dien Bien Phu,” (aired May 2004). FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: History Minor Field: Modern Chinese History ix TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract............................................................................................................................... ii Dedication........................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements............................................................................................................ vi Vita..................................................................................................................................... ix List of Figures................................................................................................................... xii Introduction......................................................................................................................... 1 1. From the Marco Polo Bridge to ABC Ferry Command............................................... 21 Routes of Supply and Strategic Strangulation ...................................................... 24 American Military Aid to China..........................................................................